DOCSLIB.ORG

Low Temperature and Cold District Heating & Cooling

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Low Temperature and Cold District Heating & Cooling Low Temperature and Cold District Heating & Cooling Systems Transition, Implementation, Planning, Long-term Evaluation Lorenz Leppin, Hermann Edtmayer, Harald Schrammel, Ingo Leusbrock 1 Introduction District heating plays a central role in the Austrian energy supply scheme and already covers 25% of the national heat demand. On a European level district heating was identifi ed as one of Motivation the key technologies to drive the transition towards a decarbonized, effi cient, sustainable and Cold heat is characterized by supply fossil-free energy system. The recent development of district heating systems shows a decrease temperatures below 30°C. That makes it in supply temperatures and an increase in the share of renewable energy sources in the system. particularly suitable for using renewable energy sources and low-temperature heat from other Share of Renewables in DHC Network local sources. Another positive side effect is that heat losses in the grid are minimized and novel 300 °C 1st Generation – Steam pipes in ducts. Up to 20 bar and 300°C polymeric materials for piping can be used. The high degree of fl exibility allows for expansion 130 °C nd – Hot water pipes in ducts 2 Generation and later integration of additional sources, 90 °C 3rd Generation – Hot water pipes directly buried, all-bonded sinks and storages. Compared to conven- tional district heating networks (2nd and 65 °C 4th Generation – Low temperature DHC 3rd generation) a high reduction in Operating Temperatures [°C] Temperatures Operating Applicability of Renewables [-] primary energy consumpti- th 25 °C 5 Generation – Cold Heat / Anergy networks on is expected. 1880 1920 1970 2010 2020 – future Development of district heating systems. (in accordance with: Lund, H. et.al.: “The status of 4th generation district heating: Research and results”, 2018) Methods State of the Art in LTDH / Research Project For a detailed evaluation of the various system con- fi gurations and for the investigation of the energetic CDHC & its Limitations DeStoSimKaFe long-term behaviour of the proposed systems the use of simulation tools is indispensable. Using co-simu- Research What’s missing? lation tools, one can utilize different tools especially Most research projects focus on the area of low- • Scientifi cally sound, basic knowledge designed for certain applications, allowing for detailed temperature networks, with few on cold heat. • Methods for the development of holistic system simulations on a component, building and system level. solutions and system optimization Waste heat regeneration • Minimum requirements, areas of application and Scenarios Simulation Framework application limits Heat regeneration from waste water, industrial Models and Tools processes or server facilities • Scientifi c methods for long-term assessment and basic principles for the evaluation of benefi ts Python-Scripts Network design • Business models In CDHC-Systems a special form of the ringshaped Results QGIS-Project DYMOLA topology, the “anergy”-network layout, can be used. Measurements Boundary conditions Demonstration sites Project Goals ADA-System • Munich: waste/cooling water from subway Development of possible system concepts tunnels to supply municipal utilities Framework for the system simulation studies. • Zurich: waste heat from server facilities to feed • Variants for different system confi gurations and a anergy network general conditions For a long-term evaluation of LTDH/CDHC concepts, • Evaluation of possible system solutions for constantly changing system environment conditions Flexibility different confi gurations and boundary conditions need to be taken into account. For this reason, a The current linear topology of district heating grids simulation framework is established, which consi- lacks the required fl exibility when it comes to extending Development of simulation models ders external factors, varying framework conditions and exogenous scenarios like e.g. climate change, the network and implementing decentralized energy • Deterministic modelling approach for technical changes in usage behaviour or renovation rates of sources. evaluation buildings. H • Development of a simulation framework • Evaluation of technical and economic benefi ts SH + DHW G A Development of a stochastic optimisation Heating central HP Electricity Offi ces and commercial Industry Residentials Heat from buildings model concept rooms • Parameter model comprised of fl uctuating (=Cold) B Hydraulic connection C external and internal factors PVT 8°-22°C HP-Cold • Evaluation of optimisation strategies Sewer Cold District HP Heating • Long-term system evaluation Electricity Electricity 8 – 20°C Air ΔT = 4K F E D Development of economic evaluation HP Geothermal methods for LTDH / CDHC Electricity 150m - 300m A E • Business model prototypes and new services Summer Decentralized energy central Groundwater source Waste heat Winter B Connection pipes F Heat recovery from waste water for cold heat Heat pump C Anergy-network (hot and cold side) G Solar collectors Potential layout of a cold district heating network, including several producers. Heat exchanger D Borehole thermal store H Superordinate control system • Economic evaluation Layout of an anergy network (special form of a cold heat network) as proposed by 1 AEE Institute for Sustainable Technologies, Department of Thermal Energy Amstein & Walthert. Technologies and Hybrid Systems, Feldgasse 19, 8200 Gleisdorf, Austria AEE This project is funded by the Klima- und Energiefonds and Institut für Nachhaltige Technologien implemented within the framework of the programme „Energieforschung AS4 2017“. Project number: 865010 Feldgasse 19, 8200 Gleisdorf (A) Energy Research Programme 2017 +43 (0)3112 5886 243 / www.aee-intec.at Runtime: 2 years, [09/2018] to [08/2020].
