DOCUMENT RESUME ED 029 490 EM 006 831 By-Hodgkinson. A.W. Screen Education: Teaching a Critical Approach to Cinema and Television. Reports andPapers on Mass Communications, Number 42. United Nations Educational. Scientific. and Cultural Organization. Paris(France). Mass Communication Techniques Div. Pub Date 64 Note-102p.: Study derived from International Meeting on Film and Television Teaching. Leangkollen. Oslo. Norway. October 7-13. 1962 Available from-UNESCO Publications Center, P.O. Box 433. 317 East34th Street. New York. N.Y. 10016 ($1.00) EDRS Price MF-$0.50 HC-S5.20 Descriptors-Art Appreciation. Audiovisual Aids. Education,Film Production Specialists. Fams. Film Stody. Higher Education. International Programs. Mass Media. ResourceMaterials. Teacher Education. Uavision Teachers. Television Viewing Identifiers-BeirutAgreement. BritishFilmInstitute. Florence Agreement. Institut fuerFilm und International Conf on Film Television the Child. Society for Education in Film andTelevision At the International Meeting on Film and Television Teachingheld in Norway in 1962. experts and specialists from 18 countries came together todiscuss aims. methods, and means whereby people. especiallt the young. would behelped to deepen their enloyment of the cinema and television. The resulting study attempts tofill the need of teachers of film appreciation in different countries.It attempts to assess in what manner, and to what extent. the techniques of teaching acritical approach to television entertainment differ from those already in use for teachingabout the film. Several papers prepared for the Meeting are reproduced in part or infuil in the appendices. They are concerned with teaching appreciation offilms and television. television as an art and as an Instrument for communication. Wth productionof screen teaching materialsand international exchange of these, with teacher training in this sublect area, and with a description of theInternational Centre of Films (Cinema and Television) for children. A list of materials for education Infilms and television is appended. A course syllabus is Included. (GO) No. 42 Screen education

Teaching a critical approach to cinema and television

Unesco This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Mass Communication Techniques Division of Unesco. Unless otherwise stated, the reports may be reproducedin full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports and papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publicationsor from the Mass Communication Techniques Division, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION Number 11 Paper /or Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing -1929-1931 Trends. March 1954 (80.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F). 12 Paper flr Printing and Writing -Tentative Forecasts of Demandin 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 (out of print). 13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). Septenber1934 (out of print). 14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Sel?cted List. February 1955 (80.40;2/- (Stg.);1 F). 15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. *Ay 1955 (80.40;2/- (Stg.);1 F). 16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Commurities.July 1955 40.40 ;2/- (Stg.); 0,50 F). 17 International Rules /or the Cataloguing of educational, Scienti/ic and Cultural Films and Filrnstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 (out of print). 18 A Manual /or Evaluators of Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.);1 F). 19 List o/ Films Recommended /or Children and Adolescents up to 16 Years Followmg Selection madem 22 Countries. June 1956 (out of print). 20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print). 21 Current Mass Communication Research I- Bibliography o/ Books and Articles on Mass Communication Published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 (El; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 F). 22 Periodicals /or New Literates: Editorial Methods. June 1957 (10.75; 3/6 (Stg.);1,50 F). 23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.);1 F). 24 Periodicals /or New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3 F).

25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 (80.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2 17). 26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2 F). 27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development. 1959 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.);2,50 F) 28 Film Programmes /or the Young. 1959 (out of print). 29 Film-making on a Low Budget. 1960 (out of print). 30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50 ;7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). 31 The Influence o/ the Cinema on Children and Adolescents. An Annotated International dibliography. 1961 ($1.50 ;7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). 32 Film and Televisior in the Service of Opera and Baller and of Museums. 1961 (out of print). 33 Mass Media in the Developing Countries. A Unesco Report to the United Nations. 1961 (80.50; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 F). 34 Hinz Production by International Co-operation. 1961 ($0.50;2/6 (Stg.) ;1,75 F). 35 World Film Directory. Agencies Concerned with Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films. 1962(81; 5/-(Stg.);3,50 F). 36 Methods of Encouraging the Production and Distribution of Short !" ilrns forTheatrical Use. 1962.($0.50; 2/6 ;Stg.); 1,75F). 37 Developing Information Media in Alrica. Press, Radio, Film, Television. 1962($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3,50 F). 38 Social Education through Television, 1963 (10.50; 2/ 6 (stg.); 1,75). 39 The Teaching Film in Primary Education, 1963 (81; 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F). 40 Study of the Establishment of National Centres /or Catalogumg of Films andTelevision Programmes, 1963 (*0.50; 2/ 6 (stg.); 1,75 F). 41 Space Communication and the Mass Media,1964 ($0.50; 2/ 6 (stg.); 1,75 F).

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TO ERIC AND OR6ANIZATIONS OPERATIN6 UNDER A6REEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REOUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER." Printed in France MC.64.XVII.42 A Printed in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e © UNESCO 1964 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE Screen POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATINGIT. EDUCATION STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF POSITION OR POLICY. education

Teachinga critical approach to cinema and television A study by A.W. Hodgkinson deriving from the International Meeting on Film and Television Teaching organized at Leangkollen, Oslo, Norway in October 1962 by the International Centre of Films (Cinema and Television) for children with the technical and financial support of Unesco and papers written for the meeting by A.P. Higgins B.A. Evelina Tarroni, Siegfried Mohrhof, Elsa Brita Marcussen CORRIGENDA

PageColumn

19 1 1st line Delete : and. (The italics are my own), 28 2 footnote (1) For: read : (The underlining is my own).

36 table, "Filmed" col. Total, last addition. For: 9 '4, read: 12!4.

38 2 footnote (6) Add: London, Barrie and Rockliff, 1960. The figures on page 12, read: The 39 1 para. 4, 3rdline For: figures on page 36.

53 2 footnote (2) For: Editions du Tembourinaire, read : Editions du Tambourinaire.

82 2 Italy For: Doctor Evalina Tarroni, read : Doctor Evelina Tarroni.

89 2 Germany For: EINE FILMSZENE ENTSTERT, read: EINE FILMSZENE ENTSTEHT. PREFACE

need expressed in a previous To some extent, the present publication canbe regarded as answering a In the preface to 'TeachingAbout Unesco book on the subject of teachingfilm and television appreciation. would seem the Film", by Dr. I.M.L.Peters, the following passage occurs :"The evidence now available who engage in to indicate that the next stageof development should befor teachers in different countries together pedagogical methods which teaching film appreciation to sharetheir experiences and to work out and to what could be generally adopted, aswell as for an attempt tobe made to assess in what manner, those already extent, the techniquesof teaching a critical approach totelevision entertainment differ from cinema film." in use for teaching about the Film and The "stage of development"referred to above was reached atthe International Meeting on Television Teaching, held at Leangkollen, nearOslo, Norway, by the InternationalCentre of Films (Cinema and Television) for Children, withthe support of Unesco. However,while the present publication records the essence of what happened at thatmeeting and reproduces asappendices much, of the most important documentation arising from it, thefollowing study is primarily a personalevaluation by its author (Mr. A.W. Hodgkinson) of, first, the reasons whyencouraging attitudes ofdiscrimination towards the mass media should be regarded as a challenge toeducators in what may become known asthe "Telstar era", and second, the school. On the basis of the ar- the forms which screen educationshould take both inside and outside it would seem that the stage guments of this studyand the recommendations that werearrived at in Oslo, of international development to beexpected next may lie in the directionof introducing screen education into the regular schoolcurriculum and training teachers for their newtask - in each case, however, accord- ing to national, and evenlocal, requirements. An example of the growing interest in screeneducation may be seen in the careerof the author of this the study. A professional teacherersonally devoted to inculcatingfilm and television appreciation in classroom for a number of years, a founderand an officer-bearer of theSociety for Education in Film and Institute, Mr. Hodg- Television in the United Kingdom, and sometimeEducation officer of the British Film kinson was invited by the Finnish NationalCentre of Films for Children to visitFinland on a lecture tour He has since gone to the in 1963 to spread the idea of screeneducation in the major cities of that country. United States to teach the subject of Film atBoston University for a year. While Unesco associates itself with thegeneral purpose of screen education -that is, arousing a more discriminatory approach to the visual media -and in particular with the positive measuresin this regard so far taken by the International Centre ofFilms (Cinema and Television) forChildren, it must be made clear that any opinions expressed in this study arethose of the authors concerned and notnecessarily those of Unesco. CONTENTS

FOREWORD 5

CHAPTER I. Communication and Or. Screen Language 7

II . The Challenge to Educators 10

III. Films and Television- A Social Art 14

IV. The Aims of Screen Education 17

V. The Methods of Screen Education 21

VI. A Specimen Screen Education Syllabus 26

VII. Screen Education and the Curriculum 28

APPENDIX I. Education in Television by A .P. Higgins , B .A 31 II. The Aesthetics of Television by Evelina Tarroni 53 III.Materials for Screen Education by Siegfried Mohrhof 63

IV. Teaching Screen Education to the Teachers by Elsa Brita Marcussen 72

V. Recommendations of the Leangkollen International Meeting on Film and Television Teaching 77 VI.The International Centre of Films (Cinema & Television) for Children 81 VII.List of Materials for Education in Film and Television by Siegfried Mohrhof 84 FORLWORD

The International Meeting on Film and Television A. P. Higgfris, had, at the request of Unesco, pre- Teaching held at Leangkollen in October 1962, pared the long and valuable paper on the teaching brought together experts and specialists from of television which is reproduced as Appendix I. eighteen countries to discuss aims, methods and As will be seen, Mr. Higgins subscribes to the means whereby all people, especially the young, view that, fundamentally, television is closely could be helped to increase and deepen their enjoy- allied to film. ment of the cinema and television.Several papers On the other hand, certain other educationists were prepared for information and discussion. (notably Dr. Evelina Tarroni of Italy, whose paper Some are reproduced in part or in full as append- on the aesthetics of television is also reproduced) ices to this study. The recommendations of the (Appendix II) stress the differences between the meeting, under seven heads, are also appended. two media, and develop a theory of education This study does not pretend to be a report of the derived from a consideration of television alone. proceedings at Leangkollen. Rather is it intended I do not claim that these two viewpoints were as a first attempt to define and justify the theory satisfactorily integrated at the Leangkollen Meet- and practice of what, since Leangkollen, has ing.But I think it is possible to arrive at general become accepted as an international term - "screen agreement on what "screen education" should be, education" - and to relate it to those other views taking as a starting point either films or television, on education and mass communication which have or both. affected its development, with particular reference It is in the hope that wc may all reach this to the United Kingdom. agreement that I have prepared this study.It The stimulus for the Leangkollen Meeting was derives largely from the papers, discussions and twofold: on the one hand, the development of inter- contacts which came to me at Leangkollen, but national contacts in the field of "film teaching" had also from numerous other sources.I have quote(' reached a point where a clearer definition of aims extensively from many of these sources, but also and purposes was possible: on the other, there wish to acknowledge the several influences on this was growing concern to discover what educationists study of individuals and organizations all over the could, and should, do about the increasingly power- world. Many of them will find their ideas repro- ful medium of television. The British Society of duced here without acknowledgement yet with, I Film Teachers, feeling that the two screen media hope, some degree of assimilation.I am deeply ought to be regarded as allied, if not identical, had grateful to all - especially to those hundreds of changed its name to the Society for Education in children whose influence on me during my years Film and Television, thus widening its interests of teaching has been the strongest and the most and, in the course of five years, developing the inspiring. notion of "screen education" which it took to Leangkollen. The society' s then Chairman, London, 1963. A. W. HODGKINSON CHAPTER ONE

COMMUNICATION AND THE SCREEN LANGUAGE

I write these words. You read them. This study perfumes, for example. The language of mime is an act of communication. We are able,you and still remains the only truly universal language I, to take part in this act of communication because and has been elevated into an expressi, e art form. we share a common language.If we do not, if you Speech has been called "man' s most impressive are reading this in some language other than communications invention". By agreeing that English, then a third person- a translator - will certain vocal sounds should stand as symbols, and have had the task of acting as go-between, of by gradually developing structural patterns for absorbing my thoughts and displaying them again those sounds, we have created several superbly in a different arrangement of symbols. flexible and sensitive languages - too many, To say that we share a common language means indeed, for today's global society. that, at some time or another, both you and I have When we consider writing, it seems likely that agreed, with millions of other people, that certain two differing sets of symbols evolved. One began symbols shall stand for the same thing. For as a form of drawing, the picture of a thing stand- example, that the following arrangement of signs: ing as a symbol for the thing itself. The other T 4BLE developed into a synthetic system in which letters shall indicate a flat surface which is normally stand for sounds alid are then built up in a sequence supported on legs and maintained parallel to the to represent the sound of words - themselves ground. symbols.Alphabetical systems of writing are Even with such an elementary example as that therefore one further stage removed from reality of "table", there is considerable lack of certainty than picture writing. about what I am trying to convey to you.'What Since this study is concerned with films and sort of table do I have in mind? What is it made television, themselves fundamentally pictorial of? What shape? How many legs? Etc., etc. media, it is picture writing which concerns us No matter how hard I try, however careful my most. But we find that, despite its n...arer rela- description, however many words I use- and 71? tionship to reallt:its ability to provide symbols matter how hard ,you try, whatever efforts of ima- which frequently resemble the things for which gination you put forth - we shall never succeed in they stand, it has been used less for communica- passing completely from my mind to yours the tion purposes than the alphabetical systems. impression I have at this moment of the particular For centuries, the word, written, later printed, table before which I am sitting as I write these has dominated Western cultures and determined words. Communication can never be perfect. their traditions.Indeed, it is the means of formu- But if I were to abandon the attempt to desc:lbe lating ideas, of imparting them, of discussing, my table in words alone and resort to another arguing and enforcing them, of preserving them language - that of pictures - communication might for others. Of course, it is ideally suited for be more satisfactory.I could, for instance, make these purposes, and can never be superseded. a sketch. Even better, a photograph Twinted here This study, obviously, could not have been con- (preferably in colour) would convey to you all the ceived nor executed in any other form than that necessary information about the table - its shape of words. and material, function, and (by reference to other Fundamentally, the drawback of pictures for objects in the photograph) its relative size and purposes of communication has been threefold: position in the room. (a) The difficulty of production. Human beings Mankind, indeed, makes use of several languages, can learn relatively easily to produce words several media of communication, of which written orally, for immediate communication: they need words, sketches and printed photographs are but no appa:-atus outside themselves in order to speak. three. The corresponding facility, of producing "pictures" We assume that men first communicated by with one's body - mime - is less developed, since means of facial and bodily contortions and animal- the use of words renders it unnecessary.(It is like sounds.Such methods sufficed to convey basic fascinating to note, however, how expressive the messages such as hatred, liking, the need for food faces and bodies of deaf mutes can become- the and so on. The frown, the smile, the clenched film Thursday' s Children illustrates this fist and similar mimes and gestures remain with movingly. ) us today, as do also tactile and other sensific (b) The difficulty of reproduction. Whereas the means of communication - caresses and the use of ability to write although not acquired quickly, is

7 a skill accessible to most, if not all, of us, the as of self-interest ...Printing also created new skills of drawing and painting have for centuries literary forms and altered ideas of literary style ... been neglected by the majority.Unless they are After the flowering of dramatic poetry during the actively fostered, either by society or - in rela- Elizabethan Age, the printed page substituted for tively rare cases - the individual's own drive the theatre, and millions of schoolchildren came towards these modes of self-expression, they fall to know Shakespear only through this form ... in into disuse.Indeed, even where no alphabetically schools, print shifted the emphasis from oral to written words existed to challenge communication written and visual communication ...In short, by drawing, the drawings seem to have deteriorated for 400 years Western civilization has lived in into conventional symbols for words themselves what has been characterized as the 'Age of (e.g. Chinese and the Australian aboriginal Gutenberg' ".(1) languages). But mass communication did not reach full (c) The difficulty of interpretation.Paradoxi- development until the middle of the Nineteenth cally, the closet- symbol resembles reality, the century when the printed word had to compete with less the opportunity to invest it with the creator's other means of communication - other languages. own meaning.It remains, like the real object Lithography and various techniques of reproducing itself, open to th," interpretation placed upon it by pictures, coupled with photography, a new method the observer, an interpretation which may be far both of reproduction and production, have flooded from what its creator intended. To varying extents, our world with pictorial images. The phonograph, words themselves are open to misinterpretation, radio and later inventions for recording sound as we all know. Being more flexible, however, have begun to restore the spoken word to some of they can be so arranged as to reflect reasonably its former ascendancy: they have invested music accurately the communicator's ideas.This is with new potentialities and have given rise to because all verbal languages have grammars - another language: the meaningful creation and sets of rules built up by centuries of use and juxtaposition of natural and artificial sounds. accepted by all who use the language.Pictures, (The fact that the "grammars" of these languages although susceptible to distortion and manipulation, also are but little developed does not invalidate remain more intractable than words, and the rules their claim for use as media of communication. ) governing their use - their "grammar" - although Finally - and I use this word only because it is they exist, are less clearly defined or accepted. difficult to envisage a further stage of development - The problem of the agreed interpretation of pic- came the greatest development of all:the pictorial tures is touched on in an article by John Berger in reproduction of movement, first by means of opti- the English newspaper The Observer, of 24 cal toys such as zoetropes and praxinoscopes, February 1963: then through the cinema and, within the lifetime of "The truth is that photography, invented at a most of us, television.Television - "farsight" - time when there is so little agreement about what represents (tio far as we can tell) the ultimate is aignificant in human affairs, has never yet come extension of man's major sensory organs, his fully into its own. To realize its possibilities, eyes and ears. photography needs a public whose initial approach "Today man has developed extensions for practi- to reality is shared and agreed. When we have cally everything he used to do with his body. The achieved a more integrated form of society, photo- evolution of weapons begins with the teeth and the graphy will become a widely accepted form of art, fist and ends with th, atom bomb.Clothes and and instead of just being used as a kind of sensa- houses are extensions of man's biological tempera- tional bait, it will supply us with our basic vocabu- ture control mechanisms. Furniture takes the lary of charged, meaningful images." place of squatting and sitting on the ground. For centuries, pictorial forms of communication Power tools, spectacles, TV, telephones, ant4 suffered an eclipse: from being central objects of books which carry the mind across both time and tribal culture (cave paintings, totems, etc.) and space are examples of material extensions."(2) important means of religious and aesthetic educa- Throughout the centuries, artists had grappled tion (church murals, tapestries, cathedral carvings, with the problems of depicting spatial L.rid tempo- etc. ), they became relegated to mere forms of ral motion.Conventions for both had been static decoration (albeit, in their highest forms, essayed and developed, but pictures remained on conveyors of much emotional and aesthetic stimu- the whole a static language, presenting for con- lation and satisfaction). Words flourished. With templation only frozen instants of perception. To the advent of printing, they spread their influence have not one, but two new dimensions added to a wider and wider. The printed word began even to language (for moving pictures can show not only supersede the spoken word in certain cultures. movement in space, but also in time) has naturally The era of "mass communicaton" had begun, and it began with printed words. (1) Neil Postman. Television and the Teachina "The book, by isolating the reader and his res- of English. New York, Appleton-Century- ponses, tended to separate him from the powerful Crofts Inc. ,1961. oral influences of his family, teacher, and priest. (2) Edward T. Hall. The Silent Language. Print thus created a new conception of self as well New York, Doubleday & Company, 1959

8 created difficulties and confusion. What remains "In twenty years' time there will not be one for wonder is that, within so short a space of time separate medium called 'film' andanother called as 50 years, such outstanding feats of communica- 'television' .The two industries will have comp- tion and works of art should have been achieved leted that getting together which has alreadynearly in such a complex medium. been accomplished ... The viewer,whether at Yet this new language - which I shallcall home or in the 'salle de projection',will have no ",screen" in order to embrace both cinema and means of knowing whichmethod of presentation is television - has absorbed into itself several others. being used. (Even today, children speakof all The modern film makes use not only of moving television programmes as 'films'. )And the pictures, but of colour, music, speech and sound teacher of the future will have the choice of two effects.Television (although lacking colour in 'languages' in which to specialize: written word most countries) has even begun to adapt for use language and screened picture language. Film and printed words, making them move and twinkle, television, as we know them today, will each have flow and reform in a series of new mobile patterns. fallen into its place as part of that wider 'screen The messages conveyed by this new method may medium', the language of moving pictures, accom- be trivial in the extreme - USE BLOBBO - but the panied by sounds and projected on a screen. implications are of what Dr. Antoine Val let has (Unless, of onirse, events move so rapidly that called "total language": the screen itself becomes obsolete, and 'electronic II... alanguage especially rich which has at its sculpture' enables three-dimensional images to disposal, all the systems of signs, sensory and be projected into space. And even thin would not concrete, abstract and intelligible: animated invalidate my argument - merely reinforce it.)"(2) visual images, sounds (effects and music), symbols Let us revert for a moment to the exampleof (spoken or written) of the current language. A the "table". We saw earlier that a coloured sound, talking film is therefore completely in this r. :iotograph met all the necessaryrequirements 'total language', and permits the study of all its for conveying this very simple concept to you. elements, of all the systems of signs. Compared But suppose I had wished to communicate with with this total language, other languages employ you about my baby daughter. The languageof the only some sign systems: the sound language uses screen would enIble me to present, notonly her noises, music, rhythm, intensity: with all the shape, colour and size, but her movements and evocative and affective force which they can deploy, voice. Moreover, by a sensitive useof other photography and painting (in their various uses - elements e the screen language, I could convey decoration, documentation, publicity, etc.) have to you (e.g. by editing, by my commentary,by the power of attraction which results from the the use of music) my emotions and feelings con- virtual presence of the object: the language of cerning her. Such a film, or television trans- words (with their intellectual significance, with mission, might indeed give the viewer a closer their imaginative and sentimental content, with understanding of my relationship with my dai ghter the movement and rhythm of phrase and sentence) than might be achieved by his actual presence is an instrument of analysis whereby the mind may here, at this moment, with us both.Such is the penetrate the nature of beings and things, take potential power of the screen language. possession of them and completely realize itself." (1) For practical purposes, it seems to me that (1) Dr. Antoine Vallet, L' &ran et la vie, No. 11, Dr. Val let's concept, whildit theoretically apt, is Brussels, March 1963. too universal to apply to the present position. My (2) A.W. Hodgkinson, "The Same, Only Different". own suggestion - more immediately practicable, Film Teacher's Handbook. London, Society I venture to submit - is embodied in a prophecy I for Education in Film and Television, made in 1959: 1959/1960.

9 CHAPTER II

THE CHALLENGE TO EDUCATORS

The development of the screen media falls into spoke to them through the medium of the printing line with the development of other mass media. press."(2) Each new stage, occasioned by the invention or The responses to mass entertainments have improvement of a technique, leads to a greater themselves increasingly become mass rlsponses, degree of what Raymond Wliliams has called as carefully engineered indeed as the entertain- Ilmi'ltipleimpersonal transmission". When com- ments themselves. No longer do we have an manication was mainly by word of mouth, face to artist, or groups of artists, communing with face as it were, communication was truly a two- individuals or small groups. Today, the dawn of way rocess. the era of instant, direct, visual and aural com-

"/In__ the Middle Ages3 most of the entertain- munication finds the communicator almost entirely ment in the form of fiction (stories, folk tales, deprived of feedback.Instead, his message and etc. ) which was available to children was what the response to it are both determined to an they heard from senior members of their own increasing extent by a third party - the sponsor, families. The children' a unsophisticated reactions the entrepreneur, the middleman. of alarm or pleasure at the tales they heard might Raymond Williams, whpve book Britain in the encourage the storyteller to soften or expand the Sixties - Communicationeis a valuable contribu- story as it developed. As far as specialized enter- tion to the study of the mass media, distinguishes tainment services were concerned, adults depended two major factors in the modern history of com- on ballad singers, minstrels, jesters and groups munications. First, he mentions the remarkable of actors. From them they heard the folk tales, expansion of audiences of all kinds: "The whole fairy tales, morality stories, and so forth which process has the effect of a culturalrevolution." constituted the non-clerical forms of entertain- He goes on: "At the same time ... there is the ment ... News .md other information was simi- widespread dependence on advertising money, larly transmitted through face-to-face communica- which leads to a policy of getting a large audience tions in feudal Europe. The market place, the inn, as quickly as possible, to attract and hold advert- provided the location.Travellers, merchants, isers ...All the basic purposes of communica- seamen, soldiers, etc.transmitted news to the tion - the sharing of human experience - can general public in this way, while for the nobility become subordinated to this drive to sell." and clergy special couriers brought information Williams suggests that the intermediaries - the in person ... The listener registered pleasure, controllers of the media - have become or are boredom, scepticism, excitement, blunt disbelief, becoming the most important parties to communi- or some other reaction to what he heard. The cation: "Instead of a new culture emerging, a communicator - whether storytelling grandpa, the synthetic culture - meeting and exploiting the court jester, the newly returned veteran of the tensions of growth - will be devised for a quick Crusades, or the travelling troupe of actors sale ...There will indeed be expansion but there could see and feel and hear the emotional response will be no real growth." (4) of his audience. On the basis of this feedback, he There is, he suggests, a double danger to the could and usually would modify his content if neces- contributors in this development. They may be sary in order to achieve the desired effect in later neglected because they do not fit into the communi- renditions. From the listeners' viewpoint, this cations system - in this case they are liable to interplay permitted direct - e-ren intimate - turn in upon themselves or to a coterie cut off 'controls' on the communicator. His performance from the social mainstream - or an attempt may was subject to immediate review.His responsi- be made to fit them into the system. bility was personal, direct and unshiftable. " (1) A theory could be advanced, with considerable The development of printing reduced consider- evidence to support it, that much the same forces ably the personal quality of communication, but its are at work in all fields of mass communication, full effect was not to be felt until the Industrial Revolution and the spread of literacy. (1) Dallas W. Smythe. "Some Observations on "Communications began to be mechanized, began Communications Theory" in AV Communica- to be a business. Now if the storyteller's readers tion Review1 Washington, Winter 1954. threw his book into the fireplace in disgust, he (2)Ibid. didn't know it.There was no direct feedback. The (3)London, Penguin Books, 1962. readers had lost their direct control over those who (4)Ibid.

10 and that basically, the effect of these forces is to " To give the public what it wants' seems at increase audiences to the maximum while reducing first sight unexceptionable. But when applied to their receptivity and response as nearly as possible broadcasting it is difficult to analyse. The public to that of a single, simply satisfied "consumer". is not an amorphous, uniform mass: however Professor Richard Hoggart(1) sums up the dancer much it is so counted and classified under this or inherent in such a "mass culture": that heading, it is composed of individual people: "We are seeing more and more, and in increas- and 'what the public wants' is what individual ingly subtle ways, a public processinK of experi- people want ... Some of our tastes and needs we ence ...I think this processing is a threat to share with virtually everybody: but most - and freedom no less dangerous - though less evident - they are often those which engage us most than those we are used to talking about.Its intan- intensely - we share with different minorities. A gibility is part of its strength.It can allow an service which caters only for majorities can never apparent freedom, and indeed variety: yet both satisfy all, or even most, of the needs of any have lost their value.It recalls those tins of 'pro- individual.It cannot, therefore, satisfy all the cessed peas', peas that are greener than any fresh needs of the public ... from a pod and uniformly tasteless ... No one can say he is giving the public what it The danger ... is not that mass culture will be wants, unless the public knows the whole range of crude and raucous, full of sex and violence ... possibilities which television can offer and, from The real danger is that a successful mass culture this range, chooses what it wants to see ...If will be too damned nice, a bland muted processed viewers - 'the public' - are thought of as 'the institutionalized decency, a suburban limbo in mass audience' , or 'the majority' , they will be which nothing real ever happens and the gut has offered only the average of common experience gone out of lee." and awareness: the 'ordinary' : the commonplace - Or, as Smythe puts it: for what all know and do is, by definition, common- "One can almost take it as axiomntic that with a place. They will be kept unaware of what lies decrease in possible feedback th.;:re goes a pro- beyond the average of experience: their field of portionate decrease in the humanity of communica- choice will be limited ... tions.I mean by humanity all of the kaleidoscopic In summary, it seems to us that Ito give the diversity of human elements of strength and weak- public what it wants' is a misleading phrase: ness, humour, pathos, spontaneity, candour, misleading because as commonly used it has the imagination and originality." (2) appearance of an appeal to democratic principle, In the worlc' of those who control the mass media, but the appearance is deceptive ... If there is a one concept predominates - "thepublic". Some- sense in which it should be used, it is this:what times it is broken down a little, and becomes "the the public wants and what it has the right to get is man in the street", "the average viewer'',"the the freedom to choose from the widest possible consumerII. range of programme matter. Anything less than A desire to reduce all humanity to a conceptual that is deprivation." entity is no new one. (Was it Ghengis Khan who So far we have been considering the media of wished that the whole world had bu' one head, so mass communication mainly in relation to society that he coald strike it off with one blow? ) Most of as a whole.Let us now look at film and television us fall victim to the lure of such superficial with special reference to children. thinking at one time or another.It is much easier In education, as elsewhere, it is quite common to consider the multitudes who inhabit our world, for stereotypes to creep into our thinking.Parti- not as so many millions of individual souls, but cularly pervasive are such expressions as "the as conveniently labelled groups - teenagers, young child". "the child audience", "the young viewer" adults, Indians, Communists, Negroes, Jews. etc.Yet we know there is no such entity as "the From this, it is but one step to the stereotyped child": there are only children each distinct and concept - "the Communist", "the Negro", "the different.Indeed, it is difficult to draw a clear Jew", "the capitalist". line even between "children" an-.'.. "adults". The The major_ defence of mass entertainment pro- fact is that we are all children in some respect or viders has been that they are "giving the public .... other.Children are people, people are children, what it wants".( Note the use of the singular form. ) only some are more "grown up" than others. Elaborate systems of "consumer research" have Unthinking use of stereotypes may equally lead been devised to discover exactly what this desidera- educationists into dangerous and arrogant habits tum may be. Films may be judged successes or of mind. When stereotyped thinking about people failures according to their "box office returns": is indulged in, generalizations abound, each television series may be tailored, extended, or ruthlessly cut gsnort, according to their "ratings". (1) "The Quality of Cultural Life in Mass The merits and demerits of this claim were Society", paperdelivered at the 1960 Con- carefully explored by the 1960 Committee On gress for Cultural Freedom Conference in Berlin. Broadcasting (the Pilkington Committee), which (2) Op. cit. investigated the future position of television and (3) London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1962. radio in the United Kingdom.In itz report,(3) Cmd. 1753 the committee concluded: 11 containing a dangerous germ of truth to give it a "Television exerts an influence only where the rational appearance.Side by side with the pro- views are put over repeatedly, preferably in viders' generalizations about "the public" march dramatic form. Because television entertainment the equally generalized condemnations of films is built on contrast and the child sees many pro- and television as "noisy", "violent", "sexy", "bad grammes, the effect of a single programme is for children", and so on. Such blanket condemna- likely to be slight.But the more the views are tions, so frequent in the past (and indeed applied repeated - the more, for example, different to each new form of public entertainment as it serials on television present, with minor varia- came along), are decreasing in number and viru- tions, the same values, the same attitudes about lence, and need not concern us here.But it is people - the more effective will their influence apposite to consider some of the more thoughtful be."(4) charges made against the mass media in respect It also suggested some useful criteria for pre- of their effects on what I regard as safer to call dicting the likely cumulative influence of television "immature minds". on children's outlook: Thus, the Report of the Departmental Committee "They are more likely to be affected: on Children and theCinema(1) - the Wheare report - 1.The more the views presented are stereo- made criticisms a decade ago which many people typed: would regard as equally appropriate today: 2.The more they are dressed up in dramatic "A large number of films are exposing children form. regularly to the suggestion that the highest values 3.The greater the viewers' interest in that in life are riches, power, luxury and public adula- type of information: tion ...According to these films ... you can be 4. The less complete their knowledge from happy without much effort or hard work, so long other sources: as you have a lucky star, or an influential patron 5. And the more responsive they are to the or some brand of personal glamour which you are medium in general." (5) prepared to capitalize without much restraint of Such criteria apply with equal force to the conscience. This general kind of easy and selfish cinema. Both media present regular repetiti- ._ philosophy is fringed with other supporting illusions, of certain basic concepts, frequently itt a s' eree- involving the distortion of history and biography and typed dramatic form, to young viewers vino are of people of other nations and their national heroes... interested in this information, who havf. less easy We are convinced that the regular portrayal of access to other forms of knowledge and who are false values is more pervasive and dangerous than particularly responsive to the easily accessible the depiction of crime or impropriety." screen. We are forced to conclude that their For the advocates of screen education, it is influence over young people is powerful - indeed significant that the Wheare report went on: rivalling that of the schools. "We have no short-term remedy to suggest for Or can they be made into allies?Is there an this problem of false values. No kind of classifi- inherent hostility between education and the mass cation or prohibition is likely to make much differ- media, so that children find themselvos the dis- ence in this case. Only a more discriminating puted bone between two warring dogs? public will reduce the demand for this kind of "It is vital that the many responsible people in skilfully contrived rubbish." communications should work as closely as possible The Nuffield report, "Television and theChild",(2) with the educational services, and that teachers devoted several chapters to the effect of television and educational administrators (who have often on children's values and outlook.Although the been p-iejudiced about the newer communication overall picture was perhaps less discouraging than forms, frequently with good if partial reasons) that painted by the Wheare report, it contained should make a real effort to reciprocate." (6) many of the same elements: Since we can no longer pretend (if ever we did) "The most important feature that emerged is that children can be isolated in a monastic seclu- the consistency of the view of life and of values sion from an inimical world until such time as offered ... essentially an urban upper middle and upper class society ... the professions, big busi- (1) London, H. M.S.0, 1950, Cmd.7945. ness and journalism are desirable occupations (2) Himmelweit and others, London, O.U. P. which good people hold more often than others: 1958. manual workers lead less exciting, more humdrum (3) This report was concerned mainly with lives.(3) television under the British Broadcasting Viewers seem to be affected by the material- Corporation. The advent of commercial istic outlook inherent in many television plays. television in the United Kingdom has brought When considering what sort of adult they them- with it a considerable broadening (on both selves would like to be, they tend to think more of channels) of the classes and occupations the things they would like to own than of personal portrayed. qualities or the work they would like to do ..." (4) Ibid. The Nuffield report, like the Wheare report, (5) Ibid. referred to the cumulative effects of repetition: (6) Raymond Williams, op. cit.

12

1 sense of duty to foster sensitivityand selectivity they have been armed and armoured against it by in order that they can all be enriched." introduction to "the finer things of life", it is That children already accept what we may regard surely time that we made some attempt to relate as a futuristic dream is wellillustrated by an the education of our young to the world in which incident which occurred at my own school recently. they are living and will grow up. A teacher was explaining the meaning of the word 1.11c: perspective for the future - and a short- "folk tales" - stories handed on from person to term perspective it is - was described by Mrs. person, people to people."And how," she Elsa Brita Marcussen at the opening of the inquired, "do these stories spread around the Leangkollen Meeting, quoting the words of an world?" The answer from one boy was prompt American teclmician: and, for us, very much to the point."Please, "In ten years' time it is likely that one milliard miss," he said, "by Telstar!" people - or rather every nation on this earth - We would do well to remember that we are will be able to see the same TV programme - and with a already educating the citizens of 1984: also that, even in colour - at the same time, and for them, the 1960s will perhaps have as much an running, translated commentary which will make air of antiquity as have the 1660s for us. it understandable to all ... The choice offered to The challenge to educators is not only global but us will be enormous." urgent in the extreme. She went on: "As you will have noticed, there are two words Leaving aside generalized and ineffectual con- and to choose. demnations, pleas for more censorship or repres- we meet over and over again - choice sive legislation (these, in my view, can only The Telstar will twinkle brightly only if those who exacerbate the situation or, at best, provide only a handle the powerful mass media offer us a choice, temporary palliative), and resisting the temptation based upon the recognition of the power of film and to ignore the whole issue, what practical and posi- TV to influence values and moral standards and to "more dis- enrich the lives of us all.But the Telstar era also tive steps can we take to produce that demands of the educationist that he, especially in criminating public" which the Wheare report his teaching of young people, be animated by a regarded as the only long-term solution?

13 CHAPTER III

FILMS AND TELEVISION - A SOCIALART

Before we can attempt to answer the questions "This distinction between art and entertainment raised at the end of the last section, we must may be much more difficult tomaintain than it consider another aspect of films and television - looks.At its extremes, et course, it is obvious. the claim that, either separately or together,they But over the whole raLge, is there any easyand are forms (or a form) of"art", and that this alone absolute distinction? Great art can give us deep justifies their inclusion in the educational curricu- and lasting experiences, but the experience we lum as a special "subject". get from many things that we rightlycall art is In the U.K. at least, and this isprobably true quite often light and temporary ...Most of us of several other countries, the first impetusto- can test this in out own experience.For, in fact, wards teaching what was then called"film appre- we do not live in theseneatly separated worlds. ciation" came from those in education who encoun- Many of us go one day to a circus, one day to a tered or rediscovered great films through the theatre, one day to the football, one day to a many film societies which sprang upand multiplied concert. The experiences are different,and vary in the late forties and early fifties,largely as a widely in quality both between and within them- result of the increasing availability of16mm. selves." (1) projectors and prints. My generation was thefirst Ask a child to talk about the last film he saw to have spent its formative years withthe cinema and almost without exception he will starttelling as part of its normal environment, aneasily you what it was about. Weteachers deplore this accessible, novel and stimulating "window on the and use every known Ge vice to get himoff the world".Books such as Roger Manvell's Film story and on to the acting, the direction, the (first published in the U.K. in 1944 as a popular lighting, the camera work - anything toavoid educational paperback) and Ernest Lindgren's consideration of the message of the film, which Art of the Film (1948) gave respectability to our as adults we know or suspect isunreal, super- 16mm. rediscovery of youthful joys and pointed ficial, commonplace, trivial - in factchildish. the way to the discovery of fresh treasures inthe But the child is childish too, and thestory to him cinema repertory of other nations. is real and important.It is probably the only The latter book, indeed, defined an"aesthetic aspect of the film he has grasped -which is not formula" for the cinema so persuasively and surprising, considering that it is probably the lucidly that, although this was largely based on only aspect the film makers have been concerned the silent films of the 1920s, it inevitablybecame to put across. the "bible" of the film appreciation movement. It was clear that "filmteaching" could not be The "screen classics" established as a resultof restricted to instruction in, and demonstrationof, this movement became international icons,to the the formal qualities or film art. Even ifthis were worship of which we felt it our duty to callfresh desirable it would, with many of the childrenwhom young generations. we teach, prove to beimpracticable if not impos- Within a short time, however, it wasdiscovered sible.With others, it would merely create another that enthusiasm for what frequently appeared as minority cult, divorced from the living streamof dim, incomprehensible shadows on anill-lit cinema and the vital, unruly flood of television. screen, accompanied (if at all)by the bcom and At this point, it seems appropriate to quote the mumble of inadequate sound in an acoust'cally following: unsuitable hall, was not easily kindled in young "There is every reason to believe that the child filmgoers, themselves nurtured on moremodern is incapable of logical thought before about the age fare, skilfully tailored to suit their owngeneration's of fourteen and any attempt to force an early special tastes and interests.True, an astonishing development of concepts is unnatural, and may be through from injurious. amount of the original impact came in the early film masterpieces, confirmingtheir The reality is a total organic experience, claims to greatness and justifying our attemptsto which image and percept are not clearlydifferenti- perpetuate their lustre.But frequently the ated, and to which anything in the nature of the teachers' attempts to prove and classify their abstract concept is foreign. Children, like quality by references to aesthetic "rules" met savages, like animals, experiencelife directly, with a complete lack of acceptanoe from children not at a mental distance.In due time they must conditioned to look at films as "entertainment" rather than "art" (1) Raymond Williams, op. cit.

14 lose this primal innocence, put childish things and habits, they are the high tradition."(2) away. But what are they going to put in the place It is perhaps the advent of television which is of the unified consciousness they have enjoyed? likely to hammer home the final nail in the coffin That is the fundamental question, and the only of the formalists. Whereas it was possible to answer that modern civilization and its pedagogues distinguish and isolate an "aesthetic formula" for can give is: a split consciousness, a world made the cinema, to do so for television seems a singu- up of discordant forces, a world of images larly difficult and unrewarding task. As Dr. divorced from reality, of concepts divorced from Tarroni says in her paper: "The Aesthetics of sensation, of logic divorced from life.At the best Television" (see Appendix II): we can recover an integrated consciousness in our "The point is that with television, much more art, but even our art has been invaded by intellec- than with radio and the cinema, we come to grips tual attitudes which destroy its organic vitality."(1) with entirely new facts to which our mental My own experiences with modern children, processes are not accustomed. Our aesthetic maturing earlier than they did when Read wrote concepts, which we have inherited from a 2,000- this, lead me to suggest that the age of logical year old tradition, relate to works of art which thought is now lower - between 11 and 12, perhaps. are, so to speak, crystallized in solid material - It is frequently argued that only those who can marble, paper, canvas, etc. appreciate the subtleties and nuances of "great But radio, cinema and televis!on cannot be art" are entitled to it;that, in making works of included in these traditional concepts. Here we art "popular", we are doing a disservice to the are dealing with light and shade, vibrations of art itself.Such thinking either denies to the sound and light (especially in radio and television) cinema a claim to be art, since its works are which die away even as they come into being. predominantly for a popular audience, or else Nothing remains of them. That is why we are pretends that only those works which have proved tempted to deny their existence. unacceptable to the popular audience can be But we must try to weave a web that can capture regarded as great films. Raymond Williams these new experiences of life.In other words we makes a careful distinction between "minority need to find a new aesthetic formula for analysing culture" and "minority cult" : their characteristics." "The work of the great artists and thinkers has Dr. Koblewska-Wroblowa, in another paper never been cunfined to their own company; it has commissioned for the Leangkollen Meeting, sees always been made available to some others. And television only as a synthesis: doesn't it often happen that those to whom it has "Television takes many different elements from been made available identify the tradition with the visual and non-visual arts, such as theatre, themselves, grafting it into their own way of life? .. film, rhapsodic theatre, recitation, music, Again and again, particular minorities confuse Literature, etc, and the end result of this process the superiority of the tradition which has been may be the development of a new artistic quality, made available to them with their own superiority, the emergence of a special synthesis of several an association which the passing of time or of arts, which is different and new. As once many frontiers can make suddenly ludicrous. We must years ago the film made a synthesis of several always be careful to distinguish the great works of arts, so nowadays television is making its syn- the past from the social minority which at a parti- thesis and developing as a new art.It is easy cular place and time identifies itself with them. enough to foresee that this new art will tend more The great tradition very often continues itself in and more to develop its own modes of expression, quite unexpected ways. Much new work, in the its own language, but it will remain the art which, past, has been called 'low',in terms of the 'high' above all, shows human beings and thcir emotions - standards of the day.This happened to much of and the beauty of language - dialogue and monologue." our Elizabethan drama, and to the novel in the Both Dr. Tarroni and Dr. Wroblowa conclude Eighteenth century.Looking back, we can under- their studies by referring to television as a stand this, becaurse the society was changing in means of communication, a language: fundamental ways. The minorities which assumed "Television can be, and sometimes certainly is, that they alone had the inheritance and guardianship an art; but it is also an instrument by which men of the great tradition in fact turned out to be wrong. can communicate and come to know one another." This mistake can happen at any time.In our own (Tarroni) century, there are such new forms as the film, the "This is the moment to begin the teaching of musical, and jazz. Each of these has been seen television's language in the same way as we teach as 'low', a threat to 'our' standards. Yet during our pupils to understand and appreciate the the period in which films have been made, there languages of literature and films." (Wroblowa) have been as many major contributions, in film, And Tony Higgins, in his paper (Appendix I) to the world's dramatic tradition, as there have recognizes that "it is necessary to distinguish not been major plays...'Low' equals 'unfamiliar' is one of the perennial cultural traps, and it is (1) Herbert Read, Education Through Art4 fallen into most easily by those who assume that London, Faber & Faber, 1943. in their own persons, in their own learned tastes (2) Op. cit.

