DOCSLIB.ORG

Rock Physics and Time-Lapse Monitoring of Heavy-Oil Reservoirs D.R

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Rock Physics and Time-Lapse Monitoring of Heavy-Oil Reservoirs D.R CANADIAN HEAVY OIL ASSOCIATION SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 98075 PS2005-435 Rock Physics and Time-Lapse Monitoring of Heavy-Oil Reservoirs D.R. Schmitt, U. of Alberta Copyright 2005, SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium overall success of a production strategy. Tracking the loss of This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2005 SPE International Thermal Operations injected fluids from the reservoir is critical not only to the and Heavy Oil Symposium held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1–3 November 2005. overall direct operational costs but could be significant to This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA Program Committee following review of information contained in a proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of longer term environmental liabilities should leaked fluids the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers, contaminate surrounding formations. Secondarily, having Petroleum Society–Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy & Petroleum, or the Canadian Heavy Oil Association and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as timely detailed temporal and spatial constraints on in situ presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA, its officers, or members. Papers presented at SPE and PS-CIM/CHOA meetings are subject to publication conditions (e.g. pore fluid pressure, saturation, and review by Editorial Committees of the SPE and PS-CIM/CHOA. Electronic reproduction, temperature) within the reservoir could assist ongoing distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the SPE or PS-CIM/CHOA is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is adaptation of the production process. restricted to a proposal of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The proposal must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was There have been substantial developments in the use of presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax time-lapse (or 4-D) seismic techniques to assist in monitoring 01-972-952-9435. such reservoirs over the last decade particularly in the context of heavy oil production (e.g. Eastwood, 1993; Eastwood et al., Abstract 1994; Kalantzis et al., 1993; Li et al., 2001; Lumley, 1995; Production of hydrocarbons from heavy oil reservoirs often Macrides et al., 1988; Paulsson et al., 1994; Pullin et al., 1987; requires large investments both in capital and in operation and Schmitt, 1999; Siewert, 1994, Lines, 2002); most of this work despite the best efforts portions of the reservoir may be is published within the geophysical literature. Here, the basic bypassed or injected fluids may be lost. Time-lapse concepts of time-lapse geophysical surveying in the context of geophysical methods have shown promise in monitoring such heavy oil production is reviewed beginning with some reservoirs, particularly in the case of weakly consolidated elementary principles of reflection seismology. The sands. The seismic response can depend on a variety of production from heavy oil reservoirs results in large changes factors that include temperature, pore pressure, stress, fluid with time of temperature, stress, pore pressure, and fluid saturation state, and material damage. These effects are content. These variations influence, sometimes quite strongly, briefly reviewed in the context of Gassmann’s relation that the elastic compressibilities and densities of the subsurface predicts the compressibility, rigidity, and density of a formation that in turn cause the overall seismic responses to saturated porous rock. While Gassmann’s relation is widely change. These rock physics factors are considered in some used in fluid substitution studies, it is not yet clear whether it detail. While existing theories have been employed to model can be appropriately applied in the context of viscous heavy the seismic properties of heavy oil reservoirs, there still oil reservoirs. remains a great deal to accomplish in the understanding of this complex material. Introduction The continual increase in demand for hydrocarbon energy Background Information sources coupled with the depletion of conventional light oil Time-lapse seismology is predicated on observing changes in reservoirs around the world has placed a great deal of attention the seismic behaviour with time, these changes are produced on production from bituminous and heavy oils. The high by variations in the physical properties of the rocks at depth. viscosity of these fluids, however, complicates their This background section begins with some tutorial information production using normal techniques. A variety of methods are on reflection seismology in order to place the context for the employed to lower the viscosity such that