International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics Volume 119 No. 12 2018, 10053-10061 ISSN: 1314-3395 (on-line version) url: http://www.ijpam.eu Special Issue ijpam.eu IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Rohit kumar1, E.Raja2 and P.Amit kumar3 1, 3 B.Tech Student, 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Automobile Engineering, BIHER, BIST, Bharath University, Chennai, India. [email protected]

Abstract— Wireless charging is a technology of generation devices featured with built-in wireless charging transmitting power through an air gap to electrical capability. IMS Research envisioned that wireless charging devices for the purpose of energy replenishment. The would be a 4.5 billion market by 2016[17-24]. recent progress in wireless charging techniques and Pike Research estimated that wireless powered development of commercial products have provided a products will triple by 2020 to a 15 billion market. promising alternative way to address the energy Compared to traditional charging with cord, wireless bottleneck of conventionally portable battery-powered charging introduces many benefits as follows[25-29]. devices. However, the incorporation of wireless charging  Firstly, it improves user-friendliness as the into the existing wireless communication systems also hassle from connecting cables is removed. brings along a series of challenging issues with regard to Different brands and different models of devices implementation, scheduling, and power management. In can also use the same charger[30-36]. this article, we present a comprehensive overview of  Secondly, it renders the design and fabrication wireless charging techniques, the developments in of much smaller devices without the attachment technical standards, and their recent advances in network of batteries. applications. In particular, with regard to network  Thirdly, it provides better product durability applications, we review the static charger scheduling (e.g., waterproof and dustproof) for contact-free strategies, mobile charger dispatch strategies and wireless devices. charger deployment strategies. Additionally, we discuss  Fourthly, it enhances flexibility, especially for open issues and challenges in implementing wireless the devices for which replacing their batteries or charging technologies. Finally, we envision some practical connecting cables for charging is costly, future network applications of wireless charging. hazardous, or infeasible (e.g., body implanted sensors)[37-45].

I. INTRODUCTION  Fifthly, wireless charging can provide power Wireless charging, also known as wireless power requested by charging devices in an on-demand transfer, is the technology that enables a power source to fashion and thus are more flexible and energy- transmit electromagnetic energy to an electrical load across efficient[46-50]. an air gap[1-6], without interconnecting cords. This Nevertheless, normally wireless charging incurs higher technology is attracting a wide range of applications, from implementation cost compared to wire charging. First, a low-power tooth brush to high-power electric vehicles wireless charger needs to be installed as a replacement of because of its convenience and better user experience. traditional charging cord. Second, a mobile device requires Nowadays[7-11], wireless charging is rapidly evolving from implantation of a wireless power receiver. Moreover, as theories toward standard features on commercial products, wireless chargers often produce more heat than that of wired especially mobile phones and portable smart devices. In chargers, additional cost on crafting material may be 2014, many leading manufacturers, such as incurred[51-56]. The development of wireless charging [12-16], Apple and Huawei, began to release new- technologies is advancing toward two major directions, i.e.,

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inductive wireless charging (or radio frequency (RF) based FCC- Federal Communications Commission wireless charging) and non-radiative wireless charging (or EV- coupling-based wireless charging). Radiative wireless PHEV- Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle charging adopts electromagnetic waves, typically RF waves LED- Light-emitting diode or microwaves, as a medium to deliver energy in a form of WRSN- Wireless renewable sensor network radiation. The energy is transferred based on the electric field AM-Amplitude modulated of an electromagnetic wave, which is radiative. Due to the GSM- Global System for Mobile Communications safety issues raised by RF exposure, radiative wireless WBAN- Wireless body area network charging usually operates in a low power region. For AC- example, Omni-directional RF radiation is only suitable for DC- sensor node applications with up to 10mW power SISO- Single-input single-output consumption alternatively, nonradioactive wireless charging MISO- Multi-input single-output is based on the coupling of the magnetic-field between two SIMO- Single-input multi-output coils within the distance of the coils’ dimension for energy MIMO- Multi-input multi-output transmission. PTU- Power transmitter unit As the magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave PRU- Power receiver unit attenuates much faster than the electric field, the power ISM- Industrial Scientific Medical transfer distance is largely limited. Due to safety BLE- Bluetooth low energy implementation, non-radiative wireless charging has been E-AP- Energy access point widely used in our daily appliances (e.g., from toothbrush to D-AP- Data access point electric vehicle charger by far. H-AP- Hybrid access point II. HISTORY AND COMMERCIALIZATION AWGN- Additive white Gaussian noise TDMA- Time division multiple access This section provides an overview of the development history CSI- Channel state information of wireless charging research as well as some recent SNR- Signal to noise ratio commercialization. a brief history and major milestones of SHC- Shortest Hamiltonian cycle wireless charging technology. TSP- Traveling Salesman’s Problem LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. NP- Non-deterministic polynomial-time Abbreviation Description LP- Linear programming RF- Radio Frequency NLP- non-linear programming WPCN- Wireless powered communication networks MINLP- Mixed-integer nonlinear programming SPS -Solar Power Satellite MILP- Mixed integer linear programming WPC- Wireless Power Consortium QoM- Quality of Monitoring PMA- Power Matters Alliance PSO- Particle swarm optimization A4WP- Alliance for Wireless Power WISP- Wireless identification and sensing platform IPT -Inductive power transfer ILP- Integer linear programming RFID- Radio Frequency Identification CMOS- Complementary metal oxide semiconductor SWIPT- Simultaneous wireless information and power transfer Theoretic Foundation