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Investigating Hidden Flexibilities Provided by Power-To-X Consid- Ering Grid Support Strategies
    InVESTIGATING Hidden FleXIBILITIES ProVIDED BY Power-to-X Consid- ERING Grid Support StrATEGIES Master Thesis B. Caner YAgcı˘ Intelligent Electrical POWER Grids Investigating Hidden Flexibilities Provided by Power-to-X Considering Grid Support Strategies Master Thesis by B. Caner Yağcı to obtain the degree of Master of Science at the Delft University of Technology, to be defended publicly on Tuesday September 14, 2020 at 9:30. Student number: 4857089 Project duration: December 2, 2019 – September 14, 2020 Thesis committee: Dr. Milos Cvetkovic, TU Delft, supervisor Dr. ir. J. L. Rueda Torres, TU Delft Dr. L. M. Ramirez Elizando TU Delft This thesis is confidential and cannot be made public until September 14, 2020. An electronic version of this thesis is available at http://repository.tudelft.nl/. Preface First of all, I would like to thank PhD. Digvijay Gusain and Dr. Milos Cvetkovic for not only teaching me the answers through this journey, but also giving me the perception of asking the right questions that lead simple ideas into unique values. I would also like to thank my family Alican, Huriye, U˘gur, Gökhan who have been supporting me from the beginning of this journey and more. You continue inspiring me to find my own path and soul, even from miles away. Your blessing is my treasure in life... My friends, Onurhan and Berke. You encourage me and give me confidence to be my best in any scene. You are two extraordinary men who, I know, will always be there when I need. Finally, I would like to thank TU Delft staff and my colleagues in TU Delft for making this journey enter- taining and illuminative for me.
    [Show full text]
  • 4Th Generation DHC Technology Guide
    4DHC technology guide 1 4DHC technology guide Researched by Checked by Reviewed by First Draft Final Draft Joseph Maria September 2019 Jebamalai Marijke Mahieu September 2019 Dirk Hoet October 2019 Author(s): Joseph Maria Jebamalai, Ghent University Email: [email protected] Phone: 32 (0) 487 94 98 47 Address: St. Pietersnieuwstraat 33, 9000 Gent Deliverable: WP.T3 D1.4 4DHC technology guide Date: September 2019 About HeatNet NWE This document has been developed as part of the HeatNet NWE project, which is part-funded through the Interreg NWE programme and aims to increase the uptake of 4DHC networks across North-West Europe. As part of this project, the partners are developing the HeatNet Model, which will help the public sector to begin implementing 4DHC networks, and the Transition Roadmaps, which will outline the partners’ experience in developing six district heating pilots across North-West Europe. The HeatNet Guide to Financing is also currently being developed and will give a broad overview of the various sources available to finance district heating schemes. For further information on these reports and on the HeatNet NWE project, please visit www.guidetodistrictheating.eu. 2 4DHC technology guide Table of contents Executive summary 4 Introduction 5 What is DHC? 5 Why 4DHC? 5 About 4DHC 6 Benefits of 4DHC 7 4DHC Systems: Technology Options 8 Low temperature waste heat 8 Solar thermal systems 15 Heat pumps 18 Geothermal systems 20 Cascading networks 24 Combined district heating and cooling systems 27 Combi-systems 28 4DHC components 28 Distribution pipes 35 Storage tanks 36 Pumps 37 Monitoring systems 37 Conversion of existing DH into 4DHC 38 Future of DHC 40 Conclusion 41 3 4DHC technology guide Executive summary This technology guide aims to help stakeholders involved in 4th generation district heating and cooling (4DHC) projects to understand the different sustainable technologies for the development of future-proof and efficient 4DHC networks.