the oils will flow rock physics principles employed to understand a heavy oil with the more popular ones requiring the injection of heat (via reservoir. steam or hot water) or solvents (such as light hydrocarbons or Time-lapse Seismolgy carbon dioxide). Different rock types are characterized by variations in their The capital and operational expenses associated with such elastic properties and densities which can further be related to enhanced oil recovery technologies are substantial; and it is the seismic compressional VP and shear VS wave velocities important that as much information about the production according to: process be collected as possible. To first order, having knowledge of which sections of the reservoir are accessed and which have been inadvertently bypassed is crucial to the 2 SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 98075 4 A number of the extrinsic conditions such as pressure and K + µ temperature change with time within a producing reservoir. 3 These will influence the rock properties, as will shortly be VP = ρ (1) seen. Consider the case of the illustration of the three layers of Fig. 1 with the middle layer 2 being the reservoir. Again for µ V = purposes of illustration, assume that for a variety of reasons, S ρ replacement of gas with water during injection for example, that both ρ2 and the seismic VP2 increase with time while the where K and µ are respectively the bulk and shear moduli of velocities and densities of layers 1 and 3 are static. This will the overall composite rock. Ignoring for the moment any result in variations in the absolute values of both of the temporal variations, in the simplest case of a layered reflection co-efficients from R12 → R12’ and R23 → R23’ as sedimentary geology each layer will be characterized by a shown in Fig. 2. Mapping of such amplitude and travel-time certain seismic velocity and density; and there is a contrast in changes form the basis for the field observational aspects of these properties at the interface between two layers. When an time-lapse seismology. Although it is beyond the scope here, elastic wave reaches such an interface the energy is partitioned these data can either be interpreted by forward modeling of the with, usually, a small amount reflected (echoed) back towards expected seismic response or by inversion to obtain measures the surface with the remainder continuting to propagate into of the changes in the elastic impedance Z = ρVP. the earth. For the simplest case of a reflection of a vertically propagating wave colliding with a horizontal geological interface, the strength of the reflected wave in terms of its amplitude is: r’(t) s’(t) ρ V − ρ V R = 2 P2 1 P1 (2) ρ2VP2 + ρ1VP1 w(t) where R is called the ‘reflection co-efficient’ and the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the physical properties of the upper R’12 and the lower layers across the interface, respectively. Examination of Eqn. (2) shows that the magnitude of R = increases with the simple difference ρ V – ρ V and that -1 2 P2 1 P1 R’23 * ≤ R ≤ 1 depending on the constrast in the properties between the layers. This change in sign defines the polarity of a reflection in the seismic trace. In the simple layered 1-D world, the seismic trace s(t) essentially consists of the convolution of a wavelet w(t) (i.e. Fig. 2. Illustration of the change in the reflectivity function due to the time plot of the behaviour of the particle motions or an increase in the velocity and density of layer 2. Dashed lines in particle velocities input to the earth by the seismic source) s’(t) delineate the original s(t) of Fig. 1. In this case the layer bounded by reflections R12 and R23 in Fig. 1 has increased in with the reflectivity r(t) (i.e. the time plot of the reflection co- velocity and density resulting in stronger reflections R12’ and R23’ efficients with depth into the earth with each reflection co- and a shift in the time upwards of R23’. efficient appearing as a simple spike with amplitude R at the time the reflection reaches back to the surface) as illustrated in The cartoon of Fig. 2 can hold for thick reservoirs. In the thin Fig. 1. Ensembles of such seismograms obtained over an area reservoirs typical in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin or along a profile are used to create the seismic images for the responses are more complex as the two reflections will interpretation. Note that the cartoon of Fig. 1 is given in terms ‘tune’ together and there will often be little differential time of two-way traveltime instead of depth. shift. In this case, monitoring requires analysis of more subtle r(t) s(t) changes in the overall seismic amplitude supported by modeling (e.g., Zhang and Schmitt, 2004a,b). w(t) General Assumptions in Rock Physics The field data above can provide some indications of the R12 changes in velocity and density which may then be related = back to the elastic moduli K and µ using Eqns.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • U.S.-Canada Cross- Border Petroleum Trade