15 so much between film, live television and video- ence in communicable form, possibly changingor tape recordings, but simply between various ways c7eating the language in order to doso, we - the of using moving pictures with sound". receivers - must also makean effort to respond. Are we then to concern ourselves with an art, And the first step towardsresponse must be to whether existing or merely potential, or with a learn the language, to reachcommon ground with language? Dr. Bertil Lauritzen, speaking at the the artist, based on the conventionswhich he and 1958 London Conference on Film, Television and his predecessors have establiteied. the Child, said: In the case of films and television,the basic "All means of expression- all media - can be conventions of the languageare simple. Many of developed in such a way that an art results.This them are unconsciously assimilatedby children has happened with film, it may happen with tele- sitting before the TVscreen long before they vision.But art is one branch of the tree: the attend school, in thesame way as they pick up the root is the medium itself in its broadest cultural rudiments of their mother tongue.Indeed, because aspect.I do not deny the importance of teaching the screen language isone of apparent reality, the art - I regard it however as only one sector whose symbols seem to need littleor no translation, of the whole sphere." the "manifest content" of filmsand televidion is But art is communication: it either conforms more -,'Padily understood thari that of othermedia. to, or creates, the "grammar" of the language. So we find that childrenare more willing, indeed Raymond Williams makes this clear: eager, to discuss the incident, characters, back- "If the common language and the conventions grounds and plots depicted than theisolated formal exist, the contributor tries to use them as wellas qualities of screen art: and theattention of "film he can.But often, especially with original artists teachers" was, ata very early stage, directed by and thinkers, the problem is in one way that of the children to the content of thefilms screened creating a language, or creating a convention,or in the school film societyor in the local cinemas, at least of developing the language and conventions and, later, of televisionprogrammes. to the point where they are capable of bearing his But "form" and "content" are not two distinct precise meaning... parts of a work: they are indissolubly integrated. While any man is engaged in this struggle tosay To attempt to separate one from the other,or to new things in new ways, he is usually more than regard one as more important than the other,is ever concentrated on the actual work and not on its to deny the essential unity of the work. possible audience. Many artists and scientists Because of this early recognition by teachers of share this fundamental unconcern about theways the children's intuitive understanding ofthe in which their work will be received. Theymay medium, screen education has becomea study, be glad if it is understood and appreciated, hurt if not of an art form bound by a set of aesthetic it is not, but while the work is being done there rules and buttressed by an array of classic works, can be no argument. The thing has to come out as but of a living language wherein artistsmay create the man himself sees it... valuable experiences for audiences possessed of The challenge of work that is really in the great a basic understanding and educated towardsa tradition is that in many differentways it can get deeper appreciation of their efforts- a social art. through with an intensity, a closeness,a concen- Art should serve society:it is unfortunate that, tration that in fact moves us to respond." (1) in some quarters, almost thereverse is frequently So we return once more to the question ofcom- conceived to be true. munication, and the need for education inresponse: for if an artist has struggled to present his experi- (1) Op. cit.

16 CHAPTER IV

THE AIMS OF SCREEN EDUCATION

There is no doubt in my mind that the majorres- "The choice is seen to be between variety and ponsibility for changing the state of affairs outlined uniformity: between a conception of societyas a in the preceding sections of this study and for community of persons who seek equilibrium preventing human communications from running through mutual aid: and a conception of society into a groove must rest upon us, the educators. as a collection of people who conform as far as I deliberately use this word here becausemy possible to one ideal.In the first case, education appeal is directed not only to teachers in the is directed towards encouraging the growth ofa schools, but to all - parents, teachers, youth specialized cell in a multiform body: in the leaders, social workers - who take responsibility second case, education is directed towards elimi- for theoun :in the home, in schoolscolle es nation of all eccentricities and the production of youth clubs, churches or factories. Many of the a uniform mass." (1) (Note the relevance of this following sections may appear, on the surfaceto person/people dichotomy to the underlyingviews, have purely pedagogical applications.If this is not only of educationists, but of those responsible so, it is because I perforce write as a teacher for the mass media. ) and draw my references largely from other teach- the general purpose of education is to ers.But education is indivisible, and I shall have foster the growth of what is individual in each failed in my purpose if the impression is received human being, at the same time harmonizing the that screen education is a subject only for the class- individuality thus educed with the organic unity room and that its aims and outlook should not per- of the social group to which the individual belongs." meate the activities and thinking of us all. In this double process of developing awareness It is we, the educators, wt.) hold the responsible of individual uniqueness andcommon humanity, middle position. We stand, like Janus, facing Read contends that aesthetic education is fundamental: both ways. As guardians of past traditions, we "Such aesthetic education will have for its scope: must choose which of them we regard as appropri- (i) The preservation of the natural intensity ate for the future: as intermediaries between the of all modes of perception and sensation; communicators and the receivers, it is we who (ii) The co-ordination of the various modes of should interpret the messages and facilitate the perception and sensation with one another and in responses: in our respective fields of work or relation to the environment: study, we must ensure that our knowledge and (iii) The expression of feeling in communicable enthusiasms are imparted wisely and widely, and form: not restricted to narrow, formalistic ritual groups. (iv) The expression in communicable form of How then shall we act in connexion with the modes of mental experience which would otherwise screen language? How best ensure its healthy remain partially or wholly unconscious: development for the benefit of both artists and (v) The expression of thought in required form."(2 ) audience? What are the aims of screen education? Particularly interesting to the screen teacher It is from here on that I must quote substantially is the discussion of the training of perception and from Sir Herbert Read's significant book Education imagination, and the vital part which, according Through Art.Read's thesis - that art should be to Read, images play in our thinking. He quotes the basis of education - was, of course, developed Bertrand Russell: by him in terms of the more traditional "fine arts" "Those who have a relatively direct vision of indeed, it appeared in print well before the advent facts are often incapable of translating their of widespread television, and before many would visions into words, while those who possess the concede that film itself was an art.But, as I shall words have usually lost the vision.It is partly hope to show, the theories which he propounds are for this reason that the highest philosophical capa- as applicable to the screen as they are to literature, city is so rare:it requires a combination of music, drama and other forms of communication, vision with abstract words which is hard to achieve, and serve us admirably as a framework against and too quickly lost in the few who have, for a which to consider the thoughts and experiences moment, achieved it." (3) which have come to screen teachers in the past decade or so. (1) Op. cit.. Read begins by defining what he regards as the (2) Ibid general purpose of education.First, he points (3) The Analysis of Mind, London, G. Allen and out the perennial dilemma: Unwin, 1921.

17 Read then suggests: 11 "For the work of art, however concreteand in opposition to the whole of the logico- objective, is not constant or inevitable in its rationalistic tradition, there existsa concrete effect: it demands the co-operation of the visual mode of thinking,a mental process which spectator, and the energy which the spectator reaches its highest efficiency in the creation of 'puts into' the work of art has been given the the work of art. " (1) special name of 'empathy' (Einfahlung).Lipps, These ideas are very much in accord with those who gave currency to the term in aesthetics, expressed11.... by Dr. Val let in L'écran et la vie. defined empathy as 'the objectivated enjoyment a language is not only the vehicle of of self', and it is often assumed that itmeans thought: in a large measure it conditions its merely that the spectator projects into the work germination and development.It creates particu- of art his own emotions or feelings. But this is lar psychological conditions, it contributes towards not the proper meaning. By 'empathy'we mean certain attitudes of mind, it helps towards the a mode of aesthetic perception in which the spec- creation of a certain type of culture.Suffice it to tator discovers elements of feeling in the work of point out that the written language has ensured the art and identifies his own sentiments with these predominance of intelligence amongstour faculties: elements - e.g. he discovers spirituality, aspi- it has conditioned our minds to value critical ration, etc., in the pointed arches and spires of sense and lucid thought (in short, intellectualism- a gothic cathedral, and can then contemplate those even rationalism) to the detriment of imagination qualities in an objective or concrete form:no and feeling ..." (2) longer as vaguely apprehended subjective feelings, Others, too, believe with Dr. Val let that: II but as definite masses and colours. This is, ... this education in the world of pictures is indeed, the next important fact to recognize: not a side issue of general education,an optional namely, that the appreciation of art,no less than activity, a simple initiation intoa modern tech- its creation, is coloured by all the variations of nique. What is at stake is the whole education of human temperament." (6) man through the child, the education of his intelli- I have italicized in the above passage what I gence, expansion of his spirit, his initiation into believe to be the most immediately importantcon- true psychological liberty." (3) cerns of the screen teacher, since they provide With regard to education in expression, Read's us with a major key to our work. This fits in with views have particular value for those ofus who what I have often expressed asa kind of nonsensi- are concerned in helping children to express them- cal paradox - that when people talk abouta film or selves through, and in relation to, thescreen television programme (indeed aboutany work of language. He says: art), it is not the film, etc. they talk about- they "Education may be defined as the cultiva- talk about themselves. tion of modes of expression- it is teachirg children It is the contribution the spectator brings- and adults how to make sounds, images,move- literally, his "self" - which renders discussion ments, tools and utensils. Aman who can make of films and television such a rewarding and vital such things well is a well educatedman.If he can part of screen education.If we ponder further on make good sounds, he is a good speaker,a good Read's definition of "empathy", we discover the musician, a good poet:if he can make good images, great service the screen can render tous in "con- he is a good painter or sculptor:if good movements, cretizing" our attitudes and sentiments. a good dancer or labourer:if good tools or utensils, Dr. J. M. L. Peters, in Teat:IL-1g about the FDA" a good craftsman. All faculties, of thought, logic, discusses this "two-way traffic be zween thespec- memory, sensibility and intellect, are involved in tator and the film", likening the screen toa mirror such processes, and no aspect of education is which provides us with a "virtual image" of reality. excluded from such processes. And theyare all He explains: processes which involve art, for art is nothing but "Such emotional participationconsists mainly of the good making of sounds, images, etc.The aim two mutually connected processes whichare, of of education is therefore the creation of artists- course, usually called 'projection' and 'identifi- of people efficient in the various modes of cation'.In this phenomenon, on theone hand the expression." (4) spectator attaches his own tendencies, feelings When it comes to defining "art", Read distin- and character traits to the actorson the screen - guishes clearly between its formal qualities (so he 'projects' them into the actors- and, on the frequently taken to be the sole criterion- see other hand, the spectator thinks himself intothe Chapter 4) and what he calls: tt spirit of an actor and his rale to suchan extent . .. a principle of origination peculiar to the that he identifies himself with him and feels and mind of man, and impelling him tocreate (and appreciate the creation of) symbols, phantasies, (1) Ibid myths ...." (5) (2) L'écran et la vie, op. cit. It is this second principle that holds considerable (3) Ibid interest for us, for, in discusring it, Readpro- (4) Op. cit. pounds a theory of "empathy" thatcan go far (5) Ibid towards helping us develop responsivenessin the (6) Ibid individual spectator: (7) Paris, Unesco, 1961. 18 and thinks like him. On the one hand the spectator the film. We asked why.'They ought to be shot, loses himself mentally in the screen: on the other, those girls! ' one finally burst out.'Yeh,' he incorporates the world of the film into his own another said, 'and the men ain' t no bettereither.' person. And again we can apply the term'virtual' An avalanche followed: instead of showingthe film to these processes, for there is no real contact again, we worked through a long, animateddis- with the people on the screen and there is no such cussion about prostitution, about the girls them- relationship between the spectator and these people selves and the men who go to them, about loneli- as there would be in reality -because the 'glass ness and need and poverty,and, finally, the sort of the mirror' stands between them. of offered entertainment the film wasdocumenting... The conclusion to be drawn from this exposition We had been assuming that the girls would deal is that seeing a film can be a 'virtual physical' rationally with the films presented and be willing and a 'virtual mental' participation in the life of to consider them abstractly.But the girls ... other people in another worki. Or, to put it another were not prepared to hold theirpersonal responses way, to see a film is to lead a second(virtual) life in abeyance. We hadn't asked them, first, how in a second (virtual) world. For some persons they felt about the film ...And so we had to this experience can be as real as normal daily life, change our method, start from their own responses, apart from its 'virtuality', so to speak. However, ask them how they felt about the film, and work from this very virtuality it derives its own charm, from what we got." (1) its appeal, its magic. We cannot 'touch' it, but Mr. Fruchter concludes his article: neither can it 'touch' us:it happens to us and we "I hoped that, by learning to view a film criti- go through it, but without anyrisk." cally in class, analyse how it worked and deter- Television produces a similar sense of empathy, mine why it worked that way, my students' res- although Dr. Tarroni, in her paper (see Appendix ponse might somehow be changed from abasically II), suggests that different forces come into play: emotional to a more rational one.I think that "It is clear that the situation of the television hope and that aim were wrong, not only morally viewer is very different from that of the cinema but pragmatically.'Elevation', 'uplift' or 'raising spectator: and this difference might be summed up the level'just doesn't work ... The process of by saying that the television viewer is in a position moving from emotional to considered response is to make a rational criticism, in the sensethat he part of growth.If the growth occurs, then the regards television mainly as a means of dissemi- teenager moves past his need for the fantasies nating real information. The cinema spectator, and inadequate images of life that most of our on the other hand, by plunging, asit were, into cinemas offer, and begins to demand a more the film world, seeks to forget his own wodd and tough, imaginative and sensitive film that corres- the reality of his daily life." ponds to the world he knows and senses.If that The quotations from Muriel Telford's article in growth does not occur, then he remains dependent Tony Higgins' paper (Appendix I) should also be on fantasy and wish fulfilment far intoadult life: studied in this connexion. and it is not only teenagers who swell cinema The play of empathy can be discerned in any receipts. account of the discussions which a skilled screen But no film class, two hours a week, and for a teacher initiates and conducts.It permeates the limited period, can make a very significant con- comments quoted by Tony Higgins, and is well tribution to the process. What such a course can illustrated in the following extracts from an article do is to establish the principle that films can be by Norman Fruchter giving an account of explora- talked about.It can establish the validity of any- tory film courses he and two colleagues conducted one's response, and begin to examine how the film with teenage students in a London day college: worked to evoke it.The class can become a place "We never knew when a burst of enthusiasm where different ways of seeing are examined: and would peter out: we had no way of protecting a if each boy or girl learns to articulate his percep- girl who started to say something she had felt, tions, then more complex and varied responses caught the rest of the girls focusing attention on may become possible. The realization that there her, and quickly stopped talking.. We got totally are many different ways of responding to a film, unpredictable responses to extracts. ('Why were and that response involves choice, is probably that old man's clothes so bad?' 'What right did where the film course ends. What happens further that woman have to treat her like that? '), and we depends on the teenagere(2) didn't know what to do with them. Sometimes dis- This honest and humble assessment, taken in cussion went well, sometimes not: we were never conjunction with Read's second principle, makes sure why.It was as if the girls were connected it clear why no search for an 'aesthetic formula', to the class by an infinitely slim cord of attention universally valid, can be successful. No work of and acceptance, and we could neither see nor art is completed until it has been experienced by define that cord. Once it snapped, the course as its audience, and each work is re-created again anything serious disintegrated, and the girls skittered off into caprice and fantasy. (1) Two Hours a Week in Sight and Sound The finale came when we showed Nice Time. London, Autumn 1962. None of the girls would say anything at all about (2) Ibid

19 and again in each individual's reception of it.To this organic process - to see that its tempo is not attempt to secure a definitive assessment of a forced, its tender shoots distorted.It follows, film, or television programme, merely by mea- therefore, that values must change with the years suring it against a set of formal rules, is a sterile of growth. What is valuable in and for the child of undertaking.As Tony Higgins rightly concludes: five will not necessarily be valuable for the child "There is a sense in which one can teach a of ten or fifteen ... The problem is to preserve subject - be it English, science, film or television an organic continuity, so that the poetic vision of but in the last analysis we are teaching not subjects one age fades insensibly into the poetic vision of but children." (1) the next age: that the sense of value never loses And in our attitude to children, we would certainly its instinctive basis, to become an ethical code or do well to recognize, with Read, that: an aesthetic canon, an artificial appendage to an ... the child is in a constant state of trans- otherwise purely appetitive existence." (2) formation.Its body and brain mature:it adjusts itself inevitably if unconsciously to its social envi- (1) Op. cit. ronment. The duty of the teacher is to watch over (2) Op. cit.

20 CHAPTER V

THE METHODS OF SCREEN EDUCATION

We are now in a position to define "screen educa- part of the teachers: most frequently, the condi- tion", not as "teaching films and television to tions under which work has been done, lack of children", but as "teaching children, in relation time or materials, etc. , have necessitated a to the screen".Note the comma. Our prime task certain choice of activity.In some cases, of is to teach childrenand we choose to do this by course, the particular bent or bias of the teacher placing special emphasis on the screen, in the concerned may lead him to concentrate especially belief that here we have a major means of commu- upon one or other aspect. ) nication comparable to those of speech, writing, picture making, acting, etc. , and indeed compri- sing elements of many others. That these means A. SELF-EXPRESSION of communication are also arts, since a A involves good communication, and good communication in- Quite properly, Read places self-expression first. volves art, surely implies that those who teach Of it, he says: "screen" are teachers of art. "Generally speaking, the activity of self- Sir Herbert Read distinguishes three activities expression cannot be taught. Any application of invo)ved in art teaching: an external standard, whether of technique or form, "A. The activity of self-ex ,ressionthe indi- immediately induces inhibitions, and frustrates vidual's innate need to communicate his thoughts, the whole aim. The role of the teacher is that of feelings and emotions to other people. attendant, guide, inspirer, psychic midwife." (3) B.The activity of observation - the individual's Self-expression in screen education can take desire to record his sense impressions, to clarify many forms. Orally or by writing, drawing or his conceptual knowledge, to build up his memory, acting, children can express their responses to to construct things which aid his practical activities. films and television, and so move nearer to self- C. The activity of appreciation - the response realization. Any account of film teaching methods of the individual to the modes of expression which (e.g. Teaching About the Film(4) by J. M. L. other people address or have addressed to him, Peters) will perforce refer to such activities as and generally the individual's response to values "telling a story in pictures" (i.e. scripting), in the world of facts - the qualitative reaction to dramatizing screen experiences, talking about the quantitative results of activities A and B." (1) television, etc.But we should note that, generally, He goes on: such activities invite xroup participation, and "These three activities, which are all included individual self-expression is usually achieved in in the pedagogical category of 'art teaching', are relation to the social pattern.For example: really three distinct subjects, demanding separate "Free play in the infant classroom often takes and even unrelated methods of approach," (2) the form of enacting scenes from a film recently In the experimental work which has gone on in seen:'Cops and Robbers', 'Cowboys and Indians', screen education, this distinction has not always and other violent forms of conflict then take place been clearly understood.Frequently, one of the in the classroom, playground, or any other likely activities alone has been encouraged, to the detri- spot.This is a help to children because playing ment of the others.Thus, many teachers have out situations is one way by which young children concentrated on aspects of B, encouraging their try to arrive at an understanding of them. The pupils in habits of analytical observation of films, tendency, in any case, is always to simplify the and conceptual thinking about film technique, with- situation, and usually a straight fight takes place out also appreciating the need for self-expression in their play, without anyone bothering with such or the expression of response to the films being complications as any particular reason for the analysed. Others have attempted to develop appre- fight.Tragedy is minimized because the 'dead' ciation and response without also providing the always come to life again after a battle to the necessary training in observation, and so on. I death, the evildoer is always punished: right hope to show that, without a balance between tIvIse always triumphs in the end. An unsatisfactory three activities, properly related to the stage of maturity and experience of the pupils, screen (1) Op. cit. education cannot hope to fulfil its proper aims. (2) Ibid (Let me hasten to add that this imbalance has (3) Ibid aot always been due to unconscious neglect on the (4) Op. cit.

21 conclusion would never be permitted in this primi- course, be learnt like a set of grammatical rules tive society, and that is all to the good." (1) to be slavishly applied to stock situations. The This, of course, harmonizes with Read's general purpose of all technique must be understood in its purpose of education, to balance individuality within context, and this comes from the close study of the social group. particular films and film extracts in the class- The outstanding opportunities for self-expression room."(5) which screen education can offer are those in the There are also the limitations of form and screen language itself, i.e. through film making. material: This is not the place to describe in detail the "The film itself should be a short, silent story methods which, in the past decade or so, have film, preferably shot on 16mm. black and white produced more than 300 films made by children stock: and young people as part of a screen education A story film because the narrative, dramatic course in the United Kingdom. Those seeking form is the most usual in cinema and most child- further information are referred in the first ren will want to express themselves through a instance to Young Film Makers(2) by Sidney Rees story: and Don Waters. But there is little doubt in the Short because few young film makers can sus- minds of teachers who have undertaken this work tain a film for longer than about 20 minutes. Ten that its results fully justify it. minutes is better and cheaper: Certain words of caution need to be spoken: Silent (by which I mean without dialogue) because "Tear film making out of its proper context of dialope is technically almost impossible for a film studyof screen education - then you starve young amateur group, and even if it were not it its roots and it will certainly not flourish as it would provide a stumbrng block in the writing, it might. This is what is wrong with many a school would badly inhibit the performances of tht ! made film.Excited by the general educational playerE, and it would provide less opportunity to value of film making, teachers sometimes plunge get to the 'bare bones' of the medium ..." (6) in without adequate preparation. The results are But Mr. Waters' general conclusions make it invariably shoddy, unsatisfying to audiences and clear that he, like Read, respects the rights of disillusioning to the young film makers. One of the child: the appeals of making a film is its permanence. "Children should be encouraged to draw for None of the transience of the school play with its their material on their own experiences and to set term of toil and heartache exploded in one Guy the stories in the environment which they know Fawkes-like night of glory. This can be a snare, best, rather than to derive material from what too. A film record of a school or class play, they have seen on the professional screen. Within operetta, pageant, or whatever, is a poor compro- these kinds of limitations the children should be mise of differing arts." (3) free to devise a story of their own choice without Mr. Waters emphasizes that this activity, also, having adult ideas foisted on them. At a recent is one in which individuals contribute to the group: international conference on screen education one "Film making is essentially a corporate activity European delegate, after seeing a couple of films and never more so than with young people. From made at my own school, said that although they the initial story conferences to the final editing of were very delightful were they not a little trivial the film there is continuous group participation and in content?In her country they favoured rather the constant pooling of ideas.At the same time the idea of encouraging children to make films on there is the opportunity for a wide range of indivi- more serious themes - friendship, for instance. dual contributions from a variety of talents - That way, in my opinion, lies disaster. The creative writing, designing, building and dressing results will be naive and self-conscious. Let the simple sets, dramatic expression, making various children make their own story - it might be a props, combinations of technical and artistic skills comedy about two boys who play truant, for in lighting and camera work, the careful recording example - and you will learn a good deal about of set and action details for continuity purposes, their lives, and their attitudes, both through the designing and painting titles and so on." (4) incidents, the characterization and in the general What of Read's objection that to apply external presentation. For this reason, too, the artistic standards of technique or form induces inhibitions? realization and the technical work should be the Certainly, the film teacher ideally remains in the background, guiding and advising only.But certain Grace Greiner, Teaching Film, British Film standards of technique impose themselves, accord- Institute, London, 1955. ing to Mr. Waters: London Society for Education in Film and n...the elements of what I call film 'technics' Television, 1963. have to be acquired but they can be learnt quite Don Waters, Creative Approach in Times quickly. What is much more important is that the Educational Supplement, London, children should understand what a film is and how 8 February 1963. a story can be told in moving pictures.This in- Ibid volves learning something of the special language Ibid of the screen ...Screen language cannot, of Ibid

22 children' s and not the teacher' s.His job is to of screen education activities, if we acceptRead's act as adviser and co-ordinator."(1) rather wide definition of the term. First among Mr. Waters puts forward a point of view, which them I would place the describing and recording I largely share, based upon respect for profession- of what children see and hear on the screen.This alism in art.(It is notable also that his plan of may embrace: verbal relation(either oral or work introduces aspects of the other two activities written) of a story or incident; drawing a picture distinguished by Read, confirming the view that no or a sketch of a scene orcharacter: detailed one of them can be brought into screen education analysis of a film extract with enumeration and in isolation.) But I think the aspect of individual description of shots, set ups, pictorial compo- self-exprPcasii,n in the screen language has, under- sition, action, sound track, etc.The purpose of s.tawiably, been neglected so far.Within the past such descriptive and analytical work is to train few years in particular, in the United States, observation: Japan and most of the industriali7.ed European "Observation is almost entirely an acquired countries, the availability and use of 8mm film skill.It is true that certain individuals are born cameras and prnjectcro have increased enormously. with an aptitude for concentrated attention, and Many are now sufficiently cheap to be owned by for the eye and hand co-ordination involved in the children themselves, or at least to be easily act of recording what is observed.But in most accessible to them. The.symposium, "8mm. cases the eye (and the other organsof sensation) Sound Film and Education" (Columbia University have to be trained, both in observation (directed Press, New York, 1962) includes a remark by perception) and in notation." (2) Dr. Louis Forsdale which we should do well to Such analytical work is particularly valuable in ponder: helping children to distinguish their subjective "Among the obvious uses of 8mm. sound will impressions of films and television from what undoubtedly be that of stimulating local production they objectively perceived with their eyes and of films for these purposes: ... as a creative ears. Thus they learn to recognize thecontribu- medium, permitting the child to work with film in tions made by the film makers, and those they the same sense that he works with paint or words themselves make in viewing and thinking about the or music ..." film. It may well be that future generations will be The teacher can, to a large extent, affect the using 8mm. cameras, as indeed they already do results of such analysis by his decisions on what tape recorders (magnetophones), in untutored details are to be observed. forms of self-expression in a truly individual "An observer's perception of the field, or of fashion, quite distinct from the corporate, compo- any particular aspect of it, may be made more site creation which we today regard as film making. rapid and accurate in so far as his attention is With this in mind, therefore, those of us who, directed towards it.The more narrowly and like Don Waters, believe that the form of screen specifically attention is directed, the greater the art, as evolved by its craftsmen over the last 60 improvement. Thus the greater the amount of years or so, is a valuable tradition to be preserved, training and experience, and the clearer and more must remember that we are training children in defined it has been, the greater the effect is likely the use of a language which they themselves will to be." (3) be continuing to develop.In some respects, we It is, of course, dangerously easy, by means of are in a similar position to the mediaeval monks such training, to turn a class of children into for whom "book making" was a formal art of "shot counters". (A novice film teacher, some inscribing and illuminating manuscripts. One can years ago, was reproached for his over-technical imagine their shocked, conservative attitude to the enthusiasm by a girl pupil who told him, "You sacrilegious activities of those inky fingered know, Sir, before I started your lessons I used to "printers' devils" who set out to make multiple enjoy watching films. Now, when I go to the copies of books, seeing them not as "works of art" cinema, all I can do is count the shots!" ) On the but as useful devices for the communication of other hand, a teacher who has his own sense of ideas and knowledge. We cannot foresee, any more values well balanced can, over a period, develop than they could, what changes will occur in the use children's sensitivity to beauty, rhythm, human and form of "our" art as more and more people dignity, etc., to a deeply gratifying degree, by practise it. A living language is modified by use, training them to notice these aspects in the works and its grammatical rules cannot be regarded as they view, whether at school, in the cinema or at restrictive laws to be enforced by pundits. The home. more reason for us to seek to distinguish, and Under the heading of observation also come a impart, those essential elements of structure, res- variety of lessons and activities from which pupils pect for which will ensure a truly aesthetic use of may acquire information about films and television this newest of languages. (1) Ibid B. OBSERVATION (2) Read. op. cit. (3) M.D. Vernon, The Puchology of Perception, Under this heading, we can group a large number London, Penguin Books, 1962.

23 which they are It is hardly fanciful or presumptuousto claim programmes - the methods by accordance with made and disseminated: the people whomake this simple means as being in them: the special vocabulary by meansof which the aesthetic ideal of Plato's Republic: they may be described and discussed;theii. that our young men, dwelling as it were, history, economics and potential; and so on. in a healthful region, may drinkin good from emanation from noble Methods whereby this information canbe conveyed every quarter, when any varied as there are teachers works may strike upon their eye or their ear, are as numerous and lands, to devise and employ them.Many have been des- like a gale wafting health from salubrious cribed in detail in TeachingFilm(1) by Grace and win them imperceptibly from theirearliest Greiner. Teaching About theFilm(2) by J. M. L. childhood into resemblance, love, andharmony Peters, "Le Cinema a 1, Ecole"(3) and A Handbook with the true beauty of reason." for Screen Education(.4) Yet "noble works" appear on the screen more Williams provides a frequently perhaps than we would at firstadmit, In this connexion, Raymond reactions to, strong and valuable justification forwhat he calls and the intensity of young children' s "teaching the institutions", a means whereby we say, Sucksdorff's TheGreat Adventure, Mies' can reforge some of thebroken links between com- Voyage dans la lune, Anderson and Brenton's municators and receivers, links of which our Thursday's Children and Flaherty's Louisiana impersonal society stands so badly inneed: Story is as great as to other art forms. "Because of the importance the institutions of The tragedy is that the original intensityof communication now have in our society, weshould response becomes more and moredifficult to include the teaching of certain basicfacts about preserve as children growolder. Today, when them in all our education. The courseshould they receive so much from the screen, somuch include something of their history andcurrent that is not outstandingly good or bad butsimply social organization.It should include also some blandly mediocre, children are apt to become extremely blasé about films and television,and introduction to the ways in which they actually arousal of work. the task of the teacher becomes one of The large impersonal media, such asthe press, enthusiasm and enjoyment. the cinema, radio and television, comethrough to To preserve and increase enjoymentis not an most people almost as acts of God.It is very aim of which teachers should beashamed: difficult, without direct experience oftheir actual "I should not like anyone to feel that our job as working, to see them as the products of menlike educationists in relation to film is only toequip ourselves... If we are to feel that ourcommunica- children with a sort of battery of criticaldefences, tion system belongs to the society,instead of feel- whereby they can ward off all theinsidious attacks ing that it is what 'they' have set upfor us, this of an evil and vulgar medium.Anyone who kind of understanding of method must grow. approaches film in the classroom in thatspirit is To follow through the real processesin producing going to fail.I believe they probably deserve to a newspaper, a magazine, abook, a radio discus- do so because, in fact, children enjoyfilms, and sion programme, a television play, afilm, a hit so they should.After all, the film is a powerful, tune, an opera, is usually exciting andinvariably exciting and subtle medium of dramaticexpression educative. Much more of this could be doneby an and is capable of great beauty.It is our job to intelligent use of modern resources. Theonly enable children to enjoy good films more andnot danger to avoid is the quite common substitutefor less."(6) this work, in the glamcurized 'public relations' Sir Herbert Read underlined the importanceof version of all these activities which is now sooften teaching enjoyment, in an inaugural lecture atthe put out.If it is to be valuable, this kind of teaching University of Edinburgh in 1931: must base itself on the methods of educationand "We cannot fully participate in modern conscious- not of publicity..."(5) ness unless we can learn toappreciate the signifi- cant art of our own day.Just because people have

C. APPRECIATION (1) Op. citt (2) Op. cit. I would claim that the most valuable methodof (3) In Bulletin de la Federation desActivites screen education under this head isfrequently the Audio-visuelles de l'Enseignement Libre, most simple - that of showing good films tochild- Paris, June 1961. ren, or of ensuring that they see goodfilms and (4) London, SEFT, 1962. television when these are available. As Tony (5) Op. cit. Higgins says: (6) Don Waters at a Conference onPopular " Altho igh children can be taught to look and Culture and Personal Responsibility, in listen cark.fully, and to think about what they see, London, 1960. A study outline containing although they can be given the equipment necessary quotations from this conference, prepared for enjoying the good, there is only one way in by Brian Groombridge for the NationalUnion which they will come to enjoy what is good.That of Teachers (London, 1961) is recommended is by being exposed to it frequently andregularly." to those interested in the issues raised.

24 not learned in their youth the habit of enjoyment, well you know the good, how well and personally they tend to approach contemporary art with you know why it is good, and how closethe bad closed minds. They submit it to intellectual work is, in form, to anything you have learned to analysis when what it demands is intuitive discuss." (1) sympathy." The kind of lively, argumentative comparison ot It is a sad fact that so warm and positive a term current work with "classic" work known and asHappreciation" should have come to stand in enjoyed for its own sake that Williams advocates many people's minds for an arid dissection of the is familiar to those of us who teach screen educa- bones of an artist's work. Raymond Williams tion.Don Waters, in describing at the popular makes this point when he pleads for what he calls culture conference some of the uses he makes of "teaching criticism": an extract from David Lean's OliverTwist "That education should be critical of all cultural concludes: work is often the first point that springs to mind. "For children this is not at all an arid exercise. Criticism is certainly essential, but for a number At the end of it I can assure you they are clamour- of reasons we have often done it so badly that there ing for a second viewing of the extract and they has been real damage.It is wholly wrong, for enjoy a third and a fourth: their enjoyment grows example, if education is associated with criticism as their understanding and perceptiongrow." while the non-educational world is associated with It is important that, with the inevitable develop- practice.Personal practice, directed experience ment which is going to take place in screen educa- of the arts, understanding of the institutions, tion all over the world, this quality of enthusiastic should all come firat. Or rather, criticism enjoyment should not be lost.For it is a vital part should develop as an aspect of all these kinds of of true education.Yet how frequently it is lost or teaching, for it will always be had if it is really atrophied! More times than I care to remember, separated from them.In teaching "the classics" in my zeal for screen education, I havebeen we are usually not critical enough. We often gently admonished by colleagues unconvincedof substitute a dull and inert "appreciation" which the necessity of taking action."You see," it has nobody can go on believing in for long.But then been explained to me with pitying concern,"what in teaching or commenting on all other work, we is wrong with you is that you are anenthusiast!" are usually so confident and so fierce that it is I would go so far as to proclaim that,unless he difficult to believe we are the same people."All who reads this is also an "enthusiast", who that muck in the cinemas and on television" too believes in the positive power of education to often follows the routine remarks on the charm of create a better, more human, societythan that the Essays of E1ia4 and neither does anybody any which we at present enjoy, he would be well good advised to leave to others the work which requires Nearly all of us need help in seeing and judging to be done. Enthusiasm is a tenderspark: it can the vast amount of work which comes our way. In leap into flame by contact with its likebut once education, we must be prepared to look at the bad dowsed it is very difficult to rekindle. work as well as the good. The principle in the past has been that once you know the good you can distinguish the bad.In fact this depends on how (1) Raymond Williams. Op. cit.

25 CHAPTER VI

A SPECIMEN SCREEN EDUCATION SYLLABUS

In the Society for Education in Film and Television aims to those of education in the native tongue, my colleagues and I are frequently approached for in the arts, social studies, etc. full details of a scheme of work with precise infor- mation about factual references, blackboard notes textbooks, etc. There is, in my view, some danger AIMS in providing would-be screen teachers with too much of this.As I hope is evident from this study, 1.To increase understanding and enjoyment of there can be no "set method" for teaching screen television and the cinema. education: there are as many methods as there are 2. To increase awareness of our common human- individual teachers and lessons.Similarly, the ity and individual uniqueness. choice of films to use or facts to impart must 3. To provide a measure of self-defence against depend not only upon the means available - thus commercial and other exploitation. varying from country to country, from teacher to 4. Where possible, to encourage self-expression teacher, from class to class - but upon the moment not only in traditional forms (speaking, writing, and the stimulus offered by a particular group of drawing, etc. ) but in the language of the screen children. To those seeking a "do-it-yourself screen (making films). educationkit", there is but one answer: "Try it yourself - the children will help you." With this proviso, and drawing special attention SCHEME OF WORK to the remarks'italicized below under the heading "Approach", I reproduce without amendment the First year: latest syllabus I have prepared for my work in a mixed secondary school in London.It is designed 1.Introduction: The need for communication; its for a three-year course only, since I am in charge nature and forms; communication via the of first-year, second-year and some third-year screen. pupils (ages 11 to 14). 2.Fundamentals; Photography, optics, percep- A more detailed four-year syllabus, together tion, persistence of vision. How film moves. with discussion of screen education in both primary How television moves. and secondary schools, will be found in A Handbook 3.History: The ancestry of the cinema: the for Screen Education.(1) study of motion, optical toys, the development of the cinematograph, the early days of the cinema. The development of the narrative film. DUNRAVEN SCHOOL The introduction of sound. The invention of television. SyllabusScreen Education 4. The grammar of the screen: Pictures, move- ment, sound. Simple technical vocabulary: ASSUMPTIONS "shot", "editing", etc. 5. Analyses of simple examples, developing in 1.Television and films constitute a powerful and complexity of form. effective means of communicationa language of moving pictures and sounds, different from, Second year: but comparable to, verbal languages. 2.These screen media, though usually controlled 1.The film industry: Production, distribution, by "the few", are directed towards "the many". exhibition: the profit motive. The influence Communications in this language tend, therefore, of the audience.Critics. to become "mass communications", couched in 2.The television industry: The BBC and ITA. terms which are understandable by, and accept- Programme companies and advertisers. The able to, the majority, i.e. they are bound to make Television Acts; the Pilkington Report. The their appeal to the lowest common denominator. future of television. 3.For a variety of reasons (including the need to 3.Film production: How films are made raise this lowest common denominator) it is scripting, planning, shooting, editing, etc. essential that children receive education in the screen language. Such education has similar (1) Op. cit.

26 The film making team - the roles of producer, so far as it enables them to approach these deeper director, etc. and more valuable aspects of their education with 4.Television production: The differences between confidence, understanding and a degree of film and television production. objectivity. 5. The screen and other arts: Comparisons with literature, drama, poetry, etc. METHODS AND MATERIAL,S Third year: My general method is to help the children record 1.Further analysis and discussion of selected in a notebook, with words and pictures, the facts films and extracts, with especial emphasis on they are learning under each of the above heads. content. Themes: Westerns, travel, crime, They are under strict instructions to questionme war, etc.Discussion of current television and concerning everything I tell them, not to write or cinema. Attempts at criticism. draw anything they do not understand, toknow at 2.Scripting exercises based on simple incidents all times what they are doing and 21.2.1 they are leading to elementary silent film making doing it. exercises. Their books are also used for exercises in which 3. Film making (with suitable classes). they analyse the construction of a number of short films (e.g. the opening of David Lean's Great Expectations, the first films made by the Lumiere APPROACH brothers, etc.). They are encouraged to record simple factual details of films and television pro- Throughout the course, I aim to create an atmos- grammes seen. phere of confidence - confidence in the child him- Opinions are aired and discussions held.Later self, in the other children and in me.It is over- these are recorded on tape, then when the children ridingly important that the children should be able have acquired sufficient facility, are reported in to express what they really think and feel, regard- their books. less of what they believe is expected of them by At any time during the course, I am willing to II authority".In the first year especially, this is be "led astray" into discussion of a question which best achieved by giving them the impression that a child may raise and which seems to me to provide they are learning new facts; hence a great deal of an opportunity to help the child and the class to the syllabus appears, on paper, to consist of relate to their screen environment. specialized informational teaching.This imparting I use a large number of short films and extracts, of factual knowledge, sterile though it may seem, filmstrips, etc. but encourage the class to look on provides the class and me with the practical basis these as essential incidental illustration to the of communication - a common vocabulary and lesson, not as items of entertainment or instruction understanding. in themselves. Thus, after the first two years, when the children The use of the school's 16 mm. film making have thoroughly acquired the habit of close analytical equipment provides many children with unrivalled looking and listening, we enjoy each other's confi- opportunities to develop self-confidence. dence, share a common language and enthusiasm, Frequently, camera crew, lighting engineers, etc. and are able to discuss freely the many questions are drawn from tho3e children whose "book" work of human behaviour, social mores, moral attitudes, has been the least successful.Similarly, acting etc., which the best films and television programmes in the class film often helps "difficult" children to illumine. relate to their environment. The whole object of It is this aspect of the course which I believe to be class film making from my point of view is to the most valuable, and I would go so far as to say develop a truly democratic "team spirit", each that the factual knowledge which the children acquire child contributing what he can and learning to work in this subject is of no value whatsoever except in with and respect the others.