    [Show full text]
  • Fifth-Generation District Heating and Cooling Substations: Demand Response with Artificial Neural Network-Based Model Predictive Control
    energies Article Fifth-Generation District Heating and Cooling Substations: Demand Response with Artificial Neural Network-Based Model Predictive Control Simone Buffa 1,*, Anton Soppelsa 1 , Mauro Pipiciello 1, Gregor Henze 2,3,4 and Roberto Fedrizzi 1 1 Eurac Research, Institute for Renewable Energy, Viale Druso 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy; [email protected] (A.S.); [email protected] (M.P.); [email protected] (R.F.) 2 Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0428, USA; [email protected] 3 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA 4 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, Boulder, CO 80309, USA * Correspondence: simone.buff[email protected]; Tel.: +39-0471-055636 Received: 16 July 2020; Accepted: 11 August 2020; Published: 21 August 2020 Abstract: District heating and cooling (DHC) is considered one of the most sustainable technologies to meet the heating and cooling demands of buildings in urban areas. The fifth-generation district heating and cooling (5GDHC) concept, often referred to as ambient loops, is a novel solution emerging in Europe and has become a widely discussed topic in current energy system research. 5GDHC systems operate at a temperature close to the ground and include electrically driven heat pumps and associated thermal energy storage in a building-sited energy transfer station (ETS) to satisfy user comfort. This work presents new strategies for improving the operation of these energy transfer stations by means of a model predictive control (MPC) method based on recurrent artificial neural networks. The results show that, under simple time-of-use utility rates, the advanced controller outperforms a rule-based controller for smart charging of the domestic hot water (DHW) thermal energy storage under specific boundary conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • Implementation Plan District Energy in Lawrence, MA
    Implementation Plan District Energy in Lawrence, MA May 12, 2019 Harvard Climate Solutions Living Lab | Team 5 Marina Chen, Byron Edwards, Mariana Pereira Guimarães, Frank Sturges, Henna Trewn 1 This Report and Implementation Plan are student work product completed to fulfill requirements of the Climate Solutions Living Lab, a 12-week course offered at Harvard Law School. This report and plan were researched and written under tight time constraints to answer specific questions posed to the students in their course assignment. Any opinions expressed in the report are those of the students and not of Harvard University or Harvard Law School. If you would like to learn more about Harvard Law School’s Climate Solutions Living Lab, please contact Professor Wendy Jacobs at [email protected]. Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 I. Project Background and Goals 5 A. Background 5 B. Project Goals 6 C. Key Case Studies 7 II. Selection Process 7 III. A Replicable Pilot with Residential and District Expansions 9 IV. Stakeholder Mapping 10 A. Phase I 11 B. Phase II 12 C. Phase III 13 V. Project Design and Management 13 VI. Project Costs and Funding 17 A. Project Costs 17 B. Project Funding 20 VII. Proposed Implementation 22 A. Phase I – Pilot Project with the State Department of Environmental Protection 22 1. Preliminary Assessment 22 2. Design and Technical Planning 23 3. Stakeholder Engagement 25 4. Regulatory Permissions and Permitting 25 5. Contracts 30 6. Fundraising and Financing 31 B. Phase II – Connection to Nearby Residential Neighborhoods 31 C. Phase III – Scale-Up of District System and Transfer of Ownership 31 VIII.