    U.S.-Canada Cross- Border Petroleum Trade: An Assessment of Energy Security and Economic Benefits March 2021 Submitted to: American Petroleum Institute 200 Massachusetts Ave NW Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20001 Submitted by: Kevin DeCorla-Souza ICF Resources L.L.C. 9300 Lee Hwy Fairfax, VA 22031 U.S.-Canada Cross-Border Petroleum Trade: An Assessment of Energy Security and Economic Benefits This report was commissioned by the American Petroleum Institute (API) 2 U.S.-Canada Cross-Border Petroleum Trade: An Assessment of Energy Security and Economic Benefits Table of Contents I. Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 4 II. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6 III. Overview of U.S.-Canada Petroleum Trade ................................................................. 7 U.S.-Canada Petroleum Trade Volumes Have Surged ........................................................... 7 Petroleum Is a Major Component of Total U.S.-Canada Bilateral Trade ................................. 8 IV. North American Oil Production and Refining Markets Integration ...........................10 U.S.-Canada Oil Trade Reduces North American Dependence on Overseas Crude Oil Imports ..................................................................................................................................10 Cross-Border Pipelines Facilitate U.S.-Canada Oil Market Integration...................................14
    [Show full text]
  • Heavy Oil and Natural Bitumen—Strategic Petroleum Resources
    Heavy Oil and Natural Bitumen—Strategic Petroleum Resources Introduction The estimated volume of technically Heavy oil and natural bitumen are Because conventional light oil can recoverable heavy oil (434 billion barrels) present worldwide (table 1). Each cate- typically be produced at a high rate and a and natural bitumen (651 billion barrels) in gory is dominated by a single extraordi- low cost, it has been used before other types known accumulations is about equal to the nary accumulation. The largest extra- of oil. Thus, conventional oil accounts for a Earth’s remaining conventional (light) oil heavy oil accumulation is the Venezuelan declining share of the Earth’s remaining oil reserves (table 1, fig. 1). Orinoco heavy oil belt, which contains endowment. In addition to assessing con- In spite of an immense resource base, 90 percent of the world’s extra-heavy oil ventional oil resources, scientists of the heavy oil and natural bitumen accounted when measured on an in-place basis. U.S. Geological Survey’s Energy Resources for only about 3 billion barrels of the 25 Eighty-one percent of the world’s known Program collect data on the abundant energy billion barrels of crude oil produced in recoverable bitumen is in the Alberta, resources available as heavy oil (including 2000. Compared to light oil, these resources Canada, accumulation. Together the two extra-heavy oil) and natural bitumen; see are generally more costly to produce and deposits contain about 3,600 billion definitions in sidebar on page 2. The data in transport. Also, extra-heavy oil and natural barrels of oil in place.
    [Show full text]
  • Oil Depletion and the Energy Efficiency of Oil Production
    Sustainability 2011, 3, 1833-1854; doi:10.3390/su3101833 OPEN ACCESS sustainability ISSN 2071-1050 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Article Oil Depletion and the Energy Efficiency of Oil Production: The Case of California Adam R. Brandt Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Green Earth Sciences 065, 367 Panama St., Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2220, USA; E-Mail: [email protected]; Fax: +1-650-724-8251 Received: 10 June 2011; in revised form: 1 August 2011 / Accepted: 5 August 2011 / Published: 12 October 2011 Abstract: This study explores the impact of oil depletion on the energetic efficiency of oil extraction and refining in California. These changes are measured using energy return ratios (such as the energy return on investment, or EROI). I construct a time-varying first-order process model of energy inputs and outputs of oil extraction. The model includes factors such as oil quality, reservoir depth, enhanced recovery techniques, and water cut. This model is populated with historical data for 306 California oil fields over a 50 year period. The model focuses on the effects of resource quality decline, while technical efficiencies are modeled simply. Results indicate that the energy intensity of oil extraction in California increased significantly from 1955 to 2005. This resulted in a decline in the life-cycle EROI from ≈6.5 to ≈3.5 (measured as megajoules (MJ) delivered to final consumers per MJ primary energy invested in energy extraction, transport, and refining). Most of this decline in energy returns is due to increasing need for steam-based thermal enhanced oil recovery, with secondary effects due to conventional resource depletion (e.g., increased water cut).