27 CH APTER VII

SCREEN EDUCATION AND THE CURRICULUM

How shall screen education take its place in the the child's week is now arbitrarily divided. We schools? demand, that is to say, a method of education "As teachers we have got to come to terms with which is formally and fundamentally aesthetic..." the screen, and not just because of the extent of Perhaps this is too presumptuous a claim for the influence of films and television but also because screen education, in its present state of develop- they can and sometimes do provide rich cultural ment, to endorse. (And it must be remembered experiences and because they are capable of great that Read's eloquent and substantial arguments artistic development. Starting from this position have not yet resulted in the revolution he demanded. ) the schools can then set about the urgent task of There is still a long way to go. giving their pupils a better understanding of the Several surveys of film and television teaching language of the screen media and some training in have explored the question of where the study of discrimination in relation to film and television. the screen stands - or should stand - in relation to This seems to me not just a case of adding fresh other subjects. frills or of overcrowding the curriculum still For example, Dr.Peters(3) devotes a whole further - it could do with a bit of weeding, anyway. chapter to this question without coming to any It is rather a case of lifting our heads out of the certain conclusion: cultural sand."(1) "To what discipline should the basic film course The fact is that the curriculum is not overcrowded. be attached? This is a question to which no hard- Every teacher knows that, within the periods allo- and-fast answers can as yet be given... But it may cated to specific subjects, long hours of pupils' well happen that the future will produce a situation time are wasted in plodding conscientiously but in which solutions will differ from country to unimaginatively through "the loose detritus of country, just as particular national problems will thought, washed down to us through long ages". differ. These are pedagogical and organizational "The accepted convention of education as a collec- problems." tion of competing 'subjects', taught by separate As will be seen from Mrs. Marcussen's survey specialists in separate classrooms, is so grotesque of screen education in various national universities that it can represent no principle of organization but and teacher training colleges (Appendix IV), there merely the chaotic accumulation of an undirected is equal uncertainty in the field of higher education. historical process.I am not aware that any attempt Even where institutions exist specifically to give is ever made to justify it as a system; it is usually training in "filmology", there is frequently an accepted as an inevitable compromise. But actually, unfortunate divorce between the aesthetics, the as Caldwell Cook once bitterly observed,'nothing practice and the application of the screen language, surely could be conceived in educational method so and it would certainly not be desirable for this inadequate, so pitiably piecemeal as the classroom schismatic system to be perpetuated. These three system of teaching subjects' aspects of "screen" cannot be dissociated any more If the purpose of education is to impart informa- than could literature, writing and reading. As the tion in easily assimilable form, then the classifica- Report of the British Working Party on Film and tion of this information under separate groups and Television in Education for Teaching(4) states: headings is a reasonable method of procedure .... "The working party consider that there is a con- But if, as I have often stressed, the purpose of siderable body of systematic knowledge incorpora- education is integration - the preparation of the ting general principles about film, and that the individual child for his place in society not only unity of the subject is comparable with that of vocationally but spiritually and mentally, then it is English literature.Moreover the international not information he needs so much as wisdom, poise, cinema represents a body of creative work which self-realization, zestqualities which can only requires to be studied in its historical, social, come from a unified training of the senses forthe psychological, aesthetic, moral and technical activity of living." (2) aspects. The art of the film, in addition, now Should we take our stand with Read when he says that: (1) Don Waters, Creative Approach, op. cit. 1,. from ourpoint of view the wrangle over the (The italics are my own.) time-table is as unneces ary as it is unseemly. (2) Read, 2E._ cit. Ow,' aim is not two or more extra periods. We (3) Teaching about the Film, op. cit. demand nothing less than the whole 35 into which (4) London, British Film Institute, 1960.

Op also includes a sufficient range of masterpieces to that those trained in the teaching of Englishform provide a student with opportunities to learn critical a majority of the membershipof the Society for standards, not only in relation to acting, scripting, Education in Film and Television, but this is by directing, etc., but also in relation to the delinea- no means certain; it has notseemed particularly tion of human character and values." important to make a survey. The report is prepared to accept that film may be For the truth is, as Dr. Peters says,that claimed as a part of some other subject, as is "there are many individual teachers who are Dr. Peters. already putting into practice the ideas mentioned "Let us suppose, for a moment, that the geo- in the preceding paragraphs, evenalthough film graphy teacher seriously discusses the scenery of teaching may not yet have been formally allowed a Western; that the history teacher enters into the any place on their schooltime-tables." (2) factual content of a historical film; that the teacher Yet none of these teachers were formallytrained of religion talks about the morals of the young in screen education; in each case, theindividual's couple; that the civics teacher comments on the own enthusiasm and love of hissubject led him to working methods of the police in a gangster film. educate himself in it and fight to establish it against A better method to promote the critical assimilation the weight of the circumstances. He would not of the film content could hardly be found. And have been able to succeed in doing so, or continue nobody could maintain that the subjects mentioned his task, had he not been supported by the recipro- could suffer from it."(I) cal enthusiasm which he had kindled in his pupils. But even in these instances, the report makes Herein lies the dynamic power of the movement: the firm proviso that 9filmi should be, not a dis- it has its roots in the classroom and is inspiredby connected fragment, but a distinct section within children and young people. Teachers of screen a coherentcourse." education have wisely taken their cue from their In many countries at the present time, there is pupils, and the movement has spread upwards and an impetus towards an examination ofeducational outwards from its original source. Although the curricula with a view to their possible reshaping. time has undoubtedly come for attention from those At the Leangkollen Meeting a number of delegates whose function it is to order and develop the natu- made this point. For example: ral processes of education - the provision of suit- "In Germany, the aim is to reduce the number of able materials is an urgent needthere must not subjects, and integrate them." (Werner Novak) be a reversal of direction: screen education must "In Canada, our concern is not so much to widen never be imposed as an academic duty uponthose the curriculum, as to deepenit." (C.E. Edwards) unwilling to accept its challenge or follow the lead And, as Mrs. Marcussen points out (Appendix IV), of those best qualified to give it direction - the the advent of universal television has tended to children. widen the views of those who have hitherto regarded "The forces in the world which the pupil needs film as the province of purely formal aesthetic for the creation of his personality should be dis- education. cerned by the educator and educed in himself. The My own view is that there is no urgent need to education of a pupil is thus always the self-education provide a formula into which screen education can of the teacher." (3) be neatly slotted: indeed, there is every danger attendant on so doing. As was stated at the A new channel for screen education? Leangkollen meeting: "A warning against hasty integration of screen At the Leangkollen meeting and elsewhere reference education in schools may be adduced from the case of has been made to the potentialities of television as Belgium, where global methods have too often been a channel for screen education - as a meanswhere- applied without the teachers being properly prepared by educators can themselves appear on the screen in advance. The training ofthe teachers is, there- and illustrate their points by moving pictures fore, a prerequisite. presented with all the fluidity and flexibility of A method is only efficient when it is in the hands which television is capable. This is an interesting of competent persons. The sudden introduction of and attractive possibility, even though the few compulsory screen education in all countries would attempts which have so far been made in this field lead to catastrophe." (Robert La Roche) have met not inconsiderable obstacles. What seems to me far more significant than There is undoubted scope for development along theories about the incorporation of the subject in the lines of "screen taught by screen" - it certainly the syllabus is the fact that these who todayteach provides one solution to the problem of obtaining screen education come from nosingle discipline; and screening illustrative material, as several of they include teachers whose specialist training the Leangkollen delegates pointed outbut the ranges from mathematics to art,from literature primary responsibility rests with the educators to science, from geography to reiigiouseducation. directly in contact with young viewers. Matters The unifying principles (respect for children, res- pect for the screen) cut right across specialist (1) J.M.L. Peters, oas.I. interests.Nor, indeed, is it clear that one branch (2) J. M.L. Peters, op. cit. predominates.In the United Kingdom, it is possible (3) Read, 2a.cit. 29 "expert", be he newspaper critic, visitinglecturer so closely affectingthe intimate teacher-child relationship cannot be left whollyto the external or "the man on thetelly".

30 APPENDIX ONE

EDUCATION IN TELEVISION(1) by A. P. Higgins, B.A. Formerly Chairman, Society for Education in Film and Television, London

SECTION I the end of each chapter. They are all questions which have occurred to me in the course of several FILM EDUCATION AS A GUIDE years of teaching. Some of them have also been TO TELEVISION EDUCATION raised at various international conferences during recent years but, to the best of ray knowledge, few For some years past, British teachers undertaking have been adequately answered. education in the comparatively new medium of tele- vision have sought guidance from well established aims and methods of education in film, the older (1) THE AIMS OF FILM EDUCATION medium. While they do not ignore the differences, they believe that the two media are closely related. After many centuries of educational philosophy, Just how close the relationship is, is the subject statements of the aims of education must now of some discussion but there will probably be number several hundred. Each of these statements, general agreement that it is close enough for the however, means very little by itself.If such state- aims and methods of film education to provide some ments are to have real meaning, every word must guidance for the teacher who undertakes television be carefully defined and amplified, and a one education. The first section of this study, there- sentence statement of aims must grow into a para- fore, will assume a close relationship between the graph at least and perhaps even into a book. Thus, two media, and describe those aims and methods "Education is preparation for life" involves many of film education which command wide support in assumptions about the purpose of life, and "educa- Britain. tion should enable children to live well in their Except where otherwise stated, the classroom environment" means little without a careful descrip- work described here was carried out at Ashburton tion of the environment of particular children. Secondary Boys' School, Croydon, Surrey.I What is true of general statements of the aims of undertook this work with various groups of boys education is equally true of statements about the aged between 13 and 15, and ranging in ability from aims of particular branches of education.It is far below to slightly above average. Except where therefore of little value to say that the aim of film there is a note to the contrary, the children quoted education is to teach discrimination - which it is - are boys from Ashburton School. Some of the unless the word "discrimination" is defined and children' s comments reproduced here were amplified. written, but the great majority are oral comments "Discrimination", according to the Concise which were recorded on tape in the course of Oxford English Dictionary, means "observing the normal classroom work. differences between things", What differences I have throughout used the word "children" rather should children be asked to observe? Clearly, the than the commercially inspired "teenager", or the differences between good and bad films. At this long-winded though more comprehensive phrase stage, one is already in deep water, and in danger "children and young people". The age of those of begging many questions. What do "good" and whom I have called "children" is,I trust, made "bad" mean in this context? To answer this clear by the context; for the most part, "children" question in general terms is far beyond the scope means the 13-15-year olds with whom ! have done of this study. For the purposes of this study, most of my work, although occasionally the word is therefore, it will be assumed that it is valid to say used in its widest sense. that one film is better than another, and that it is I have avoided the terms "film appreciation" and possible to give reasons for this assumption which "television appreciation" because in Britain they are both cogent and objective. The assumption is imply too great a concern with the techniques of the axiomatic, for if it is not true film education has media, an excessive interest in the "how films are no purpose. made" approach. The general terms "education in The meaning of "discrimination", however, must film" and "education in television" (or, mere simply, "television education" ) are more satisfac- (1) This paper was commissioned by Unesco to tory and less open to misunderstanding, provided serve as a discussion document at the Inter- always that education in television is not confused national Meeting on Film and Television with edunation bz television. Teaching held at Leangkollen, Oslo, in Questions for discussion have been inserted at October 1962. 31 be analysed further. There are manydifferent about it immediately, but they do not atfirst want kinds of film and, for example, there islittle point to talk about how the imaginative useof natural with Safety sound contributes to the inner meaningof the film, in comparing, say, Bicycle Thieves about Last, Citizen Kane with The RivalWorld4 or Seven about international understanding, or even Brides for Seven Brothers with Rashomon.One the technical skill and split secondtiming which to makes the explosion scenes so realistic.Their particular kind of film is not inherently superior the old man?" another.Discrimination, moreover, does not mean first question is, "What happened to using some kind of formula to producethe correct And of course the children areabsolutely right. sound, the answer to the question,"Was it a good film?"It Films are about people, and the use of is more a question of responding to the formof the technical skills and so on are relevant onlyin so film, of learning to understand its innermeaning. far as they tell us about the humansituation. Moreover, this is as important with apparently trivial films, such as advertising films, as it is Detailed study of films with major works of art. Teaching discrimination, then, means teaching Thus a group of 14-year old boys whohad seen A Time Out of War were initiallyinterested in the children to observe the differences between good revealed and bad films.Clearly, however, merely to character and motives of the three men as observe such differences is not enough. The aim by their actions. Here are some oftheir remarks; must be to teach children not just toobserve, but " At the beginning Connor was shooting atthe to respond to and prefer the good.This, however other side but his mate told him tostop. He said is not something that can be"taught" in the usual it was too hot." sense of the word.Although children can be taught "When Connor was fishing, he didn't seem to to look and listen carefully, and tothink about what take any notice of what was happeningbetween the they see, although they can be given theequipment other two men. He just kept on and toldthem to necessary for enjoying the good,there is only one be quiet, he couldn't catch hisfish." way in which they will come toenjoy what is good. "When they found the body, Connor reached for That is by being exposed to it frequently and regu- his gun. He wanted revenge. He felt likekilling larly. As the Elglish philosopher, JohnStuart the other person to getrevenge." Mill, wrote, "Men lose their highaspirations, as "Just before they made the truce, they were they shooting at Craig from up in the hill,and there he they lose their intellectual tastes, because So it have no time for indulging them; andthey addict was shouting, 'Youmissed me. Miles out!' themselves to inferior pleasures not becausethey obviously showed he was just plain fed upwith the deliberately prefer them but because they are war and he just wanted abit of fun." either the only ones to which they have access or "I reckon Craig was sad in a way.I don't the only ones which they are any longercapable of suppose he really wanted tobe at war.Seeing made him feel enjoying.It may be questioned whether anyone who these other men finding the body has remained equally susceptible to bothclasses of sorry. He was verysad." pleasure ever knowingly and calmly preferredthe After a while, the children began to relatetheir lowly". film experience to their own world: It must be noted, however, that thechoice of "That bit at the beginning shows that these three ",superior pleasures" must be guided by a careful men didn't want tofight at all. They were pleased consideration of the maturity and breadth ofexperi- with sitting and drowsing all through theafternoon To expect 14-year and they thought, 'It's due to these governments ence of the children concerned. for olds to enjoy Bergman or Antonioni is toinvite telling us to fight', and they just took it easy disaster. the afternoon." "I thought the men would have got fed up with the war quicker becausethey were countrymen, but if have (2) THE METHODS OF FILM EDUCATION they'd been different countries they would carried on longer." British class- "I think it's harder killing a man you've been A film illustration sometimes used in like him. rooms is an extract from G.W.Pabst's Kamerad- talking to for a day. You might grow to schaft.It includes the explosion in the mine, and It's not like in a war when you don't see your the first attempts at rescue.It is used mainly as opponent." few early sound films to Thus, the discussion is broadened to take an example of one of the about war. At use sound intelligently, andalso illustrates the account of the children's own ideas film pleading for international understanding.Soon this stage also they may be encouraged to compare after the start of the extract, an old minerwhose a number of different warfilms. These children grandson is spending his first day underground had studied extracts from They WereExpendable enters the mine, alone and unobserved,by a venti- and Children of Hiroshima in theclassroom, they lator shaft. From time to time during the scenes had seen Paths of Glory in the schoolfilm society, of explosion and rescue the old man isshown des- and of course they had seen numerous warfilms cending ever farther into the mine. Childrenwho in the commercial cinemas. see this extract arealways most anxious to talk The kind of discussion which might follow is

32 illustrated by these extracts from a discussion of that the sound of distant gunfire is heard at the Paths of Glory(l): end of the film. "Barry continued:'I said it was exciting and Similar methods may be used to direct children's thatthe attack I mean. But I kept thinking - you attention to other significant aspects of the film, know, just now - that the Second World War wasn't which might well be screened for a second or even horrid.But I suppose it was. If you were inside a third time. What is it, for example,that estab- a cockpit or something and it wasburning or explo- lishes such a tranquil mood? Most children will ding - something like thai. - it must have been have noticed the laconic conversation, the music, terrible.Blimey! Not like some films Pve seen.'" the sunshine on the rippling water, the bird song. "Terry commented that the drum beats and the Less easily noticed, perhaps, is the rhythm of lines of soldiers let you know that nothing was the editing, and it is necessary to spend some going to stop the execution.'It was all so drama- time teaching children to understand its signifi- tic; you couldn't expect anything except the firing cance. Analogies from music and poetry are squad. And the three deserters looked sort of out helpful, and so is a physical demonstration with of place anyway. They shouldn't have been shot some pieces of old 16 mm. film. Mostuseful of but you knew they would be. And all the shots were all is a comparison of different films.In this sort of diagonal or square'." case, a useful contrast was the attack on the The last remark is a reminder that Paths of Japanese cruiser from John Ford's They Were Glory is a film, not a novel or a play.So also is Expendable, where very rapid cutting is used to A Time Out of War, and to use it merely as a create excitement. starting point for a general discussion of war, In this kind of lesson, which is typical of the valid as this approach is, would be to waste an approach to film study in British schools, children outstandingly good film.Sooner or later, the learn to look and listen carefully, they learn to discussion should return to this particular film. think about a film, to compare it with other films The following exchange provides an opportunity: and to relate it to their own experience of life. Peter: "I don't see why they didn't cross the They also learn incidentally the elements of the river. They threw things over. Why didn't they "language" which a film director uses. cross the river to speak to each other on on e. side "Language" is a convenient shorthand term, but of the river instead of calling across?" to use it in this context is to invite confusion, and David: "Well, they were against each other. it is therefore necessary to explain what is meant They might not have trusted each other completely." by the word as it is used in this study.It means Bob: "Yes. The Confederate army might have that a film director chooses certain things for his been on that side of the river.If these two audience to see; he lights these things in a parti- Northerners had gone over there they would have cular way; he chooses where he will place his had no ccerer." camera; he cuts each picture to the length he Roger: "No.If they had gone across there they wants; he arranges the pictures in a certain order, would easily have come back again.It's to show and he places them with any selection of sounds that there's a division between the two sides." speech music, or natural sound - that he wants. This last remark indicates a realization that an These fundamentals of film language, together with event or detail in a film may have a deeper as well the necessary technical terms (medium shot, low as a more superficial meaning. The class may be angle, pan, etc. ) can and should be taught quickly, asked to recall a scene from the end of Odd Man Out and such teaching should spring naturally from a in which the light from an upstairs window falls on humane study of films. The knowledge as such is the wounded Johnny as he hieas from the police; not an end in itself but a means to a further end. superficially, the extinguiihing of the light means What matters about a low angle shot, for example, that he is out of sight; at a deeper level, it symbol- is not the low angle but why the director chose to izes the approaching end of his life.So also, in make an actor loom over the audience. What is Nice Time the national anthem is played as a crowd needed is not merely knowledge, but the deeper is leaving a theatre, but the same music accompan- and fuller understanding and enjoyment which the ies a shot of a Coca Cola advertisement, and a pene- constant use of this knowledge brings. trating comment on Piccadilly Circus, "the heart of the Empi, is made. Film making The children might then be asked why the closing scenes of A Time Out of War are shot in semi- The study of extracts and short films is one method darkness, why the figures of the men become of teaching children film language. There is no silhouettes.Most children will answer that it is more intimate contact that children can make with because it is getting near the end of the day. They the film medium than is provided by making a film will readily understand, however, that the closing of their own, and there are few experiences which scenes could have been shot on another day and that have more general educational value. Thus the the director therefore deliberately chose to shoot in semi-darkness. After further questioning, the (1) Quoted in SEFT's Film Society News. Alex children will begin to understand that the darkness Richardson is describing a discussion by boys symbolizes the evil of war. They will remember at Cornwell School, East Ham.

33 whole group of children must carefullyexamine Teacher: There was a climax, wasn't there? the stories they themselves have written inthe Shop land: Yes, but I don't think that wasmuch. light of several criteria: interest, credibilityand When you looked at it you thought, 'Thisis going filmic quality, as well as sheer practicability. to be it'.But it didn't turn out much after all. Characterization too must be carefully examined. The cowboys just charged at the village,the i What kind of boy is this? Would that kindof boy Indians scattered and that was about all.If they do this kind of thing? How wouldhis friends be could have made the shots quicker, and inter- boy from this charged from one Indian to another, andquickened likely to react? How can we get the it situation to that one with credibility? the whole thing up, I think it would have made In the scripting process, they mustrethink the much more exciting. whole story in purely filmic t.Irms.They must Teacher: Can we just move on quickly to con- make the whole film in theiL. minds.At each point sider Ethan. Ethan - you remember he was in the story they must decide whatis the important played by John Wayne - was the chiefcharacter in thing - what they wish to direct attentionto, and the film around whom, really, the whole film was why, and in exactly what filmic way.They must built. decide at each moment what they wantthe audience Collins: Well, Ethan's attitude to Martinwasn't to feel, what attitude they wantthe audience to have at all convincing. He started outwith being nasty towards the character and situation, andhow this to him, and over the whole period ofthe time he can be achieved with the cameraand actors. was absolutely shockingto him, and even when Thus children learn that the most important thing Ethan was jocular he was sarcastic with it. in a film is the people and their relationshipto Edwards: Well, I think myself Ethan only cared each other, that film making is a craft aswell as about himself. He gave you that opinion allthe an art, and that withoutthe craft there will be very way through it, and at timeswhen he started little art. They learn that it is not asolitary acti- shooting maily at the buffalo he was just as vity, such as painting or writing,but that it needs unstable as Moses. the disciplined co-operation of alarge number of Carey: J dor't like that kind of hero.A hero people. They learn that film has enormouspotenti- has to be a nice man whom you can pity more alities but is subject to rules andlimitations, and than hate ...." that imagination must work within theimpe ratives of the medium. Above all, childrenhave the satis- Experience of the best faction of collectively making an artisticstatement, of expressing their own personalities,thoughts and The majority of films shown inthe commercial lives, in a popular art form. cinemas, however, have littlevalue and it is not possible to rely on them alone. Childrenwill have Thinking about films adequate experience of the best films onlyif teachers arrange this for them. In Britain,this Children who have had this kind of experience are school film commercial is more usually done by means of a well equipped for a visit to the ordinary society. At Ashburton School, forexample, about cinema, and indeed such visits may be one wayof members. which half of the pupils (350) are film society gaining that experience of the best of cinema In return for an annual subscription of4/- they is the sine qua :ion of education in film.If a teacher Examples of films shown during with his see 8-10 films. has the right sort of personal relationship the last few years are: pupils, if they are convinced that he wantsthem to Shane Private's Progress enjoy films, they may well accept guidancefrom The Man in the they High Noon him as to which of the films showing locally White Suit should see. The film may later be discussed in The Defiant Ones local Paths of Glory The Lavender the classroom. Indeed, films from the A Man is Ten Feet Tall Hill Mob cinemas, whether worth while or not,should Orders to Kill The Ladykillers frequently be the subject of such tljscussion, for normal Great Expectations Thursday's Children film education must be closely related to the CrM Blanc film going experience of the children. Far too Oliver Twist has Jour de Fête Le Ballon Rouge much of what passes for education in schools Les Vacances de We are the Lambeth little or no relation to the world children live in. from M. Hulot Boys The kind of comment which can be expected The General Louisiana Story children who have had some film education is illus- Rhythm of a City trated in these extracts from a discussion of The Navigator old Safety Last The Back of Beyond The Searchers by Don Waters and 6orne 14-year The Big Store The Rival World boys at Cornwell Secondary School, East Ham: "Shop land:I don't think this film was out of the Each film is briefly introduced, andthe children ordinary at all.There were the cowboys and the are given a programmewhich serves as the found- Indians fighting, and the time lapses I don't think ation for later discussion. Here is atypical were shown very clearly. Wilson; Yes, if they could have made one big programme: climax at the end ...

34 ASHBURTON FILM SOCIETY

The Defiant Ones (29 Ja-uary 1960)

U. S. A.,1958 The white convict: Tony Curtis Director: Stanley Kramer The Negro convict: Sidney Poitier The sheriff: Theodore Bikel

THE STORY THINK ABOUT THESE REMARKS Two escaped convicts, a white and a Negro,are "You can't lynch me - I'm a white man." chained together. Each hates the other, but the (the white convict) dangers they pass through together - crossing a "Did you ever hear tell of the bohunk in the river, escaping from a clay pit - make a stronger woodpile?" bond between them than the chain. (the Negro convict) "Hunting rabbits, hunting men - sure, it's the same thing." (the sheriff)

DID YOU NOTICE ASK YOURSELF AFTERWARDS The invisible chain joining the two hands as the This film is an allegory - a story with a meaning wounded white man tries to board the train? hidden below the surface. What is this meaning? NOTF: Stanley Kramer also directed On the Beach (based on Nevil Shute's book), which tells how all human life is destroyed by hydrogen bombs. This film will be showing in Croydon from 28 February to 5 March.

Summing up then, the aim of film education is to to examine the differences between the two media. teach discrimination, that is to teach children to enjoy and appreciate to the full all that is good in Differences between films and television cinema. By careful study of films, and through film making, children must learn to look and listen From the child's point of view, the greatest and carefully and thus become more capable of respond- most obvious difference is that he spends far more ing to films. Through discussions, they must learn time before the television set than he does in the to think about films and to relate film experiences cinema. The most recent figures available in to their own lives.Through school film societies, Britain(1) show that an average child watches tele- and through the commercial cinemas, they must vision for nearly 20 hours per week. There are have adequate experience of the best of cinema. nowadays comparatively few children who spend even a quarter of this amou ,,:. of time in the cinema, Some questions for discussion and even in the heyday of the cinema, some 12-15 years ago, the child who made six visits a week Should film education be undertaken by any teacher was a very rare bird.In order of time, moreover, who does not believe that films can be judged by as well as of importance television comes first in objective standards? a child's life. Most children watch television Is there such a thing as "film language" ?If so, occasionally from the age of three or earlier, and what is it and how important is the teaching of it? the 5-7 age group in Britain watches an average of Is it ever permissible to use a film merely as two hours a day.(1) Thus children have consider- an introduction to a general discussion? Can this able experience of television before they begin to be described as "film education"? visit the cinema regularly. Is a complete film education possible for a child who has never taken part in film making? The content of television is more varied When a child visits the cinema, he spends nearly all his time there watching feature films, that is, SECTION II fiction in a dramatic form. When he spends an evening watching television, his experience is THE AIMS OF TELEVISION EDUCATION very much more varied. How varied is it? What does television offer a child in terms of content? To what extent are the aims and methods of film The figures given below are an analysis of one education relevant to education in television? Before this question is considered, it is necessary (1) What Children Watch. A Granada survey. 35 week's television in November 1961 on both also fairly accurate as percentagesof the total channels in the London area,(1) from 5 p.m. to time. 11 p.m. on weekdays and throughout the day at Programmes have beenclassified according to week-ends. (That these are the hours when child- content and also to whetherthey are: (1) live or ren are likely to be watchingtelevision is demon- tape recorded (in many casesit is impossible to strated both by classroom experience and by all say which); (2) filmed;(3)a mixture of live, the professional surveys.) There are regional and filmed, and tape recordedmaterial. seasonal variations in programming, but these are comparatively small and the figures given here are (1) As far as is known, nocomparative content typical of most weeks in most parts of Britain. analyses have been published forother About 100 hours of programmes have been analysed countries. This is a serious lackwhich so that the figures, which are given inhours, are should be remedied.

Content Analysis of BritishTelevision° )

Total Live or tape recorded Filmed Mixed FICTION

1.Crime series 8 1/2 3 5 1/2 2.Misc. series 8 1/2 3 5 1/2 1 1 1/2 3. Costume series 2 1/2 41/2 4. Western series 41/2 5.Complete plays 5 1/2 5 1/2 6.Complete cinema films 4112 41/2 34 121/2 21 1/2

FACT

1/2 7.Topical 15 31/2 3 8 8. Outside broadcasts (sport) 7 7 9.Outside broadcasts (misc. ) 4 4 5 11/2 10. Documentary 10 3 1/2 6 11. News bulletins 6 42 18 8 16

THE REST

12. Advertisements 6 1 5 13. Comedy 4 1/2 3 1/4 1 1/4 3 1 14. Quiz 4 15.Light music 3 3 3 16.Variety 2 1/2 2 1/2 17.Cartoons 2 - 2 18. Serious music 11/2 11/2 19.This is Your Life 1/2 1/2 24 14 3/4 91/4

(1) Notes on the content analysis 1-4. Mostly series of self-contained episodes, although afew are really long plays divided into a number of instalments. 2. Includes domestic, medical, legal, andadventure series. 6. An example is John Fcrd's " TheInformer". 7. This includes programmes which, for the mostpart, are about current events but which do not attempt to give up-to-the-minute news.Examples are "Tonight", "Panorama" and"Here and Now". by 9. Includes two religious services, the finals ofthe "Miss World" competition, and a speech the Prime Minister. 10. Mainly travel and nature films, and science programmes. 12. The live material is advertising magazines.The remainder is filmed material inserted during and between programmes. 13. Comedy shows in dramatic form areincluded here. 19. This programme is described in SectionIV, 5.Although it is the only programme of its kind, it contains in concentrated form certainingredients which are to be found in many other programmes.

36 There are, then, important differences of con- watch television" was second in order of frequency. tent between cinema and television.Dramatic (Equal firsts were the smallness of the screen, fiction, which fills the cinema screens for much and the lack of colour on television. )Because of the time, represents only about one-third of viewers regard television as free entertainment, British television's output.Children themselves they are inclined to demand less of it than of are very conscious of this difference ofcontent. something they pay for. One hundred and forty 14-year olds were asked to Thi., tendency to accept low standards for tele- write down what they thought were the important vision is accentuated by the fact that Zelevision is differences between cinema and television. usually seen in the home. There are many homes Typical comments were: where television, like radio, is often no more "The film can either be romantic, comedy, than a background to other activities.Moreover, musical or adventure. The television does include watching a television programme does not involve these things but it also shows extra things which that sense of occasion which a visit to the cinema the film cannot, e.g. quiz programmes." produces, that feeling that an hour or two has been "There are more political meetings and pro- set aside for a special kind of experience. Tele- grammes that will teach you something on the vision is often a constant stream of fleeting television." impressions. Because there is light in the room, "You don't get any circuses in the cinema." it is possible to talk and to read, even to do home- work, and still give some slight attention to tele- The general standard of television is lower vision. The point is that the attention is slight, than that of films and that it is often disturbed.In a darkened cinema, the conditions for close attention to the Another major difference between the two media is screen are more favourable: in the quantity of material needed.In Britain, "When it comes to the cinema, I enjoy it much some six thousand hours of broadcasting timehave more because there are no lights so it isbetter to to be filled each year and, with the prospect of a see, and there are very rarely intermissions third and even fourth channel within the next few unless it is a very long film." years, this amount seems likely to increase. "The cinema has a bigger screen and more Under these circumstances much of the material atmosphere.If the film is a good film, you broadcast on television is inevitably of a low imagine yourself in the film and forget about standard. There is not, at least at present, enough everything that is going on about you." human talent to produce worth-while material to "When I am watching television I have many dis- fill all the broadcasting time. tractions, when tea is made or Mum's aiends Television pictures, moreover, suffer from come round." poorer definition (particularly in the British 405 "At home you car talk about the television while line system), and both with television picture and it is on but in cinernas people would objectstrongly." sound are more liable to technical mishaps. On the other hand, the degree of concentration Children are conscious of both the general and achieved by the average cinema audience must not technical inferiority of television: be exaggerated: "Cinema has better made films. More money is "I prefer TV because there is not so much noise, put into them." cheers and whistles as in the cinema." "Cinema films are made more carefully and "At home you do not have people coming round realistically than TV plays." your seats selling ice creams andsweets." "When you are at the cinema, nothing ever goes wrong with the pictures. The television at home The intimacy and immediacy of television is always going wrong at the exciting parts." "On the television, minor details are left out or This account of the differences between cinema are not seen. On the cinema screen,things are and television has so far been concerned with the enlarged a great deal and this makes viewing a kind of screen experience to be had from each, great deal easier." and with the attitude of audiences towards it.It is now necessary to consider each medium fromthe Viewers tend to be less critical of television producer's end. Most writers about television agree that the major differences between the two There are, moreover, factors at work which tend media are: to persuade audiences to accept television's low 1.In television, what the audience sees and hears strndards. Most viewers regard television as free is happening while they are watching. Thus imme- entertainment.(In fact it is not, for the cost in diacy is one of the keynotes of television. A tele- repairs and depreciation of a television set plus vision programme, moreover, is continuous, the annual licence fee is about the same as the cost whereas a film is a number of sections pieced of a weekly visit to the cinema by two people. together. However, few viewers count the cost in this way. ) 2.Television communicates more directly and In the children's comments on the differences intimately with its audience, because this audience between cinema and television, "you don't pay to is usually 3-4 people in their own home. Thus the 37 audience is often addressed directly, as if the into close up as often as possible. Packall groups person talking to them was actuallyin the room as tightly as possible, so thatthe camera need not with them. retire too far.Let us Bee what we want to see as 3. The screen is small and the picture is notwell boldly and clearly as possible." He also points defined. Thus there are narrow limits to the out that the smallness and low definitionof televi- amount of detail that can be shown at anygiven sion pictures make necessary the frequent useof time, and the close up becomes moreimportant close up. He mftintains, moreover, that this is than in the cinema. an advantage, for frequInt facialclose ups, in These three characteristics of television must which the face appears at approximately life size, now be considered in moredetail. make possible a more intimate style of actingthan is permissible in the cinema. 1. Immediacy and continuity Some of these authors believe that television producers should seek always to emphasize rather Edward Stasheff and RudyBretz(1) believe that the than hide the differences between film and television. uniqueness of television comes from immediacy, Thus Stasheff and Bretz write, "ff television is to spontaneity and intimacy, but they suggestthat find itself, then it must accentuate its difference immediacy becomes important only innon-dramatic from film", and Bussell believes that"Film and productions.In drama, they believe, the audience television are quite different media, and toborrow may become so lost in the illusionof the story that is a confession of weakness." He points outthat immediacy is forgotten. PaulRotha(2) believes intimacy does not require the sort of thingthat that "immediacy denies a fundamentalrequisite of only film can do. the artist - the right to select incontemplation." Jan Busse 11 and a number of other authors, On the other hand, Jan Busse11(3) says, "There is however, wrote some years ago, about the danger something vital about the present moment thatthe of generalizing from experience oftelevision at a photograph cannot catch, the magic ofsharing this particular point in its development. This is illus- moment of creation with the artist, whoseperform- trated in the following comments by NigelKneale, ance becomes in someindefinable way more sensi- author of three science fiction serials broadcast tive, knowing that his moment isshared." Busse 11 on BBCtelevisionC7): also points out that television acting is morelike "To get the ultimate out of any medium, it must theatre than film in that the actor has tosustain be possible to define its limitations. And thelimi- his r8le throughout a whole performanceand has tations were indefinable. They changedalmost no opportunity for makingimprovements. Most week by week, both at the transmission and recep- writers on television also refer to thefact that the tion ends." After referring to improvementssuch television director is not so firmly in control as as console lighting and video tape,he goes on, the film director. "In a few years screens will probably measure Thus Busse 11 points out that consistentlygood -about five feet by three, and have far higher defi- picture composition is more difficult toachieve nition than today.Relatively, they will be as large with television than with films. as those in cinemas. Thesmallness will have gone for good, and anyone stillbattling out special 2.Intimacy and directness techniques for it will be left with them on hishands. The 'intimacy' idea will only be of antiquarian Jean Renoir(4) says (of American television),"I interest, like the tiny screens that producedit. remember, for instance, certain interviews in Already it is becoming clear that there is no connexion with some political hearing. Here, technique, but a thousand. Increasing mechanical suddenly, we had a huge close up, a picture of a resources should make style asindividual to the human being in his entirety. One man wasafraid, story and the teller of it as in any othermedium - and all his fear showed; another wasinsolent, a book, for example, of awell made film." insulted the questioner; another was ironical; And later he continues, "In the last Quatermass another took it all very lightly.In two minutes we serial, for instance, some 45 minutes were on could read the faces of these people; we knew who film out of a total screen time of 31/2 hours - they were.I found this tremendously exciting and a surprisingly satisfactory numberof expert and somehow an indecent spectacle to watch.Yet this indecency came nearer the knowledgeof man (1) The Television Program. New York, Hill & than many films." Wang, 1956. Norman Swallow(5) says that in television journal- (2) Television in the making. London, Focal ism the emphasis must be on the personalityof the Press, 1956. man who appears on the screen topresent the pro- (3) The Art of Television. London, Faber & gramme. Faber, 1953. (4) Sight & Sound. London, Winter 1958-1959. 3. Small screen (5) Television in the mal_Om. London, Focal Press, 1956. Desmond Davis(6) believes that the essenceof tele- (6) The Grammar of Television Production. vision is the close up, and Jan Busse 11 writes,"Go (7) Sight & Sound. London, Spring 1959.