    [Show full text]
  • Heat Pump Supply the Electric Energy Production Temperature Between 60 and 90°C Temp
    New projects in the province of Brescia for Geothermal District Heating systems An overview of the experiences acquired in the study and exploitation of DEEP and SHALLOW geothermal energy combined with indirect uses Paolo Tarantino Fabio Carlo Molinari Thecnical Director Geologo COGEME SpA Freelance Geologist The province of Brescia is one of the 12 provinces of Lombardy region. It is constituted by 206 municipalities and it has a catchment area of 1.265.000 people. Lake Iseo Lake Garda Brescia Cogeme SpA is one of the first Italian holding totally owned by the municipality; it operates in the local public utilities It was born in 1970, it belongs to 71 municipalities of Brescia and Bergamo. The companies of the group manage the water, energy, environmental and technology services for a catchment area of about 400.000 people. What kind of geothermal source is These are some of the questions which see present in the territory? the COGEME group committed, over the last years, to the research of the “richness If present, is the employ of the resource of the territory” which can be employed as sustainable and replicable in the renewable energy sources and which could territory? supply the “energy-intensive” users of existing buildings. Deep geothermal energy Shallow geothermal energy at medium and high enthalpy. Deep geothermal energy Deep geothermal energy at low enthalpy. Temperature >90°C at low enthalpy. at low enthalpy. Indirect use of the energy. dominant water and steam for Direct use of the energy. Indirect use of the energy. Heat pump supply the electric energy production temperature between 60 and 90°C temp.
    [Show full text]
  • Techno-Economic Analysis of a Cold District Heating System Using Sea Water Energy, Based on a Study Case
    Techno-economic analysis of a Cold District Heating system using sea water energy, based on a study case. Maxime Bollinger Master of Science Thesis KTH Industrial Engineering and Management Energy Technology TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:463 SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:463 Techno-economic analysis of a Cold District Heating system using sea water energy, based on a study case. Maxime Bollinger Approved Examiner Supervisor Björn Laumert Rafael Guedez Commissioner Contact person ENGIE Cofely, France Cédric Maisonneuve Abstract When it comes to energy efficiency for heating and domestic hot water demand, district heating systems are known to be energy efficient due to centralization of the production. More recently, district cooling are in development to meet a growing demand. If district heating and cooling systems using centralized plant are strongly implemented as the dominant design, the purpose of this study is to investigate a variant solution using decentralized production: A Cold District Heating system consists of a network carrying tempered water to customers’ substations, to be used as a heat sink or source by reversible heat pumps for heating and cooling purpose. In this study, a CDH system is designed based on the study case and using literature review insights. Then, a model able to simulate a CDH system is developed so that its behavior can be analyzed. Finally, a cost-estimation methodology is used to perform a techno-economic analysis of the system. Insights from this study concerning key factors for a Cold District Heating system profitability enhancement will be highlighted. Sammanfattning När det gäller energieffektivitet för uppvärmning och efterfrågan på varmtvatten är fjärrvärmesystem kända för sin energieffektivitet på grund av centraliseringen av produktionen.
    [Show full text]
  • Environmental Comparison of Energy Solutions for Heating and Cooling
    sustainability Article Environmental Comparison of Energy Solutions for Heating and Cooling Ida Franzén, Linnéa Nedar and Maria Andersson * Division of Energy Systems, Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden; [email protected] (I.F.); [email protected] (L.N.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +46-13 282269 Received: 31 October 2019; Accepted: 6 December 2019; Published: 10 December 2019 Abstract: Humanity faces several environmental challenges today. The planet has limited resources, and it is necessary to use these resources effectively. This paper examines the environmental impact of three energy solutions for the heating and cooling of buildings. The solutions are conventional district heating and cooling, a smart energy solution for heating and cooling (ectogrid™), and geothermal energy. The ectogrid™ balances energy flows with higher and lower temperatures to reduce the need for supplied energy. The three solutions have been studied for Medicon Village, which is a district in the city of Lund in Sweden. The study shows that the energy use for the conventional system is 12,250 MWh for one year, and emissions are 590 tons of CO2 equivalents. With ectogrid™, the energy use is reduced by 61%, and the emissions are reduced by 12%, compared to the conventional system. With geothermal energy, the energy use is reduced by 70%, and the emissions by 20%. An analysis is also made in a European context, with heating based on natural gas and cooling based on air conditioners. The study shows that the environmental impact would decrease considerably by replacing the carbon dioxide intensive solution with ectogrid™ or geothermal energy.