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The study of electromagnetism originates from 1819 Figure to transfer electrical energy without cords through the when H. C. Oersted discovered that electric current generates Ionosphere. However, due to technology limitation (e.g., low a magnetic field around it. Then, Ampere’s Law, Biot- system efficiency due to large-scale electric field), the idea Savart’s Law and Faraday’s Law were derived to model some has not been widely further developed and commercialized. basic property of magnetic field. They are followed by the Later, during 1920s and 1930s, magnetrons were invented to Maxwell’s equations introduced in 1864 to characterize how convert electricity into microwaves, which enable wireless electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each power transfer over long distance. However, there was no other. Later, in 1873, the publication of J. C. Maxwell’s book method to convert microwaves back to electricity. Therefore, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism unified the study of the development of wireless charging was abandoned. electricity and magnetism. Since then, electricity and It was until 1964, whenW. C. Brown, who is magnetism are known to be regulated by the same force. regarded as the principal engineer of practical wireless These historic progress established the modern theoretic charging, realized the conversion of microwaves to electricity foundation of electromagnetism. through a rectenna. Brown demonstrated the practicality of microwave power transfer by powering a model helicopter, Technical breakthroughs and Research Projects demonstrated in Figure, which inspired the following

The history has witnessed a series of important research in microwave powered airplanes during 1980s and technical breakthroughs, going along with two major research 1990s in Japan and Canada. In 1975, Brown beamed 30kW lines on electric field and magnetic field. In 1888, H. R. Herts over a distance of 1 mile at 84% with Venus Site of JPLs used oscillator connected with induction coils to transmit Goldstone Facility, shown in Figure. Solar power satellite electricity over a tiny gap. This first confirmed the existence (SPS), introduced in 1968, is another driving force for long- of electromagnetic radiation experimentally. , distance microwave power transfer. the founder of alternating current electricity, was the first to The concept is to place a large SPS in geostationary conduct experiments of based on Earth orbit to collect sunlight energy, and transmit the energy microwave technology. back to the Earth through electromagnetic beam. NASA’s He focused on long-distance wireless power transfer project on SPS Reference System prompted abundant and realized the transfer of microwave signals over a distance technology developments in large-scale microwave transfer about 48 kilometers in 1896. during 1970s and 1980s. During the same period, coupling Another major breakthrough was achieved in 1899 based technology was developed under slow progress. to transmit 108 volts of high-frequency electric power over a Though inductive coupling for low-power medical distance of 25 miles to light 200 bulbs and run an electric applications was successful and widely applied in 1960s, motor. However, the technology that Tesla applied had to be there were not many shelved because emitting such high voltages in electric arcs technical boosts. would cause disastrous effect to humans and electrical Modeling equipment in the vicinity Around the same period, Tesla also made a great contribution to promote the magnetic-field advance by introducing the famous “Tesla coil”, illustrated in Figure. In 1901, Tesla constructed the , shown in

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within 20cm. Inductively coupled radio frequency identification (RFID) is an example that pushes the limit to extend the charging distance to tens of centimeters, at the cost of diminished efficiency (e.g., 1-2% [7]) with received power in micro watt range. Despite the limited transmission range, the effective charging power can be very high (e.g., kilowatt level for electric vehicle re-charging). The advantages of magnetic inductive coupling include ease of implementation,