38 persuasive. colleagues failed to spot exactlywhich 45 minutes. becomes much more intimate, more You know how manysetbacks I've had in my All the technically difficult scenes,involving I realize that the films special effects which it wouldhave been risky to cinema career ... well, producer which were the most completefailures with the tackle live, were filmed, giving the little projection much greater control.Control .... precision. public were just those which, in a recently were theatre before a dozen people,pleased the most." These were the elements that untA the success on television always unpleasantly lacking in livetelevision." Jean Renoir, referring to particular kind of Diary of a Chambermaid(a film which was badly Nigel Kneale is writing about one "I thought I had made Hodgkinson(1) received in the cinema) said, of television - drama - but Tony in fact, without realizing it, has demonstrated that whateverkind of material a cinema film; and is under discussion there is noreal difference I'd made one fortelevision." between film and television as such: If some film is more likelive television than "The reason why there is no separate artof traditional cinema, what of a livebroadcast television, why therefore there will neverbe recorded on video tape? As far as canbe judged, specialized 'television teaching', is asimple one the only difference between thisand live television accident of is that the audience may knowthat it is pre- which has been obscured for us by an with history. Film was invented somethirty years recorded.It is only on rare occasions and before television, yet essentiallythey are both the certain kinds of material that thismatters. There example, when many viewers same inventionmeans of presenting moving was a time, for forms of commu- watched This is Your Life mainly to seewhether 'reality' on a screen. These two would refuse to take nication and expression whichtoday we distinguish the subject of the programme 'television' are but two sides of the part. When one subject didin fact refuse, no as 'film' and part of the pro- same coin, twomanifestations of one art, two viewer ever saw it because this Let us apply some analo- gramme, it was revealedfor the first time, was ends of the same scale. pre-recorded. This type of programme,however, gies Suppose the first method of producing pictures had been the mosaic method,and that the is rare. had come later. Film Thus it is necessary to distinguishnot so much use of brush and pigments tape is a mosaic method - a mosaicin which each indi- between film, live television and video shaped and recordings, but simply between various waysof vidual fragment has to be quarried, sound. Whether the coloured separately; televisionrepresents the using moving pictures with brush technique." pictures happen to be filmed, live, ortape more fluid, spontaneous recorded is largely irrelevant. Dreyer'sJeanne In any case, most televisionin Britain (and Mort .... expek,enc(' abroad maywell be similar) is not &Arc and Bresson's Un Condamné & 12 show that made for the cinema, are as intimate asArthur broadcast live. The figures on page into Danger, approximately 40% of programmes consistentirely Hai ley's live television play, Flight of film. Moreover, many of the programmes and a large-scale television vari etyshow closely classified as "mixed" consistlargely of film. For resembles some kinds of film musical. approximately half of the time,therefore, television Thus the principal characteristics oftelevision of showing which make it different from cinema are: in Britain is used simply as a means lives of children. films. 1.It occupies more time in the Many of these films have been madespecially 2.Its content is more varied. for television and some of them arecloser to live 3.It is generally of a lower standard. television than to cinema film. Thereporter 4.Audiences are more inclined to accept it interview uncritically. addressing the audience directly, the has the with close ups, the incident whichcannot be 5. A small proportion of television whether all these quality of immediacy. repeated - does it really matter which may are broadcast live orpre-recorded on film? Jean 6. A larger proportion of television - Renoir(2) speaking of a film he was making for be either live, tape recorded orfilmedhas television, said "I would like to makethis film the quality of intimacy. It should benoted, and this is where televisiongives me something however, that technical developments are valuable - in the spirit of livetelevision, I'd like tending to reduce the proportion of intimate to make the film as thoughit were a live broadcast, material. shooting each scene only once,with the actors imagining that tae public aredirectly receiving The aims of television education their words and gestures.Both the actors and the technicians should know that there willbe no re- It is now necessary to look back tothe first not, they section of the study, in which the aimsof film takes; that, whether they succeed or described, can't begin again." education were defined and its methods Roberto Rossellini(3) spoke of othertelevisual qualities in some kinds of film:"The television (1) The Film Teacher's Handbook.London, audience is quite different fromthat of the cinema. Sept. 1959-1960. In television you're talkingnot to the mass public (2) Sight & Sound , Winter 1958-1959. but to ten million individuals;and the discussion (3) Sight & Sound, Winter 1958-1959. 39 and methods are rescue workers went onlifting debris, carrying and to ask how far these aims away the dead. On theother side of the train relevant to television, havingregard to all the happening, and we differences between the two media. window, the thing was really fundamental aim of inside were detached,half-comprehending, It is certainly true that one in our television education, as of filmeducation, is to irresponsible, uncomfortably secure help children to inability to help.It seemed, and still seems, a teach discrimination, that is, to and documentary, enjoy to the full all that is good.It should also be parable of our viewing of news film, this implies watching a real drama, notquite believing in it, noted that in both television and vaguely curious teaching children also to rejectwhat is bad. This powerless to take part and so with television instead of trulycompassionate." negative aim is more important After describing the varietyof a typical evening's than with film, for what children seeat the cinema viewing, Muriel Telfordcontinues: (in Britain, if not elsewhere) is onthe whole of whether higher quality than what they see ontelevision. A "No wonder that the single programme, 14-year old boys were asked trivial or serious, generallyfails to make much group of one hundred impression, while series and regularcharacters to write down the titles of allthe films they had and adults as well seen over a period of onemonth. Out of 277 film become part of viewers' lives, of films of a as adolescents cancombine easy undemanding viewings by these boys, 142 were personalities reasonable standard of quality -films such as fantasy relationships with synthetic and indifference or hostility toreal people on Whistle Down the Wind, TheMagnificent Seven occasionally a real about half of what either side of the screen. Yet The Guns of Navarone. Thus programme bursts outof its smothering setting they had seen at the cinema wasof some value. about weeks later; No more than 20% at the mostof what they see on and is remembered and talked standard of quality. vicarious experience involvesthe viewer and television reaches the same exacts the fuli attention of eye, earand mind. Television, moreover, has certaincharacteris- and told on tele- tics which make it necessary toextend the meaning ...We can be shown visually perhaps even to add vision of events in Algeria,Sharpeville, or of "discrimination", and another part of our own town, aboutrefugee camps further aims. The varied contentof television, because the medium the immense quantity of materialchildren watch, and famine, and be unmoved they see it, have itself has conditioned us to anattitude of detached and the conditions under which half-belief that does not demandaction ... debunk- important consequences. These areadmirably scepticism are often described by Muriel Telford,Headmistress of ing and the inculcation of easy, often fun,and often necessary; but they are Leek High School forGirls.(1) greatest danger is not unbroken not enough. In the end the "Television can transmit to us an heart." succession of sounds and visualimpressions which, the soft head but the hard demand a different Thus the term"discrimination" must be extended taken individually, would each of the distinction kind of expectation and responsefrom the viewer, to include making children aware homogeneity by the between different kinds of programme,conscious but which are given a spurious Passive and atmosphere in which we that "television" is not a singleentity. sameness of the room acceptance of television is, moreover,even more view, the sameness of the boxfrom which the of film, and a cor- impressions come and the kind ofphysical effort likely than passive acceptance respondingly greater effort mustbe made to we have to make toreceive them. They are also counter it.Similarly, there are morecompelling given a spurious continuitybecause on neither children's attention to parti- channel is a moment of space orsilence permitted reasons for directing the next ... we cular, worth-while television programmesthan between one programme and for persuading them to seeworth-while filmp obligingly 'keep watching' and inmoods of idleness remember that tele- would never have turned Above all, the teacher must accept a programme we vision is all the time influencingthe beliefs and on for its own sakebecause we were led straight Unless and until moral attitudes of children.It is not only that into it from one we had chosen. television can make them cynicalabout everything we train ourselves toswitch off smartly, no oppor- suffering, as Muriel tunity occurs for assimilationof the programme and indifferent to human discussion of it, or Telford points out. Every televisionprogramme just finished, for criticism or contributes to the process by which achild accepts even simply forpleasurable recollection. More attitudes. The important, we have not the time oropportunity for certain values and adopts certain or a values and attitudes conveyedby television are adjustment to a different type of programme helps to different level of realism ....Too often we expect sometimes false. Every programme specific kind of create a picture in the child'smind of the contemp- just 'the telly' rather than a orary world, of racial,social and vocational programme. history, political institutions, I remember being in one ofthe first trains to groups, of national etc. The picture may bedistorted or rendered pass throughWealdstone station after theappalling rail disaster there. Wemoved through slowly at incomplete. lit like a stage set, night, the area of wreckage was No. 11, there was the shape of a scenefamiliar from news- (1) Screen Education, London, December 1961. paper photographs andthe television screen,

40 Psychologists tell us that there is very little into it.The questioning of what is accepted is a firm evidence about the effect of television on mere preliminary, after which a child mustbe children's attitudes and values, and they plead for taught to reason his way to belief by using whatever more research. Research is ;:ertainly needed,but experience he has. The teacher, moreover, must the teacher whose daily responsibility it is to edu- demonstrate that he himself believes strongly, cate young people cannot wait for the results of even passionately, in certain things.A teacher research. He must work on the assumption that who acts as if children's values and attitudes were values and attitudes are influenced by television. no concern of his not only raisesdoubts concerning There is, moreover, some firm evidence on this the depth and sincerity of his own beliefs; he also subject.Dr. Hi lde HimmelweitM says: gives children the impression that it does not "Gradually, almost imperceptibly, television matter what they believe and, worst of all, he entertainment brings about changes in children's leaves them defenceless against the powerful outlook and values, even though the programmes voices, both c ommercial and political, which use that achieve this do not deliberately set out to all the techniques of modern communication, influence.It is rather that the similarity of views including television, to put over their ideas. and values conveyed in television programmes, Summing up then, the aims of television particularly in plays, make their cumulative impact. education are: The following principles indicate the conditions 1.To help children to enjoy and appret. ite to the under which maximal effect is likely to occur (i.e. full all that is good in television. from the cumulative impact of a number of pro- 2. By implication, to teach them to reject what grammes rather than from the impact of a particu- is bad. lar programme): 3. To maintain and develop children's respect 1.If the values recur from programme to pro- for human values. gramme; 4.To give them a true understanding of the 2.If the values are presented in dramatic form so world they live in. that they evoke primarily emotional reactions; The difference between these aims and those of 3.If they link with the child's immediate needs film education is mainly one of emphasis. Child- and interests; ren in Britain spend comparatively little time at 4.If the viewer tends to be uncritical of and the cinema; what they see there is homogeneous; attached to the medium; and it is on the whole of a higher standard than 5.If through his friends, parents, or immediate what they see on television. Thus the second, environment the viewer is not already supplied third and fourth of the aims listed above become with a set of values which would provide a relatively (but only relatively) unimportant in film standard against which to assess the views education, and the main emphasis is on the first offered on television." aim. No doubt children's values and attitudes are also influenced by the cinema, but Dr. Himmelweit's Some questions for discussion first and fourth principles, considered in the light of the extent and nature of children's television Does the greater importance of television in a viewing, indicate that they are more likely to be child's life necessitate introducing him to television influenced, and to a greater extent, by television. education before film education? Dr. Himmelweit's fifth principle is a challenge Are children's values and attitudes, and their to the teacher. English teachers have traditionally understanding of contemporary society, influenced taken the view that any attempt on their part to more by television than by cinema? influence their pupils' beliefs is of doubtful prop- Do children watch television less attentively riety except in certain clearly defined areas - than cinema, and are they more inclined to accept children have always been taught national loyalty it passively? and they have always been expected to give a Has the importance of (a) intimacy and (b) imme- notional assent (often it is no more than that) to diacy in television been underestimated here? certain religious doctrines. Other attempts to What important differences are there between influence children's beliefs have been described by film made for television and film made for cinema? the emotionally tinged word "indoctrination" . What important differences between cinema and Properly understood, indoctrination means the use television have not been mentioned here? by a teacher of unfair means to influence children's Have the more negative, prophylactic aims of beliefs, taking advantage of their immaturity and television education been over-emphasized here? lack of experience to persuade them to accept Is the relation between film and television less certain ideas. This, of course, is quite wrong.It close than is argued here? is also true that one aim of education is to get children to question accepted beliefs, but such (1) Television and the Child. London, Oxford questioning must not become an end in itself; University Press, 1958. Dr. Himmelweitts children must not be taught to believe only that they conclusions are ba,-,d on comparative studies should not believe in anything. The purpose of of viewers and of children who had never had having an open mind is to allow something to come the opportunity of seeing television. 41 he has the right SECTION III best films in local cinemas, and if personal relationship with the childrenhe may Television, how- METHODS OF EDUCATION INTELEVISION have some degree of success. ever, unlike cinema, isshared by the whole family, which pro- The teacher's attitude and it is usually the parents who decide 1. gramme (or, more usually, whichof the two been No teacher can hope to assist youngpeople to channels) will be seen. A child who has he himself asked to watch a particular programmewill often enjoy the best of television unless day, "I tried but Dad wanted the enjoys it.This is the prime qualification ofthe say in school next teacher. He must, moreover, becapable of en- boxing." for its own sake. So a well organized system ofco-operation joying a television programme A list It is widely accepted in Britainthat teachers must between school and parents is necessary. be familiar with television so thatthey will be of recommended programmes mightbe distributed and make use to parents each week.It would of course empha- able to share their pupils' interests kinds of pro- of these interests in teachinggeography, science, size mainly the best examples of the It is perfectly proper to gramme children readily enjoy -drama, music, etc. in the classroom. attempt use television in this waybut this is not education variety, comedy, quiz - but it would also in television. History teachers useDickens' novels to widen children's tastes bydirecting attention to social conditions, types of programme against whichthey are pre- to illustrate Nineteenth century This but they do not claim to be teachingEnglish judiced but which they might well enjoy. literature. weekly list would therefore attempt the same teachers functions as a school film society. There is, Again, it is sometimes algued that also direct should use children's interest intelevision as a moreover, no reason why it should not ladder to "higher" things - as a means,for example, attention to programmes which wouldhelp a child's theatre or the novel. school work. of stimulating their interest in partial solution Thus television is regarded asinferior in itself At best, however, this is only a simulated. This of the problem. Outstandingtelevision programmes and the teacher's interest in it is available in dishonest pretence is unlikely todeceive children. recorded on 16 mm. film, if they were It is, nevertheless, true that manyparticular sufficient quantity and vsriety, wouldprovide a television programmes are inferior.It is also complete solution.In some respects, such film which recordings are more valuable than livebroadcasts. true that children often enjoy pmgrammes merely the teacher thinks are deplo;able.The teacher's A film recording can be studied and not attitude in this situation must be oneof tolerance. seen.It can be projected two or three times or Outright condemnation of children whoenjoy poor more; it can be dissectedand analysed in the television programmes will inevitablydestroy that same sort of way as a film.Only in this way can bond of personal sympathy between pupiland teacher a television programme befully appreciated and which is essential for any kind ofeducation, but in enjoyed. particular for education in television.Condemna- tion, moreover, will not changechildren's tastes. 3.The television diary Only patient work over a longperiod will do this. There is at least one other field for fruitful co- 2. Experience of the best operation between teachers and parents.Every child should keep a television diary,and parents As in film education, one of theteacher's most could do much to ensure that it is keptproperly. important tasks is to ensure thatchildren have a The teacher can provide the information necessary wide experience of the best themedium has to for such a diary, preferably in theform of a set offer. This task is extremelydifficult.Most of duplicated sheets to be filled in bythe child. British schools are equipped with a16 mm. pro- Items might include: jector and a wide variety of films isavailable; Title of programme. Date and time of interested transmission. finance is occasionally a problem, but an Granada, teacher will usually find no difficulty inpresenting Broadcasting company (i.e. BBC, a good film at a time andplace convenient to the ATV, etc.) children. The teacher, however, has nocontrol Director. Writer. over the timing of televisionbroadcasts. There Fact? Fiction? are television broadcastsduring school hours in If fact, was it interview? reporting? Britain but most of them are directlyeducational discussion? comment? programmes. To watch a goodexample of this If fiction, was it Western? crime? kind of programme is a valuableexperience, but domestic? etc. outstanding Was the programme suitable fortelevision? what children need to see above all are in a book, examples of the kind of programmesthey see (e.g. could it have been done better during the evening. The teacher mayattempt to on the stage, in the cinema?) influence children's choice of eveningtelevision What did you like about the programme? programmes, as he will try toguide them to the What did you dislike about the programme?

42 It is important that a child should not be dis- big mob in a studio.""The workhouse in the play couraged by being asked to write too much about was a tiny little room. There weren't really a lot any one programme. The above outl!ne is not a of boys and there wasn't a lot of racket going on universal guide, but it is adequate. A child who while they were eating.In the film, there was a keeps such a diary should become more attentive gigantic big hall, and there were women, and they to what he sees on television, he should develop were all making a lot of noise." the habit of distinguishing between fact and fiction "In the film studios, they take it by scenes - just and of making a simple assessment of the quality short snaps - but on television they do it for a of a programme. Above all, he will make an effort whole half-hour." to assimilate each programme and he will become "In television, actors wait for the camera to be aware that television is not just one thing but a wide on them, and sometimes you see this.In the film, variety of very different kinds of things. you don't see this." No child in this discussion mentioned immediacy, 4.Detailed study of television programmes and it is worth pointing out to the children that they themselves have demonstrated that immediacy is Section I of this study deals with the methods by not important in drama. The first two comments which children may be taught to attend closely to a quoted here emphasize the comparatively small film and thus to become more aware and responsive. scale of a television production, and the other two The same awareness and responsiveness are indicate the continuous nature of live television. required for viewing television programmes.It is Children should note that the small-scale, intimate probably true that habits of careful attention learned quality of this particular production is not of the in the study of films will be carried over to tele- essence of television, and that there are other, vision.Children themselves are conscious of non-continuous ways of producing television plays. differences between cinema and television, but not This kind of comparative study which, it must between film and television; they realize that there be stressed, is a comparison of different ways of are important differences of content and in viewing using moving pictures rather than of film and tele- conditions, but they naturally accept that differences vision, would of course be very much easier if between film and television as such are largely there were a wide variety of television study irrelevant. They do not need to be told that the material recorded on 16 mm. film.It must be "language" of television is the same as that of film; remembered also, as was said earlier in this that a television director chooses certain things for section, that this kind of study material is a very his audience to see, lights these things in a parti- convenient way o: introducing childrer3 the best cular way, selects camera positions, arranges the of television. pictures in a certain order and places with them a selection of sounds. Most children are interested 5.Thinking about television in the technical details of how the pictures are made and arranged, how the sound is added and so on, and Much of this section has been primarily concerned their curiosity should be satisfied.Visits to studios, with methods of achieving the first of the aims of diagrams, scripts, classroom simulation of the television education: introducing children to the television studio, are all useful here. As with best the medium has to offer, and helping them to film, however, this kind of knowledge is not import- enjoy it to the full.All of the methods describcla ant.Children may wish to know the technical so far are, of course, relevant to the third and details of console lighting, and there is no reason fourth aims, but the first necessity for the achieve- why they should not, but the important thing is that ment of these aims is that children should be stim- they should understand the artistic purpose of ulated to think about television. The small space lighting a particular scene in a particular way. devoted to this aspect here must not be taken as a One part of the careful looking and listening pro- measure of its importance, for much of the detailed cess might well be a consideration of the differences description in the final section is concerned with it. between film and television - or, moz r...ccurately, between different ways of using moving pictures Some questions for disckssion with sound.Children can decide for themselves how important the immediacy of these pictures and Has a correct and adequate account been given sounds is; the audience itself is the judge of this, here of what the teacher's attitude should be to- for if the viewer does not feel any sense of excite- wards his pupils and towards television? ment, if he is not aware that what he is seeing is To what extent may educational television pro- happening as he sees it, there is no virtue in grammes (i.e. those broadcast d...iring school immediacy. hours and intended primarily as aids to the teach- Children might also consider film and television ing of various subjects) be used to teach discrimi- versions of the same story. A group of boys who nation in television? had seen Oliver Twist in both forms made these What differences, if any, are there between a comments: fil.n recording of a live broadcast and the live "I think the film version was much better because broadcast itself? there was more real life.You can't really have a What practical difficulties are involved in getting

43 children to keep television diaries, and how should crimes? Are they convincing reasons? Are we these difficulties be overcome? ever shown what happens to a criminal after con- Is there such a thing as "television language". viction? What are we told about the reasons why If so, what is it and how important is the teaching crime is wrong? of it? What is its relationship to film language? The following comments by children give some Do children need to know what happens in a idea of what goes on in this kind of lesson. television studio to beceihe more responsive to television? What qualities do you like/dislike in police What kinds of television study material are most and detectives? needed? Would the making of a television programme by "I like Craig in Ghost Squad because he's children have the same kind of educational value always having a bundle (fight)." as the making of a film? "I don't like Perry Mason. There's too much To what extent will good habits of looking and chin wagging in the court all the time." listening learnt in film education automatically be "I like the way Lockhart and Baxter bribe people." used during television viewing? "Dan Matthews is big-headed. He always wants Do children who have been trained to think about to do everything himself - doesn't let the others films carry thoughtful attitudes over to television have a chance." viewing? "I like Bollinger because he gets on with it. Should the same methods always be used with It's not boring.All action." both boys and girls? "I like Lockhart because he always works things out clearly." The relative merits of intelligence and physical force as methods of catching criminals might then SECTION IV be discussed. When one of the children in this series of dis- SOME LESSONS DESCRIBED cussion mentioned Maigret (a large number of Simenon's novels have been dramatized on BBC Television, like the film, is about people, and the television) the opportunity was seized to direct emphasis throughout these lessons is on television their attention to this, one of the few worth-while education as a branch of the humanities. The five crime series on British television.Maigret is kinds of television selected for detailed treatment real, a fallible human being, unlike many screen here are: detectives, and it is his sympathetic understanding 1.Crime series. of human nature which enables him to solve crimes. 2.Westerns. Criminalsnre people, not merely objects to be 3.Advertisements. chased by the police, and the main point is the 4.Topical and documentary programmes. relationship of the characters with each other and 5."Peep-show" programmes. with Maigret. Discussion helps to bring out these These examples have been chosen either because points: they are to be found more frequently on television "I like Maigret because he's so natural and than in films, or because they are popular with doesn't seem like an actor." children, or for both of these reasons. Television "When he catches them he doesn't twist their education, like film education, must be closely arms up their backs like most detectives do. He related to children's normal viewing experiences. talks to them and sees their point of view. He works from his idea of the criminal. Most coppers 1.Crime series say 'you'll be inside for a long time. We won't see much of you. 'Maigret's just the opposite." There are many different ways of dealing with this "Maigret just walks round to their house and type of programme in the classroom.In the kind they tell him about it.He's human, more than of lesson described here the discussion method is other detectives." used to stimulate children to think about the "He's calm. This bloke Kookie (a character characters and situations they see in crime series from an American private eye series, 77 Sunset and to relate them to life as they are able to Strip) jumps in a hot rod and tears off all over the observe it.Children should be encouraged to think place.Maigret keeps quiet and works it out in his about the following questions, the reasons for which own mind." should be self-evident: "He's not always right. He makes mistakes. What qualities do you like/dislike in police and He's always saying he's worriedlike last night. detectives? What is their attitude to the criminals? Some man came to him and said he was going to Are real life police and detectives like this? Why be killed and Maigret said he wasn't. Next day he do they always catch the criminals? Would tele- was killed.It's more true to life than being right vision plays in which the criminals are not caught all the time." do any harm? What kind of people are the criminals? "You see Maigret at home and he discusses What are we told of the reasons why they commit things with his wife."

44 Another series which is more true to life than cinema Westerns long before television was most is Z Cars aboet the mobile police in a invented, and they might well consider someof Lancashire city. One programme in this series the differences between the cinema Westernand included a most poignant scene in which a young the television Western. motor cyclist, injured in an accident, died in the One e..ample of a television Western,Tne Dan arms of a policeman. One boy commented: Hogan Story (one of the Wagon Train series) may "Z Cars is realistic.I used to watch Danger be borrowed from the British Film Instituteand Man and when a friend got shot he used to look at studied in school. The children are mainlyinter- him and say, 'Oh, he's dead! 'and straight away ested in plot and character, and in re)ating a he's away in a car.Well, Z Cars is more true t screen experience to their own lives.Dan Hogan life." clashes with Jason Rance, the crooked town boss. Another boy replied."I disagree.I know they Hogan's friend cannot pay a gambling debt to rush away in hanger Man; but that way they can Rance, and Hogan defends him when Rance's men get more of the story in.if they're hanging about try to beat him. Rance then tells Hogan toleave over a dead body it cuts the whole storyshort." town by 1.0 next day.Reluctantly, and only The first boy then commented: "That's why because of his wife and children, Hogan decides to Z Cars is more true to life.It's not just trying to do so.However, when he hears that Rance has pack more into a film.In Danker Man wheh some- killed his friend, he decides to stay.Rance is one gets killed, he says, 'Poor Joe. Nicebloke accidentally killed in thefight whkh follows. old Joe was', but he !oesn't think of what his A group of boys discussing this decided that motner will say or worry about his relations." Hogan did not act in a cowardly way when he decided Thus the contrast is pointed between the true tu leave town. Why? Because he was thinkingof story and the superficial stereotype. his wife and children. When it was pointed out to the boys that having a wife and family does not Way do the criminals always get caught in the end? excuse a man from fighting in a war,the following discussion ensued: Two kinds of answers are given to this question: George: "Well, in a war you've got to fight "The police are always much brighter than the really, haven't you?" criminals. They always know the next step the Eric: "In a war, if you don't go out and fight, criminal is going to make." you're counted as a traitor or something and you "The criminals haven't got the equipment the have to be shot.It's better to go." police aave. When the criminals get away they Keith: "An old man might come up and say, have oniy one car but the police have many cars 'Why aren't you fighting' ?" and they can cut them off." Eric: "You're fighting for your country in a war. More significant is the other kind of reason It makes no odds about your wife." given: Teacher: "But wasn't Dan Hogan fighting for "If the criminal doesn't get caught then there the other people in the town?" isn't any end to the story." Peter: "He paid them back for killing his friend, "They have to have them getting caught so that didn't he? He wasn't worrying about the town." people have more faith in the police." This last comment exposes the ccnfusion One boy suggested that the criminals should inherent in this film, for Dan Hogan is presented sometimes he allowed to get away: as a character motivated by the desire to help the "If everyone's going to keep being caught every community. The boys see clearly that he is not, time, people are not going to stay watching tele- and they see no connexion between the situation in vision. They know what's going to happen." the film and national service in wartime. And another suggested that this would be more In this and other respects, children come to rt alistic: appreciate the stylized and conventional nature of "I think they ought to have more television series Westerns.In the following incident they demon- with the burglars and murderers getting away strate it to themselves. They were talking about because nut all the policemen catch them, dothey?" Whiplash, a Western series set in Australia. The hk_.'o of this series uses a boomerang and a whip 2.Westerns instead of a gun. He righteously points out that he does not use a gun because this would encourage Children might be encouraged to discuss the peren- others to do the same. An attempi was made to nial popularity of Westerns what they themselves persuade the children to see the confusion and like about Westerns, and what makes them differ- dishonesty inherent in this attitude.They were ent from other television series. They should be asked why he did not use a gun: persuaded to analyse the qualities of the various Peter: "Well, he didn't want them all to starL Western heroes and to ask whether they seem like being gunslinger s like they are out in America." real people or mere stereotypes. They might also George: "Yes.If he'd fired a gun against consid-n the Western as a piece of story telling another man, they'd all have startec and it would and examine the plausibility and predictability of have been a massacre." the plot. They should realize also that there were Barry. "He killed a person with a boomerang. He didn't like using a gun." 4 5 Teacher: "What's the difference?" opposite sex. Youth is highly Jesirable but old Eric: "If the man was on a horse, you see, age is something to be forgotten.Anything new is riding along, and someone throws a boomerang good and anything old is bad. and it clouts the back of his neck, it breaks it. Thus a host of attitudes and values, and a pic- But if he shcots and it makes a hole, they know ture of contemporary society, are dragged up he's been shot and try to find out who it is.With a from the depths of the commercials. These boomerang, they'll say he's fallen on to the ground things must then be examined. Again, discussion and broken his neck." is the best method.It may not prevent young Keith: "Yes. Not such a messy job." people from being influenced by commercials, but Thus killing is discussed entirely in practical at least they willrealize why they are being terms and from the killer's point of view.In fact, influenced. Here are some examples of this of course, none of these children could conceive dragging up process ana of the examination of the of actually killing anybody themselves, however results: much they might talk about it.They are here 1.An advertisement for a beverage called thinking entirely within the framework of Western Horlicks claims that it makes you sleep better conventions. Such a discussion might be followed and that you thereby become less bad tempered. by a study of two examples of screen violence, one This is always illustrated by a scene in which a realistic (as in Saturday Night and Sunday Morning) mother becomes angry with her child and, what is and the other stylized (as in The Quiet Man). worse, is observed by a neighbour. Children were asked to describe what happened in the 3.Advertisements advertisement: Ray: "It shows you how nervous she is.She Television commercials are of particular import- buys some Horlicks and it makes her better." ance in television education because they are the Teacher: "Is a mother ill because she gets one feature of television which deliberately sets angry when her boy tips the goldfish all over the out to influence children's values and attitudes, floor?11 preferably without their knowing it.The teacher's Garry: "No. My mother's like that all the time." task, therefore, is to get children thinking about Ray: "My mum's niggly (irritable) but I don't commercials, to persuade them to bring to the think she needs Horlicks." surface of their minds, and to examine, the values Thus they begin to realize that those moments implicit in the commercials. Children must also of irritation from which we all suffer are not a examine the picture of contemporary society pre- disease needing special treatment. sented by these commercials. A class project is 2.Teacher: "Why are there so many young an ideal method of dning all this.Children have people in commercials?" ample opportunity for close study at home, for the John: "You get young people on there and it same commercial may be repeated many times makes the older people forget they're old." during the course of one week. Tape recordings of Bill: "Yes.If they put old people in, it would round tracks may also be analysed in the classroom. remind all the young people they're going to get Thus a class might be divided into groups. One old." group is asked to note commercials in which it is 3.Teacher: "What is it that makes families in claimed that the product advertised will help to commercials so happy?" create a happy family or make you feel that you Peter: "They've got plenty of money." are a successful parent; another group will count Teacher: "How do you know?" those which offer the energy and vitality of youth; Peter: "By the layout of the house. They've a third group will collect commercials which sell got all these modern washing machines, food glamour and romance, etc.After the results of mixers and all that." this work have been analysed, the different groups Ken: "They don't have to be rich - you can get may be asked to find out what commercials have washing machines and that on the weekly (i.e. on to say about such subjects as work, leisure, family hire purchase)." life, boy-girl relationships, youth, age, etc. Teacher: "Yes. Well, what else makes them Their conclusions are likely to be as follows: happy?" The purpose of work is to make leisure possible Keith: "Being on television, I suppose." and to enable you to earn enough money to enjoy it. The last remark illustrates the danger of assu- Work is never something satisfying or useful in ming knowledge which the children may not have. itself.Fnjoying leisure is one of the most import- It had not occurred to this boy that television ant things in life, and you cannot enjoy it without families are actors playing parts. money. Family life is nearly always happy 4.Cigarette commercials are alarge subject because the family always have clean clothes and of study in themselves. Among the most inter- have good and tasty things to eat and drink. The esting are those for Strand cigarettes.(1) In each essentials of a good home are that it must be clean, one, a young man, alone in a big city late at night, hygienic and free of unpleasant smells.Cigarettes, shoe polish and detergents, as well as cosmetics (1) Three of these may be borrowed from the and hair cream, can help you to get on with the British Film Institute.

46 consoles hi .self with a cigarette.Here is what a bulletins is one way of exposing loaded items like group of or 'dren said about them: this. Lionel: "here aren't many shots in the film. A more common fault in the presentation of news It'd be exciti,.g if there were lots of shots. There is illustrated by another incident.President aren't many cuts and its's not exciting.It's more Eisenhower had been addressing the United Nations peaceful and lonely." General Assembly. A recording of his words Teacher: "Why make it peaceful and lonely?" arrived in Britain next day, but without pictures, George: "To advertise the cigarettes as being and in the news bulletin his words were accompan- smooth." ied by pictures of African delegates who were Teacher: "Will it sell cigarettes?" clearly bored by whatever they were listening to. Eric: "It gives you a good example of the man The point is that they appeared to be listening to waiting for his girl friend.She doesn't turn up the President, whereas in fact there was no way and then he lights a cigarette, being fed up with of telling whether they were or not. The incident her not coming." does not imply an anti-American bias in the pre- Teacher: "Yes, but will it sell cigarettes?" sentation of news.It simply means that the Eric: "Yes, it shows people they're nice and screen has to be filled somehow. Children should smooth." be made to realize this, and also that there is a This discussion, of course, misses the point strong tendency to fill it with something entertaining completely, and it illustrates the difficulty of rather than with important news. countering the "depth approach" in commercials. They will therefore need to know, in Britain if The point of this approach is to play on hidden not elsewhere, something about television as an fears and desires and it is not easy to persuade industry.That the commercial television com- children to reveal, even to themselves, their panies obtain all their revenue from advertising deepest feelings. The mcst one can do in this case is of the greatest importance because it makes is to point out that most people are afraid of being for a strong tendency to do anything to keep viewers lonely, and that the advertiser is using this fear. watching. Nor is the BBC free from this tendency, It is sometimes said that the approach to advert- for too great a reduction in BBC viewing figures isements which has been described here encourages might create an irresistible demand for the aboli- children o be cynical about everything.It certainly tion of the licence fee which constitutes the BBC's encouraps them to be cynical about advertisements revenue. and indeed one purpose of this sort of work is to Armed with this kind of information, children teach elildren to question tL. motives and methods might be asked: "Suppose you were responsible of ads ertisers. Do they as a result come to believe for the news. How would you choose which news that there is no goodness anywhere in the world? to present?" The discussion which follows will This attitude may result from too prolonged a study reveal a tendency to present whatever news has of television commercials, and it is worth recalling most visual interest.Hypothetical illustrations here Muriel Telford's comment that the greatest should be used. Which is more important and danger is not the soft head but the hard heart, but which is likely to get most time in the news - a there are many other television programmes which, disarmament conference or a fire?the Common given awareness and receptiveness on the part of Market or a royal wedding? At this point, a tele- the children, will do all that is necessary to prevent vision study extract called Vox Pop should be their cynicism becoming universal. shown. Originally made for the BBC's Tonight !on the whole, the best of all British topical pro- 4.Topical and documentary programmes grammes), this film shows Alan Whicker question- ing passers-by about their knowledge of parlia- Most children are better informed about the world mentary business. around them than they were ten years ago.The There are some significant details in the film. reason is the number of topical and documentary A shot of ducks quacking is interpolated while one programmes they see on television.Many of these of the persons interviewed is advocating a 13- programmes are of great value, but many present month calendar and a decimal coinage.Since this a distorted picture of contemporary society and a was first broadcast, Britain has been promised a false view of life.The latter variety has been decimal coinage.At the time, many children selected for detailed study here. thought the idea was "nutty" because a "nutty" Even supposedly impartial news bulletins should character advocated it, and the ducks reinforced be examined. One recent example included pictures this view.Again a tape recording can be used to of refugees from Katanga arriving in Northern study the technique of a skilled interviewer. An Rhodesia, and the accompanying commentary went obviously middle class man, with bowler hat and something like this: "The United Nations forces umbrella, is approached: went to Katanga to get rid of white merck_naries, Whicker: "Do you follow the business of but all they have succeeded in doing so far is to get Parliament?" rid of white women and children.However, they Bowler hat: "Yes, up to a point - in so far as I will be in good hands in Northern Rhodesia." read the reports of the proceedings more or less Classroom study of tape recordings of news thoroughly. when I get the time, in the Times."

47 Whicker: "You read them in the Times because the people answering the questions are newspaper?" all nervous and they can't answer.If they get Bowler hat: "Yes." something wrong, you're at home sitting in an Whicker: "What do you consider were the major armchair saying 'Why didn't he get this right? bills dealt with in the last session?" He's missed his chance.'He's nervous and he Bowler hat: "Well, er, you've got me slightly doesn't want to go on with it, and you know he's off, er, just off balance for a minute - but I think saying 'Why did I do that?'I don't think I would the er, er, .... Would you like to give me a lead like to go on one of these programmes." on one?I might remember." However, the best example in Britain of this Whicker: "Well, I'm not quite sure what you human di3play is This is Your Life, derived by would consider the most important -since you do the BBC from a similar American programme. follow the business of Parliament." The person whose life is to be displayed does not Children will notice the polite but ruthless know beforehand, and he is usually lured to the method used by the interviewer. studio under the impression that he is to see The point to emerge most strongly from the film another programme. During the first few minutes, is that all who appeared were almost totally the compere builds up tension by inviting the audi- ignorant of parliamentary business. Children ence to speculate about the identity of the subject should be asked how many people were interviewed. of the programme. The compere then approaches They will give a variety of wrong answers, and the subject, who is usually someone who has will have to be reminded that the question was not devoted his life to the service of others, and says how many appeared, but how many were inter- "So-and-so, this is your life."The subject then viewed.Eventually, they will see the point: we comes on to the stage and for the rest of the pro- do not know how many were interviewed. What did gramme he is reminded of his past life by a pro- those who appeared have in common? They all cession of friends and relations who each contri- made us laugh. Were these people a truly repre- bute a little to the story. sentative sample or were they, as one boy called A film recording of an American example of them,"a load of goofs", chosen for their entertain- this programme is available from the British Film ment value? Again, we don't know. Institute. The subject of this programme is Alice One method of showing children that television Middleton McDougal, who was saved from the presents a selective version of reality is illustrated sinking "Lusitania" in 1915, and who has since in this discussion of a television documentary which spent much of her life in community service. This contrasts life in Britain most unfavourably with piece of study material, because it is on film, can British travel advertisements in the United States be projected several times and may therefore be of America: us,c: as an exercise in careful looking and listen- Teacher: "Suppose you had wanted to show a irl, as a means of increasing awareness and also picture of England at its best. Could you have as an introduction to the discussion of the import- done it?" ant issues raised by this kind of programme. George: "Yes, you could have gone into the Children will notice, for example, the constaat country lanes." use of large close ups as a means of displaying Lionel: "You could have gone into a railway intimate emotions, and they will notice that stills station when it wasn't busy. You could show of the sinking ship are accompanied by loud, comfortable seats in trains." blaring music. They will notice also other Keith: "You could show them what it's really methods by which the sensational value of the pro- like in a pub - you know, the doors open and gramme is increased. The compere says, "... the people going in ..." water came across the floor.You almost crawled Teacher: "So the sort of programme you get to the upper deck and you lay there clinging to the depends on what sort of pictures the television bottom of the railing. You put your hands over producer decides you are going to see. How can your ears" (brazen music at this point). An Irish you tell whether you are being given a true picture doctor who tended the survivors from the "Lusi- or not?In fact, can you tell at all? tania" then begins his part of the story, but the David: "You don't know. You just have to trust compere breaks in, "Yes, you were lying in the the person who is telling you." morgue for 24 hours with your fingers still in your ears."Mrs. McDougal then talks a little 5.Peep-show programmes incoherently about her experience, but the com- pere ruthlessly breaks in to ensure that the sensa- Perhaps the most distinctive feature of television tional details are not missed - "Is this the man is its power to display human beings for the who found you over there, and who saw your little entertainment of an audience of millions.This finger move just enough to know that you were type of display is sometimes apparent in quiz alive?"Children will notice too the hypocritical p )grarnmes, as witness these children's comments: sentimentality of the closing scenes of the pro- 'Double Your Money is funny because the quiz gramme in which Mrs. McDougal is given a master is always cracLing jokes about the people." variety of presents, each of which is shown in "I think these quiz programmes are all wrong close up with the compere saying the maker's

48 name. There is ample score for discussion in the Candid Camera, which consists of films, taken by compere's words: "Workingso much to help other a hidden camera, of ordinary people who have been people, transportation is of the utmostimportance placed in difficult situations. Thus theman whose to you, so we are giving you thenew 1956 "Mercury" job it is to create these difficult situations might phaeton, the most beautiful four-doorhard-top pretend to be a foreigner asking the way,or, on the American road." dressed as a parking meter attendant, he might The British version of thisprogramme is not so place a portable parking meter bya car and demand blatantly sensational, and it doesnot include a fine from the driver. The compere of the pro- advertisements, but it is neverthelessworthy of gramme always emphasizes three points: that the attention. Children should be encouragedto dis- purpose of the programme is to show how kind cuss questions such as: people are, that the victims Why is the programme are always unaware of so popular? what is happening, and that they always consentto Do you enjoy most the surprise inthe first few the films being shown. minutes? Some children find the programme entertaining: Do the subjects never suspect thatthey are to "It's fuany because people take part? aren't just doing their normal routine, and if theywere taken into a studio What sort of subjects do you like best- famous and told what to do it wouldn't be funny." or ordinary people? This child does not believe that the situations Would you like to hear about a subject's faults are manufactured, and he has given a goodreason. as well as his virtues? Other children did not agree: Do you think it does any harm to display a "It used to be good when it first startedbut now person's emotions to millions of people? people have got to know it.Half the time, they A classroom discussion of thesequestions pro- guess, and I think it's a bit far fetched now." duced the following comments: "I think it's too exaggerated, and halfof it is On the parade of human emotions: acted. They can't be as stupidas they're shown "You never know, but forsome people, it might on Candid Camera." bring back memories they don't want toremember. One boy agreed with one of the compere's claims: Last night, for example, where thewoman was "In nearly everyprogramme you see people paralysed, and another one where theman had his putting themselves out." leg Ltd off." However, the majority agreed with this "I think it's aprogramme for inquisitive people statement: who like to pry into other people's lives." "I +hink they try to take themickey out of people "Sometimos they overdo it.They come on and and it's not really fair.People who aren't very say 'Ah George' They give each othera kiss and educated don't know how to work thingsout, and it hug each other.It's overdone." shows what they are.If it were shown abroad, On whether ordinary or famous people makethe people would think the English lymt entertainment: were mad." "If I were on, I'd be enjoyingeery minute of it, Some questions for discussion but the people viewing it- I don't h-link they'd be very interested in what my life was or what Do the methods described here relations I had." encourage children to think about series of programmes ratherthan "Sometimes they make ordinarypeople interest- individual items?If so, is this dangerous? ing but other times they can't findanyone to bring Is it permissible for the teacher in on so they just bring on their relations." a discussion to try and lead children towards conclusionshe On the entirely praiseworthy nature of the already has in mind? Or should he subjects life: always allow the discussion to go in any directionchosen by the "He might havesome enemies but I don't think children? they'd bring them on because it's all rehearsed." Some programmes deserve amore positive "Sometimes I think they ought to bring in a few approach than is described in this section.What bad things a person's done. Theyput all the good methods might be ub,...!`n things in." such an approach? To what extent would the methods of detailedstudy "Sometimes they do.There was an army person described in Section I be suitable? and he was caught being drunk and discederly." Is it necessary to teach children to becynical (But of course drunkennesswas treatc i as a virtue about some kinds of television?If so, how great rather than a vice. ) is the danger that their cynicism will Had the subject become all- sFed that he had been chosen? embracing, and how can this danger beavoided? "They had to tip Nivzi offbefore the show, and he What teaching methods other thanthose des- goes along and pretends he doesn't know anything cribed here are necessary with otherkinds of about it." television, such as music and comes.'y? "I think they overdo thesurprise part - when the compere stands at the door andsays,'I think I can hear him coming now." Another of these peep-showprogrammes is

49 SECTION V main subject and the number of teachers practised in film and television work who also possess these THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCREEN other necessary qualifications is very small. EDUCATION: SOME PROBLEMS Thus any Ministry of Education or other author- ity which intends to promote this work should seek In the opening section of this study it was assumed out suitable people at the earliest possible stage that a close relationship exists between film and and enable them by secondment or by a period of television.That the relationship is in fact very research and experimental practice to equip them- close has now been demonstrated. The difference selves to undertake courses of teacher training in is not so much between film and television as the new subjects. between various methods of using moving pictures, The difficulty will be eliminated in time, but most of which methods apply equally to films and can be a serious check to development. One of to television.There are, however, important the most obvious ways of overcoming it is to differences between cinema and television, both in establish academic or professional qualifications content and in the situation of the audience, so in the field of television and cinema so that there must be certain differences of emphasis teachers may acquire them and interested between film education and television education. teachers in training may be encouraged to slant Nevertheless film education is very similar to their efforts in this direction.The possibility and television education; the two should be integrated methods of achieving this will vary widely from in practice, and the term "screen education" used country to country. However, it is worth drawing to denote both. attention to the extensive discussion of the prob- The rate at which screen education can develop, lem of teacher training in a report entitled Film even given the will to further it, depends on the and Television in Education for Teaching, prepared supply of teachers competent to undertake the work. by a joint working party of the professional asso- The situation in this re53pect varies from country ciation of training college lecturers in Britain and to country, but nowhere does a large enough body The British Film Institute and published by the of teachers exist to enable the work to be under- latter body. Among their main recommendations taken on a national scale. Much more serious, was that: there is probably no country in the world where a "There ought to be in each college one lecturer real effort is being made to provide teachers with at least who can help students to acquire a more the necessary training. than superficial knowledge of film and television." The situation in Britain is probably as hopeful The importance of courses, summer schools as that in any country, but the fact remains that and the like for practising teachers should not be the advancement of screen education is greatly minimized, but the most important contribution to hampered by the lack of adequate teacher training. the spread of screen education undoubtedly lies in It is important to recognize, however, that the, the introduction of this work into the teacher-train- problem is not, for the present at least, one of ing colleges, probably at several levels.Again, finding the teachers, but of finding the teachers to to quote the above-mentioned report: teach the teachers. Thanks largely to tile efforts II....every teacher should be given some kind of the Society for Education in Film and Television, of introduction, even if only to create a climate backed and encouraged by the British Film Institute, of informed opinion in which the specialist and a variety of teaching techniques have been explored semi-specialist can exer their full influence. and hundreds of teachers, without any formal Ideally also the teachers' colleges should be turn- training and often without much encouragement ing out each year both specialists capable of taking from the education authorities who employ them, charge of the subject in a large school and semi- have been able to sustain courses within their specialists who can make a contribution to the work schools.Inevitably the most active and best quali- within the compass of another subject or an out-of- fied of these have tended, as the years pass, to school activity." move out of the classroomsome to become head The training of adequate numbers of teachers, teachers, others into educational administration, then, is the sine qua non for the development of some into the film and television industry itself. screen education in schools. A trained screen Meanwhi1e ale teacher-training colleges are be- teacher, however, will not be able to do his work coming aware of the importance of this branch of without the support of head teacher, , inspectors and education, and some, wishing to introduce courses administrators , for only thus will he be given the time into their syllabuses, are looking for lecturers he needs. He will also need money to hire films and a competent to undertake them.It is proving difficult projector to screen them. Most British schools are to fill these and other comparable posts. The usual equipped with a 16 mm. projector, and the allocation of procedure in a training college is to appoint a money for film hire will usually follow if a teacher lecturer in a recognized subject who can spend a is given time for screen education. How is this proportion of his or her time taking television and time to be found? A certain amount of screen film courses - only in one case has film and tele- education can be given as an out-of-school activity, vision itself been the main subject.Lecturers notably through school film societies, but such an must have high academic qualifications in their approach is extremely limited. Experience in

50 flourishing of duce a completely newsubject than to adapt or Britain shows that even the most in the curriculum. school film societies will attract amembership of extend one which is already children in the schoo/, and Moreover, the curriculum inmost schools is no more than half the already fragmented into as many asa dozen differ- no more than one-quarterof these will attend any without relation to each follow-up discussion. The use ofother methods ent subjects, often taught out-of-school basis will other. The time is longoverdue for a process of of screen education on an of the curriculum in attract even smaller numbers ofchildren. integration, for a rethinking education must terms of La ee or four broadspheres of human It is clear, then, that screen should be one of these have its place in the school curriculumif every activity. "Communication" is likely spheres, and film and televisionmight find their child is to be taught. To find this place words, music, to be the prospective screenteacher's most diffi- natural place here, along with knowledge and the painting, etc. To introduce screeneducation in cult problem. The advance of towards the increasingly complex nature of Twentiethcentury relation to another subject is a step considerable necessary integrationof the curriculum. life and work have already caused education overloading of the school curriculumand even It has been suggested that screen authorities are might best be related to artteaching.It must be when head teachers and education emphasized again that screeneducation should be sympathetic to the introductionof screen education provided that the they may be reluctant to sanctionthe addition of introduced in any way possible, teacher responsible, whateverhis subject, is an yet another subject. Nevertheless, The present school curriculum,however, is not enthusiast for film and television. of education has to relate sc-een education to artteaching is per- sacrosanct. Indeed, the content teachers usually changed with the changingneeds of society. haps not a good solution, for many art systems seem to would tend to be preoccupied withformal qualities Unfortunately, most educational picture composition, labour under a heavy weightof inertia, and teachers in films and plays, such as reasons for to the exclusion of moreimportant things. To have always been good at inventing mother tongue teaching, teaching subjects which are nolonger as important relate screen education to on the other hand,while not without its dangers, as they were.Changes in the curriculum have Again, there are both practi- usually happened too slov ly sothat Latin, for is a better solution. necessity of educa- cal and theoretical reasonsfor this. The mother example, which was the prime time, to use tion in mediaeval times, stilldominated education tongue is usually given substantiai for screen education one outof four or five hours in the very different worldof the Nineteenth feasible and more century. Those who believe inthe importance of per week of that time is more therefore seek to hasten the desirable than to use half of the onehour per week screen education must If screen education process of change in the contentof education. usually given to art or music. be carried on at a is to be added to the curriculumsomething else The work of propaganda must less time; to reduce the number of different levels. Oneof the most import- must be omitted or given colleges, but no time spent on certain aspectsof a "major" subject ant of these is the teacher-training interminable less important, at any rate inBritain, is each (for example, to do fewer of those language exercises which take up somuch time in individual school.If the head teacher is not already practicable than to convinced of the importance of screeneducation - many British schools) is more take time from a"minor" subject or drop ii and there are few who arethe first step towards relate the introduction of screen educationis to convince entirely.Again, it is more logical to for screen screen education tomother tongue teaching. There him by rational persuasion. The case here, in that the teacher education, after all, is simple andcompelling: is, of course, a danger communication and a may adopt a too literaryapproach to film and tele- that the screen is a means of too much on the form of art at least as important as thosewhich vision, that he may concentrate scenario and think of plot andcharacter indepen- already have an established place inschools. which are used Some screen education donevoluntarily as an out- dently of the means of expression to develop the plot and portraythe characters.It of-school activity will probably help the process that where screen education of rational persuasion, and may welllead to the is essential therefore granting of permission for a small pilotexperiment. is related tomother tongue teaching, the teacher must have received training in screeneducation. Once the will to succeed has been established, emphasized that the there is a good chance that the obstacles willbe In conclusion, it must be of course, is to principal task of the propagandistis to demon- overcome. The main problem, is not a narrowly find the necessary time, and solutionsto this prob- strate that screen education There are a specialized field of study.Tts scope is nothing lem will vary from school to school. human experience few schools in Brhain where screeneducation is less than the complete range of At the expressed in a form which is morefamiliar to successfully taught as a separate subject. traditional forms of present stage of development, it isdesirable that most children than any of the screen education shouldbe introduced in any way communication. To make children more respon- possible. There are good reasons, bothpractical sive to this form of experience isnot only the task introduce it of the teacher directly engaged in screeneducation. and theoretical, for not attempting to education as a separate subject.It is more difficult to intro- The extent to which the aims of screen

51 will be achieved depends very largely on the work If it should be integrated with another subject, of teachers who are not specifically engaged in it. which one? It is often said in English schools that every What are the practical difficulties of (a) intro- teacher is a teacher of English.In a much more ducing, (b) integrating screen education into the fundamental sense, every teacher is engaged in curriculum? How may these difficulties be screen education. overcome? Should the study of film and television be related Some questions for discussion to the general aesthetics of art?If so, how? Will the widespread practice ofscreen education Should screen education be taught as a separate bring about an improvement in the general quality subject or integrated with another, (a) ideally of what cinema and television offer?If so, how? (b) under present conditions? Is the fundamental purpose of screen education to make children better people?