    [Show full text]
  • Low Temperature District Heating for Future Energy Systems Subtask D: Case Studies and Demonstrations
    Downloaded from orbit.dtu.dk on: Oct 03, 2021 Low Temperature District Heating for Future Energy Systems Subtask D: Case studies and demonstrations Ford, Rufus ; Pietruschka, Dirk; Sipilä, Kari ; Svendsen, Svend ; Schmidt, Dietrich ; Nord, Natasa; Østergaard, Dorte Skaarup Publication date: 2016 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link back to DTU Orbit Citation (APA): Ford, R., Pietruschka, D., Sipilä, K., Svendsen, S., Schmidt, D., Nord, N., & Østergaard, D. S. (2016). Low Temperature District Heating for Future Energy Systems: Subtask D: Case studies and demonstrations. International Energy Agency. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. IEA DHC | CHP IEA DHC|CHP Annex TS1 Low Temperature District Heating for Future Energy Systems Subtask D: Case studies and demonstrations November 18th 2016 Edited by Kari Sipilä and Miika Rämä VTT Technical Research Center of Finland 1 Preface This report titled “Case studies and demonstrations” is the subtask D report of the IEA DHC|CHP Annex TS1 project “Low Temperature District Heating for Future Energy Systems” carried out between 2013 and 2016.
    [Show full text]
  • BOOKLET of POSITIVE ENERGY DISTRICTS in EUROPE PREVIEW a Compilation of Projects Towards Sustainable Urbanization and the Energy Transition
    BOOKLET OF POSITIVE ENERGY DISTRICTS IN EUROPE PREVIEW A compilation of projects towards sustainable urbanization and the energy transition The booklet has been collected and edited by the PED Programme Management of JPI Urban Europe – Christoph Gollner, Robert Hinterberger, Margit Noll, Susanne Meyer and Hans-Günther Schwarz Status: April 2019 Interested in joining the European Positive Energy Cities network? Get in contact with us! JPI Urban Europe c/o Austrian Research Promotion Agency FFG Sensengasse 1, 1090 Vienna www.jpi-urbaneurope.eu www.ffg.at Christoph Gollner, Programme Management Positive Energy Districts and Neighbourhoods [email protected] The Strategic Energy Technology (SET) Plan The Joint Programming Initiative (JPI) Urban Europe The SET-Plan, adopted by the European Union in 2008 JPI Urban Europe’s vision is to be the European and revised in 2015, is a first step to establish an platform to create and make available knowledge and energy technology policy for Europe, with a goal of robust evidence for sustainable urban development. accelerating knowledge development, technology Twenty European countries participate in the transfer and up-take in order to achieve Energy and initiative, 70+ projects have been funded with approx. Climate Change goals. 100 million Euro public investment spent for joint The SET Plan focuses on 10 key actions fields, of which calls. JPI Urban Europe has established cooperation action 3.2 on “Smart Cities and Communities” aims to schemes with Belmont Forum and China. support the planning, deployment and replication of 100 Positive Energy Districts by 2025 for sustainable urbanisation. https://jpi-urbaneurope.eu/ https://setis.ec.europa.eu/ page 1 of 95 PREAMBLE The Programme on Positive Energy Districts and Neighbourhoods (PED Programme) has the ambition to support the planning, deployment and replication of 100 ‘Positive Energy Districts’ across Europe by 2025 for urban transition and sustainable urbanisation.