Fig.1. Inductive coupling convenient operation, high efficiency in close distance (typically less than a coil diameter) and ensured safety. Therefore, it is applicable and popular for mobile devices. Very recently, MIT scientists have announced the invention of a novel wireless charging technology, called Mag MIMO, which can charge a wireless device from up to 30cm away. It is claimed that Mag MIMO can detect and cast a cone of energy toward a phone, even when the phone is put

inside the pocket. Fig.2. Magnetic Resonance Coupling Magnetic Resonance Coupling: Inductive Coupling: Magnetic resonance coupling, as shown in Figure, is Inductive coupling is based on magnetic field based on evanescentwave coupling which generates and induction that delivers electrical energy between two coils. transfers electrical energy between two resonant coils through Figure shows the reference model. Inductive power transfer varying or oscillating magnetic fields. As two resonant coils, (IPT) happens when a primary coil of an energy transmitter operating at the same resonant frequency, are strongly generates predominantly varying magnetic field across the coupled, high energy transfer efficiency can be achieved with secondary coil of the energy receiver within the field, small leakage to non-resonant externalities. For instance, an generally less than a wavelength. up-to-date prototype was demonstrated to achieve the The near-field magnetic power then induces maximum power transfer efficiency of 92.6% over the voltage/current across the secondary coil of the energy distance of 0.3cm. receiver within the field. This voltage can be used for Due to the property of resonance, magnetic charging a wireless device or storage system. The operating resonance coupling also has the advantage of immunity to frequency of inductive coupling is typically in the kilo Hertz neighboring environment and line-of-sight transfer range. The secondary coil should be tuned at the operating requirement. Previous demonstrations of magnetically frequency to enhance charging efficiency. coupled resonators have shown the capability to transfer The quality factor is usually designed in small power over longer distance than that of inductive coupling, values, because the transferred power attenuates quickly for with higher efficiency than that of RF radiation approach. larger quality values. Due to lack of the compensation of high Additionally, magnetic resonance coupling can be applied quality factors, the effective charging distance is generally

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between one transmitting resonator and many receiving applications of wireless charging in a sequence, followed by resonators. Therefore, it enables concurrent charging of the discussion of open issues and envision of future multiple devices As magnetic resonance coupling typically applications. The integration of wireless charging with operates in the megahertz frequency range, the quality factors existing communication networks creates new opportunities are normally high. as well as challenges for resource allocation. With the increase of charging distance, the high This survey has shown the existing solutions of quality factor helps to mitigate the sharp decrease in coupling providing seamless wireless power transfer through static co- efficiency, and thus charging efficiency. Consequently, charger scheduling, mobile charger dispatch and wireless extendingthe effective power transfer distance to meter range charger deployment. Among those studies, various emerging is possible. In 2007, MIT scientists proposed a high-efficient issues including online mobile charger dispatch strategies, mid-range wireless power transfer technology, i.e., Witricity, near-field energy beam forming schemes, energy based on strongly coupled magnetic resonance. provisioning for mobile networks, distributed wireless It was reported that wireless power transmission can charger deployment strategies, and multiple access control for light a 60W bulb in more than two meters with the wireless power communication networks are less explored transmission efficiency around 40%. The efficiency and require further investigation. Additionally, the open increased up to 90% when the transmission distance is one issues and practical challenges discussed in Section VIII can meter. However, it is difficult to reduce the size of a Witricity be considered as main directions for future research. receiver because it requires a distributed capacitive of coil to operate. This poses an important challenge in implementing REFERENCES Witricity technology in portable devices. 1. N. Chawla, S. Tosunoglo, "State of the art in Magnetic resonance coupling can charge multiple inductive charging for electronic", Florida Conf. devices concurrently, by tuning coupled resonators of Recent Advances Robotics, 2012. multiple receiving coils. This has been shown to achieve an improved overall efficiency. However, mutual coupling of 2. 2.J. L.-W. Li, "Wireless power transmission: state- receiving coils can result in interference, and thus proper of-the-arts in technologies", Proc. Asia-Pacific tuning is required. Microw. Conf., pp. 86-89, 2011.

CONCLUSION 3. G. A. Covic, J. T. Boys, "Modern trends in inductive Wireless power technology offers the possibility of power transfer for transportation applications", IEEE removing the last remaining cord connections required to J. Emerging Select. Topics Power Electron., vol. 1, replenish portable electronic devices. This promising no. 1, pp. 28-41, Jul. 2013. technology has significantly advanced during the past decades and introduces a large amount of user-friendly 4. M. Budhia, G. A. Covic, J. T. Boys, C. Y. Huang, applications. In this article, we have presented a "Development and evaluation of single sided flux comprehensive survey on the paradigm of wireless charging couplers for contactless electric vehicle compliant communication networks. Starting charging", Proc. IEEE Energy Conv. Congr., pp. from the development history, we have further introduced the 614-621, 2011.) fundamental, international standards and network

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