52 APPENDIX Il

THE AESTHETICS OFTELEVISION") by Evalina Tarroni, Rome

The television IS TELEVISION AN ART? the programmes transmitted. screen can show viewers adocumentary film, a feature film, a play performed in thestudio, a The question mostfrequently asked about television actual nature; is television an art or quiz game, a concert, a footballmatch, a religious concerns its This means that in one is it merely a technical meansof transmission service or a news story. introduces no change in, evening the viewer is confrontedwith entirely which adds nothing to, and of a real event, the subject matter transmitted? different situations; the reporting this subject. Some a theatrical performance, or agame in which he Experts differ widely on believe, for what flatly deny that television is anart.Marty asserts is asked to take part. He must vehicle." (2) Qu6val he is shown is taking place at the sametime as he that "television is simply a faculties for and Thévenot maintain that"even if we accept that sees it;he must exercise his critical fixed, television treat- he is watching a more or lessartistic performance; the frontiers of art are not and he engages in ment does not encouragethe highest hopes." he must take part in the game, "Television is made from theatre,cinema, litera- a kind of dialogue withthe person conducting it. music." (3) The list of experts Such examples could bemultiplied, but those ture, painting and sufficient to explain and justify who do not believe in theartistic possibilities of already given are indefinitely, but the the uncertainties of the theorists.On the basis of television could be extended transmitted, list of those who are convincedof these possibilities the great diversity of the programmes it is easy to conclude thattelevisbn is a vehicle is just as long. I/ than the cinema It may perhaps be well toexamine more closely more like an aeroplane or a car the arguments advanced bythose who maintain that or theradio." (5)It is not surprising, therefore, that some theorists, consideringthings from this television is an art. content rather than Renato May (Italy) observesthat "the school of viewpoint, have stressed the thought which supports the 'magic'of the camera the form of programmes. strongly affirming ... Nevertheless, there is an altogetherdifferent has some justification for of the critic.s on the the natural possibility of anindependent language..." reason for the disagreement research t,) define nature of television. But he also observes that only much more the means used by television canshow us the pro- The point is that with television, development of an art of tele- than with radio and the cinema, we cometo grips cess of historical with entirely new facts to which ourmental pro- vision. element of the cesses are notaccustomed. Our aesthetic con- May attempts to find in each from a 2,000 year language of television the factorwhich differentiates cepts, which we have inherited Bretz gives old tradition, relate to works of artwhich are, so it from cinematographic expression. material - marble, a very clear definitionof the art of television, to speak, crystallized in solid and topical paper, canvas, etc. ... based on the immediate spontaneous cannot be nature of televised communication."The audience But radio, cinema and television is attracted, included in these traditional concepts.Here we watching a television programme and shade, vibrations of precisely, by the real andimmediate nature of the are dealing with light picture. The public derivesseveral kinds of satis- (1) This paper was commissionedby Unesco to faction from watching a televisionprogramme, but serve as a discussiondocument at the Inter- thsatisfactions due to the threequalities of imme- national Meeting on Film and Television cliacy, spontaneity and topicalitybelong to television Teaching held at Leangkollen, Osloin alone." October 1962. D'Alessandro, for his part, seeksthe character- (2) Rudolph Marty. La TV et son aspectculturel istic language of television in thehuman element: et sociologique, Paris,Editions du "The essential subject of every goodtelevised Tembourinaire, 1958. picture is man.""Television is the art of imitative (3) Jean Quéval and JeanThévenot. TV. Paris, movement." (4) It may now be asked whyopinions Gallimard, 1957. concerning the nature of television are soconflict- (4) Angelo D'Alessandro,"TV, arte del movi- ing.In my view there are two entirelydifferent mento mimico", in Lo svettacolotelevisivo. reasons for the prevailingdisagreement between Rome, Edizioni dell'Ateneo,1957. theorists of television. (5)Rudolph Arnheim. La radio cercala sua forma. The first reason is therichness and variety of Rome, Hoepli, 1957. 53 sound and light (especially in radio and television) TELEVISION BETWEEN THE CINEMA which die away even as theycome into being. AND THE RADIO Nothing remains of them. That is whywe are tempted to deny their existence. The first question which arises in a discussionon But we must try to weave a web thatcan capture the art of television is that of the nature of tele- these new experiences of life.In other words we vision.Its similarities to the radio, on theone need to find a new aesthetic formula for analysing hand, and the cinema, on the other,are striking. their characteristics. Like radio, it is broadcast by electro-magnetic Leaving aside the traditional formulas,we might waves and is received in the home, reaching the try to define art as a series of actions carriedout family circle never penetrated by entertainments by man with specific instruments (thepen, the before the popularization of Marconi'sinvention. brush, the chisel, etc. ) and with different materials Like the cinema, it communicates by picturesand (paper, canvas, marble or wax), to make hisinner words simultaneously. visions perceptible to others, i.e. to arouse parti- It is here, precisely, that controversy begins. cular sensations in others. (Every artist,more- Is television radio enriched by picturesor, con- over, uses a technique peculiar to his art - the versely, is it cinema broadcast in thesame way painter's way of laying on his colours, for instance.) as radio? The question is not as vain as it seems. There can be no art without a public, for ultimately For those who maintain that television is derived art is only communication. Works of art cannot from radio also believe that speech playsa more exist without the perceptive capacity of the public. important part than pictures in televisedcommu- By using an instrument, a material anda technique, nication. On the other hand, those who maintain the artist gives concrete form to his work. that television and cinemaare "two aspects of the As soon as an instrument, a material anda tech- same phenomenon, two different aspects of the art nique become available, man hasa new art form at of expressing oneself in moving pictures" (1)give his disposal, at least potentially.This applies, pictures the predominant rede- which is bound to precisely, to television. affect both the critical assessment ofprogrammes In television we have, without any possible doubt, and the actual style of their presentation. an instrument (the camera and other technical In an interview with a journalist from Cinémonde equipment), a material (for after all, soundwaves in 1953, René Clair observed: "I havenever seen and light waves are themselves a material), and a anything on television which could not be shownon technique (the artist must carry outa series of a cinema screen."Philip Bate, on the other hand, operations which are by no means identical with asserts that "television is nothing but an extension those carried out by a film directoror the of... radio.Pictures have been added to sound, producer of a play). just as thirty years ago sound was added to pictures Television can therefore legitimately be regarded in the cinema." (2) as a new art, at least potentially.This certainly It is true enough that television and radio have does not mean that every televisionprogramme more than one characteristic in common: both must be a work of art, or was intended to be. use electro-magnetic waves; both can transmit Another question arises here whichwas raised events or performances instantaneously; bothare in almost identical terms at the advent of the put out by a broadcasting company. cinema and, before that, at the advent of printing. The similarities between television andcinema The cinema, printing and televisionmay serve are also quite evident. The small screen as vehicles for the most widely differentcommu- "conjugates" pictures and sound to makea signi- nications. The printer mayuse the same type for ficant communication. There isno doubt that the a poem by Rimbaud or an advertising poster.In movement of the pictures, the manner of cutting television, the cathode ray tube may offerus, on its and camera distance are factors which helpto lines, the latest political news,a commercial retain the spectators' attention.It is equally announcement, or the Persae of Aeschylus. The obvious that television writers cannot neglect the tecnnique used to make these different subjects picture and its significance and rely solelyon perceptible and to give them existence is undoubtedly speech for communication. identical in the three cases. It must not be forgotten that in television the The same conclusions must be drawnas have picture is not as impressive as it is in thecinema; already been drawn in regard to the cinema, it is subject to limitations of different kinds.The printing and radio, namely, that televisionis question this raises is, precisely, that of thelimi- always, and above all, a means ofcommunication, tations of television as an art form andas a means even though in some cases it can be an art. of communicationa question which will be exa- It now remains to be seen howwe can define the mined more thoroughly lateron. For the present, means of expression peculiar to televisionas an art.In other words what, ifany, are its specific (1) Renato May, Civiltà delle imrnagini, Rome, features? We must also consider andevaluate its Cinque Lune, 1956. limitations and pos.,,ibilitiesas a means of (2)Philip Bate, "Ballet, Opera and Music", communication. Television in the making, Ed. Paul Rotha, London, The Focal Press, 1956.pp. 69-76. 54 we must consider the effects of two different con- human encounters. That is the opinion of the cepts of the nature of television on the structure Italian critic, T. Kezich, and of many other of television entertainment and communication, writers. on the choice of pr3grammes and on the rolewhich According to this second theory, television, television itself must play in relation to the other being an instrument available to modern man for means of communication. knowing and representing the reality of human life, Marcel L'Herbier (1) considers that "television can above all be used as a means of civicand is generally more phonic than pictorial", while social education. H. Billen and A. Brincourt a',firm that eloquence The fact of tracing the origin of television back retains its rights in television and, hence, that to radio or, conversely, to the cinema, is not exclusive rights cannot be accorded to the picture without its effects on the structure of the language alone. GeorgesBarnes(2) confirms that the public of television, the choice of programmes, the should be guided by speech.This predominance of emergence of new types of entertainment(televised speech is accompanied by a particular quality of games, variety shows, survey3 etc.) and,lastly, speech on television, a quality which is also to be on the relationships between television andits found in radio speech: the quiet, intimate, confi- audience. We might draw the following diagram: dential quality of speech "from the heart to the ear" (0. Foerster). The friendly and confidential Television quality of televised communication obviously could ,00\ ,, not fail to affect the relationship between television Radio Cinema and its public. But it also has its effect even in Speech Picture the extremely important matter of choosingenter- Intimacy and surrealism Realism tainment programmes and the contents of news Contemplation or evasion Awareness and reports. Dreams social education If one takes this view of television, stressing its confidential, quiet and intimate character, the But this diagvam, though convenient like all most suitable programme material is undoubtedly diagrams, is nevertheless rather far from reality. intimate theatre.Iglesis, for example, admits The fact is that the concept of the cinema and that he has chosen "the path of invention andfiction" televisinn as two distinct manifestations of the because, in his opinion, television lends itself language of pictures can no longer be maintained. better to the creation of works of art Lnan to the The error, which results from the way the prob- objective reproduction of reality. lem is presented, lies in having placed speech On the other hand, there are those who maintain beside pictures and treated it as an adjunct to that television and the cinema are akin, and who them. Neither the cinema nor television confines consequently emphasize the importance of the itself to representing reality by pictures, while picture for purposes of televised communication. using speech only to fill in the gaps in those R. Greene of Columbia University maintains that pictures.The cinema tends increasingly towards the key to visual writing is the charade, by which the integral representation of reality.In this he means an idea expressed and represented by framework, speech is inside the picture, not means of a symbolic representation. The idea beside it. may originally have been expressed in words but Television is not cinema but, in my opinion, it the charade transposes it symbolically. is following the same course, for it was born of According to this theory, the picture, and especi- the same need: to represent reality completely, ally the televised picture, is only a reflection of but by means of different instruments, a different the real world. (Marcel L'Herbier says it would material and a different technique in otherwords, be possible not to call it a picture at all, since the by a different art. television screen does not produce pictures, but The greater or lesser emphasis on speech or only lines composed of intermittent electronic picture in each programme is due solely to the signals.) According to N. Ve,ires, television has different sensibilities of the authors. We are the faculty of continually destroying its prefabricated dealing with a new art; and every art develops in pictures and substituting more and more Eying three directions, which are determined by three pictures.Several critics are convinced that video different factors: the development of tools and is only a translucid crystal which filters the images techniques; the demands of the social environment; of realitythat it does not convey documents, but and the personalities of the artists who lead the reality itself, or rather, the shadow or reflection development of the art in one direction or another of reality. by using these techniques and trying to satisfy If television is considered from this very differ- these demands. ent angle, it is clear that its content will also change (1)Marcel L'Herbier, "Pouvoirs de la tele- completely.According to L'Herbier, "Reality is vision"in Lo spettacolo televisivo, the spice of television ... this margin of unpredict- op. cit. ability gives live transmissions an incomparable (2) Georges Barnes, "Radiodiffusion et TV", interest ..."Above all, television has the faculty Cahiers de Radio-Télévisiont Paris, of capturing the dramatic element in events and No. 11, 1958.

55 The problem which now confronts usis this: however: it may range from a mere outline to a who, primarily, is the television author? And famous work by a great writer.In the latter case, next, what are the difficulties and limitations he can the director be given all the credit for the has to overcome? What is the series of operations merits of the transmission? For in the case of a he has to perform in producing his work? How do novel by Balzac or Dostuievsky or a play by they differ from the operations performed by a Shakespeare, we must recognize that the man who film author? invents the characters, the inherent logic of their We shall now attempt to find an answer to each actions, the coherence of their personalities and of these questions. the drarratic event; of their lives is the true creator cf the drama, the pet in the etymological sense of the word. The director who translates THE TELEVISION AUTHOR'S WORK the work into good television pictures remains, ir this case, a director and not an author it, the true Several experts have frequently observed that it is sense of the term. His work shows skill (in the difficult to define a television author.ft may be highest sense of the term), but not art.If he has considered that the author is the persun who puts no more than a mere outline in which the characters over a programme conceived by others, or the are only very vaguely suggested, his creative work producer, i.e. the person who chooses the text, will necessarily be more intense and more personal. the director, the actors, etc...In other cascs, In other words, there will be a gradation in his the author may be the writer of the text or even work, an inverse ratio between the quality of the the person who presents it.Finally, the author of written text and the creative value of its transpo- a television programme is the person who stamps sition to televisionIt may also happen that the it with his personality. The person generally author is not provided with a text and writes one called the author, however, is the director, who himself. The reasons why thi.s does not happen begins his work with a text he has chosen himself very often are quite accidental, and derive from or which has been chosen for him.It is on his certain well established production habits (not only reading and interpretation of that text that his in television, but even in the cinema).It is, in creative work depends. The text exists before it fact, very difficult to entrust the production of a is transposed or translated (these terms are very text to its author, even where this is practicable, important here).That is why several experts are for experienced directors are preferred.This inclined to deny the possibility of an art of tele- again confirms that directing is regarded as a vision and to assert that, on the contrary, television craft rather than as an art. is merely a means of transmitting different forms The same problem arises in film productions, of artistic expression. and it may be said that in recent years, when If this view is not accepted, at what point does producers have shown a preference for subjects the original creative work of the television author taken from great literary works, the misunder- begin?It is evident that the transposition of an standing has become even more evident. already existing text (drama, comedy, novel, etc. ) Indeed, the difficulty of formulating an unambi- from one form to another raises a series of prob- guous theory concerning the author of a televised lems and difficulties, whether it is the text of a or even a filmed work, arises precisely irom the play, a novel or a film. There are problems of fact that the relationship between the director and narrative structure which arise when the work is the writer of the text varies from one case to transposed from one means of communication to another, from the vaguely sketched idea which is another.It might be thought that such difficulties no mui-0 than a stimulus for the director, to the arise mainly with novels or stories, but they also great novel or famous play in which the characters arise with plays and films.It is readily accepted nave been created once and for all.D'Alessandro that the story line of a novel cannot be faithfully observes, in this connexion, that the attitude an followed on the television screen.It would be author adopts towards the text proposed to him almost impossible to follow the author in all the may be of three kinds: faithfulness to the spirit of twists and turns of his story.Besides, the situa- the work, faithfulness to the spirit and the form, tion of a television viewer is quite different from complete independence in regard to both these that of a novel reader, who devotes much more elements.In this context, we could go from craft time to his recreation. The first task of the tele- to art, and from translation to creation. vision author is to make a time synthesis, which will lead him to eliminate certain parts of the literary work and to emphasize others.In the THE LIMITATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES second place, he must cast the leading characters OF TELEVISION in the novel, and his choice will clearly depend on his sensibility and imagination.Lighting, camera In trying to define what we mean by art, we referred angles and sets are also important factors in to the instrument, the material and the technique. achieving a successful result and a felicitous inter- These terms will now be very helpful for understand- pretation of the text the author has before him. ing the work of the television dirLictor. The quality of the text may differ very widely, The first difference which strikes us in attempting

56 to distinguish between films and television is the It is well known that there are writei s renowned smaller size of the television screen as compared for the perfection of their style, who cannotspeak with the cinema screen.It may be added that, in in public. On the other hand, there are able recent years, the cinema has shown a tendency to speakers who can capture the attention of an develop its spatial possibilities.Television, on audience by the direct and spontaneous character the other hand, develops its pictures in depth, of their eloauence.It is obvious that the mental wherever possible, never in width. The conse- processes Li the two groups are not the same: quences, within the framework of a standard tele- whereas the former need to reflect and concentrate vision language, are multiplications: Lie fore- in order to express their thoughts, the latterhave ground becomes the essential element in television; quicker reactions which enable them to find an general views must be avoided; the number of effective form of expression at once. The same actors appearing on the screen at once cannot be applies to television and film authors. The rela- more than three or four.It might be said that, tionship between films and television is the same with its limitations, the television screen seems as that between a book and aspeech. destined to be a frame for the human face. And it Here again we come up against the essential is a fact that in technical television terminology characteristics of television: immediacy, spon- camera distance is defined not bythe space sur- taneity and topicality. rounding the actor, but by his size.In television, Television is thus a kind of immediate communi- space is defined according to themovements and cation, which amounts to saying that in television actions of the actor.It is impossible to imagine expression and representation coincide, i.e. that an original televisionproduction using a shot like the time for creation is the same as the time for those of Charlie Chaplin seen from behind as he showing the work, that the time element is the walks away down a long, long road. same for the director as it is for thespectator. But in the end, what should be one of the main Can we therefore conclude that television time is limitations of televised expression has led to one identical with real time, whereas cinema time is, of its new possibilitiesnamely, a capacity for so to speak, artificial?In my opinion, such a psychological penetration of the character which conclusion cannot be drawn.In an artistic creation, neither the cinema nor the theatre possesses. time is always idealized.The author of a television Several experts have remarked on this essential programme, even if it is a report on a real event, characteristic of the language of television. May can never respect the exact time.Consider, for asserts that "the first and essential object of every example, a televised reportage of a religious or effective television picture is man." Norman social ceremony. Neither the camera, nor the Swallow, referring to the documentary commenta- cameramen can be everywhere at once.Then tor, says that "television is and will remain a again, even if several cameras are used, the medium linked to a personality." (1) D'Alessandro author must make a selection and confine himself develops a theory of televised communication, to the parts which heconsiders the most import- which he defines as "the art of mimic mo-ement". ant.At a later stage we shall consider what effect It is, indeed, the movements of man which outline this has on the objectivity of news reporting. For space in television. the present, it is sufficient to have shown that the The validity of this theory is confirmed by the author of a television broadcast, whatever its success of televised games, which areessentially object (documentation, news, creation of an origi- bound up with the human personality as it really is. nal work), must remember that there is no later Compared with the film director, however, the stage at which he can change the story line of his television director has a great obstacle to overcome. work. He must find a time synthesis there and Whereas the film author carries out his work in then to satisfy the public. different phases, which range prom collaboration The small size of the screen, the absence of any in cutting to the final editing of the various sequences, subsequent editing, the immediate and spontaneous the television author is obliged to choose, in the nature of the communication, the need to develop control booth, the pictures which will immediately the story or drama by concentrating it, so to speak, appear on the screens of thousands of viewers.He in the faces of the leading characters and entrusting cannot afford any mistakes or hesitation. The pic- it to their movements, are, in short, the limitations tures have barely appeared on the screen before within which the television author must operate in they vanish, and their creator is no more able than performing his work. the viewer to go back and correct or improve them. These very limitations, however, may give rise These facts have two consequences: one which to possibilities for original expression, to the defines the author's personality and, basically, his extent that authors succeed in mastering themand vocation, and another which relates to the time turning them to their advantage. taken to represent reality on television. The television screen can gain in depth what it In order to understand the significance of the lacks in width. The television author will find it first point, concerning the relationship between the difficult to show us the grandeur and beauty of the author's personality and his work, it will be useful to consider the difference between a good writer (1) Norman Swallow, "Documentary, TV, Jour- and a good speaker. nalism"Television in the Making op. cit. 57 and work; but he This discussion of the technicallimitations of physical world in which men live touching on can show us its reflectionin the eyes and faces of television cannot be concluded without he can make us discoverthe the problem of the television actor,for the actor men. What is more, finds human face in all its complexityand beauty and accustomed to playing film or stage parts himself subject, in the television studio,to a depth of expression. difficul- The picture which television managesto offer us number of limitations which present many has, as yet, nothing of themarvellous beauty cap- ties for him to overcome. tured by the cinema image.This obliges authors Giorgio Albertazzi, a stage actor who has the frame as much as worked for Italian television, recognizesthat to limit the elements within acting: possible. there are special difficulties in television Yet this limitation may itselfbe transformed "In television, the actor is faced with special author who knows how to difficulties, such as the need to know hislines by into an advantage for the the get the best out of it.For here we come to one of heart and to synchronize action and words to the greatest possibilities ofthe art of television. second and to the millimetre ... By concentrating the dramaticconflict in a single ...As soon as the little red light on the camera it can come closer goes on, the actor must feelin advance that it is character or a few characters, caught in to the spectator and makehim participate in a way his turn, for it is essential not to be which, though less emotionaland impassioned than repose... Moreover, he mustbe conscious of the participation in the cinema, is noless lively because distance between him and the audience,which is the screen; it is more conscious.In other words, the television sitting no more than two yards from viewer can participate even st the rationallevel. he must keep himself in a statc ofconstant tension Moreover, the author enjoys greaterfreedom and maintain an uninterrupted flow ofexpression, in his narration.For instance, he can refer because he is so close to the viewer....The i.e. he television actor, revealed to the uttermostin the to his character in the third person, the measure of his can disassociate himself fromthe character when- economy of his movements and ever he considers itappropriate. He can use the artistic expression, has at least as much respon- inner voice. The character on the screen doesnot sibility as the director for his discoursewith the move his lips, but the voice wehear is his - it is public ...." (2) his inner voice: we, the spectators, arethus inside These confessions by a stage actor whohas the character himself and achieve maximumparti- gone over to television areuseful for an appreci- cipation. The thoughts and feelings expressedby ation of the very special difficultieswhich tele- Brincourt his words are reflected like waves 4_11his eyes and vision entails for its interpreters. face. This is one of the possibilities oftelevision: rightly observes that the television actor maybe representation of a drama, not in its external compared to an acrobat working without a net.As development (the facts), but in its psychological a result, his style ofperformance must be wholly especi- development.In this connexion, D'Alessandro different from that of the stage actor, and says that the narrativestructure of the television ally the film actor.It is mainly ori facial expres- drama should, indeed, be based on thedevelopment sion, rather than movements of thewhole body, his of thecharacters.0) that the television actor must rely to create Within the framework of this new prospect, we character. He must therefore develop anentirely authen- can again consider the problemof the relationship different style of acting characterized by between pictures and speech in television.It is ticity. He must master all the resources ofmime obvious that in a world in which the main, if notthe at his disposal, to the greatest possibleextent. only, element is man, speech is much moreimport- His delivery must, in a sense, be a"micro- In the film world, man is del:- ery',' for the slightest tensing ofhis facial ant than it is in films. It has often only one of the elements in thelandscape. muscles will h re an effect on the public. Hence speech cannot be substituted for pictures; been pointed out that television compel,the actor but in the world which television describes,speech for the first time to ask himself whatexpression is one of the most important elements. Nero must have worn when watching Romeburn. So far, at least - since we can make no assump- Another Italian stage actor, Paolo Stoppa,admitted tions about the future - the limitation is in the to a journalist from the Radiocorriere thattelevision representing of the world of nature.Televised had given the public, and even actorsthemselves, travelogues and documentaries are generally a taste for truth."Television," he added, "is affected by this limitation. Many of them owetheir inexorably destroying a certain type ofoutdated, success to the concentration ofinterest on human rhetorical and conventionalacting..." encounters and the discovery of a commonlevel of Here again, we have a very importantexample humanity among the persons shown.In certain of the advantages which an intelligentand sensitive cases this is a genuine discoverywhich we owe to author can derive from the technical limitationsof television.So once again the language of television owes its originality to its peculiarlimitations (1) Angelo D'Alessandro. Lo scenariotelevisivo, (which recall Arnheim's theory of cinema language) Milan, Corticelli, 1959. in so far as the author is able to turn them to his (2) Giorgio Albertazzi. La TV e l'attore, advantage. Sipario, January 1954.

58 television. For in television the author can estab- technical conditions for the work, television lish a creative collaboration with the actor of which reporting suffers some mutilation. Among the no other examples are to be found in the traditional numerous events of the day, it is necessary to theatre.It might even be said that, when he is select those which can be shot. Of these events, really aware of his possibilities, the television it is again necessary to select only those aspects actor is, in a sense, co-author of the televised which come within the field of view of the camera, play.At the same time his performance, confined depending on its position.Finally, the selection as it is within such narrow and rigid limits, pene- made is affected by the reporter's personality, trates deep into the psychology of the character, which means that it is not entirely objective. showing us, as it were, the full extent of the inner At a higher level, that of organization, we come landscapes of whose range and beauty we were on still finer filters.It must be recognized, at only dimly aware. this stage of our inquiry, that the structure of the Finally, it seems clear from this very brief television organization exerts a remarkable influ- examination of television's technicallimitations, ence on television news reporting. that they can always be converted by a skilful and The great mass communication media, television intelligent author into so many potentialities and and radio in particular, are now faced with an advantages. almost insoluble dilemma: if they are able to The limitations of television, however, are not escape the influence of ideological propaganda, solely technical.There are limitations of other which is exerted in totalitarian countries, they kinds, in particular, sociological and ideological inevitably succumb to economic forces, which limitations, which are not so easy to overcome. use them as tools, subjugating them to the tyranny We shall assess their importance and extent in of advertising.It is not difficult to understand how connexion with televised news reporting. this twofold tyranny is imposed on the public through television news reporting, especially if, for cultural reasons or merely on account of age, AUTHENTICITY AND DISTORTION the public is immature in its critical faculties. OF TELEVISED NEWS Television reporting which appears to nave the objectivity of the picture can, en the uther hand, As regards news reporting, there is no doubt that be manipulated, shaped and altered by a great television, no less than radio, should be considered many expedients: the amount of coverage given to as one of the most important socio-cultural condi- a news item, its place among other items, the tioning factors in our society. choice of shots, etc. An apparently objective Televised news appears to be the most authentic doeumentary on events occurring in a country form of news presentation.It has the tremendous whose régime has a different ideology from that advantage of the picture which enables us, Jr af the country to which the television organization should enable us, to participate, as it were, in the belongs, will show badly dressed people, poor events which the television report or news service houses etc.The scenes themselves may perhaps is peesenting.In addition, television shows us be authentic, but they will be deliberatel-1 chosen these events at the same time as they occur. This to give a certain impression of the way 4.hings are is why experts on information media have said that in the country shown. That is only one example, television gives the spectator the gift of ubiquity. but any number of others could be given, fui tele- After examining the situation more closely, how- vision is even more subject than other information ever, it is easy to see that it is not as favourable media to the forces which dominate society. as it may appear. On the other hand, television news reporting In reality, before reaching the public, informa- provides an element of participation which is lack- tion about real events, which should be the main ing in other information media.If television re- object of television as a means of communication, porting of an event of interest to the community is passes through a number of filters which leave it carried out under normal conditions, its value lies irremediably mutilated and distorted. These in the immediate character of the communication. filters are of sei.eral kinds and operate at The reporter transmits to us, direct, those different levels. aspects of the subject which he considers most First of all, it must be borne in mind that the significant. He has neither the time nor the means range of television news coverage is not as great to correct his impressions.In this case the visua) as might be supposed, for the complexity of the information explains itself by its wealth of detail technical equipment (cameras, microphones, and gives the viewer a knowledge and an under- cables, control trucks, etc.) in fact makes tele- standing of the event which may perhaps go beyond vision much less mobile than radio or the press. the intentions of the reporter and the directors of It must also be remembered that major political, the television organization. social or cultural events cannot always be covered, This result cannot be obtained, however, if and that even where they can, the observation viewers are not able to read the television pictures. conditions in which reporters and cameramen have We have already observed that a television broad- to work are not ideal. cast always constitutes a dialogue and that, in At the lowest level, therefore, i.e. that of the discussing television, one must not forget one of

59 the participantscertainly not the least important - the Servizio Opinioni della Radiotelevisione Italiana namely the public. show that certain programmes are watched by We must now examine the sociological composi- about 13,000,000 people, of whom 58per cent have tion and the psychological situation of thetelevision only an elementary education and 7 per centa public. universqy education.Various data are also avail- able concerning children and adolescents. Our inquiry showed a very high degree of interest,up THE TELEVISION AUDIENCE: to 98 per cent, between the ages of 8 and 12; 66 PROBLEMS OF CRITICISM per cent of children in the south and 59 per cent in the north watched tclevision daily. One of the phenomena that is most characteristic The data summarized above are sufficient to of the television audience is its extremely rapid show the special responsibilities whicha commu- growth, especially in certain regions.In Italy, nication medium such as television shouldassume for example, the number of licensed viewers towards its audience, especially an audience which, increased from 360,000 in 1955 to 1,000,000 in as we have seen, is characterized by a generally 1958, and 2,800,000 in 1961. In the United States low level of education or by extreme youth. the same growth curve was to be observedfr am Matters are still further complicated by the fact 1952 (17,000,000 viewers) to 1955 (37,410,000 that the television public comprisesgroups which viewers). differ very widely from the socio-cultural view- It would be very interesting to consider the point.It is here that the most difficult problem changes in this curve, which isnever uniform. arises: how to find a common denominator for But what concerns us here is the composition of groups which differ as to age, education, habits, the audience and its demands on the smallscreen. tastes and needs.Television authors must pre- Several experts have carried out researchon pare scripts which the majority of viewers can this subject and we shall endeavour to summarize understand, which do not disturb their consciences, their results. which do not cause fear or panic (the television The keenest interest in television is shown in audience is very easily alarmed), and whichare the lower age groups: from 5 to 7years. Accord- educational. ing to a survey carried out in Cambridge (Massa- We may now consider the psychological situation chusetts), American children spend two anda half of the television audience and whether it differs hours a day watching television. from that of the cinema audience. The results of a survey conducted in Italy show This problem has already been investigated.in that interest in television programmes beginsas connexion with different age levels by psychologists early as the first year and remains strong untilthe and sociologists.It is clear that the situation of tenth year. The geographical and socio-cultural the television viewer is very different fromthat of environment greatly affects the interestcurve. the cinema spectator; and this difference mightbe As regards the relationship between the cultural summed up by saying that the television vieweris level and interest in television. the figuresare in a position to make a rational criticism,in the equally instructive; interest in elevision is sense that he regards television mainly as ameans inversely proportional to the cultural level. A of disseminating real information. The cinema survey carried out by the British Broadcasting spectator, on the other hand, by plunging,as it Corporation in 1950 confirmed that out of several were, into the film world, seeks to forget hisown families, the one which first purchasesa television world and the reality of his daily life. set will probably be the one with the lowest The viewer believes in television, for generally educational level. speaking, he is convinced that the smallscreen, The major survey conducted by Unesco in 1954 unlike the large screen, opens a windowon the produced similar results;it was found that tele- real lives of other people. The cinemaspectator, vision enjoys a particularly markedsuccess among on the other hand, knows that what he is being children, illiterate adults andpoorer families. offered is only a dream, and accepts itas such. This last named point conflicts with the forecasts Of course, this no longer applies when thefilm is made in the early days of television.In view of of some artistic merit or the audience hasthe the high cost of television sets, it had been expected capacity to criticize it.But as we know, artistic that television would remain a means of recreation films represent a very small proportion ofcurrent for wealthier families.It has now been found that production and the majority of cinema audiences on the contrary, it appeals to the poorer classes are utterly untrained, especially adolescents and and especially to people living in underdeveloped children. areas. Referring to the difference between the situation To these facts must be added another point which of the cinema goer and the television viewer is also very important, at least in Italy.It is not DIAlessandro, taking a view so far accepted by all only people who have bought televisionsets who the authorities on films, observes that theinterest watch television programmes. Avery large amount aroused by a film is like that aroused bya dream. of viewing takes place in public places (bars,parish As regards television, he maintains that "The halls, cultural clubs etc. ).Statistics compiled by television picture, no matter what theenvironment 60 in which it is shown, can hardly exert sufficient the importance of the public in the dialogue which fascination to make us lose critical control of our television conducts with its audience. sensations and plunge into the drama, whatever the quality of the transmission, for, on the contrary, we are compelled to use our full capacity for con- EDUCATION IN TELEVISION centration, and hence to exercise our critical AND IN THE CINEMA faculties." (1) For children, the situation is different. They Confronted with the very keen interest displayed believe in television because the characters they by children and illiterate adults in the new means see every day on the small screenhave an almost of communication, many educationists are tempted magical prestige in their eyes. These characters to adopt a negative attitude, for they consider that are real because they speak to thechildren and television, being mainly characterized by its avail- look them in the eyes (which is very important). ability, constitutes a distraction and a waste of Their existence, however, is not the same as that time which are by no means offset by the cultural of parents or teachers. Their qualities can only advantages to be derived from it. A number of be defined by the word "magic". teachers in public schools in Italy admit that their Given the sociological composition and the psycho- work is largely frustrated by the influence of the logical situation of the television audience which new communication media, and oftelevision in we have attempted to describe, what is therole of particular. criticism? They also admit that when very popular tele- It has often been said that confronted with tele- vision programmes are shown in the evening adult vision, the critics seem bewildered and uncertain. education classes are practically deserted. Moreover, their uncertainty is quite justified in Although these complaints are justified, it must view of the uncertainty which still prevails about be recognized that educationists in general have the theoretical aspects of te;nvision. not yet properly understood the new rOle played by It is obvious that the principles on which critical television in our time. judgements should be based are not yet firmly The writer believes that one of the most import- established.Is television an art or merely an ant tasks for educationists today is, precisely, to instrument for disseminating other forms of art build a bridge between the training provided by and for communication? Or, is it rather both at schools and the influence of the mass communica- once?It must not be forgotten that television tion media.; It is no longer a question of rejecting occupies a very special situation with regard to its these media, but of deriving the maximum benefit audience, which makes the task of television critics from them, which can be done by awakening an even more complex. They are too muchinclined to active critical spirit towards the new techniques attempt aesthetic and intellectual evaluations which, among young people. whatever their merits, clearly do not suffice to Given the abundance of entertainment which change or improve the cultural policy of -television these techniques shower on our society, it is organizations. obvious that the first object of education in them Before specifying what the basic principles of should be the rejection of programmes. The first television criticism should be, it is necessary to step is to know when to switch off. clarify the very special relationship between tele- The negative attitude of the educationist should vision authors, critics and the public. stop there, however, for he then has two equally The functions of criticism in regard to literature, important tasks: education by means of the new the theatre and the cinema are sufficiently clear: techniques and education in them. We have heard it intervenes between author and public, to explain a great deal about education of the youngthrough to the latter what the author meant, its task being films; television is now beginning to be discussed not only to judge, but also to interpret. in this connexion.It might now be asked whether In the case of television, the relationship is cinema teaching and television teaching can follow reversed. The critic's task is rather to enlighten the same course. the author on the public's reaction to his work; he In my opinion, all that has been said so far is not only the interpreter of the author to the public, should suffice to convince the reader that the aims he is also the interpreter of the public to the author. and methods of television teaching and cinema Hence criticism should be conducted at three teaching are as different as the situation of cinema different levels: spectators and that of television viewers. (a) Criticism of the choice of text from the We have already seen that a cinema goer sociological viewpoint (appropriateness, possible (especially an adolescent or a child) tends to reactions etc.); plunge into the film as into a dream. (b) Criticism of the content of the work (subject On the other hand, a television viewer (especi- matter, aims, etc.); ally an illiterate or a child) regards television as (c) Criticism of the means of expression a means of acquiring knowledge. This is shown employed by the author. very clearly by a survey carried out in Italy by At each of these different levels, criticism must take the sociological viewpoint into account, given (1) Angelo D'Alessandro, op. cit. 61 the Centro Italiano Femminile. Three classes of On the basis of these principles, it wil) not now persons were questioned: boys, mothers and be difficult to outline a basic plan for education in school-teachers. Ninety per cent of the mothers television. and boys recognized that television taught them It must not be forgotten, however, that education many things they could not have learned by other in television involves, escentially, education means. through television. It is obvious that the attitude of these children The following are what the writer considers to towards television was not a dream attitude; the be the fundamental stages of education in television: situation of the television viewer (and the data 1. Correct reading of the picture. As we have mentioned above confirm this) is more rational seen, every detail may be of great importance than emotive, unlike the attitude towards films. for the reception of televised information. Whereas one of the main concerns of the leader of 2.Evaluation of the technical methods by which a film society must be to arouse the audience from the pictures were obtained. This leads to an the dreamlike state into which it lapses, the leader understanding of the limitations and possibili- of a television club is not faced with this task. ties the author has to work with in making his There is a second fundamental difference between communication. cinema goers and television viewers. The reading 3.Knowledge of the organization for which the of television pictures differs from the reading of a author is working - which influences what he film. Whereas film pictures are linked together can tell us or would like to tell us, in one emotionally, the links connecting television pictures direction or another. are more of a rational nature, because of the need 4.Knowledge of the personality or personalities to make the audience understand. The pace of tele- which express themselves in the televised vision is usually slower than that of the cinema. production. Viewers frequently do not know Here again, therefore, there is a fundamental who are the authors of different broadcasts. difference as regards education in the two 5.Finally, aesthetic appraisal of the value of techniques. the broadcast. It might be thought at this point that, as television This plan, which is, of course, merely an is less emotional than the cinema, it does not raise outline that every teacher will alter and amplify such serious educational problems. But the matter according to his own experience, enables us to is not as simple as it may appear. proceed from rational understanding to evaluation The author's personality is more in evidence in of the technical resources, the merits and the films than in television.Television remains a social and ideological significance of programmes, medium which is more rigidly controlled by the to reception of the author's message, if any, and, forces dominating modern society, whether econo- finally, to an aesthetic appraisal, which will mic or ideological. Hence education in television merely be the last step in television education and is necessary as an essential corollary to demo- perhaps not the most important one. cratic education; and precisely for this reason, Television can be, and sometimes certainly is, aesthetic appraisal of programmes is only its last an art; but it is also an instrument by which men achievement. can communicate and come to know one another.