    [Show full text]
  • INTEGRATED NATIONAL ENERGY and CLIMATE PLAN for FRANCE
    INTEGRATED NATIONAL ENERGY AND CLIMATE PLAN for FRANCE March 2020 1 2 Table of contents 1. Overview and process for establishing the plan ................................................................................. 4 2. National objectives and targets ......................................................................................................... 52 3. Policies and measures ....................................................................................................................... 81 4. Current situation and projections with existing policies and measures ......................................... 138 5. Impact analysis of planned policies and measures ......................................................................... 303 3 SECTION A: NATIONAL PLAN 1. OVERVIEW AND PROCESS FOR ESTABLISHING THE PLAN 1.1. Executive summary 1.1.1. Context and targets This draft integrated national energy and climate plan for France is based on two documents adopted at national level on the governance and programming of matters relating to energy and climate. The Multiannual Energy Plan (programmation pluriannuelle de l’énergie, MEP), which establishes the priorities for government action in the field of energy for the next 10 years, divided into two five-year periods. It covers all energy types and all of the cornerstones of energy policy (managing energy demand, promoting renewable energies, safeguarding security of supply, controlling energy costs, developing networks in a balanced manner, etc.), and makes it possible to forge a coherent and integrated vision of the role of energies in French society and desirable future trends in this respect. The National Low-Carbon Strategy (stratégie nationale bas-carbone, SNBC), which is France’s roadmap for climate change mitigation. This provides guidelines to enable the transition to a low-carbon economy across all sectors. It specifies France’s short-term and medium-term greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets (carbon budgets) and aims to achieve carbon neutrality, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • A Novel Method for Designing Fifth-Generation District Heating and Cooling Systems
    E3S Web of Conferences 246, 09001 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202124609001 Cold Climate HVAC & Energy 2021 A Novel Method for Designing Fifth-Generation District Heating and Cooling Systems Marwan Abugabbara1*, Jonas Lindhe1 1 Department of Building and Environmental Technology, Division of Building Services, Lund University, Lund 221 00, Sweden Abstract. District heating and cooling systems have been undergoing continuous development and have now reached the fifth-generation. In this innovative technology, connected buildings share local excess energy that otherwise would be wasted, which consequently reduces primary energy demands and carbon emissions. To date, the issue of implementing fifth-generation district systems on existing buildings has received scant attention, and our research addresses this challenging gap by proposing a novel method for designing these systems. We first explain the possible thermal interactions between connected buildings, and then present an analytical solution for the network energy balance, pipe design, and the prediction of fluid temperature under a fixed temperature difference control strategy. The analytical solution was validated against numerical simulations performed on 11 existing buildings located in Lund, Sweden using Modelica models. A diversity index metric between heating and cooling demands was also included in these models to assess the efficiency of the district system in the building cluster. The results from the analytical and numerical solutions were in complete agreement since Modelica is an equation-based modelling language. The developed models pave the way towards future investigations of different temperature control strategies and new business models that arise from the shift to the fifth-generation. 1 Introduction happens at a central heat production plant, e.g., boilers or combined heat and power plant.
    [Show full text]
  • Cogeneration and District Heating
    COGENERATION AND DISTRICT HEATING BEST PRACTICES FOR MUNICIPALITIES ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT COGENERATION AND DISTRICT HEATING Best Practices for Municipalities Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA) ENERGY CHARTER SECRETARIAT THE ENERGY CHARTER The work of the Energy Charter is based on the 1991 Energy Charter Declaration and the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty, signed by fifty-one countries across Europe and Asia. The Treaty provides a binding framework for energy cooperation, aimed at the following objectives: • to strive towards open, efficient, sustainable and secure energy markets; • to promote a constructive climate conducive to energy interdependence on the basis of trust between nations. In the broadest terms, this mission will be achieved through: • strengthening and extending the rule of law to facilitate market developments in the energy sector; • establishment of rules of conduct, guidelines, standards and recommendations for open efficient and sustainable energy markets; • developing clear, commonly-accepted rules on energy transit; • helping countries to develop national energy efficiency policies; • peer-group reviews of countries’ progress towards their Energy Charter obligations; • expanding the geographical coverage of the Energy Charter process. The Energy Charter Conference, an inter-governmental organisation, is the governing and decision-making body for the Energy Charter process, and was established by the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty. The Conference is assisted by
    [Show full text]