    [Show full text]
  • UNDERSTANDING CRUDE OIL and PRODUCT MARKETS Table of Contents
    UNDERSTANDING CRUDE OIL and PRODUCT MARKETS Table of Contents PREVIEW Overview ...................................................................................4 Crude Oil Supply ......................................................................10 Crude Oil Demand....................................................................17 International Crude Oil Markets ................................................26 Financial Markets and Crude Oil Prices ....................................31 Summary .................................................................................35 Glossary ..................................................................................36 References ..............................................................................39 Understanding Crude Oil and Product Markets 4 Overview The Changing Landscape of North American Oil Markets U.S. and Canadian Oil Production (million barrels per day) After decades of decline, crude oil production in the United States has recently been increasing rapidly1. Horizontal drilling and multi- stage hydraulic fracturing are now utilized to access oil and natural gas resources from shale rock formations that were previously either technically impossible or uneconomic to produce. Production 11.0 from the oil sands in Western Canada has also risen significantly. In 7.5 aggregate, production in North America has grown from 7.5 million 2013 2008 barrels per day in 2008 to 11.0 million barrels per day in 2013, an increase of over 45% in a five year period (see Figure
    [Show full text]
  • Analyzing the Credibility of Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR)
    energies Review Exploiting Microbes in the Petroleum Field: Analyzing the Credibility of Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) Marzuqa Quraishi 1 , Shashi Kant Bhatia 2,3,* , Soumya Pandit 4,*, Piyush Kumar Gupta 4 , Vivek Rangarajan 5, Dibyajit Lahiri 6, Sunita Varjani 7 , Sanjeet Mehariya 8 and Yung-Hun Yang 2,3 1 Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mumbai 410206, India; [email protected] 2 Department of Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; [email protected] 3 Institute for Ubiquitous Information Technology and Application, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea 4 Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201306, India; [email protected] 5 Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Goa Campus, Goa 403726, India; [email protected] 6 Department of Biotechnology, University of Engineering & Management, Kolkata 700156, India; [email protected] 7 Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar 382010, India; [email protected] 8 Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (S.K.B.); [email protected] (S.P.) Abstract: Crude oil is a major energy source that is exploited globally to achieve economic growth. To meet the growing demands for oil, in an environment of stringent environmental regulations and economic and technical pressure, industries have been required to develop novel oil salvaging Citation: Quraishi, M.; Bhatia, S.K.; techniques. The remaining ~70% of the world’s conventional oil (one-third of the available total Pandit, S.; Gupta, P.K.; Rangarajan, V.; petroleum) is trapped in depleted and marginal reservoirs, and could thus be potentially recovered Lahiri, D.; Varjani, S.; Mehariya, S.; and used.
    [Show full text]
  • Enhanced Oil Recovery Potential in the United States
    Ill. Oil Recovery Potential Ill. Oil Recovery Potential The Resource Base Original Oil In Place Oil is found in such traps at depths of from less than 100 feet to more than 17,000 feet.3 A reser- The American Petroleum Institute reports that voir may be small enough that a single well is as of December 31, 1975, about 442 billion bar- sufficient to deplete it economically, or large rels of oil had been discovered in the United enough to cover many square miles and require States, including the North Slope of Alaska.1 Of several thousand wells. that amount, 109 billion barrels had been pro- Oil is not found in underground lakes, but in duced and an additional 37.7 billion barrels re- open spaces between grains of rock; oil is held in mained to be produced at current economic con- these spaces much as water is held in a sponge, ditions and with existing technology. This figure Almost invariably, water is mixed with oil in this includes 32.7 billion barrels of proved reserves open space between the grains; natural gas is and 5.0 billion barrels of indicated reserves. The found in the same kinds of formations. The dis- total, 37.7 billion barrels, also includes 1.0 billion tribution of fluids in one type of oil reservoir is barrels of proved EOR reserves and 1.7 billion displayed in figure 2. barrels of indicated EOR reserves.2 The remaining 295 billion barrels represents the resource base Because oil is lighter than water, it tends to for enhanced oil recovery (EOR).