62 APPENDIX III

MATERIALS FOR SCREEN EDUCATION A study about materials(1) produced and available in a number of countries by Siegfried Mohrhof(2) (Cologne)

BASIC PROBLEMS OF SCREEN EDUCATION in which way, by what means and for what purpose film and television present the elements of our It seems desirable at the outset to present several world in "manipulated" (or artifizial or contrived) problems of screen education which complicate the forms. choice of teaching materials. Above all, it should Both film and television are journalistic media. be noted that there is no agreement as to what is This does not preclude high aesthetic quality and the best way to organize the production of materials truth; but basically the laws of journalism are for screen education. followed. Therefore, film and television are only Film and television play an increasingly influen- exceptionally to be regarded as direct educational tial part in the lives of people in the modern world aids. Nevertheless, they have considerable edu- and bring important educational problems in their cational effects. wake. One could perhaps say that whereas man's The teacher must therefore understand and show direct knowledge of the world has been impove..-- that these two media are always to be seen in rela- ished, his indirect knowledge of the world has been tion to the other journalistic media. widened immensely through mass media. This Both film and television are phenomena of the makes it more difficult for him to find his bearingo industrial age. Film (in its cinematic form) Some of the complex phenomena that have resulted developed inevitably into an industry in its own can only be properly understood if the very young right; television, in spite of different forms of science of communication is taken into account in organization, is at least a concern of industry. any examination of the structure of modern society The usual laws of production and consumption, of and its influences. Over the past twenty years, a supply and demand, apply to both media. growing number of social scientists and persons They have therefore to be seen as involved in engaged in the field of education in relation to film the interplay of supply and demand. Producer and and television have tried to study these phenomena consumer pressures affect film and television as in detail, and they have produced a considerable parts of industry. body of literature on relevant subjects. Their most Both film and television are also phenomena of notable findings, or propositions, may be summed society in the mass. Some i the essential educa- up as follows: tional problems of the two media have to be recog- Both film and television make use of a dynamic nized as springing from the vastness of their audi- screen language. This can to some extent be com- ence. All speculation about the effects of the media pared with the familiar language of words. But the must take this quantitative factor into account. screen language has its own 'aws.In reality the The teacher must understand, and teach, that language of film and television today consists of film and television are conditioned by the fact that picture-sound combinations. On this basis, people audiences are available in huge numbers. of our century have developed a new technique of Both film and television are mass communication civilization which has varied characteristics. The media which, owing to their visual impact, have older technique of "film" (or cirema) still uses the special emotional effects. Their message is, more pictural language. By this ..neans, film has accordingly, always perceived more or less in a developed into an art. On the other hand, television state of diminished consciousness. again stresses the language or words, without neg- The teacher must, for this reason, take into lecting the pictures. consideration that an entirely intellectual approach For the above reasons dynamic screen language will never be successful. and picture-sound combinations are important Both film and television4 as subjects, are amen- factors which must always be borne in mind by able to the laws of learning applicable to all other teachers. subjects. Both film and television are more capable of The teacher must, therefore, not serarate the being "manipulated" than traditional means of com- munication. That is, they claim to represent the (1)See -Appendix VII. world as it is with the help of documentary shots or (2)This paper was commissioned by Unesco to photographs, whereas in reality they never do repro- serve as a working document at the Inter- duce the world and its elements exactly as they are, national Meeting on Film and Television but always transposed. Teaching held at Leangkollen, Oslo, in The teacher must therefore understand, and show October 1962. 63 problems of methodology which exist in this parti- "Film appreciation cannot bemore than a cular field from the context of education as a whole. principle ia educaticnal work ..." The above propositions are of relevance to any "Film appreciation has to be treatedas a consideration of "materials for screen education" distinct subject as much as geography, physics, because the different materials available in various sports, etc." countries were produced under different circum- "Screen education has thepurpose of offering stances.Ideas concerning, the nature of film and protection from the dangers attendanton indiscri- television vary from one country to another. To minate consumption of the two media of film and mention an example: in France, for several cogent television..." reasons, film is regarded as "the seventh art". "Screrai education has to be pursued because of In Britain, film is seen merely as a "mass medium". trit necessity to appreciate the two media as Similarly, in Germany, experts are accustomed to modern means of mass communication." speak of film as a means of mass communication. "Film appreciation above all has tostart with Clearly, such divergent viewpoints exercise a theoretical and practical exercises concerning the great influence on specific ideas concerning the film language..." production of materials for screen education. "Film appreciation has to start with understand- Indeed, the difference of ideas can be better real- ing the technique of film." ized when we consider the various definitions of "Screen education isone part of the whole edu- terms. This is one of the reasons why international cation of a growing person...." co-operation in this field is so complicated. "Screen education derives its conclusionsfrom the theory of mass communication." Even greater differences of approach and inter- TERMINOLnGY OF SCREEN EDUCATION pretation may be observed from one country to another if screen teaching material is scrutinized. In fact, there is no general agreement, on an inter- Some of these contradictions are also worthy of nationalnscreen scale, as to what is meant by the terms mention, for the light which they throw on the education" or "film and televisionappre- problem, viz: ciation".Significant differences may be observed "The essence of a filmnd the artistic means in English, French, and German-speaking countries. used to create it can only be discovered bycon- There is no single term which can be translated ducting a thorough analysis of its visual (or without difficulty from one language into another. 'filmic' )details..." The term which is perhaps most to the point is that " The essence of a filmcan be found easily by chosen by the English, namely "screen education". discussing the contents." This term covers both film and television.It com- "The ess2ntial work in film appreciationcan be bines the concepts of "film appreciation" and of done with extracts, after the whole film has been "television appreciation" giving both of thema new viewed..." sense. These three terms in English cannot be "Young people can best become familiar with translated into other languages without great diffi- the meaning and technique of film with the aid of culties.In my opinion, "screen education", being films specially produced for the purpose of stimu- a short and exact term, should perhaps be accepted lating film appreciation." as a terminus technicus for international use. "Filmstrips and slide series for film apprecia- In the French-speaking countries, as well as in tion are only useful for handling the static elements German-speaking countries, there are various of film..." terms with slightly different meanings. All of them "Via slides, filmstrips and slide series,it is represent the viewpoint that there is a real need possible to penetrate into the very art of film." for inculcating discrimination and that certain edu- "A great advance in the direction offilm appre- cational efforts are necessary in this direction ciation may be gained by classroom production of because film and television have become highly small films..." influential forces. "The slogan 'learning by doing' carriesno But even if the terminus technicus I propose were weight when it comes to mastering the emotional adopted, differences of opinion about education in impact of film." relation to film and television would still remain. "Knowledge of the important facts in film history Some of the most obvious differences are noted is essential for film appreciation..." briefly in the following pages. While it must be "Film history is of little interest for film admitted that these differences are partly due to appreciation." translation difficulties, nevertheless, observation "Screen education has to enable theperson who of the practical work done in many countriesproves is growing up to masLer film and television at the that there are other causes. There isno doubt that intellectual level..." clarification of the basic methodology of the subject "Screen education hal to include the emotional is necessary. effects of film and television." Some striking contradictions will be noticed in "It is essential to understand that both film and the following expression of opinion about film television are influenced by the editing process appreciation coming from different countries: in production..."

54 "It is absolutely necessary to realize that film with editing and the effects it creates.In general, is influenced by lighting and that televisionis this can be done successfully by using films as merely 'reproduction' ." examples. "For film appreciation, full-length films, There is no agreement among film teachersin especially those acknowledged as masterpieces, various countries regarding the necessityto teach must be available..." any general theory of masscommunication and the "Film appreciation can be conducted best with role played by film in this connexion. Only inthe short films." United States of America has the significance of "A film which has high artistic value has at the the theory of mass communication beenrecognized. same time high educationalvalue..." The basic examples of "face to facecommunication" "Only films which are planned and producedwith and "mass communication" which are knownthere must be regarded as of some importance for the pedagogical aspects in mind can be of high rela- educational value." right understanding of screen education. The This enumeration of contradictions, some genu- tions between transmitter and receiver,between ine and some fabricated, is by no meansexhaustive. message and messenger, and theindividual steps It represents only some of theviewpoints already of "inputdecoding - interpretation - encoding - encoultered frequently in various countries aswell output", which are essential parts of the theory of as at the internationallevel. The contradictions mass communication, have a specialbearing on draw attention to the fact that the startingpoints screen education. Knowledge ofthese relations for film and television appreciation are manyand again reveals that film is a manipulative medium. varied. At the same time, theyshow the lack of suitable definivions of what is meantwhen people speak about "education in film andtelevision", or MATERIALS FOR SCREEN EDUCATION "in relation to film and television". After having studied the different definitions,I In the light of all experience to date. +11--nost would like to suggest a formulation thatcould be important question to Le answered iti:with used not only for film appreciation but, in aslightly material can the elements of film langucig.. :.. different form, for television appreciation, too. taught best? Film is a aew technique of civilization.There- To that there is only one conclusive answer - fore, one part of the educational processhas to with films themselves! deal especially with this technique. This part may, If this statement is accepted, each film ortele- for the sake of clarity, be called"education in vision programme seen becomes relevantfor film film". The main problems of education in film are: and television appreciation. However,although The dynamic language of motion pictures. there are some obvious reasons why filmsand 1. imme- 2.The editorial (or editing) process as a means television programmes cannot be analysed of manipulation. diately, this fact does not change the didactic 3.The effects of film. principle involved, even if it provokes some 4.Films as a means of mass communication. questions about methods. 5.The complex phenomena involvingsociology, At first glance it may, for instance, be con- economy, history and psychology. sidere, a right and proper development thatthe The conclusion arising from this is that allthe so-called "film discussion" method is approved above-mentioned aspects ought to be properly of everywhere in the world. Discussionsof this understood, and that therefore it is necessary to sort undoubtedly offer a chance to find out some- teach them. thing about the contents and form of the film in- In this connexion it is to my mindessential that volved. However, by this method one gets state- teaching and exercises should always startfrom ments which are only approximatelyobjective. whole films. Whole films are the b_ -.material The reason for this is well known. Evenif a film for teaching film appreciation. By meansof detailed is screened twice or several times,the fascination analytical work, the dynamic elements ofthe visual exercised by the moving pictures of which itis language can be recognized. composed remains so strong that it is nearly Most film teachers all over the world agree upon impossible to fix in detail the significant elements the following points: of form.Yet there can be no true analysis without The world shown in films is always a"virtual" recognizing the elements of form. one.Ti,,,, methods, and the possibilities, of editing can be recognized best by analysingwhole films, Extracts from films although there do exist some theoretical works and even some short films about editing. For this reason an exercise utilizingfilm extracts Editing is the fasrinating and dist4nctiveprinciple must follow. This is a didactic andmethodical of the new technique of civilization which we are step forward of great importance. Thelist of discussing.It lends itself readily to manipulation, materials published shows, in fact, that little use and by means of this device special effects canbe has been made of this possibility up till now, created and explored. Therefore, filmappreciation although there is an enormous opportunity for it. is not possible unless students are familiarized In all countries in which films are produced c. 65 shown it ought, in principle, to be possible to ary, film music and effects can be efficiently obtain extracts from well known and worth-while cleared up by using suitable sound tracks. productions. The establishment of good contaLts It seems to be of paramount importance that all with members of the film industry should suffice the material should be chosen from a single work. to solve this problem. However, people working At least, experts in Britain and Germany are of in the film industry must frequently be persuaded this opinion. The film study units of the British at first and that is often not so easy. Film Institute and similar material of the Institut It is my experience that a rather remarkable für Film und Bild support this contention.In change of mind has taken place over the past ten practical work the best results may be obtained years in so far as co-operation between people of with such film study units. the film inthstry and people working in the field of The British experts have developed a special film apprec ation is concerned.In Germany, at form of "extracts" taken from certain films. least, about ten years ago producers, directors, The series "Critic and film" is an interesting actors and most other people had no idea of what example of experimentation in film analysis and was meant by film appreciation. They did not even is well worth study. see that pedagogic efforts to develop "film culture" If it is desired that film appreciation should in the young would finally be of benefit to the appeal to a large audience, the only suitable industry itself. On the contrary, most of them method - provided extracts are to be used - is to feared that film appreciation, if successful, would show elements of a film in detail, with some result in keeping young people from going to the famous critic explaining his opinion to the audience cinema. Accordingly, some ten years ago it was from the screen. But in modern school work and nearly impossible to secure any valuable films or in groups extracts already commented on will be film extracts for film appreciation work. But in of less importance.If use is made of extracts due course, the people involved charged their atti- which are not commented on or "manipulated.' at tude. This change may have been caused as much all, then the audience is forced to observe, reflect by the crisis of the cinema in the face of television and interpret. as by conviction that screen education has merits. In a similar way, short films which excellently It does not matter. Today producers, distributors, demonstrate film language can be used as material directors, etc. are willing to co-operate - at any for analyses for the purposes of film appreciation. rate, to a certain extent. The list of materials in the annex contains son, a In Germany, for instance, most producers and titles suitable for work of thia ldnd.In this cate- distributors will today - as far as their contracts gory only films which are used in several countries allow - readily supply licences for non-commercial have been listed. 16 mm. screenings of extracts. But it must be admitted that the Institut für Film und Bild in Specially produced short films Munich is possibly in an extremely good position, in this respect, because it can at least pay small It is, of course, not possible to demonstrate, sums for obtaining such licences. Normally about merely with the aid of extracts from films, all DM 5,000 is paid for the extracts wanted from one aspects of form and content of screen language. feature film. A print of these extracts can be This may be why, in several countries, short bought by the different archives for about DM 150. films especially designed for teaching film appre- Occasionally a few sequences out of one film will ciation have been produced. produce the result desired. With their help the These short films are somewhat similar to the significant elements of form can be pinpointed and IIspelling books" which are used for different recognized. On many occasions, pupils, after grades in schools. But there is a difference. So having had an exact analysis of one sequence, have far as the language of spoken words is concerned, realized for the first time what the teacher meant it may be said that reading and writing, as a when speaking of the "language of film". Very technique of civilization, can be learnt with the often, however, the individual elements of form help of "spelling books". However, when it is a can be perceived only after a very short sequence matter of screen language, the language of motion has been repeatedly screened. pictures, there is no such technique similar to The first conclusion to be drawn from the fore- ',readingand writing...Admittedly, the pupil who going could be that the analytical work required for learns to read and write does not automatically screen education always has to start with the master the language; but should there be a demand screPning of the whole film or television programme in future for film makers to be trained, there may involved.Afterwards extracts can be very conven- arise a need for "film spelling books". iently used for the purpose of making an adequate When we come to analyse those short films analysis. which have been designed for fil:n appreciation, Following on from this, stills and other material we find that in general they describe, though not out of the same film can be of great help.Particu- very well, basic elements of the film language. lar aspects such as the composition of shots, light- For instance, the German films Variationen Ober ing, decoration, etc. can be explained by means of ein Filmthema or Der Filmschnitt, while dealing stills.Problems of sound, dialogue and comment- with striking elements of the film language, are

66 certainly not masterpieces in their own right. number of filmstrips or slid.: series with caution. They perform a certain task but they remain within the sphere of "spelling books". Most of the Tapes and records examples thpy present are "limping examples", as the Germans say. That is, they are unsatisfactory. During the past few years, more and more tapes Obviously, this is because they are out of context. and records for screen education have become In fact, they can show only that the elements of available in various countries. Some of them are film language exist: they cannot represent the listed in the annex. Tapes on "film discussion", wider significance of those elements. "meliods of screen education" or special problems Besides those dealing with film language, there of sound in film are certainly useful, but some of 1 are some short films concerned with othersubjects the subjects cannot prove of much value for screen such as camera technique, the history of the cinema, education. the various styles of film production, and so on. As far as film language is concerned, only those As I have indicated, short films of this type have a tapes and records which deal with the sound in certain value - but their value is frequently over- certain films seem to be adequate. But only a few estimated. They can never replace the essential such examples are to be found.In view of the process of analysis, which :nust be left to the importance of the picture-sound combination in individual. modern films, it seems desirable that many a gap should be filled here - but with a warning against Filmstrips and slide series repeating mistakes of the kind frequently encountered in filmstrips and Ft ide series.Special parts out of What has just been said about the use of films sound films shoidd be recorded only if it is certain awlies to filmstrips and slide series too.This thqt the audier.ce already knows the whole film well rrwterial often seems to be equally unsatisfactory and so can place the details in their proper context. at L,ast with regard to questions of film language. There exist, of course, useful tape recordings If a single picture, or still, out of a film is shown of films.This, however, is a form of art repro- to demonstrate a particular element of film language, duction of our modern times which has merely there are in most cases as many interpretations of taken its subject matter from the film. Tape its meaMng as there are interpreters. At any rate, recordings of this type are to be found in Austria. it is not good practice to take a picture cut of a Some contain useful information.In many cases, film, especiCiy if the film has not just been seen. however, these tape recordings comment in a To turn again to the comparison between the prejudiced way on film, on film adventures, film language of spoken words and "film 16.nguage", it stars, film consumption, and so on.I doubt if may be said that it would be nonsense if anybody this material will be of much use to film teachers. should try io demonstrate with a single sentence the vnagnificence of a whole novel. Textbooks, manuals, publications The author admits that this is again a "limping example". But it suggests what a film teacher may If one tries to estimate the number of publications be risking if he should try to interpret or demon- purporting to deal with film apprecialion available strate with insufficient and inadequate material. in the different countries of the world, one will He even runs the risk of turning pupils against the certainly arrive at a figure of about 1,000. Here whole subject, either because they do not understand the film teacher will come across much valuable the points the teacher is trying to make, or because material alongside much that is of no real worth. they do not see any profit resulting from a study of The list of materials in this survey includes only this :Jort. those books and brochures which seem to be of However, there are some subjects which are real interest from the viewpoint of methodology, easily dcali with by means of filmstrips or slide together with those publications which enter in series. The list of materials here contains detail into questions of mass communication or various items about camera technique, film which try to describe problems of film language. advertising, the screen star, film effects, film Works on the language of film must nearly eonomics, etc.As far as such aspects are con- always fail, because descriptions of the elements cerned, the individual picture serving as an illus- of film language require proper pictorial illustra- tration may inform and enlighten the audience to tion, and this cannot be supplied even by stills. some extent.Moreover, if an expert gives a good Nevertheless, there do exist some remarkable interpretation, a deeper understanding of certain publications of this type. They are distinguished factors which are essential to film is possible. by system, description of contexts, or good combi- There is no doubt that filmstrips and slide series nations of text and still pictures. For the teacher are of importance for screen education but their or student they can be of great value. subjects need to be limited to those which really For lack of illustration, most of the so-called can be illustrated by separate pictures. A look at textbooks for children and young people really do the list of material here, however, suggests that not succeed. They do not, in my opinion, measure subject matter is rarely limited in this way. up to the main and central requirements of screen Therefore, the skilled film teacher will approach a education. While they explain subordinate aspects 67 of film, they cannot master the dynamic language It should be planned and producedas soon as of motion pictures with the help of words alone. possible. Even from an intellectual viewpoint, to master film language always demands theuse of illustration. The same consideration applies in thecase of PRODUCTION OF SCREEN the written or printed film analyses,or "film TEACHING MATERIALS fiches". These are famous, for goodreason. They are of value to teachers, studentsor other If my basic propositions are accepted, theconclu- persons already familiar with film. With their sions to be drawn are relatively simple. The analyses which encompass, in detail, all significant production of screen teaching materials depends elements of form and content of a film, theycan mainly on efforts in each country to produce and even be described as masterly performances.Yet, make available extracts from filmson a larger once again, it must be noted that their value is scale than hitherto. The difficulties neednot be limited, for only a person already fully conversant insuperable, in view of the fact that filmsare with film can hope to recognize and properly inter- regarded as consumer goods in nearly allcountries. pret the visual language of film merely by reading However, questions of copyright may arise in this about it. connexion: indeed, they are likely to form the The foregoing observations on existing material principal obstacle. Such questionsare much more for screen teaching have been basedon the propo- complicated in the case of television.But it is sition that the most decisive steps in "filmappre- largely a matter for friendly agreement. ciation" and "television appreciation"have to deal In most instances, producers and distributors with the language of motion pictures and whatwe of films hold all the copyright for all typesof have called "picture-sound" combinations. They performance for a certain time. Their main take account of the fact that film and televisionare interest is, of course, to gain as muchmoney as manipulative to a high degree. possible during that time for amortization. This In view of this, the problems of journalism, of is also the reason why very often producersor industry, of mass media and, above all, the prob- distributors do not give a licence for extracts lems arising from film and televisionas means of before expiration of a certain period, which usually mass communication have scarcely been touched varies between 12 and 24 months. Butas far as on in this study. When ur_e considers screen edu- basic questions of copyright are concerned, there cation from a didactic point of view, theseare not are no other difficulties in the way of securing the primary problems. Theyare largely matters licences for extracts for cinemapurposes. On the of abstract interest. These problemscan be other hand, the problem seems to be muchmore studied from textbooks, manualsor brochures; complicated when it comes to television. they cannot be visually presented. In Germany, at least, it has not yet been possibleto secure material of the type under discussion from those who hold the right touse it on television. FILM AND TELEVISION AS MEANS Negotiations are under way, and if successful, OF MASS COMMUNICATION television contracts may specifically includeper- mission for non-commercial performancesin the In conclusion to this survey of thescreen teaching field of television appreciation.At present, most material already available reference must bemade television contracts do not mention filmperform- to the phenomena of mass communication. ances at all. As previously mentioned, there must besome In discussing this poilit,would stress that film teaching about the basic types of communication. teachers are not restricted to usingbrand new Now it happens that only the Americarts have been material.Analytical work may be done with the actively engaged in this field untilrow, with no help of films and extracts thatare already several particular emphasis on screen education.In my years old.Take, for instance, the titles of films opinion, one of the most urgent tasks ofscreen in Germany for film appreciationwork: Amici per education is to base the theory of "education in la pelle is a production of 1955;Viva Zapata of relation to film and television"on communication 1951; Decision before Dawn of 1951; research. Det stora In past years, a great number of aventyret of 1953; Navajo of 1951; andso on.It attempts to find arguments in support ofscreen is possible that the Institut far Film undBild will education from some theory of knowledge probably soon succeed in getting a licence for Bernhard failed because theory of communicationwas Wicki's Die Brilcke, of 1960. neglected. But there is no extract available from a film produced in1961 or It seems certain also that the person growing 1962. up in a democratic world must be familiar with the If the problems of copyrightcan be solved, the role and functions of themass media if he wants to so-called production costsare of less concern. counter the influence exerted by film and television It is then only a question of laboratorycosts in his life - indeed, if he wants to control hisown (printing costs) for the extracts. life and not have it controlled by these media.No Ideally whole films and whole televisionpro- adequate material on this subject is available. grammes with the pertinent extracts should be 68 available for film teachers and students. Ten to appreciation of film values. Further, as was twelve carefully selected examples from each noted at Amsterdam, these elements of film group of subjects should be enough to provide cannot be studied in isolation. schools, youth organizations and institutions of The method of active discussion and analysis of adult education with adequate material. films and television programmes has proved fun- Careful consideration should also be given to damental, rewarding and successful... what additional materials should be produced in Since film is of such an international, indeed the form of film, stills, tape recordings or litera- supranational character, many of the materials ture. The list of materials here, although only a (books, films, film quotations, strips etc. ) used small one, demonstrates that many titles have in its teaching are internationally valid and valu- already been produced, especially in some able. Their free international exchange (already countries. stressed by several previous conferences) remains a matter of urgent importance. Having noted the great advantage of international CO-ORDINATION OF EFFORT AND contact and exchange of views and information INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE throughout the experimental stage in film teaching, we wish to underline the fact that le teachingof Witt, regard to film extracts and the additional such an international means of communication is materials mentioned just above, there seems, on an obvious field for continued and extended close the face of it, to be no real need for co-ordination co-operation between countries. As a first step, of effort and particularly of production owing to we have asked the British Society forEducation in the language difficulties which may be involved. Film and Television to act as a provisional clear- There will always be some standard material ing house for informatior and centre of contact for which can be used in different countries in the all involved in the organization and practice of film same way. What is necessary isthat sufficient teaching." information should be provided through an inter- Co-ordination involving short films, filmstrips, national clearing house to stimulate the exchange slide series and tape recordings especially pro- ot experience at the international level.The inter- duced for screen education must be considered national conferences held in Amsterdam and London separately. Of course, there are possibilities on questions of film appreciation wereof immense for co-production, provided that several countries value in this respect. are interested in le same material.Here again, A detailed report of the International Conference an early exchange of informationthrough a clearing on Film, Television and the Childheld in London house is required, so that experts can contact one in October 1958 has been published by the British another. Film Institute.This report refers also to the reso- Decisive steps have to be taken in other respects. lutions passed by the Amsterdam Conference in Special screen teaching materials - with the excep- November 1957. One of the most notable recom- tion of whole films and television programmes and mendations at Amsterdam dealt with teaching extracts - ought to be exchanged among countries materials.It said: without restriction.Screen teaching materials "For effective film teaching, various kind:3 of must come within materials for educational pur- materials (films, filmstrips, books, recordings, poses only, so that there will not be anyhindrance etc. ) are necessary and the assistance of the appro- from Customs. Here is a task for Unesco, for the priate bodies should be sought to provide informa- International Council for Educational Fa lms and tion about material already in existence and to for the different national centres concerned. The further international co-operation in the planning list of materiLl presented here, incomplete as it and exchange of new material." is, shows that a great deal of the international To show just how far the discussions at the London demand could be easily and rapidly covered if free Conference extended, some sections of the report international exchange could be arranged. of the conference may be quoted: Today there are still many hindrances. The "We do not think it necessary to repeat the pleas International Conference on Non-Commercial made by the Amsterdam Conference, since the Distribution held in London in February 1961 dealt need for film teaching is now more generally with some of them. Problems of Customs duties recognized..." and of exemption from such Custcms duties were "Cinema and television have basically a similar discussed without much effect. language. They are both forms of remular enter- There are two UnePco agreements which bear tainment, communicating ideas, bocci implicitly and directly on these problems and which must be made explicitly, through the presentation of character applicable to.-:reen teaching material - for screen and the treatment of human relationships.With teaching maierial is educational material! other means of communication such as the press, These two Unesco agreements (sometimes referred they have a major influence in shaping people's to as the Florence a-id the Beirut agreements) relate values and attitudes. to the removal of importation barriers standing in The study of film must therefore include an under- the way of the circulation of audio-visual materials. standing of the film language and the critical The Beirut Agreement is called, in full "Agreement 69 for Facilitating the Irternational Circulation of Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Switzerland, Visual and Auditory Materials of an Educational, Singapore, United States of America. Scientific and Cultural Character".It came into When I studied the answers it became quite force in August 1954, and was signed by twenty clear to me that there is a great need for material countries. on screen education in most countries. There is The Florence Agreement is called, in full no doubt that teachers of all kinds are greatly "Agreement on the Importation of Educational, interested in obtaining such material. On the Scientific and Cultural Material".It came into other hand, it may be said that an increasing num- force in May 1952, and has been signed by forty ber of countries are undertaking the production of countries. such material, though only to a small ext-,mt.In The report pubiiahed by the Central Office of most instances, a start is made with the publica- Information, London, 1961, states: tion of books, manuals, printed analyses, and so "Th! Florence Agreement covers auditory and on. Then follows the production of filmstrips or visual material:3 and many other categories as slide series on certain themes. Production of well. The BeLut Agreement, while devoted exclu- special short films seems to give rise to more 3ively to auditary and visual materials, grants to difficulties. Some of the reasons for this have these materials exemption not only from Customs been mentioned already: the conside:able sums duties but also from quantitative restrictions and required, the dearth of ideas. from the necessity of applying for an import In my opinion one fact is of very great interest: licence. the British Film Institute and the Tnstitut Mr Film In addition, it should be noted that under the und Bild, after having had same experience in the Beirut Agreement, the exporting country must production of screen teaching material, simultan- certify the educational, scientific or cultural eously started to look for a more complex and nature of the materials and the importing country more effective grouping of different aids.In accepts this. Under the Florence Agreement, Britain experts hit upon what are called "film visual and auditory materials, including films, study units"; in Germany, almost exactly the must be consigned to an appropriate body certified same development occurred. by the importing country. It seems to be clear now that, for the British at The two agreements are separate legal entities. least, the most striking results are achieved by Each entails its own procedures, and States may using film study units. These demonstrate that become parties to aither or both." , the ideal method in film teaching is the detailed

Other difficulties arise from economic consider- . consideration of a whole feature film.In Germany, ations. The production of material for screen edu- experts of the Institut für Film und Bild have cation is a fairly expc!asive enterprise all over the carried out experiments with materials produced world, even when the material is produced for edu- duri-ig the making of a short film - these include, cational purposes. For this problem there is only for instance, some stills of the film making team, one solution: stills made during synchronization or at certain On the basis of an international agreement, a points during shooting, tape recordings of the central office - which might be a specially consti- music, the dialogue, the effects track, the inter- tuted clearing house, or a separate institution as, national sourx1 track, copies of the first script and for instance, the British Film Institute - should the scenario, and detailed notes on the course of pay the necessary royalties once only in order that production, on ideas and meanings, etc. the material required may be made available, free The British may be right in saying that the ideal of licence charges, to all institutions or persons to be aimed at is the detailed consideration from engaged in screen education all over the world who various points of a film as a whole.It may not want to use it.In view of the urgent need to always be necessary that a feature film should be encourage screen education, a special fund might analysed. Perhaps the first steps can be taken be created for this purpose. better by using a short film since there are fewer Once the problems of royalties were solved, difficulties in adopting the right approach when the there would probably be no further complications subject is less complex and narruwer in scope. concerning copyright. To put it in the simplest possible way: take a film, then look for supplementary materialfor example, extracts, stills, tape recordings, scripts, CONCLUSIONS scenario, and ideas from the people who made the film; then present your detailed analysis. You The views on education in relation to film and tele- should have here the basis for a good lesson in vision which I have set down here, as well as my film appreciation.In the process of giving it, you comments on available screen teaching material, may discuss certain problems evoked by this film; have been largely inspired by answers to a question- you may look for aesthetic values; you may think naire which I sent to several institutions and experts over the reasons for its impact; or you may con- in the following counaies: Austria, Belgium, sider it as a means of mass communication. You Denmark, Finland, Germany (Federal Republic), should be able to find the basic elements for stim- Great Britain, Indonesia, Italy, Luxeie.bourg, ulating discrimination, both with the help of the

70 supplementary material and in the film itself, if fostered and strengthened.I think that democracy the choice has been judiciously made. will stand or fall according to whether discrimina- Education in film and television is such an tion can be established with regard to the mass important cause that all efforts to obtainteaching media. As film and television can be used in both materials, to provide free international exchange good and diabolic ways, people have to be taught of these audio-visual means, and to establish about their evil possibilities as well as about their trustworthy international co-operation, should be merits.

71 APPENDIX IV

TEACHING SCREEN EDUCATION TO THETEACHERS")

by Elsa Brita Marcussen (Oslo)

This survey is based mainly on information Within the last few years it has become obvious supplied by: that screen education will inevitably become a Australia: Mr. W.H. Perkins, Senior Lecturer normal part of the school curriculum in most in Education at the University of Tasmania countries. The specialized training in the use of and Vice-President of the Australian Council audio-visual aids, which is already given in most for Children's Films and Television; teacher-training colleges, must therefore be Austria:Dr. Sigmund Kanagur-Kennedy, placed within a much wider framework. The Director of "Aktion Der Gute Film", Vienna; modern teacher will need to know about the tech- Great Britain: Mr. Paddy Whannel, Film Appre- nical and economic background of the mass com- ciation Officer, Education Department, munication media in general, about the specific British Film Institute, London, artistic language of the new visual media,about the United States: Professor Jack Ellis, Department emotional impact and social influence which these of Film, Radio and TV, School of Speech, media exert on the young, and the methodology of Northwestern University, teaching screen education. Professor Louis Forsdale, Principal In many countries, because of educational re- Investigator, Project in Education Communi- forms, teacher training is being revised and ation, Teachers' College, Columbia extended.In Britain the teacher training course University, is to cover 3 years, so the situation should be Mr. Stuart A. Selby, Research Assistant, fairly favourable for the introduction of a wider Teachers' College, Columbia University. concept of screen education.Hoy/ever, there are Whether provided as a subject in its own right many problems to be solved in this connexion. or as part of the teaching of the mother tongue, How and where is one to find the lecturers capable art or civics, as an experiment or as the haphazard of dealing with screen education at the training result of a keen interest on the part of a particular college level? What type of course inside the teacher, screen education in the four above-men- teacher-training colleges should one aim for? As tioned countries is mainly conducted by teachers 'ong as the main concern was film teaching, there who did not receive any specialized training in the was a natural tendency to think of a course for subject in their teaching course. teachers in terms of the study of a new artistic In Austria there is a decree by the Federal medium, though it was not forgotten that this Ministry of Education that four times a year medium has specific social implications owing to feature films shall be shown to pupils in elementary its vast audiences and varied uses. With TV and secondary schools. Teachers are expected to firmly planted in each home in many countries introduce these films and discuss them with their and functioning to a great extent along the lines of pupils. They receive some written guidance from press and radio and only partly as a new visual "Aktion Der Gute Film", but their only opportunity art form, the need for courses encompassing the to study the art of the film or the pedagogic whole sphere of mass communications as well as approach to film appreciation consists of a voluntary the study of the aesthetics of the two new visual course of 6-8 lectures of 2 hours' duration, offered art forms is being advocated. in a small number of teacher-training colleges. They may also take part in some of the activities A British Pattern for Screen Education (lecture series, special film showings, events Courses in Teacher-Training Colleges related to the biannual film scientific week, etc. ) organized by the Filmwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, A document of great value in tracing the path for Aktion Der Gute Film, Jugend-Referat of the Vienna screen education as an integral part of teacher Municipality and different educational bodies. British teachers who, out of a personal interest, (1)This paper presents a brief survey by the seek a wider knowledge of the film and the teaching President of the International Centre of Films of film appreciation to young people may avail (Cinema & Television) for Children, of screen themselves of the Summer School of the British education at university level particularly in Film Institute and various courses (e.g. at the teacher-training colleges, in Australia, Department of Extra-Mural Studies at the University Austria, Great Britain and the United States, of London). There are also film societies in a with some references to initiatives in other number of universities and teacher-training colleges. countries.

72 training is the report of a joint working part/ of Goldsmiths' College, London, is also considering the Association of Teachers in Colleges and Depart- making a main course in film available to its ments of Education and the British Film Insitute students. published in 1960.It has already been instrumental The courses which are offered at teacher-training in bringing about a modest start in someBrktish colleges in Britain show a rather widedifference training colleges and in inspiring work in Aistralia. of approach. The course at Eastbourneis an The general attitude of the working party is outright "film course", dealing with the studyof expressed thus: such feature films as Odd Man 0,21, LaGrande "Ideally every teacher should be given scme kind Illusion and Look Back in Annr, combined with of introduction to film and television study, evenif lectures on film grammar, the work of thedirector, only to create a climate of informed opiniol in the history of the film, the cinema industry inthe which the specialist and semi-specialist can exert international field and some practical film making. their full influence.Ideally also, teacherf..' At Bede College, on the other hand, one finds a colleges should be turning out each year both tie-up betweea the study of feature films such as specialists capable of taking charge of thesubject The Cruel Sea, On the Waterfront and Great in a large school and semi-specialistswho can Expectations in either religious knowledge or make a contribution to the work within the compass English, and a mass communication study inside of another subject or an out-of-school activity. the education course. This education course pro- The working party suggests that film andtelevision vides for the study of the educational aspectsof study can be carried out in a teacher-training film, TV and radio, as well as visual persuasion, college, provided there is a three-year course, the impact of the mass media on values,knowledge either as (a) a main course, or (b) a general course, and performance, the effects of the massmedia or (c) a curriculum course. upon leisure and interests,techniques of audience (a) Main course: research, etc. The first year may be spent in exploring the nature of film, the second in developing some major Screen education in Australian teacher training piece of film making on the one hand and in pursuing some fairly intensive researchinto some sociologi- In Australia we find in two out of sixStates sus- cal or historic or aesthetic aspect of film on the tained efforts to provide screen education courses other. Whatever the category there shoitld be a for intending teachers. There is a film course at consideration of the way in which the striy bears Coburg Teachers' College in Victoria dealing with on work with children, and theteaching 3f film in the relationship of film to literary forms, the school should be a part of the school prql.ctice ofthe history and techniques of cinema, and how abstract students.The third year should be spent: (a) in films such as those of Norman McLaren andsub- the critical analysis of one set film alor gside a jective works like Halas and Batchelor's The Magic review of the basic values involved in a11 aspects Canvas can be used to stimulate emotional response. of film study and relation of these valuis toother Film making by the students and a college film media of communication and especially to television, festival are other activities integrated in the course. and (b) a survey of the main achievemEras in the At the University of Tasmania (Faculty ofEducation), international field. which trains matriculated students preparing to (b) General course: teach in primary and secondary schools, a course As an optional section within a spec,alist course, of at least 10 lectures on the methods of using audio- for example English literature or art or as a visual aids in the classroom and in understancing section in an obligatory course, e.g. as partof the effects of the media on children and young education. A basic course should dezd with: mass people is combined with a course including atleast communication, the cinema, film am: other media, 10 lectures on methods of teaching film and TV the popular arts and mass media and education. appreciation, the study of film classics, feature (c) Curriculum course: film extracts and new films screened by commer- Curriculum course of one year dealing with: cial theatres or film societies.The course does what children see at the cinema and on TV, what not at present include practical filmmaking and members of the student group see'a t the cinema television production, but there are plans for their . and on TV, the children's Saturday morning cinema inclusion. movement, film art and industry, television a The main difference between the Victorian and medium of communication and a new art, film and Tasmanian courses is that the latter is chiefly for television teaching in school." future specialist teachers of English (including However, in practice, not more than a dozen out film appreciation) in secondary schools, while the of 235 training colleges in England and Wali:s as Victorian course is for future general teachers in yet offer regular and sustained courses in screen primary schools and deals mainly with the content education, and even these are offered only as rec- of film appreciation merely as part of the students' reational or subsidiary courses. A step forward cultural education. (Tasmania is so far the only was recently taken at Eastbourne TrainingCollege State to introduce screen education as part of an when it appointed a lecturer whose main task will official gchool course.In this State, one-fifth of be to develop film and television teaching. the 4-year secondary course in English I is now

73 devoted to film and TV appreciation. ) courses.But there is still no indication that the colleges and universities will assume leadership Film and TV on the American university scene in the teaching of film and television to teachers. For the moment the graduate students trained by Although in the United States much is done by the the above-mentioned departments go either to tele- Departments of Education in universities to train vision, film or related industries or into teaching "audio-visualists", at the moment very few intend- in similar college and university programmes. ing teachers are taught what could be termed film The American situation seems to be mirrored and TV appreciation and a pedagogic approach to in other countries, where the high standard of screen education. Back in the 1930s there were professional trainingespecially for the film some efforts to teach motion picture discrimination, profession - doeF not necessarily imply thztt a well supported by the National Council of Teachers of developed patten, for the teaching of film and TV English.However, the motivation was to a great appreciation exists within the educational facilities extent moral concern stirred up by the publishing for the training of teachers. of the Payne Fund Studies, and rarely sprang from a real respect for the film as an art medium (it A Swedish students' committee's proposal for should be remembered that teachers as well as mass communication studies at the university pupils at that time saw only films made in level Hollywood). The Second World War virtually ended all efforts at film teaching.After 1950, teachers In countries where today for the first time the of English felt called upon to give TV the kind of need for (a) training facilities for the TV and film attention which in the 1930s had been directed professions and (b) the teaching of screen educa- towards the film.Television, besides being a tion to future teachers is being realized, there novel medium having great impact, seemed to lend should be some means of preventing these studies itself more easily to sociological study as well as from becoming watertight compartments.In to aesthetic study. Once more, the National Sweden a students' committee recently proposed Council of Teachers of English became active and recommending that a student should be able to brought out Television and the Teaching of English(1) obtain a degree in film and mass media in the by Neil Postman, who offers a variety of methods philosophy department. There is talk of setting up for teaching TV appreciation in the English class, a central institute to take care of the technical and from simple one-day discussion of single pro- professional aspects of the study. The theoretical grammes to full semester studies of content, spon- and aesthetic aspects would be included in two sorship, effect and aesthetic values of the TV groups of already established university subjects: medium. However, the enthusiasm of teachers for 1. The Nordic languages, history of literature, teaching TV appreciation has de-lined.After a history of art, history of the theatre, music brief "golden age" of live dran..s and experimental research, aesthetics, practical philosophy. programmes put out by the different American tele- 2.Psychology, pedagogics, sociology, civics, vision services, the problem for the teacher today economic geography, economic history, is that the better programmes are surrounded by industrial management. such mediocrity that he hardly thinks it worth while Theobject is to offer a course which would be to give television any serious thought as an aesthetic of value to those who want to become producers, experience. directors, scriptwriters (or even cameramen and The American universities' concern with film editors) of films and TV, as well as those who and TV is mainly directed towards preparation for want to become film critics, film historians, professional careers in the two media. There is a screen educators and research workers in mass long established tradition of such training at communication. American universities. By the end of 1940, five universities had film departments, and by the The situation in Denmark beginning of 1950 at least another half dozen institutions offered substantial clusters of film 1.Teacher-training colleges courses.At the same time professional training _ courses in radio (which began in the middle of the Of Denmark's 29 teacher-training colleges only 1930s) included TV. Some 200 colleges today offer one provides a regular course in film appreciation. a total of 2,000 courses in radio4nd TV. They are Three other! have included the subject in the curri- offered mainly in the speech and drama departments, culum from time to time.It is the aim of those sometimes in the departments of communication. It concerned about the matter that film appreciation now looks as though, in many instances, radio and should be an optional subject in all colleges and TV courses will become radio, TV and film courses. also that 2-4 lectures a year should be given to all Film in this connexion is regarded more as a liberal students.Present methods of teaching film appre- art and is being taught by persons with a background ciation are rather different.N. Zahles Seminarium in the arts rather than in the social sciences.This emphasizes the possibilities for experience inherent may help to attract students from the theatre, English, art and philosophy departments to such (1) OR cit.

