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Plastics Technology Handbook

Manas Chanda

Plastics Properties and Testing

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.1201/9781315155876-3 Manas Chanda Published online on: 01 Nov 2017

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These high wide resistance. an a of electrical that for excellent terms materials therefore and as in acceptable friction, plastics advantages low made resistance, important have abrasion of and fabrication, range and corrosion molding a ness, of ease offer relative the plastics Besides applications. many their dictate which plastics of properties novsa nrdcint h nqemlclrsrcue fplmr,terpyia tts and states, physical speci more their is chapter, polymers, this in of treated be structures will The which molecular stage, plastics. second unique with in marked familiar the have becoming which to transitions of introduction process the an in involves stages two are There Introduction 3.1 xml,wt oyrpln nices ntmeauefo 0t 0Cmytpclycuea50% a cause For typically density). may and 60°C g/cm orientation, to 0.001 each 20 molecular for addition, from In weight, stress. temperature design molecular in allowable the as increase in decrease an (such time polypropylene are structure plastics with important its of example, most properties and the the material, temperature, appreciated, room the be at to metals most need to [1 plastic dependent contrast of in behavior that, being material probably of aspects unfamiliar Several Properties Mechanical 3.2 samaso ult oto.Te ol eueesa a sdsg ncnend eas odsg a design to because concerned, the in on design temperature, service as relevant far mea- the at as are information, useless complete they only have be which useful to would necessary therefore at is They are conditions it control. component procedures the plastic quality test for of standard only means following applicable a values be as single will as value measured single Properties a sured. as quoted modulus) as direction. transverse ntedrcino oeua lgmn ta s ntedrcinof direction the in is, strength (that enhanced alignment have will molecular moreover, material, of The direction stress. design the in in change 4% corresponding a is there nipratfcto aeil eeomn n rprmtrasslcini etn n standard- and testing is selection materials proper properties, and development of materials categories of broad facet to important respect An in with dealt generally been have plastics chapter this In eas ftein the of Because fi dfr)anme fsadr etmtosfrpatc,hglgtn h rnilso h tests the of principles the highlighting plastics, for methods test standard of number a form) ed – ] hnsprmoe nti setaeteefcso h ee fsrs,tetmeaueof temperature the stress, of level the of effects the are aspect this on superimposed Then 4]. fl ec fs ayadtoa atr ntebhvo fpatc,poete (such properties plastics, of behavior the on factors additional many so of uence fl ec nterbhvo.Teehv endatwt nCatr1 The 1. Chapter in with dealt been have These behavior. their on uence lsisProperties Plastics fi nta tivle td ftespeci the of study a involves it that in c fl 3 wi h od n esi the in less and mold) the in ow hnei est fti material this of density in change n Testing and fi s srte eea and general rather is rst fi atpoete of properties cant 3 307 fi c Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 strain, eom meitl,adi eoesisoiia iesoscmltl n ntnaeul hnthe when instantaneously and completely dimensions original its recovers it and immediately, deforms where eaiet h te,det h plcto fapr ha tes uhas such stress, shear pure a of application the to due other, the to relative oso,we,freape iclrrdi wse ytneta ocs ssoni iue31.For 3.1d. Figure in shown as forces, tangential by twisted strain, is shear rod the circular deformations a small example, for when, torsion, pnigserstrain shear sponding Fgr 3.1c). (Figure h oc taypiti h oyadi esrda h oc cigprui rao ln.The plane. a of area called unit is per