    [Show full text]
  • Enhanced Oil Recovery of Heavy Oil by Using Thermal and Non-Thermal Methods
    ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY OF HEAVY OIL BY USING THERMAL AND NON-THERMAL METHODS by SYED ATA ABBAS NAQVI Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of engineering at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia March 5, 2012 © Copyright by SYED ATA ABBAS NAQVI, 2012 ii iii DEDICATION I dedicate my work to my parents who have always been helpful and guided me towards the right way without them I would never have achieved everything in my life. The moral support from my brothers also helped me a lot. I am always thankful to The Almighty for blessing me with such a caring family. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED ................................................................................. xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................. xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….. ....... 1 1.1 HEAVY OIL ....................................................................... 1 1.2 ORIGIN ........................................................................... 2 1.3 HEAVY OIL RESERVOIRS ....................................................... 3 1.4
    [Show full text]
  • Distribution and Quantitative Assessment of World Crude-Oil Reserves and Resources Dallas, Texas 1983
    UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Distribution and quantitative assessment of world crude-oil reserves and resources By Charles D. Masters 1 , David H. Root 1 , and William D. Dietzman2 Open-File Report 83-728 This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey editorial standards and stratigraphic nomenclature. 10 Reston, Virginia 2 * Energy Information Administration Dallas, Texas 1983 CONTENTS Page Abs t rac t 1 Introduction and definitions 2 Methodology for assessment of crude-oil reserves and their API gravities 4 Methodology for assessment of Undiscovered Resources of crude oil Analysis of estimates of reserves of conventional crude oil and their discovery rates Analysis of the Undiscovered Resources of conventionally recoverable crude oil - Other occurrences of oil resources - extra-heavy crude oil and bitumen 9 Conclusions 10 References 11 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Figure 1. Classification of world ultimate crude oil resources 2 a 2. Distribution by API gravity of world's Original Reserves of crude oil 4d 3. World crude-oil discovery rate averaged over five year periods 6a 4. Demonstrated reserves of crude oil in 5-year 5. Regional distribution of world crude oil 7b 6. Classification of Original Measured Resources of extra-heavy oil and bitumen 9a TABLES Page Table 1. World estimate of Original Recoverable Resources of conventional crude oil in billions of barrels 4a ii Distribution and quantitative assessment of world crude-oil reserves and resources by Charles D. Masters, David H. Root, and William D. Dietzman ABSTRACT World Demonstrated Reserves of crude oil are approximately 723 billion barrels of oil (BBO).
    [Show full text]
  • Seismic Methods for Heavy Oil Reservoir Monitoring by Janet Helen Isaac
    Important Notice This copy may be used only for the purposes of research and private study, and any use of the copy for a purpose other than research or private study may require the authorization of the copyright owner of the work in question. Responsibility regarding questions of copyright that may arise in the use of this copy is assumed by the recipient. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Seismic methods for heavy oil reservoir monitoring by Janet Helen Isaac A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS CALGARY, ALBERTA JULY, 1996 © Janet Helen Isaac 1996 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a dissertation entitled “Seismic methods for heavy oil reservoir monitoring” submitted by Janet Helen Isaac in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________________________ Supervisor, Dr. D. C. Lawton, Department of Geology and Geophysics. ________________________________________________ Dr. R. R. Stewart, Department of Geology and Geophysics. ________________________________________________ Dr. J. C. Hopkins, Department of Geology and Geophysics. ________________________________________________ Dr. D. G. Smith, Department of Geography. ________________________________________________ External Examiner, Dr. G. D. Spence, University of Victoria, B.C. _____________________ ii ABSTRACT Two time-lapse three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveys, provided by Imperial Oil from a heavy oil production area at Cold Lake, Alberta, were processed concurrently and a procedure was developed to minimise differences between them above the reservoir. Interpretation of the processed data reveals variations in interval traveltimes and reflectivity.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 1. Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen
    CHAPTER 1 Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen 1.1 INTRODUCTION Petroleum (crude oil; conventional petroleum) is found in the microscopic pores of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and limestone. Not all of the pores in a rock contain petroleum and some pores will be filled with water or brine that is saturated with minerals. However, not all of the oilfields that are discovered are exploited since the reservoir may be (1) too deep for economic recovery under the prevalent economic conditions, (2) contain crude oil of insufficient volume, (3) so remote that transportation costs would be high, or (4) in a tight formation where additional techniques such as hydraulic fracturing are required to recover the crude oil (see chapter: General Methods of Oil Recovery) (Speight, 2014a, 2015a). In the typical porous rock reservoir, conventional petroleum is a free-flowing liquid while, on the other hand, heavy oil is a viscous type of petroleum that contains higher levels of sulfur and nonvolatile con- stituents than conventional petroleum but occurs in similar locations to petroleum (IEA, 2005; Ancheyta and Speight, 2007; Speight, 2014a). The viscous nature of heavy oil is a problem for recovery operations and for refining—the viscosity of the oil may be too high thereby rendering recovery expensive and/or difficult and the sulfur content may be high, which increases the expense of refining the oil. In any text related to the properties and behavior (recovery or refining) of a natural resource (ie, heavy oil), it is necessary to under- stand the resource first through the name or terminology or definition.