74 in the art of theatre and film and suggests ways in countries, it seems that if a policy along the lines which these can be brought to the attention of pupils. of the Swedish proposal is adopted at university Has ley Seminarium is more concerned with demon- level, fruitful contact will be established during strations of classroom methods. At Hellerup the study years between those who will become the Seminarium lectures on various film questions providers of film and TV entertainment and those alternate with discussions about films shown in or who will become the teachers of screen education. outside the classroom. Skive Seminarium especi- It is hard to see, for example, why in the United ally aims at preparing teachers for extra-curricular States there should be a sharp division between work, youth schools, etc. and the main emphasis mass communication studies designedfor training is on discussions about film with groups of young people in the TV and film professions, and studies people. for preparing teachers to teach film and TV appre- In all cases, the students at the training colleges ciation.In the American document it is pointed have selected the subject themselves from among out that the trend towards adding film to radio and others offered, so the level of interest and personal TV courses is a hopeful one. The film work within co-operation is very high. My experience from these radio-television-film courses might prove several single lectures given in training colleges the strongest channel leading from a rather tech- and at training seminars is that the importance of nical professional training back to the liberal the subject is generally accepted and that most education of concern to the whole university. students would welcome an opportunity of being Also of interest is the film lectureship which informed about these matters more regularly. has been established at University College, London (Slade School of Fine Arts), for a five- 2.Universities year period, thanks to moneydonated by the film and TV industries.Attached to this lectureship A couple of years ago a series of lectures on film are two research students. The lecturer, was held at the two Danish universities by Bjorn Mr. Thorold Dickinson, runs a programme of Rasmussen, M.A. The aim of these lectures was lectures and seminars, which he describes in purely to give - very competentinformation; no detail in the SEFT Screen Education Yearbook 1962. training for teaching the subjects in schools was The initial work has been geared towards finding a intended.In view of the way in which the curricu- firm set of standards for the evaluation and criti- lum of the Danish secondary schools is planned, cism of films. an initiative from the universities concerning film appreciation in schools is highly unlikely. A special course for screen education lecturers? Education in mass communication in For teachers who receive their training at univer- the developing countries sity level - and more and more teachers are being taught at the universities - there seems then to be In Alrica, Asia and Latin America, where Unesco the possibility of sharing courses to some extent is making a considerable effort to develop the whole with students preparing for film and TV careers. range of the mass media, we must avoid creating However, teachers in teacher-training colleges, the same situation which has hampered sensible although they obviously welcome and enjoy a guest work in many of the more developed countries, lecture by a film director, a TV producer or namely, putting the active mass communication another professional, would probably be best workers and the teachers in separate, even hostile, served by lecturers with a basic training in educa- camps. There isof course an immediate need tion, who also have some specialized training in for basic or specialized technical training for screen education. The British are thinking along people in press, radio, film and TV, but since these lines.Paddy Whannel writes: "There is a educational efforts in these countries will be to a need to establish a method of training lecturers great extent dependent on the mass media it should specifically for such work in teacher-training be possible to organize courses and seminars colleges, and the British Film Institute is at designed for future nroducers, directors, editors present discussing the possibility of establishing and also teachers. The need to make the fullest a one-year full-time course which would train a use of the relatively few teaching experts in this small group of carefully selected people. Such a field would favour such a joint approach. course would only be open to those with education- In a recent survey of higher studies and film al experience. The institute's r8le would be to training in Europe, David Robinson of the British service the course and assist in its planning and Film Institute enumerates the subjects which ought operation.It would properly be under the control to constitute the initial, general background of the of an educational body, either a college or an training of professional film and TV people. They institute of education." include the economic aspects of cinema, aesthetic Such an undertaking might serve as an example aspects of cinema and history and literature of to other countries intending to introduce screen cinema. These are of equal importance to screen education courses into their teaching colleges. educators. In Austria "Aktion Der Gute Film" and the Not only in the developing countries, but in all newly founded association of film teachers hope

75

6 that, within the new law which is being prepared Regional courses for teachers fromdifferent on schools and education, provision will be made countries might also openup possibilities for for the teaching of screen education, at leastas a acquiring first-class instruction. regular extra-curricular activity, in the teacher- Screen education courses could be arranged in the Germanlanguage training colleges. for teachers from Germany, Austria We also note that at a recent gathering of and Switzerland. In the Nordic countriesscreen education courses German teachers' organizations a recommendation have already been arrangedfor teachers from all was made to the "Kultusminister", that in view of four countries. the growing importance of the mass media lecture- Courses in French could be attended by people from Belgium, France,Switzerland and ships in mass communications should be estab- Luxembourg. Courses in the lished within the institutes of pedagogics Russian language might attract people from theSoviet Union, (Hauptarntliche Dozenturen an den Pa.dagogischen Czecnoslovakia and Poland. Hochschulen). International exchange of material What can be done for teachers who have already and lecturers finished their training? In this way the foundations wouldbe laid for further international co-operation between Something must also be done for those teachers all those engaged in teaching screen education.The need for this kind who have already finished their basic training, but of co-operation is expressed inthree of the papers who, owing to educational reforms, will find them- submitted on "teaching selves expected to teach a curriculum including screen education to the teachers". Dr. Kennedyof Austria mentions the screen education. The summer courses arranged possibility of exchangingnot only materials, but by the British Film Institute and the Society for also film teachers and lecturers Education in Film and Television in Britain, the who have several languages at their command. In Australiathe courses and seminars arranged in the German interested film teacher tries to keep Federal Republic by the Institut für Film und Bild in touch with developments in other parts of theworld by mem- and the Film und Bildstellen in different "Linder", bership of the Society fo. Education and "Les stages d'initiation cinernatographiques" in Film and Television.But Australian teachers wouldalso arranged by the Ministry of Education in France, welcome an opportunity of etc. will have to be extended and generalized. participating in regional or international conferences, as would alsothose However, the need to reach so many teachers in a in Denmark. The American relatively short time calls for new methods and authors seek material offering critical approaches to theteaching of film approaches.In the Netherlands, correspondence and TV appreciation from other courses in screen education have been offered to countries, for such materials have not beenproduced by the teachers. Would it not be possible to offera course American film and television by correspondence and TV combined? This would industries. There is certainly wide scope forco-operation with the have the advantage of demonstrating audio-visual teachers of this great country materials through live lessons? A great number whose film and TV industries still dominate theentertainment of teachers in study groups in different parts ofa markets of the world. country would be able to follow a specially designed TV series on screen education.

76 APPENDIX V

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON FILM AND TELEVISION TEACHING HELD AT LEANGKOLLEN, OSLO, NORWAY, 7-13 OCTOBER 1962

INTRODUCTION curriculum. We are well aware of the difficulties which must be overcome, including those which The art, entertainment and information provided are of a financial nature and those which aredue through the mass media of communication pley an to national differences in educational systems. important part in shaping our values and attitudes. But we regard it as of paramount importance that The cultural environment created by film, televi- screen education (in both film andtelevision) be sion, popular reading matter, advertising and introduced at the earliest possible date in all popular music represents a challenge to, and a schools, regardless of the existing limitations. great opportunity for, all educators. The inclusion of screen education for all pupils, Film and television are perhaps the most persu- as a definite and systematic part of theschoo', asive of these media, and the cinema in particular curriculum, implies that continuous attention reveals the extent to which work of genuine quality should be given to the film and television experi- can be provided within this culture. Foreducators, ences of all cl-iildren from the earliest age. an appreciation of these forms of communication, The basic methods which should be used in con- in terms of both their social influence and capaci- nexion with education in television seems to be ties as art, is fundamental. largely similar to those which are used for educa- The meeting expresses its profound pleasure at tion in film and in practice there will be consider- the greatly increased amount of work being done in able overlapping between the two. the education of both children and adults to respond The methods of film teaching were explored at critically and appreciatively to the powerful and the London Conference on Film, Television and potentially enriching media of film and television. the Child in 1958, and we deem it relevant to In many countries this work of screen educk.tion ...epeat here some quotations from the report of ;.as recently been given valuable impetus by official that conference: decrees, recommendations and support. Neverthe- "Methods will vary from country to country, less, there are others in which the work which has depending on the structure of national and local been, and is being, developed with skill, experience educational systems, and indeed they will vary and devotion by individuals and unofficial organiza- from teacher to teacher, depending on personal tions would be enormously stimulated and enlarged background and interest as well as on the interests by more encouragement and assistance, both from and abilities of pupils... The following seem to educational authorities and from those responsible be the different methods which have been found for providing film and television programmes. most useful: The meeting has formulated its recommendations under the following heads: Discussion and analysis 1.The introduction and integration of screen education into the curriculum, with some The method of active discussion and analysis of consideration of methods. films and television programmes has proved funda- 2.Informal and out-of-school screen education. mental, rewarding and successful. Out of such 3.Television aspects of screen education. discussion comes a grasp of the visual language 4.The materials required, and the means of and an understanding of how this language is used obtaining them. to reveal character and express attitudes. 5. The training of teachers of screen education. 6. Screen education in the field of higher education. Creative activity 7.Possible future development in the field of international education and collaboration. It has been found that a variety of practical activi- ties deepen the children's understanding of film. Such methods include drawings or arrangements 1. THE INTRODUCTION AND INTEGRATION OF of still pictures, film making, etc. SCREEN EDUCATION INTO THE CURRICU- It is important, however, to place the emphasis LUM, WITH SOME CONSIDERATION OF on the treatment of human relationships, character ME THODS motivation, theme, etc. and not on the technical processes." Screen education should be a systematic study for As with film, an integral part of screen education every child and carried out within the school in relation to television will be the discussion of

77 television programmes which childrensee outside those of a truly demwzratic education, namely, to school.In addition, the school should aim to help the individual to reepect and uphold truth and, bring children into contact with the best thatthe on the basis of the richest possible personal deve- medium has to offer, by means of: lopment, to share and enjoy with his fellowmen (a) Giving advance information in school about the treasures which our civilization offers to the programmes of good quality which children can human mind and heart. see, and Since children's judgement, appreciation and (b) Projection in the classroom of selectedtele- sense of values develop gradually, it is realized vision programmes, for discussionpurposes. that these aims cannot be achieved independently of each other. Because these developments begin at an early age, some kind of screen education 2.INFORMAL AND OUT-OF-SCHOOL for pre-school children is a goal to be achieved SCREEN EDUCATION immediately. This may be accomplished by the development of our adult educationprogramme, Screen education has its place whereveryoung through which parents may becomeaware cf the people and adults enjoy the cinemaor television. fact that television is, and will be,a main factor The competent authorities should thereforepromote in influencing the values and moral standards of it also on a large scale for viewers outsideschools. our society. We are convinced that a deeper appreciation of, It is:, we believe, the dramatic narrative aspects and a keener discrimination in regard to, the of television programmes (in particular those screen media will contribute towards raising which, althotIgh intended for adults,are watched popular demand for, and acceptance of, films and by the young) which exert the greatPst influence. television programmes of high quality. In any screen education programn-e, these must Television itself can be a signiacant tool of necessarily occupy major attention. An important screen education, through programmes which deal factor which distinguishes television from the with all aspects of the film mediumas well as with cinema is that, on the television screen, pro- television itself.Such programmes, along with grammes and items (frequently very short) follow television programmes of a general nature and each other in a quick succession, creatinga con- entertainment films, used as a basis for discussion tinuous stream of transitory impressions.The by groups of young people and/or adults,constitute task of parents and teachers here is toassist a valuable approach to screen education in youth children to distinguish between these.as a prelim- clubs, adult education organizations and institutions. inary to evaluating them. If, in these areas, attentive viewing and critical discussion are combined with the creative activity ol individual or group film production byyoung 4. THE MATERIALC REQUIRED AND people and adults, the results ofan out-of-school THE MEANS OF OBTAINING THEM screen education may prove far reaching and fruitful. Screen education can only be successful ifproper materials are available. We deal first withdiffer- ent categories of material: 3. (a) Entertainment films, together withentertain- TELEVISION ASPECTS OF ment television programmes, are the fundamental SCREEN EDUCATION material for screen education. These television programmes can be provided on film for showing Because television is already a major channel of in the classroom, or screened during school communication, and will increase inscope and hours for discussion. power, we believe it is the responsibility of educa- (b) Film and television extracts tors to teach our young people to use this medium are the most in a constructive way. We differentiate bet important auxiliary in the approach to theunder- ween standing and appreciation of the completework. "education through television" and "educadonin Most of these would be from films and television". The aims of the latter, programmes similar to available in their totality, but others shouldshow those of education in film, may be statedas aspects of film history, points of style, etc. for f ollows : use at higher levels of screen education. I. To help viewers to increase their understand- (c) Specially produced shoe films about filmand ing of what they see on thescreen. television are of particular value. II.To encourage viewers to becomemore select- (d) Filmstrips and slide series ive in their choice of programme. can be of value in teaching certain aspects ofscreen education, such III. To help viewers to becomemore aware and as film economics and certain points of technique. discriminating in their responses and to (e) Tape recordings of sound tracksare useful to develop their power of judgementso that they stimulate recollection of already may benefit from those programmes, both seen films, etc. and for s:adying the track itself.At higher levels imaginative and factual, which have the of screen education, recordings capacity to enrich their lives. on film ai..i tele- vision subjects of interviews with directors,etc. The aims of screen education thusconsort with are useful.

78 (1) wide variety of printed material (e.g. books, (a) Ageneral course for all students shooting scripts, fiches filmographiques) should be available to teachers and pupils. Books and For anyone undertaking teaching, some insight reputable periodicals on film and television are of into the nature and quality of contemporary educational value just as are those on other school culture created by or reflected in the mass media subjects. is fundamental. This course shouldtherefore be (g) Study units, consisting of extracts, slide a general one given to all students,perhaps series, tape recordings, printed material, etc. standing on its own or possibly allied to one of the represent a useful form of integrated study. main studies.It would cover the way the media All these matevials should, wherever possible, of communication have developed, how they are be prepared or compiled with the active assistance at present organized, their rOle in shaping values or advice of practising screeneducators. and attitudes, and their capacities as forms of art. Education authorities, recognizing the great The emphasis throughout should be on the recog- educational value and stimulating function of the3e nition that wifain the range of the mass media materials, should provide, or authorize the neces- work of genuine quality is produced. sary finance and/or permission for them tobe obtained and used in the educational framework. (b) A special course in film and television There is a clear responsibility which rests on the providers of screen entertainment to assist Alongside the general course for all students, a teachers in educating their audiences. We suggest more comprehensive and intensivetraining in the the following specific forms of help: study of film and television should be available for Film distributors should provide, either free or those students wishing to specialize.This is at special low rates of hire, films, extracts and essential for facilitating the wide-scale introduc- stills. tion of screen education in those schools, including Television companies, organizations, stations, secondary schools, which are organized on a etc. can provide programmes of special value for specialist basis. screen education, andshould co-operate in the The basis of this s?ecial course would be simi- provision of telerecordings of a wide range. lar to the general orm, but it would be more Producers and distributors of audio-visual aith, detailed, especially in the study of individual films should recognize the need and the market for and television programmes. The essential part materials of all kinds suitable for screen education, of the course would be devoted to the cinema, particularly for specially produced short films because it is in dealing with the feature film that about film and television.Co-operation with tele- students are faced with the challenge of a rich and vision organizations would be simple and fruitful expressive art form. While students should be in this field. introduced to major films of the past, the emphasis Organizations which control copyrights, per- should be on those contemporary films and tele- forming rights, etc. are urged to waive their vision programmes which young people actually rights in respect of the appropriate materials see, and on those contemporaryfilms and television when they are used for non-commercial educational programmes which, by their erperimental approach, purposes. This has particular application totele- open up new avenues of artistic expression. vision recordings. Finally, students should be introduced to the Finally, it is of very great importance that methods of screen education. information on materials available should be 3. We call on the appropriate authorities also to circulated as widely as possible from country see that the training for youth workand film clubs to country. of organizers and animateurs is promoted by all possible means, for example by the creation of a number of posts for instructors in screen education 5.THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS outside school. OF SCREEN EDUCATION Furthermore, frequent contacts should be estab- lished between those screen educators who are 1. We call on the Ministries of Education, the active in school and those engaged in informal and education authorities and other appropriate agen- out-of-school screen education. cies, not only to support what is already being done to encourage teachers to take up screen edu- cation work, but also to extend it in the direction 6. SCREEN EDUCATION IN THE of more comprehensive and sustained courses for FIELD OF HIGHER EDUCATION the practising teacher. A practising teacher should, for example, have the opportunity of full- All those who attend universities should have the time study away from the classroom as is common opportunity of acquiring a basic knowledge of film with other specialist subjects. and television as media of art and communication, 2.Courses of stIldy must also be embodied in the and of the place of the screen in the general con- curricula of teacher-training colleges. mhese temporary cultural pattern.Therefore: should take two forms: (a) Universities and similar institutions, including 79 art schools, schools of design, etc. should include country, both to enrich their own experiences and lectures, seminars and other suitable activities encourage further work in their own country. centred on this theme, or indeed offer courses in film and television open to all students at the (c) Lending experts to other countries undergraduate level and permitting specialization at the graduate level. To meet the needs of any country in whichscreen (b) In addition, universities and similar institutions education has not yet been introduced, it would be active in training teachers for secondary schools helpful if experts from abroad could work in such should offer special courses and/or seminars in a country for some time.This would also be screen education and its methods. valuable in the very near future for the newly For all such courses professional film and tele- developed countries where film and television vision workers, artists, critics, professors from production and consumption are expanding rapidly, film schools, should be invited to assist as tutors and where educational authorities willsoon have and lecturers to the widest possible extent. Film to meet the situation that first gave rise to the schools themselves could organize special courses screen education movement. in screen education. (c) Finally, since any future training ofscreen (d) Organization of seminars for experienced education teachers will depend heavily upon funda- teachers from different countries mental research into the psychological, sociologi- cal, aesthetic and artistic aspects of films and International seminars in which only very experi- television, the universities should provide facilities enced teachers and leading personalities should for such studies and research work at the academic participate would be useful for a regular exchange level on equal terms with other disciplines. of new experiences and ideas between experts. Apart from this, such international seminars could also deal with such special subjects as 7. POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN contact and collaboration with members of the film THE FIELDS OF INTERNATIONAL and television industry and with individual film EDUCATION AND COLLABORATION makers. What follows may for the greater part seemsome- (e) Foundation of a permanent centre for what ambitious in conception but we have tried to research and higher study of envisage the development of screen education screen education during, say, the next ten years, bearing in mind the constantly increasing rate of deve7apment The seminars mentioned above might gradually during the past decade and the global aspects which point to the need for the foundation ofa permanent the Telstar era is opening up to us. international centre where courses at the highest level could be given to teachers who playa promi- (a) International inquiry nent role in their own countries.At the same time, fundamental research work and practical A vital first step, we feel, is that the jointcom- investigations could be carried out by sucha mission of Unesco and the International Bureau of centre, from which the further growth ofscreen Education should place on the agenda of one of the education would profit largely. Asurvey would next conferences of Ministries of Education and enable decisions to be madeon what might be Culture at Geneva, the following question: achieved through centralization ofefforts, and Does your country's educational system already what should be the range of activities ofsuch a include education in the modern means of mass permanent international centre. communication (in particular, film and television), and what exactly is the present status of thescreen (f)Introduction of screen educationin a education which in your country is given to children future international university in different types of school? If in the near future an international university (b) Scholarships for study abroad should be founded, the competent authorities should be persuaded to introduce film and television It would be useful if the national centresor other study in its programme. This would not onlybe appropriate bodies granted fellowships to make it valuable in itself but it would also imply official possible for experienced and able educators to spend recognition of screen education by the learned some time studying screen education in another world.

80 APPENDIX VI

THE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE OF FILMS (CINEMA & TELEVISION) FOR CHILDREN

Secretariat General: 24 Rue Royale, Brussels 3, Belgium

This centre was set up by Unesco in 1955 to 1963 Venice Show, the centre also launched, as encourage in every possible way,the provision of an annual event, an international competitionfor suitable film entertainment for children ofall ages the best films made by children and young people and in all countrieseither films especially made themselves (the "Tenth Muse" Contest). for them or films suitable for them. The centre is deeply concerned with the need The centre also concerns itself withtelevision to facilitate the free circulation and presentation films for children and television programmesfor of films for young people, whether made specifi- children recorded on video tape.It is not con- cally for them or not.In particular, in an effort cerned with films made for formal education. to remove the financial and legal obstacles in the In addition, the centre tabulateslaws and regula- way of free circulation, it is beginning,through tions in different countries, especiallywith regard the national centres, to tabulate laws, Customs to the protection and education ofchildren in the regulations, trade union practices, etc. ,in differ- field of cinema and television. ent countries which militate against theproduction, The centre is not concerned at presentwith pro- distribution, exhibition, import and export of duction, distribution and exhibition, butconfines children's films. its activities to the collection,collating, exchange A bulletin is issued every two months in English and publishing of information.Such information (News) and French (Nouvelles).It contains includes the compilation, with the help ofnational reports on the activities of the international centres, of lists of films made for, orsuitable centre and of national centres, on conferences for, children, and actually shown in various and meetings.It reports on research projects in countries, the names of renters, the country of the field of film and television and includes origin of each film and other essential technical articles by authoritative writers who are respon- data. sible for the views expressed.It also publishes The first international presentation of film pro- lists of films selected by national centres as suit- grammes for young people was organizedby the able and available for special programmes, biblio- centre in Brussels in 1958. Twenty nations took graphies, etc. part and the twenty-five programmes which were The Board of Directors consists of six members, shown included seventy-five films. The varying two representing the international_ organizations lengths and standards of the programmes provided and four the national centres. valuable information and experience for producers The centre is an active member of the Inter- and distributors, as well as material for social national Film and Television Council. workers and psychologists. A report was prepared and published by Unesco. A similar presentation, organized by the Indian Centre of Films fcr NATIONAL CENTRES Children, under the patronage of the international centre and Unesco, took place in New Delhi in The variety of national approaches to the subject December 1960.Twenty-two countries contributed of children's cinema is such that national centres some sixty films between them. Thereport on are essential. Through theNational Commissions this presentation, together with the report on the for Unesco, the international centre has cncour- Brussels presentation, provides material for the aged all countries to set up their own national East-West project of Unesco. centres with the hope of establishing betweenthem In 1959, the centre called an international con- effective and fruitful collaboration. ference in London to discuss the technique of pro- ducing television films for children. Over the past Australia three years it has organized, in conjunction with Australian Council for Children's Films and the annual presentation of films made for children Television, The Vice-Chancellor's House, at the Mostra Internazionale del Film pe-r Ragazzi University of Melbourne, Parkville, N.2. , at Venice, round table conferences on: obstacles Victoria. throughout the world in the way of making, distri- President; Lady Paton buting and showing children's films (1961); the Hon. Sec. :Mrs. Barbara Vaughan relations between cinema, television and magazines for young people (1962); and the setting up of Austria libraries of children's films (1963).Within the Aktion "Der Gute Film" 81 Neubaugasse 28/13, Vienna VII. Sapru House, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi-1 President: Professor Dr. Paul Ullmann President: Shri R. R. Diwakar Sec. Gen. :Dr. Sigmund Kanagur-Kennedy Hon. Sec.Shri K. Subrahmanyam

Belgium Italy Centre National Belge du Film pour la Jeunesse Centro Nazionale Film per la Gioventil Quai du Commerce, Brussels 1. Piazza Firenze 27, Rome President: Mr. Fernand Rigot President: Professor Luigi Volpicelli Sec. Gen. :Mr. Robert La Roche Sec. Gen. :Doctor Evalina Tarroni

Canada Netherlands Canadian Centre of Films for Children Instituut Film en Jeugd 1762 Carling Avenue, Ottawa 3, Ontario. Oude Hoogstraat 24, Amsterdam C. President: Mrs. G. Hewson President: Mr. J. W. Ooms Exec. Sec.: Mr. Roy Little Adm. Sec. :Mr. G. Kruger

Czechoslovakia Norway Centre Tchécoslovaque du Film pour la Jeunesse Norsk Barnefilmnemd Nove Mesto, Mezibranska 21, Praha 2. c/o Department of Church and Education, President: Mr. Jiri Trnka Cultural Division, Secretary: Mr. Jan Polak Sommerrogt 15, Oslo. President: Mrs. E. B. Marcussen Denmark Secretary: Mr. Alv Heltne The Danish Children's Film Council Christiansborg Slotsplads 1, Copenhagen. Yugoslavia President: Mr. A. Grathe Commission "Film and Child" Secretary: Mr. Finn a Rogvi Mose Pijade 12/IV, Beograd. President: Mrs. Blazenka Mimica Finland Secretary: Mr. Milenko Karanovic Suomen Lastenelokuvakeskus Mannerheim-liitto Fredrikinkatu 47, Helsinki. INTERNATIONAL MEMBER ASSOCIATIONS President: Mr. Aarre Uusitalo Secretary: Mrs. Kirsti Rekola Catholic International Education Office Bezuidenhoutseweg 275, The Hague, France Netherlands. Comité Francais du Film pour la Jeunesse International Catholic Child Bureau 109 Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Paris 7e. 42 Rue de Chabrol, Paris 10, France. President: Mr. Georges Hacquard International Catholic Film Office Sec. Gen. :Mrs. Madeleine de Tienda 8 Rue de l'Orme, Brussels 4, Belgium. International Catholic Youth Federation German Democratic Republic Via Torre Rossa 4, Rome, Italy. Nationales Zentrum für Kinderfilm in der DDR International Committee of Film Education and Otto-Nuschke Strasse 28, Berlin W.8. Culture President: Professor H. Hintzsche 18 Rue Marbeuf, Paris 8e, France. International Falcon Movement Great Britain and Northern Ireland 16 Litslaan, Santpoort, Netherlands. National Centre of Films for Children International Federation of Film Producers' 6-10 Great Portland Street, Associations London, W. 1. Augustinergasse 9, Zurich 1, Switzerland. Secretary: Mr. W. G. R. Thom Interfilm - International Inter-Church Film Centre Borneolaan 27, Hilversum, Netherlands. Hungary International Union for Child Welfare Comité Cinématographique Hongrois de la 1 Rue de Varembé, Geneva, Switzerland. Jeunesse, c/o Institut des Sciences du Film International Union of Cinematograph Exhibitors et Cinematheque Hongroise, 92 Avenue des Champs-Elysees, Paris 8e, France. Vorosilov ut. 97, Budapest XIV. Women's International Democratic Federation President: Dr. Laszlo Ranbdy 13 Unter Den Linden, Berlin, W.8. , Sec. Gen. :Dr. Ghbor Gibry German Democratic Republic. World Brotherhood India Place des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Indian Centre of Films for Children, World Federation of Catholic Young Women and Girls c/o Children's Film Society, Springweg 8, Utrecht, Netherlands.

82 World Federation for Mental Health World Union of Catholic Teachers 19 Manchester Street, London, W.1. , Via della Conciliazione 3, Rome, Italy. Great Britain. World Union of Catholic Women's Organizations World Movement of Mothers 91 Rue de Sevres, Paris 6e, France. 37 rtlIP de Valois, Paris ler, France

83 APPENDIX VII

LIST OF MATERIALS l'OR EDUCATION IN FILM AND TELEVISION

prepared by Siegfried Mohrhof (Cologne) (See Appendix III)

I. FILM STUDY UNITS H. EXTRACTS

Germany (Federal Republic) Belgium Production and distribution: Institut für Film und ld Production and distribution: CEDOC, Bruxelles

BERUF ODER JOB? Religious film: KEYS OF THE KINGDOM Short film: BERUF ODER JOB? Western: STAGE COACH Slides showing the process of production War film: SERGEANT YORK Exposé: BERUF ODER JOB? Special effects out of various films Scenario: BERUF ODER JOB? Extracts from LES VISITEURS DU SOIR Detailed notes in a brochure Extracts from ETERNEL RETOUR

GESICHT VON DER STANGE? Short film: GESICHT VON DER STANGE? Denmark Exposé: GESICHT VON DER STANGE? Scenario: GESICHT VON DER STANGE? Distribution: Statens Filmcentral, Klibenhavn Slides showing the process of production Music track of this film Extract from ORPHANS OF THE STORM Effects track of this film (D. W. Griffith) Sound track of this film 2 Extracts from DITTE MANNESKEBARN Detailed notes in a brochure (Bjarne Henning-Jensen)8 min. Extract from DON QUICHOTTE (G.W. Pabst) 6 min. United Kingdom Extract from IVAN THE TERRIBLE (S. M. Eisenstein) - 22 min. Production and distribution: The British Film Extract from KVINNOROM (I. Bergman) Institute

STUDY UNIT 1 Germany (Federal Republic) Feature film: LOOK BACK IN ANGER Short film: MOMMA DON'T ALLOW Production and distribution: Institut für Film Extract from: ROOM AT THE TOP und ld Copy of the film script of LOOK BACK IN ANGER Copy of the play AMICI PER LA PELLE Tape recordings of speeches by Kenneth T,rnan Italy 1955Franco Rossi b&w 31 min. and Lindsay Anderson 10 extracts Detailed notes on the feature and other material Detailed notes in a brochure VIVA ZAPATA STUDY UNIT 2 U. S. A. 1951 Elia Kazanb&w - 28 min. Feature film: LA GRANDE ILLUSION 9 extracts Extract from; PATHS OF GLORY Detailed notes in a brochure Extract from: Westfront 1918 DECISION BEFORE DAWN Detailed notes on the feature and other material U. S.A. 1951 Anatole Litvak b&w 21 min. 7 extracts STUDY UNIT 3 Detailed notes in a brochure Feature film: BACHELOR PARTY GRAPES OF WRATH Extract from: MARTY U.S.A.1940 John Ford b&w 24 min. Extract from: A MAN IS TEN FEET TALL 8 extracts Copy of the script of BACHELOR ?ARTY Detailed notes in a brochure Volume of Paddy Chayevsky's TV plays DOKUMENTE ZUR GESCHICHTE DES FILMS Detailed notes on the feature and other material (Documents on film history) b&w 86 min.

84 Germany Jympson Harman analyses the editingof a Significant examples of the development of film, sequence from Lumière till 1928. CRITIC and THE OVERLANDERS(1949) DOKUMENTE ZUR GESCHICHTE DES b&w 15 min. WERBEFILMS (Documents on the history of Miss Dilys Powell analyses theediting of a public relations films) sequence Part I:1910-1926 - silent - bkor col. 24 min. CRITIC and ODD MAN OUT (1949) Part II: 1928-1932 - b&w - 23 min. b&w - 35 min. Part III: 1939-1956 - col. - 18 min. Basil Wright analyses the narrative construction All these films were produced by Julius CRITIC and TWELVE ANGRY MEN (1958) Pinschewer b&w - 25 min. An interesting collection of examples of Miss E. Arnot Robertson discusses scripting advertising by means of film from its early and characterization beginnings up to "six industries in a fewminutes" THE DIRECTOR and THE FILM (1959) b&w - 46 min. David Lean discusses aspects of his workand Netherlands introduces extracts from his filn.s Production and distribution: CRITIC and 3.10 TO YUMA b&w 37 min. Extract from ABOVE US THE WAVES (director: John Freeman discusses the"psychological" Ralph Thomas) Western and its appeal Extract from I MARRIED A WITCH (RenéClair) Extract from DIE NACHTWACHE (HaraldBraun) Film and television study extracts Extract from FARREBIQUE (G. RJuquier) Extract from DEAD OF NIGHT (B. Dearden) BIRTH OF A NATION (Extract No. 1) U. S. A. 1915 - D. W. Griffith - b&w -12 min. Switzerland The battle sequence BIRTH OF A NATION (Extract No. 2) Production and/or distribution: b&w - 11 min. The Klu-Klux-Klan ride S'OuS LES TOITS DE PARIS HEARTS OF THE WORLD FranceRen6 Clair - b&w - 18 min. U. S. A. 1919 - D. W. Griffith and LillianGish 14 JUILLET b&w - 28 min. FranceRené Clair - b&w36 min. THE CABINET OF DR. CALIGARI Two extracts of about 18 min. Germany 1919 - Robert Wiene - b&w - 15 min. UN CHAPEAU DE PAILLE D'ITALIE Cesare's prophecy of the death ofAlan, and FranceRené Clair - b&w - silent5 min. his murder during the night FOOLISH WIVES FOOLISH WIVES U. S. A. - E. V. Stroheim b&w silent - 5 min. U. S. A. 1921 - Erich von Stroheim - b&w - 11 min. LA BELLE EQUIPE The visit to the slums; a sequence with Stroheim FranceJ. Duvivierb&w - 10 min. NANOOK OF THE NORTH CABIRIA U.S.A. 1922Robert Flaherty - b&w - 12 min. ItalyG. Pastrone - b&w - silent5 min. The building oi the igloo by Nanook and his family DROLE DE DRAME WARNING SHADOWS France - Marcel Carrie - b&w - 20 min. Germany 1922 - Arthur Robinsonb&w - 12 min. KAMERADSCHAFT The hypnotist shows the central characters Germany - G. W. Pabst - b&w - 20 min. something of the tragedy that is about to DREIGROSCHENOPER enfold them Germany - G W. Pabst b&w 10 min. THE ATONEMENT OF GOSTA BERLING BIRTH OF A NATION Sweden 1923 - Maurice Stiller, Greta Garbo U. S. A. - D. W.. Griffithb&w - 15 min. b&w 14 min. PANZERKREUZER POTEMION The fire at the mansion; the pursuit across USSR S.M. Eisenstein - b&w - silent - 20 min. the frozen lake BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN USSR 1925Sergei Eisenstein - b&w16 min. United Kingdom The famous Odessa steps sequence THE LAST LAUGH Distribution: The British Film Institute Germany 1925F . W. Murnau, Emil Jannings b&w - 18 min. Critic and film series The hotel porter learns that he is to be demoted to the position of a lavatory attendant CRITIC and GREAT EXPECTATIONS (1949) COMIN' THRO' THE RYE b&w - 6 min. United Kingdom 1926 - Cecil Hepworth b&w - 11 min. The locust plague A reconciliation. With Alma Thylor and ROMEO AND JULIET James Carew U.S.A. 1936 - George Cukor - b&w - 10 min. METROPOLIS (Extract No. 1) The balcony scene Germany 1926 - Fritz Lang - b&w - 18 min. SAN FRANCISCO Fredersen's son sees for the first time the U. S. A. 1936 - Clark Gable, Spencer Tracy, workers' underground machine shops and Jeanette MacDonald - b&w - 20 min. witnesses a great explosion Earthquake and finale METROPOLIS (Extract No. 2) - b&w - 16 min. TALE OF TWO CITIES The City of Metropolis, with the workers' U.S.A. 1936 - Jack Conway - b&w - 10 min. quarters below ground and the gardens of the The storming of the Bastille masters above THE CHILDHOOD OF MAXIM GORKI MOTHER USSR 1938 - Mark Donskoi - b&w - 11 min. USSR 1926 - V. Pudovkin - b&w - 18 min. The young Gorki in the scene where a prized The mother unwittingly betrays her son and tablecloth is dipped in a vat of dye he is arrested THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN THE ITALIAN STRAW HAT U.S.A. 1939 - Richard Thorpe - b&w - 10 min. France 1927René Clair - b&w - 13 min. The race against time by the river steamboat The marriage scene to save the life of the Negro who is about to LONG PANTS be lynched U. S. A. 1927 - Frank Capra - b&w - 13 mM. GOODBYE MR. CHIPS Harry Langdon takes his girl friend into the United Kingdom 1939 - Sam Woodb&w - 11 min. forest to shoot her but ends up by being A long flashback to show Chips as a new master rescued by her on his first day at Brookfield School OCTOBER THE MALTESE FALCON USSR 1928Sergei Eisenstein - b&w17 min. U.S.A. 1941 - John Huston, with Humphrey The raising of bridges Bogart and Peter Lorre - b&w - 6 min. THE GENERAL LINE (Extract No. 1) Sam Spade meets Joe Cairo USSR 1929 - Sergei Eisensteinb&w - 7 min. BRIEF ENCOUNTER The famous cream separator sequence United Kingdom 1945 - David Lean - b&w -10min. THE GENERAL LINE (Extract No. 2) The final scene b&w - 7 min. THEY WERE EXPENDABLE The scything contest U.S.A. 1945 - John Ford - b&w10 min. THE GHOST THAT NEVER RETURNS Assault on a Japanese cruiser (Extract No. 1) DAVID LEAN OPENINGS USSR 1929 - Alexander Room - b&w - 16 min. United Kingdom - b&w - 10 mM. The mutiny in the prison THE SOUND BARRIER (1952) THE GHOST THAT NEVER RETURNS HOBSON'S CHOICE (1953) (Extract No. 2)- b&w - 15 min. GREAT EXPECTATIONS (1946) The night before the prisoner is set free THE LAST STAGE and his joy on being released Poland 1947 - Wanda Jakubowskab&w - 8 min. NEW BABYLON The arrival of a trainload of condemned Jews USSR 1929 - G. Kzintsev and L. Trauberg at Auschwitz b&w - 18 min. THE FALLEN IDOL The storming of the barricades United Kingdom 1948 - Sir Carol Reed EARTH b&w - 11 min. USSR 1930 - Alexander Dovzhenko - b&w - 13 min. Death of Mrs. Baines; boy' s panic through Vassily's decision on the funeral procedure streets BLACKMAIL OLIVEE TWIST United Kingdom - Alfred Hitchcock 1929 United Kingdom 1948David Lean - b&w - 10min. b&w - 10 min. Fagin's "romp" and pickpocketing chase The famous "knife" scene THE TREASURE OF THE SIERRA MADRE TELL ENGLAND U.S.A. 1948John Hustonb&w - 10 min. United Kingdom 1931 - Anthony Asquith and The murder of Dobbs Geoffrey Barkas - b&w - 20 min. THE WINSLOW BOY The extract shows the landing of the British United Kingdom 1948 - Anthony Asquith troops on the beaches of Gallipoli b&w 20 min. MAN OF ARAN The courtroom scenes United Kingdom 1934Robert Flaherty THE THIRD MAN b&w - 19 min. United Kingdom 1949 - Sir Carol Reed The storm scene b&w 12 min. THE GOOD EARTH The "Harry Lime Story" U.S.A. 1936Sidney Franklin - b&w - 11 min. KIND HEARTS AND CORONETS

86 United Kingdom 1950 - Alexander Mac Kendrick STREET TRADERS (TV) b&w - 9 min. United Kingdom 1957 - b&w - 14 min. Three of the murders, including the vicar and A good example of the direct interview technique the colonel TRAMPS (TV) A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE United Kingdom 1958 - b&w - 14 min. U.S.A. 1951 - Elia Kazan - b&w - 10 min. An investigation of the place of the tramp Blanche meets her brother-in-law, Stanley in the Welfare State THE YOUNG CHOPIN PROFILE OF ROBERT MORLEY (TV) Poland 1951 - Alexander Ford - b&w - 12 min. United Kingdom 1958b&w - 5 min. Dance hall sequence An interview with the actor, Robert Morley THE BACK OF BEYOND FAN FEVER (TV) Australia 1953 - John Heyer - b&w - 9 min. United Kingdom 1958 - b&w - 22 min. The ruins of the Lutheran Mission An attempt to analyse all the aspects of mass JULIUS CAESAR hysteria and fan worship associated with the U.S. A. 1953 - Joseph L. Mankiewicz modern teenager b&w - 19 min. AMERICAN TV COMMERCIALS (TV) The Capital scene U.S.A. 1959 - b&w11 min. THE MAGGIE An illustration of the various forms of "hard" United Kingdom 1953 - Alexander MacKendrick and "soft" selling used in American advertising b&w - 10 min. THE LAST HOURS (TV) The poaching scene United Kingdom 1959b&w - 83 min. A GENERATION An excellent example of a typical "Play of the Poland 1954Andrzej Wajda - b&w - 12 min. Week",illustrating differences in approach The first meeting of Stach and Dorotea, the between live action and television film gathering of the young partisans, and Stach being beaten up by the Germans (United Kingdom) THE LADYKILLERS United Kingdom 1955 - Alexander MacKendrick Distribution: Contemporary Films, London b&w - 9 min. The capture of the parrot ar.I the robbery ALEXANDER NE VSKY of the bank van USSR 1938 - b&w - 10 min. THE RIVAL WORLD The battle on the ice United Kingdom 1955 - Bert Haanstra CHILDREN OF HIROSHIMA b&w - 8 min. Japan 1952 - b&w - 10 min. The locusts The dropping of the bomb THE SEVENTH SEAL IVAN THE TERRIBLE Sweden 1957 - Ingmar Bergman - b&w - 11 min. USSR 1944 - b&w - 10 min. The opening sequence, introducing the The marriage feast chess game ASHES AND DIAMONDS Poland 1958Andrzej Wajda - b&w - 16 min. The opening of the film including the first HI.SHORT FILMS meeting of Maciek and Krystyana WORLD OF APU India 1959 - Satyijit Ray - b&w - 18 min. Austria The village wedding, at which Apu becomes first a spectator and then the bridegroom Production and distribution: Bundesstaatliche SMALLPDX (TV) Hauptstelle Mr Lichtbild und Bildungsfilm, Vienna United Kingdom 1955b&w - 8 min. A dramatized account of the outbreak and SCHULE UND BILDUNGSFILM control of a smallpox epidemic b&w - 28 min. SEWERMEN (TV) (How a film should be used in schools) United Kingdom - b&w - 17 min. Austria 1960 - A. Hiibl The work of some of the men employed on Film as an audio-visual aid London's main drainage system BRENNWEITE - PERSPEKTIVE AMERICAN TOURISTS (TV) b&w - 13 min. United Kingdom 1957 - b&w - 5 min. (Focal distance - Perspective) A survey of what the American tourist may Austria 1960 - D. Burckert expect to find in Britain DIE EINSTELLUNG STREET CLEANERS (TV) b&w - 6 min. United Kingdom 1957 - b&w - 17 min. (The Shot) An attempt to capture a true to life Austria 1960D. Burckert impression of a London worker DER SCHNITT