stress acting the force from as resulting the such body as units, the measured dimensionless of in is dimensions expressed and of or is intensity body shape Strain the represents the in Stress alteration in body. the or point in deformation strain any and stress at in results force body the a on acting load or force Any Strain and Stress be to 3.2.1 stresses of range whole the over component. material the the by of experienced behavior) (viscoelastic behavior time-dependent 308 IUE3.1 FIGURE where de where a edsigihd Thus, distinguished. be can and fi nieleatcmtra soewihehbt otm fet.We tesi ple h body the applied is stress a When effects. time no exhibits which one is material elastic ideal An h haigsrs sde is stress shearing The ha strain Shear orsodn otetremi ye fstress of types main three the to Corresponding fteapidfreo load, or force applied the If e by ned opesv strain compressive g F r A =aa s sterdu and radius the is stecosscinlae epniua otedrcini hc h oc cs(iue3.1a). (Figure acts force the which in direction the to perpendicular area cross-sectional the is stesern oc cigo narea an on acting force shearing the is ′ a.()Sersri ntorsion in strain Shear (d) /ab. a b c (d) (c) (b) (a) a esl rlniuia strain, longitudinal or Tensile (a) l o smaue ytemgiueo h nl ersnigtedslcmn facranplane certain a of displacement the representing angle the of magnitude the by measured is F F d d ´ g scnrcinprui egh(iue3.1b), (Figure length unit per contraction as a etkneult h ratio the to equal taken be may q l fi steageo twist. of angle the is esl strain tensile e yasmlrequation similar a by ned F stnieo opesv,tersligtnieo opesv stress, compressive or tensile resulting the compressive, or tensile is , l o g a ecluae rmtetriangle the from calculated be can , F F d e e d g sepesda lnainprui egh(iue3.1a), (Figure length unit per elongation as expressed is ´ = = = g r D D = e q ‘=‘ ‘=‘ =( =‘ BC t s l A . ‘ 0 0 = — = = hc sprle otedrcino h ple force applied the of direction the to parallel is which , − =( =( AB cm/cm F esl,cmrsie n shear and compressive, tensile, F ‘ s 0 = = ‘ ‘ ) a b A = =‘ A 0 α − − F 0 r aa a ‘ b opesv strain, Compressive (b) . , q s ‘ ´ 0 in./in =‘ ) ) ′ =‘ =‘ / ab 0 0 F (=tan ., s dd c or α in ´ lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics a percentage .Asersri spoue in produced is strain shear A ). ABC a F s l nFgr .c h corre- The 3.1c. Figure in B A e r r . — =( C he ye fstrain of types three θ ‘ 0 − ‘ F 0 s ) =‘ 0 c Shear (c) . strain (3.5) (3.3) (3.4) (3.2) (3.1) s ,is . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 n ha ocs epciey hnahdottcfrei ple,atideatcmdls h ouu of modulus the modulus, elastic third a modulus, applied, bulk is force or hydrostatic compressibility a When respectively. forces, shear and ai ftehdottcpressure, hydrostatic the of ratio ouu n ouu frgdt a ecluae rmtemdlso lsiiyadPoisson and elasticity of modulus the from calculated equations: be following can the rigidity of modulus and modulus lopoueacnrciestrain, contractive a produce also tesi eoe.We h da lsi oyi ujce otnie(rcmrsie tes h pro- the stress, compressive) where (or tensile to subjected is body as elastic expressed ideal is the portionality When removed. is stress Testing and Properties Plastics ucino tesapidi ie yteexpression the by given is applied stress of function the lsi osat o ntne esl stress, tensile a instance, For constant, elastic ee h rprinlt constant proportionality the Here, Young the as known commonly elasticity, of modulus the bv skona Hooke as known is above 3.3), (Equation area cross-sectional unit per rdcsacnrcin(repnin nteltrldrcin .. trgtage otedrcino the of Poisson direction called the is to strain angles longitudinal the right to at strain i.e., lateral direction, the lateral of the ratio The in force. expansion) (or contraction a produces obnn qain39wt qain36adrarnigyields rearranging and 3.6 Equation with 3.9 Equation Combining below: tmyb oe htfra da lsi oycmlac steivreo modulus. of inverse