    [Show full text]
  • A Discussion Paper on the Oil Sands: Challenges and Opportunities
    A discussion paper on the oil sands: challenges and opportunities Kevin Birn* and Paul Khanna Special thanks to CanmetENERGY in Devon, Alberta for their advice and contribution. Natural Resources Canada 580 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0E4, Canada Abstract Key words: Petroleum Energy, Oil Sands, Environmental Impacts, Heavy Oil, Unconventional Oil The oil sands have become a significant source of secure energy supply and a major economic driver for Canada. As production in the oil sands expands so too has concern about the effects of development on communities, water, land, and air. This paper aims to provide a basis for an informed discussion about the oil sands by examining the current challenges facing development and by reviewing the central issues, both positive and negative facing the industry. This paper isn‘t meant to provide an exhaustive list of all potential impacts associated with oil sands development or document the oil sands regulatory regime. Outline Introduction....................................................................................................................... 3 The Resource ..................................................................................................................... 5 The History........................................................................................................................ 6 Oil Sands Operations........................................................................................................ 8 Surface Mining Operations..........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Download a Full PDF of Petroleum and the Environment
    Petroleum and the Environment Edith Allison and Ben Mandler The American Geosciences Institute Petroleum and the Environment Edith Allison and Ben Mandler Petroleum and the Environment Cover photos: clockwise from top-left: Oil Rig, Williston Oil Edith Allison and Ben Mandler Field, North Dakota, Lindsey Gira, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia ISBN: 978-1721175468 Commons; Alyeska Pipeline at mile 562, Alaska, Copyright © Larry Fellows, Arizona Geological Survey; Los Angeles © 2018 American Geosciences Institute. highways, ©Shutterstock.com/S. Borisov; Petrochemical Published and printed in the United States of America. All Plant, Corpus Christi, Texas, ©Shutterstock.com/Trong rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced Nguyen. Cover background: ©Shutterstock.com/Sergey or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or Nivens. mechanical, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without the expressed written consent of the publisher. Design by Brenna Tobler, AGI Graphic Designer, and Ben Mandler, AGI Critical Issues Program. For more information on the American Geosciences Institute and its publications, check us out at store. americangeosciences.org. Contact: Ben Mandler, Schlumberger Senior Researcher American Geosciences Institute 4220 King Street, Alexandria, VA 22302 www.americangeosciences.org [email protected] (703) 379-2480, ext. 226 AGI Critical Issues Program: www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues i Petroleum and the Environment Supported by the AAPG Foundation. © 2018 American Geosciences Institute Written by E. Allison and B. Mandler for AGI, 2018 Acknowledgments This publication benefited from the expertise of many reviewers from different sectors all over the United States. Thank you to our internal AGI reviewers: Allyson Anderson Book, Maeve Boland, Kelly Kryc, and Cassaundra Rose; and to our external review- ers: Donna S.
    [Show full text]