87 b&w - 10 min. AUTEUR D'UN FILM DE MONTAGE (Editing) b&w Austria 1960 - D. Burckert France - A. Pol BLENDEN Editing demonstrated by an example b&w - 14 min. L'OEUVRE SCIENTIFIQUE DP PASTEUR (Dissolves of shots) I: SE w - 35 min. Austria 1960 - D. Burckert France - G. Rouquier KAMERAFAHRT UND TRANSFOKATOR Short film to demonstrate different shots and b&w - 19 min. the so-called "punctuation" of the film language (Camera tracking and zoom lens) LE PONT DE TANCARVILLE Austria 1960 - D. Burckert b&w KAMERAFAHRT France - H. Champetier b&w - 14 min. Short film to demonstrate shots (Camera tracking) IMPRESSIONS DE NEW YORK Austria 1960 - D. Burckert b&w ZEITGESTALTUNG IM FILM France - F. Reichenbach b&w - 14 min. Short film to demonstrate the composition (About the elements of time in film) of shots Austria 1960 - D. Burckert BALZAC, LE ROI SOLEIL DAS WUNDER DES FERNSEHENS b&w 24 min. b&w - 11 min FranceJ. Vidal (Miracles of television) Film to demonstrate the "camera in motion" Austria 1960 UN JARDIN PUBLIC WIE EINE FERNSEHSZENE ENTSTEHT b&w - 20 min. b&w 13 min. France - P. Paviot (How a television scene is mane) Film to demonstrate the "camera in motion" Austria 1960 - Prod. Austrian TV A. MASSON ET LES QUATRE ELEMENTS b&w Denmark France - J. Gremillon To demonstrate the "camera in motion" HVORDAN FILMEN FORTAELLER EN HISTORY!! LE CHARRON b&w - 6 min. b&w (How a film story is told) France - G. Rouquier Denmark 1960 - F. D. F. 's Filmtjeneste To demonstrate "punctuation" LA MACHINE ET L'HOMME France b&w France - J. Mitry Distributor: Institut Pédagogique National, Paris To demonstrate "punctuation" LA SYMPHONIE MECANIQUE LA NAISSANCE DU CINEMA b&w b&w - 40 min. France - J. Mary France - R. Leenhardt To demonstrate "punctuation" History of film from the early beginnings IMAGES GOTHIQUES CINEMA LUMIERE b&w 10 min. b&w - 25 min. France - M. Cloche France - Paul Paviot To demonstrate lighting A film about the life and work of the LES OURSINS Lumiere brothers col. 15 min. LE GRAND MELIES France - J. Painlevé b&w To demonstrate certain aspects of sound in film France - Franju ARTHUR HONEGGER Short film about G. Mélies, with extracts b&w from his films FranceG. Rouquier PREHISTOIRE DU CINEMA To demonstrate certain aspects of sound in film b&w IMAGES POUR DEBUSSY France - E. Degelin b&w 22 min. Short film on the prehistory of film AUBERVILLIERS COMMENT LE FILM PARLE b&w b&w France - E. Lotar France - Edita-Films To demonstrate the use of music in film ECRIRE EN IMAGES (music of J. Kosma) b&w LE TONNELIER France - J. Mitry b&w

88 France - G. Regnier France - Centre audio-visuel de SaintCloud An example of editing LES ECHELLES DE PLANS LE CHAUDRONY.ILR b&w 12 min. b&w FranceInstitut Pédagogique National FranceG. Rouquier LES MOUVEMENTS D'APPAREILS Example of editing b&w - 11 min. TIN FORGERON ATI TRAVAIL France - Institut Pédagogique National b&w - 5 min. LES ANGLES DE PRISE DE VUES FranceR. Bricon col. - 11 min. Example of editing France - Institut Pédagogique National LES AVENTURES D'UNE MOUCHEBLEUE AUTOUR DE L'ARGENT b&w silent France - Dr. Thévenard France Example of editing Presents shots taken for the film of Marcel LA MER REMONTE A ROUEN L'Herbier, entitled "L'ARGENT" b&w ENREGISTREMENT ET REPRODUCTION DES France - Molinario SONS Example of editing FranceM. Cantagrel VEL' D'HIV Sound recording and reproduction b&w France - Guy Blanc Germany (Federal Republic) Example of editing Production and/or distribution: Institut für VAN GOGH Film und Bild, Munich b&w France - A. Resnais Example of editing EINE FILMSZENE ENTSTERT LE POISSON ROUGE (How a film scene is made) col. - 12 min. Germany 1953 - E. Niederreither France - E. Sechan silent - b&w - 25 min. Analysis of dramatic structure HAUS IM HAUS LE BALLON ROUGE Germany 1953 - Real Film col. - 34 min. b&w - 14 min. France - Lamorisse How a new film studio is built Analysis nf dramatic structure VARIATIONEN TJBER EIN FILMTHEMA (Variations on a film theme) LES HOMMES DE LA NUIT 17 min. b&w - 35 min. Germany 1954E. Niederreither - b&w FranceH. Fabiani Some techniques of film demonstrated Analysis of dramatic structure DER FILMSCHNITT (Editing of film) NIOK min. col. - 45 min. Germany 1958 - E. Niederreither - b&w - 20 France - E. Sechan Deals with questions concerning film editing Analysis of dramatic structure LUMIERE FranceP. Paviotb&w - 12 min. LA GRANDE PECHE A German version of the French film about b&w France - H. Fabiani the Lumières Analysis of dramatic structure PAMPHYLOS DER MANN MIT DEM AUTOTICK DERRIERE LE DECOR Germany 1961 - F. Streich/Ch. W. Rischert b&w col. - 20 min. France - J. Mitry The animation of drawings Genesis of a film PACIFIC 231 FranceJ. Mitry - b&w - 10 min. TU SERAS STAR Example of "montage" on music of Honegger b&w France - J. Mitry MENSCHEN IN FINER STADT About film actors Sweden - Arne Sucksdorff - b&w - 18 min. LES METAMORPHOSES D'UN VISAGE Significant examples of the elements of film b&w - 3 min. language France - Centre audio-visuel de Saint Cloud ...UND DIE SEE WAR NICHT MEHR ( .. en de Zee was niet meer) LE "CHAMP - CONTRE CHAMP" 24 min. b&w - 3 min. Netherlands - Bert Haanstra - cal. France - Centre audio-visuel de Saint Cloud Significant examples of editing PLANS HIERARCHIES, PLAN SEQUENCE, GLAS PLAN TRAVELLING Netherlands - Bert Haanstra - col. - 11 min. b&w - 3 min. An example of artistic film rhythm 89 Italy A record of the development of television in Great Britain up to 1936 Several distributors BBC TELEVISION 1950 b&w - 5 min. ACCADEMIA DEL CINEMA Television service as it was in 1950 Italy A brief report on the equipment and production Distributor: SEDI, Roma - b&w - 9 min. techniques of the BBC Description of the courses at the Experimental TELEVISION COMES TO THE LAND Centre of Cinematography in Rome France 1958 - b&w - 24 min. BAMBINI DOPPIATORI Unesco' s work in developing television for Italy - G. Damianicol. - 10 vnin. rural adult education in France, Italy and Japan Distributor: ASTRAcinematJgrafica, Roma TELLING A STORY IN PICTURES About children employed for "dubbing" of United Kingdom 1953 - S.G. P. Alexander dialogue in film making b&w - 3 min. COLORF NELLA FOTOGRAFIA The film shows two versions of a simple Italy - A. de Ciaula/FILMARPAcol. - 11 min. incident, seen first by a static camera and The history of coloured photography u.en edited to give a more effectivefilm COME NASCE UN CARTONE presentation Italy - G. Damiani - b&w - 15 min. ORIGINS OF THE MOTION PICTURE Distributor: Centro Nazionale Sussidi United Kingdom b&w 19 min. Audiovisivi, Roma A short survey of the development of the The animation of drawings cinema from its earliest days to the Edison LAVAGNE PARLANTI experiments with the kinetograph, the kineto- ItalyCentro Nazionale Sussidi Audiovisivi scope and the vitagraph b&w 8 min. HOMAGE TO DR. MAREY The use of audio-visual aids in Italian schools Francesilent b&w 6 min. Distributor: Industrie Cinematografiche e A reconstruction of the work of Dr. Marey televisivi and his chronophotographic system TEATRO DI POSA No. 1 LUMIERE PROGRAMME Italyb&w 18 min. France 1895 - silentb&w - 8 min. How a film is made A complete reprint of the programme of the first public film show in England, at the Regent Street Polytechnic, London, on Switzerland 20 February 1896 THE GREAT TRAIN ROBBERY ELEMENTE DES FILMS U. S. A. 1903 - Edwin S. Porter Switzerland - Kunstgewerbemuseum Zurich silent - b&w - 12 min. b&w - 9 min. One of the earliest important story films in The elements of film the history of the American cinema GESTALTUNG MIT FILMELEMENTEN ABERDEEN, 1906 Switzerland - Kunstgewerbemuseum Zurich United Kingdom 1906/1956 b&w 10 min. b&w - 10 min. An interesting example of an early newsreel The means for making a film COLOUR BOX FILMISCHE BILDSPRACHE United Kingdom 1935 - Len Lye - col. - 5 min. (The film language of pictures) A gay adventure in abstract colour shapes Switzerland - Kunstgewerbemuseum Zurich COMMUNICATIONS PRIMER b&w - 34 min. U.S.A. 1935 - Ray and Charles Eames DAS KINEMATOGRAPHENTHEATER UM 1900 col. 2.1 min. (The cinema of about 1900) imaginEi ive exposition of the principles SwitzerlandKunstgewerbemuseum Zurich of human communication b&w - 21 min. GEORGES MELIES REPORTAGE AUS DER FRUHZEIT DES FILMS France 1953 - Georges Franju - b&w - 30 min. (A report on the history of film) Reconstructed documentary on the life of the Switzerland - Arbeiterbildungszentrale Bern famous French film maker, Georges Méliès b&w - 10 min.

United States of America United Kingdom Producticrt and/or distribution: The British Film Distributor: the Washington Film Library Institute, London Association TELEVISION COMES TO LONDON United Kingdom 1936b&w - 17 min.

90 BIOGRAPHY OF A MOTION PICTURE CAMERA HOW MOTION PICTURES MOVE AND TALK U.S.A. - Ali' Films 1949 - b&w - 10 min. U.S.A. - Bell and Howell - b&w -11 min. Record of successful inventions which resulted Explains basic principles of themotion picture in the modern motion picture camera and, by animation, shows howsound is FACTS ABOUT FILM recorded on a strip of film U. S. A. - DuPont 1941 b&w - 10 min. FILM PROBLEMS How to handle a film projector U. S.A. - Indiana UniversityA-V Center HOW MOTION PICTURES MOVE ANDTALK b&w - 8 min. UWF 1940 - b&w - 10 min. Presents a number of problemsarising in the U.S.A. to talk History of motion picture production. filming of a person walking into a room Developing, printing, cutting and editing film to someone JNDERSTANDING MOVIES HOW YOU SEE IT U.S.A. - TFC 1951 - b&w - 17 min. U. S. A. Jam Handy - b&w - 8 min. how it How to increase critical enjoyment.Examples Explains persistence of vision and of good directing, acting, photography,editing makes motion pictures possible ORIGINS OF THE MOTION PICTURE LET'S GO TO THE MOVIES U.S.A. - U.S. Dept. of the Navy 1955 U.S.A. - Motion Picture Industryand RKO b&w 21 min. b&w - 9 min. A historical report of the development of the Chronicles the technical and aestheticgrowth machinery and arts of the motion picture of moving pictures, using excerpts from BASIC MOTION PICTURE TECHNIQUE famous old films U. S. A. - Celluloid College - b&w -32 min. MARCH OF THE MOVIES Demonstrates panning, shot, build up, compo- U.S.A. - MOT - b&w - 21 min. Reviews the development of theentertainment sition, indoor lighting and applied technique Describes MOVIE MAGIC motion picture in the United States. U.S. A. - Sterling Television - billi14 min. the work of the Museum ofModern Art. Explains the nature of animation in Presents examples from manyfamous films. MOMENTS IN MUSIC cinematography and MGM MOVIES ARE ADVENTURE U.S.A. - Motion Picture Industry Universal. b&w - 11 min. U. S. A. - Motion Picture Industry and used to b&w 11 min. Scenes from Hollywood films are Uses scenes from old and new films to empha- represent the music brought to usin motion size that movies appeal to all people. Shows picture theatres how people imagine themselves as their SCREEN WRITER favourite screen characters, participating in U.S.A. Motion Picture Industry and20th the events as they take place Century Fox - b&w - 10 min. Shows that the task of the screenwriter is to MOVING WITH MOVIES elements and U. S. A. - Contemporary Films - b&w -10 min. strip a book or story down to its Discusses the aesthetic effects of the motion put it together again, so that thecharacters printed words can be picture upon its audience move and live and the BEHIND THE SCENES AT WALT DISNEY'S transferred into visual and aural patterns THE TOY THAT GREW UP STUDIOS , 17 min. U. S. A. - Walt Disneycol. - b&w - 27 min. U.S.A. - AF Films - b&w As an excerpt from "The ReluctantDragon", Traces the effort of men toreproduce motion. this film takes Robert Benchley through the Includes a complete performanceof the Walt Disney Studios and shows how cartoons Praxinoscope are made THE CINEMATOGRAPHER U.S.A. - Picture Industry and Paramount Canada b&w 10 min. Describes the importance of a director of LET'S TALK ABOUT FILMS photography, and shows some of the factors to Canada 1953 - National FilmBoard - b&w -18min. be considered in planning for the desiredeffect An approach to film discussion,showing some on the screen. Excerptsfrom feature films of the problems encounteredand how they may be overcome. The centeringof discussion in provide examples leader is seen to COSTUME DESIGNED the group rather than in the U.S.A. - Motion Picture Industry and RKO be an effective technique b&w - 9 min. Shows how each character in a movie is attired to sustain the mood of the scene in accurate detail. Emphasizes the skill of designing costumes to transfer a human personalityinto a "screencharacter". 91 IV. SLIDE SERIES AND FILMSTRIPS TONFILM IN USA 2. TEIL b&w 52 pictures (Sound film in U.S.A. ) Austria DER BRITISCHE FILM b&w - 40 pictures Production and distr.,bution: Bundesstaatliche (Film in Great Britain) Hauptstelle filr Lichtbild und Bildungsfilm, DIE BRITISCHE FILMPRODUKTION Vienna b&w - 44 pictures (The British film industry) VORGESCHICHTE DER KINEMATOGRAPHIE DER TONFILM IN FRANKREICH b&w - 23 pictures b&w - 47 pictures (The early history of cinematography) (The sound film in France) FRUHZEIT DER KINEMATOGRAPHIE DER TONFILM IN DEUTSCHLAND b&w - 10 pictures b&w - 42 pictures (The early days of cinematography) (The sound film in Germany) EINFUHRUNG IN DIE FILMTECHNIK DER TONFILM IN RUSSLAND b&w - 30 pictures b&w 36 pictures (Introduction to film technics) (The sound film in Russia) DER TRICKFILM DER OSTERREICHISCHE FILM b&w - 31 pictures b&w - 61 pictures (Trick films) (Film in Austria) ATELIER TRICKS DER ITALIENISCHE FILM b&w 19 pictures b&w - 48 pictures (Special optic effects) (Film in Italy) FILMATELIER- UND AUSSENAUFNAHMEN b&w - 30 pictures Distributor: Professor Dr. Franz Zochbauer, (Inside and outside shots) Salzburg ENTWICKLUNGSGESCHICHTE DES SPIELFILMS b&w - 40 pictures STARS, MANAGER UND FANS (The development of feature films) b&w - 60 pictures BILDGESTALTUNG UND AUSDRUCK b&w - 11 pictures (The composition of shots) Belgium FILMBESUCH UND FILMWIRKUNG b&w - 30 pictures Distributor: CEDOC, Bruxelles (The emotional impact of going to the cinema) VON DREHBUCH ZUR SZENE FILM TECHNIQUES - b&w - 60 pictures b&w - 9 pictures FILM LANGUAGE I - b&w - 60 pictures (From the scenario to shooting) FILM LANGUAGE II - b&w - 60 pictures DIE ERFINDUNG DER KINEMATOGRAPHIE HISTORY OF FILM - b&w - 60 pictures b&w - 44 pictures FILM AND MEN b&w - 60 pictures (The invention of cinematography) DIE ANFANGE DES FILMS VOR DEM 1. WELTKRIEG Denmark b&w - 34 pictures (The first steps of the cinema before the Distributor: Statens Filmcentral Obenhavn First World War) DER STUMMFILM IN AMERIKA MENNESKER I BILLEDVINDUET b&w 42 pictures (Men presented on the screen) (The silent film in America) In additioa: Several filmstrips about film DER STUMMFILM IN DEUTSCFILAND historyb&w - 36 pictures b&w 42 pictures (The silent film in Germany) Germany (Federal Republic) DIE ENTWICKLUNG DES RUSSISCHEN STUMMFILMS Distributor: Institut filr Film und Bild, Munich b&w - 32 pictures (The development of silent film in Russia) WIE EIN FILM ENTSTEHT Teil 1 DER STUMMFILM IN FRANKREICH (How a film is made. Part 1: from scenario b&w - 42 pictures to shooting) (The silent film in France) b&w 19 pictures TONFILM IN USA 1. TEIL WIE EIN FILM ENTSTEHT Teil 2 b&w 50 pictures (Flow a film is made. Part 2: the finishing work) (Sound film in U. S.A. ) b&w - 18 pictures

92 TECHNIK DES PUPPENTRICKS Several slide series (How a puppet film is made) col. - 18 pictures Distributor; Bandung Teachers' College,Bandung DER FILMSTAR (The Film Star) b&w - 17 pictures Italy col.-5 pictures Several slide series of the "Centro Sperimentale Distributor; Institut far Film und Bad, Munich di Cinematografia", Roma and Westermann Verlag, Braunschweig Several filmstrips of the same institution

MITTEL DER FILMISCHEN GESTALTUNG (3 SERIEN) Netherlands (Techniques of the film language) (3series) DER DEKOR Distributors Nederlands Film Instituut, (Decoration) Amsterdam; Stichting Filmcentrum, b&w - 12 pictures Hilversum; Instituut Film en Jeugd, The Hague; BEWEGUNG VOR DER KAMERA Katholieke Film Actie, The Hague; Stichting (Movements in front of the camera) Nederlandse Onderwijsfilm, The Hague b&w - 19 pictures DIE AUSLEUCHTUNG HOW A FILM IS MADE (Lighting) EDITING EXAMPLE FROM THE FILM"M" b&w 17 pictures EDITING EXAMPLE FROM THE FILM "FALLEN IDOL" Distributor: Arbeitskreis Jugend und Film, EDITING EXAMPLE FROM THE FILM"MANDY" Munich EDITING EXAMPLE FROM THE FILM "BRIEF ENCOUNTER" DIE KUNST DER EINSTELLUNG THE TECHNIQUE OF THE ART OF THE (Remarkable shots from famous feature films) FILM, PART I b&w - 24 pictures Distributor; Katholische Filmkommission far Singapore Deutschland und Nattgens Verlag, Düsseldorf Several filmstrips and slide series on: FILMTECHNIK THE INVENTION OF CINEMATOGRAPHY (Film techniques) THE ART OF THE SOUND FILM IN AMERICA b&w - 44 pictures THE ART OF THE SOUND FILM IN BRITAIN FILM ALS WARE THE ART OF THE SOUND FILM IN GERMANY (Film as merchandise) THE ART OF THE SOUND FILM IN RUSSIA b&w - 32 pictures THE ART OF THE SILENT FILM IN FRANCE FILM ALS KUNST THE ART OF THE SILENT FILM IN AMERICA (Film as an art) THE ART OF THE SILENT FILM IN GERMANY b&w - 48 pictures THE ART OF THE SILENT FILM IN RUSSIA WIRKUNGEN DES FILMS (Emotional impact of film) b&w - 40 pictures Switzerland GESCHICHTE DES FILMS (History of film) DER FILM - EIN PROBLEM UNSERER ZEIT b&w - 51 pictures (Film - Problem of our time) FILM UND KIRCHE b&w 50 slides (Film and Church) b&w - 38 pictures Distributor; Pro Juventute, Zarich FILMWERBUNG (Film as a means of advertising) KLEINE FILMSCHULE FUR FILMLAIEN b&w - 50 pictures (Small film school for beginners) b&w - 60 slides

Indonesia Distributor: Kantonale Lehrfilrnstelle St. Gallen Several filmstrips FILMARTEN AUSDRUCKSMITTEL DES FILMS (Film categories - Techniques of film "grammar" ) Distributor: Balai Pondidikan Keperagaan b&w 150 slides (Teaching Aids Centre, Bandung) Distributor; Max Naesch, St. Gallen

93 FILMGESCHICHTE Stiasny Verlag, 1959 (Film history) DER FILM - WERDEN UM', WESEN EINER b&w - 130 slides NEUEN KUNST (Film - a new art) Distributor: Pro Juventute, ZUrich Bela Balizs, Vienna Globus Verlag, 1949

United Kingdom Belgium Distributor: The British Film Institute, London TIEN LESSEN OVER FILM (Ten lessons about film) DEVELOPMENT OF CINEMA, AND TWENTY CEDOC, Bruxelles FILM MAKERS - b&w - 35 pictures GRAMMAIRE DU CINEMA PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES - b&w - 44 pictures Jos. Roger, Brussels, FILMS OF CHAPLIN, FORD, CAPRA, REED Editions Universitaires, 1954 and T. E. B. CLARKE - b&w49 pictures INTRODUCTION AUX PROBLEMES DU CINEMA ET DE LA JEUNESSE L. Lunders, Paris/Brussels Editions Universitaires, 1953 V. TAPES AND RECORDS LE CINEMA FAIT SOCIAL A. Delvaux, Brussels Université libre de Bruxelles, 1959 Austria PANORAMIQUE SUR LE 7eme ART R. Claude, V. Bachy et B. Taufour Records Paris/Brussels Editions Universitaires, 1959 ORPHEUS IN DER FILMWELT (Kabarett aus Wien Nr. 15) Denmark DIE ELFI VON HERNALS (Kabarett aus Wien Nr. 19) FILMENS BETYDNING OG VILKAR ROSA GUNDLMOSER (Importance of film) (Kabarett aus Wien Nr. 19) E. Neergaard, Copenhagen Dansk Skolescene, 1957 HVAD ER FILM? Ger_r_iynan (Federal Republic) (What is film?) E. Sierstedt, Copenhagen Record Gyldendal, 1957 FILMUNDERVISNING FALSCHMUNZER AM WERK (Film teaching) (False coiner at work) E. Sierstedt, Copenhagen Gyldendal, 1961 :La_ FILMKUNDSKAB (Film appreciation) FILMGESPRACHE MIT JUGENDLICHEN E. S. Saxtorph, Copenhagen (How to talk about film with young people) Statens Filmcentral, 1961 42 min. FILMEN (Film) Institut Mr Film und Bild, Munchen J. Chr. Lauritzen, Copenhagen Schhnberg, 1950 HVAD ER FILM? (What is film?) VI. TEXTBOOKS, MANUALS, BROCHURES J. Chr. Lauritzen & B. Rasmussen, Copenhagen Schultz, 1954 FILMKUNDSKAB Austria (Film appreciation) E. Neergaard, Copenhagen JUGI.1:71 UND FILMERLEBEN Gyldendal, 1952 (Young aeople and film) F. Zachbauer, Emsdetten (F. R. Germany) Finland Verlag Lechte, 1960 DER FILM IN DER VOLKSBILDUNG JOHDATUS ELOKUVAN ESTETIIKKAAN (Film and adult education) (Introduction to the aesthetics of film) F. Kastner, Graz H. Miettunen, Turku, 1949

94 AUDIOVISUAALINEN KANSANSIVISTYSTYO LES GENRES DU CINEMA (Audio-visual aids in adult education) (classes de 2ème) H. Miettunen, Kuopio, 1954 A. Val let, Paris Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 461 PHILIPPE ET BRIGITTE, CINEASTES (classes de 7erne et fleme) France div. Paris, Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 462 LE CINEMA FLASHES SUR L'HISTOIRE DU CINEMA H. Agel, Tournai, Paris (classes de lere) Casterman, 1954 A. Val let, Paris, PRECIS D'INITIATION AU CINEMA Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 463 H. & G. Agel, Paris EXPLORATION DE L'IMAGE Les Editions de l'Ecole, 1957 (Premieres années de formation) TECHNIQUE DU CINEMA div. G. Lo Duca, Paris Paris, Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 464 Presses Universitaires, 1953 EXPLORATION DU FILM LE LANGAGE CINEMATOGRAPHIQUE (Enseignement secondaire) M. Martin, Paris C. Rambaud & A. Val let, Paris Editions du Cerf, 1955 Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 465 LE CINEMA AU DELA DE L'IMAGE E. Morin, Paris (classes de philosophie et mathematiques) Editions de Minuit, 1956 A. Val let, Paris INITIATION AU CINEMA Ligel, Coll. "Perspectives" 466 Ch. Rambaud, Paris GRAMMAIRE CINEMATOGRAPHIQUE Ligel, 1957 R. Bataille, Paris ESPRIT DU CINEMA Taffin- Lefort, 1947 J. Epstein, Paris ESSAI DE GRAMMAIRE CINEMATOGRAPHIQE Jeheber, 1955 A. Berthomieu, Paris HISTOIRE GENERAL DU CINEMA La Nouvelle Edition, 1946 G. Sadoul, Paris LA MUSIQUE ET LE CINEMA Denoel, 1956 G. Hacquard, Paris MANUEL DU PARFAIT PETIT SPECTATEUR Presses Universitaires de France, 1959 A. Kyrou et Sine, Paris DEFENSE ET ILLUSTRATION DE LA Edition Le terrain vague, 1958 MUSIQUE DANS LE FILM "Fiches filmographiques" are published in France H. Colpi, Lyon to a great extent, especially by: B. P. S. Prefecture, 1961 IDHEC (Institut des Hautes Etudes GUIDE DES TELESPECTATEURS ET DES cinématographiques) TELE-CLUBS 92 Avenue des Champs Elysées, Paris div. FNCE (Federation Nationale du Cinema Educatif) Federation des oeuvres laiques de la Seine, 1959 52 Boulevard Beaumarchais, Paris 10e. REGARDS NEUFS SUR LA TELEVISION UFOLEIS (Ligue Frangaise des oeuvres laiques E. Lalou, Paris &education par l'image et par le son Editions du Seuil No. 12, Peuple et Culture, 1957 Films pour enfants Cine-Jeunes (Comité frangais TELEVISION du cinema pour la jeunesse) J. Quéval & J. Thevenot, Paris Edition Pensée vraie (Centre catholique du cinema, Gallimard, Coll. Air du Temps, 1957 de la radio et de la television) TELEVISION NOTRE AMI 112 Rue de Richelieu, Paris E. Gerin, BIF (Bureau international du film) Maison de la Bonne Presse, 1961 27 Rue Puy Gail lot, Lyon HISTOIRE POPULAIRE DU CINEMA Service Culturel de la CCRT (Centre catholique Ch. Ford, Paris du cinema, de la radio et de la television) Nouvelle Edition, 1955 129 Rue Saint Honore, Paris LE LANGAGE CINEMATOGRAPHIQUE FEJ (Film et Jeunesse) F. Chevassu, 6 Rue Mi-Carerne, Saint Etienne, Loire Ligue francaise de Penseignenlent, 1962 Télé-Ciné: FLECC (FederationLoisirs et INITIATION AUX TECHNIQUES DU CINEMA Culture cinématographique) M. Wyn, Paris 155 Boulevard Haussmann, Paris 8e Edition Eyrolles, 1956 RADIO CINEMA TELEVISION 31 Boulevard de La Tour Maubourg, Paris Culture et Television 27 Rue Cassette, Paris 6e 95 Germany (Federal Republic) C. Battisti, Rome B.C.N., 1955 FILMERZIEHUNG DIZIONARIO DELLA TECNICA CINEMATOGRAFICA (Film education) (Short dictionary of the most used cinemato- W. Brudny, Munich graphic terms) Arbeitskreis Jugend und Film, 1953 P. Ucello, Rome FILMERZIEHUNG Cinespettacolo, 1950 (Film education) PROBLEMI DEL FILM L. Kerstiens, Miinster (An anthology of aesthetic essays on film) Verlag Aschendorff, 1961 Chiarini-Barbaro, Rome FILMKUNDE IN DER JUGENDARBEIT Bianco e Nero, 1939 (Teaching film in youth club work) IL CINEMA NELLA LINGUA; LA LINGUA K. Eiland, Manster NEL CINEMA Landesarbeitsgemeinschaft Film, Nordrhein- (Essays about film language) Westfalen, 1960 A. Menarini, Rome DIE SPRACHE DES FILMS F.11i Bocca, 1955 (The language of film) QUADERNI DI FILMOLOGIA D. Karsten, Munich (A collection of articles on filmology) Heering-Verlag, 1954 Universita. di Roma, Rome FILMGESPRACHE MIT JUGENDLICHEN C.N.S.A., 1957 (How to discuss films with young people) FILM VISTI: DAI LUMIERES AL CINERAMA S. Mohrhof, Munich (About 300 reviews of feature films) Institut fiir Film und Bild, 1957 M. Gromo, Rome DAS FILMGESPRACH MIT JUGENDLICHEN Bianco e Nero, 1957 (How to discuss films with young people) PANORAMA DEL CINEMA CONTEMPERANEO K. Schubert, Munich/Basle (1945-1957) Ernst Reinhardt Verlag, 1957 (Reviews of feature films) FILM - TECHNIK, WIRKUNG, GESTALTUNG L. Chiarini, Rome (Technique, impact and methods of the film) Bianco e Nero, 1957 F. Kempe, Brunswick AL CINEMA COL LAPIS Westermann Verlag, 1960 (Reviews of feature films and documentaries) PRESSE, RUNDFUNK, FERNSEHEN, REKLAME, F. Sacchi, Milan PADAGOGISCH GESEHEN Mondadori, 1958 (Press, radio, television, advertising, from CINEMA ED ETA' EVOLUTIVA the pedagogical viewpoint) (A study on the important part played by films E. Wasem, Munich/Basle in the formative years) Ernst Reinhardt Verlag, 1959 R. Laporta, Florence La Nuova Italia, 1957 Italy STAMPA, SPETTACOLO ED EDUCAZIONE (Press, cinema, television and education) ARTE E CINEMA NELLALORO FUNZIONE G. M. Bertin, Milan SOCIALE Marzorati, 1956 (Educational and social values of thecinema) CINEMA EDUCATIVO E NO P. Crisanti, Rome, (The value of films as an educational or "non- AUIA, 1954 educational" factor in youth) IL CINEMA C. Cottone, Rome (Film in juvenile experience) Signore lli, 1952 G. Flores d'Arcais, Padua IL CINEMA NEI PROBLEM! DELLA CULTURA Ed. Liviana, 1954 (A report of the International Congress of IL FILM NELLA BATTAGLIADELLE IDEE CIDALC held in Florence in June 1950) (Several aspects of cinematography,including CIDALC, Rome the cinema and the school;criticism of Bianco e Nero, 1951 neo-realistic films) IL CINEMA NELLA SCUOLA L. Chiarini, Rome (Polemics, theories and documentation on F. Ili Bocca, 1954 films in school) IL CINEMA D'ANIMAZIONE M.A. Alla, Rome (The history of animated cartoonsin Capriotti, 1950 Italy and abroad) IL CINEMA PER RAGAZZI E LA SUA STORIA W. Alberti, Turin (The history of films for young people) Ed. RAI, 1957 M. Verdone, Rome COME DIVENNI UMBERTO D C.C.C., 1953 (The experience of a universityprofessor as CINEMATOGRAFO E CRIMINALITA' a cinema actor) (The influence of films on juvenile delinquency)

96 B. Bottazzi, Reggio Emilia Netherlands Poligrafica Reggiana, 19a3 IL FILM E I PROBLEMI DEL' EDUCAZIONE INLEIDING TOT DE FILMAESTHETIEK (Films and problems of education) (Introduction to film aesthetics) L. Volpicelli, Rome J. M. L. Peters,Purmerend, F.11i Bocca, 1954 Muusses, 1954 SCUOLA ATTIVA E CINEMA SPEELFILMS IN DE BELEVINGSWERELD P. 65 (Comparison between educational cinemato- (Feature films in the life of young people) graphy in general and the use of film in the T. ten Have, Purmerend, "active" school) Muusses, 1956 A. Mura, Rome DE FILM IN BEELD, TECHNIEK, Cineteca Scolastica, 1954 AMUSEMENT, KUNST LA SCUOLA E IL FILM (Film in pictures, techniques, entertainment, (Questions relating to educational films art) in school) J. M. L. Peters , Purmerend, R. Branca, Rovigo Muusses, 1954 Instituto Padano, Arti Grafiche, 1952 CLOSE UP VAN DE FILMKUNST SCUOLA E CINEMA IN ITALIA (Film as an art) (The situation of school cinematography and J. M. L. Peters , Amsterdam its importance) Nederlands Filminstituut L. Volpicelli, Rome FILM EN AMUSEMENT Lo Spettacolo, 1951 J. B. Knipping, Amsterdam IL VOLTO DEL CINEMA Nederlands Filmiastituut, 1959 (An anthology of various problems about cinema) Basari,Cane-isa, Fabbri, May, etc. , Rome Handbooks for teachers: AVE, 1941 CINEMA E GIOVENTU' DE FILM IN BEELD (A research on film experience from a psycho- J. M. L. Peters and A.A. E. van Driel pedagogic point of view) CLOSE UP VAN DE FILMKUNST E. Tarroni, S. Paderni, Rome J.M. L. Peters Università di Roma, Ist. di Pedagogia, 1952 OPVOEDING TOT DE FILM SUSSIDI AUDIOVISIVI IN ITALIA J. Dirkse (Juridical aspects of audio-visual aids in Italy) R. Branca, Turin Correspondence courses on film education: S. E. I. , 1959 INCHIESTA SULLA CINEMATOGRAFIA SCHRIFTELLTKE FILMCURSUS KATHOLIEKE PER RAGAZZI ARBEIDERSBEWEGING (15 lecsons) (Results of research on the influence of cinema CURSUS FILMISCHE CORMING VAN DE on young people) NATIONALE DIENST VOOR CULTURELE Centro Italiano Femminile, Rome VORMING IN HET JEUGDWERK (15 lessons) Ministero P.I.,1954 FILMCURSUS VAN DE STICHTING CINEMATOGRAFIA SCOLASTICA: PROBLEMI FILMCENTRUM (7 lessons) TECNICI F1LMCURSUS VAN DE NEDERLANDSE (Technical problems of school cinematography) ONDERWIJS-FILM (5 lessons) Cineteca Scolastica Italiana, Rome C.I.F., 1952 Ecn_-_, PSICOLOGIA DELLA RADIO E DELLA TELEVISIONE FILM, TELEVISION, AND CHILD (Psychological problems concerning radio and E. B. Marcussen television, especially with regard to youth) (Mimeographed) NEWS 7, International S. Gallo, Florence Centre of Films for Children La Voce Scientifica, 1955 LA RADIO NELLA SCUOLA Poland (Radio programmes for schools and their problems) PRZEZROCZA, FILM, TELEWIZJA, C. Cottone, Rome W SZKOLE AVIO, 1952 (Press, film, television and school) LO SCENARIO TELEVISIVO E. Fleming, Warsaw (Television and its various aspects including Panstwowe Zakrady Wydawnictw Szkolnych, 1961 the effect on young people) FILM I DZIECI A. D'Alessandro, Milan (Film and child) Corticelli, 1959 J. Koblewska-Wroblowa, Warsaw Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe, 1961

97 United Kingdom in recent years, giving facts and figures) British Film Institute, 1958 GOING TO THE CINEMA RUNNING A SCHOOL FILM SOCIETY (Teaching young people to understand and Society for Education in Film and Television enjoy the cinema) FILM MAKING IN SCHOOL A. Buchanan, Phoenix House, 1952 S.E.F.T. MAKING THE MOVIES TEN FILMS TO USE IN JUNIOR FILM SOCIETIES (Pictorial account of film production) Twickenham, Middlesex, J. Bendick, Elek, 1946 S. E. F. T. LIVING PICTURES TELEVISION AND THE CHILD (Scrapbook on film making and film presentation) H. T. Himmelweit, A.N. Oppenheim, P. Vince, J. Maddison, London/New York/Toronto Puffin Picture Books, 1950 Oxford University Press, 1958 THE CINEMA (Introduction to the cinema for children) United States of America Stanley Reed, Educational Supply Association, 1955 FILM FORM - THE FILM SENSE HOW FILMS ARE MADE S.M. Eisenstein, New York (Parts played by technicians in film making) Meridian Books, 1957 Stanley Reed and J. Huntley, HOLLYWOOD, THE DREAM FACTORY Educational Supply Association, 1955 H. Powdermaker, Boston, Mass., ENJOYING RADIO AND TELEVISION Little, Brown & Co.,1950 (Teaching young people to understand and THE GREAT AUDIENCE enjoy these media) G. V. Seldes, New York R. Dunnett, Viking Press, 1950 Phoenix House, 1955 AMERICA AT THE MOVIES A GUIDE TO GOOD VIEWING M. Thorp, New Haven, Conn., (To help young people towards discrimination Yale University Press, 1939 in film and television) HOW TO APPRECIATE MOTION PICTURES Stanley Reed, (A manual of motion picture criticism Educational Supply Association prepared for high school students) FILM AND TELEVISION IN EDUCATION E. Dale, New York FOR TEACHING Macmillan, 1938 (A report by the Joint Working Party of the MOTION PICTURE DISCRIMINATION Association of Teachers in Colleges and (An annotated bibliography) Departments of Education and the British Film J. Morrison, Columbus, Ohio Institute, examining the case for the inclusion Bureau of Educational Research, of film and television study within formal educa- Ohio University tion and particularly into teacher training) MASS MEDIA AND EDUCATION British Film Institute, 1960 N.B. Henry (ed.), Chicago TEACHING FILM University of Chicago Press, 1958 (Some methods used in primary and MOTION PICTURE DISCRIMINATION IN SCHOOLS secondary schools) (A consideration of the theatrical motion pc.2ture Grace Greiner, and its place in education) British Film Institute, 1955 R. Hochheimer THE TEACHING OF FILM (Mimeographed) (Pamphlet about the need for positive educational Encyclopaedia Britannica Films action in relation to film, and about ways in which THE AGE OF TELEVISION the industry and educational bodies can work L. Bogart, New York, 1958 together) TV AND OUR SCHOOL CRISIS British Board of Film Censors, 1959 Ch. A. Siepmann, New York, 1958 ARE THEY SAFE AT THE CINEMA? THE PUBLIC ARTS (Possible social and psychological effects of the G. Seldes, New York, 1956 cinema, with particular reference to violence INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATIONS and censorship) RESEARCH Janet Hills, R. Nafziger, British Film Institute, 1953 0. White, FILM APPRECIATION IN YOUTH CLUBS Louisiana State University Press, 1958 (Practical ways in which film discussion can THE PROCESS AND EFFECTS OF MASS be dealt with in youth clubs) COMMUNICATION British Film Institute, n 4 W. Schramm, Urbana, Ill.,1955 THE BRITISH FILM INDUSTRY COMMUNICATION AND PERSUASION (An account of the economics of the film industry C.I. Hovland, I. L. Janis, H. H. Kelley,

98 New Haven, Conn. , TELEVISION AND TELE-CLUBS IN Yale University Press, 1954 RURAL COMMUNITIES TELEVISION AND OUR CHILDREN (RPMC/16) July 1955 R. L. Shayon, London/NewYork/Toronto, 1951 A MANUAL FOR EVALUATORS OF FILMS TELEVISION IN THE LIVES OF OUR CHILDREN AND FILMSTRIPS W. Schramm, J. Lyle, E.B. Parker, (RPMC/18) May 1956 Stanford University Press, 1961 A CURRENT MASS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH (Bibliography of books and articles on mass Unesco communication published since 1 January 1955) (RPMC/21) December 1956 TEACHING ABOUT THE FILM FILM PROGRAMMES FOR THE YOUNG J.M. L. Peters, Unesco, 1961 (RPMC/28) 1959 UNESCO PUBLICATIONS ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE CINEMA ON MASS COMMUNICATION CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS (An annotated bibliography) (An annotated international bibliogaphy) (RPMC/4) October 1952 (RPMC/31) 1961 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON FILMOLOGY ASRELATED TO THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (RPMC/9) February 1954

99 Vle should like to draw the attention of our readers to the Unesco Coupon Scheme, unesco which may enable them to purchase materials listed in this periodical. Because it is often difficult to send money coupons from country to country for the purchase of books, films, laboratory equipment, etc., Unesco has created a sort of international currency, the UNESCO COUPON. These coupons enable schools, universities, teachers and students in many parts of the world to buy freely the materials UNESCO COUPONS which they need for study ard research. can be used to buy:

UNESCO COUPONS are on sale books, periodicals, in most Member States photocopies, which have currency restrictions. microfilm copies, art reproductions, If you do not know where to obtain coupons, charts, globes, maps, please consult sheet music, your National Commission for Unesco gramophone records, or write to Unesco, Paris, the following categories of for the information. educational films : (a) screening prints and duplicate prints, The TRAVEL COUPON SCHEME, (b) original negatives and which is designed duplicate negatives ; as well as to overcome the currency barriers (c) 16mm. raw film for printing to educational and cultural travel, the above categories of films; is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Scheme various categories of scientific described above. material for education and Travel Coupons are a form research, such as : of international travellers' cheque. optical instruments, balances and weights, They provide the foreign exchange laboratory glass-ware, needed to enable travellers such as students, electrical measuring instruments, teachers ant: research workers analytical and clinical testing to spend time abroad for study or research. apparatus, etc.

Fo i. lull details, which may be obtained please reler to the lollowing explanatory le.Illets: upon request from the: UNESCO COUPONS with separate addenda onBOOK COUPONS, FILM COUPONS COUPONS FOR SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL Unesco Coupon Office INTRODUCING THE UNESCO TRAVEL COUPON Place de Fontenoy (containing the addresses ol the national agencies responsible Paris - lor the allocation and issue ol coupons, and the banks where they may be cashed) 1 France UNESCO PUBLICATIONS : NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

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