the is compliance body elastic ideal elasticity, an of for modulus The that noted be may It Poisson qain31 hsde thus 3.10 Equation ieie fteielsldi ujce oasersrs ( stress shear a to subjected is solid ideal the if Likewise, sidctdi iue31 neogto o opeso)i n ieto,det nailforce, axial an to due direction, one in compression) (or elongation an 3.1, Figure in indicated As h lsi osat ntniedfrainadserdfrainaesmaie n compared and summarized are deformation shear and deformation tensile in constants elastic The y -direction. s steapidsrs tnieo opesv)i lbf/in. in compressive) or (tensile stress applied the is ’ ratio, s Strain Stress Modulus Compliance v ,asde fi e h otiuin( contribution the nes ’ law s fi e bv,i orheatccntn.Frsaldfrain,tebulk the deformations, small For constant. elastic fourth a is above, ned E n h ouu frigidity, of modulus the and , . K s e sue.I stercpoa fcompressibility, of reciprocal the is It used. is , h G y otevlmti strain, volumetric the to , nthe in , skona h ha ouu,as aldtemdlso rigidity. of modulus the called also modulus, shear the as known is esl Fgr .a ha Fgr 3.1c) (Figure Shear e s 3.1a) (Figure Tensile E D =( = = = s K F y e e ‘ s e / / / drcin h w en eae by related being two the -direction, K A s − e steailsri Euto . n qain32,and 3.2), Equation and 3.1 (Equation strain axial the is G y = x v hc rdcsatniestrain, tensile a produces which , ‘ e = = t s = 0 y = D ) ftestress the of ) = − =‘ 3(1 = V ( + 2(1 − s ( G· = v e E· h V y = E E − = E 0 g e e 2 ) v x = s v ) ’ ) ouu.Tepootoaiylwa de as law proportionality The modulus. s x b 1 G t 2 ,asde kgf/cm , ,te h ha tan( strain shear the then ), D s V x / nthe in V fi 0 e bv,apyudrlongitudinal under apply above, ned : 2 g t G J rohraporaeuiso force of units appropriate other or = tan = = = g x F t / drcint h oa tanin strain total the to -direction / / t A g a ’ ratio s e x b nthe in n sde is and , v ti nimportant an is It . g eeoe sa as developed ) x drcinwill -direction fi e sthe as ned ’ ai by ratio s (3.11) (3.10) (3.12) fi (3.6) (3.7) (3.8) (3.9) 309 ned E is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 oeue,adol iie muto nemlclrsipg a cu.A eut hyundergo cross-linked they result, have a hand, As other occur. the can slippage on is intermolecular curve phenolics, of typical like typical amount the the Thermosets limited of follow a course course. may only the entire thermoplastics and far other its molecules, how many almost (2) and and for acetate but obtained Cellulose curve similar, values occurs. be numerical will failure curves the before the (1) of followed nature in the different. differ materials are different will for followed they Even is (strain). curve dimension the original quite the is which of behavior to the extent shear the and compression and For typical magnitude loading. most the of is rate that 3.2a constant except Figure a in similar for shown tension diagram in The obtained plastics. that of various of evaluation comparative and control stress The Stress 3.2.2 310 IUE3.2 FIGURE xett hc hyaedfre ne stress, considered. under deformed 3.13, are Equation they which to extent relation ntedarm odprui rs eto srs)i lte gis eomto xrse safraction a as expressed deformation against plotted is (stress) section cross unit per load diagram, the In o otmtrassc sgl,pse,ptisadmn olia ytm,wihd o opest the to compress not do which systems, colloidal many and putties pastes, gels, as such materials soft For h lsi ouu a lob acltdfo h ukmdlsadtemdlso iiiyb the by rigidity of modulus the and modulus bulk the from calculated be also can modulus elastic The – tanbhvo fpatc esrda osatrt flaigpoie ai o quality for basis a provides loading of rate constant a at measured plastics of behavior strain a oia stress Nominal (a) – E tanBehavior Strain =3 G o te aeil smetals, as materials other For .

(a) Stress (σ) – tandarm b yia ouivle utdfrplastics. for quoted values moduli Typical (b) diagram. strain (b)

1 E = σ/ε 012345 modulus tangent Initial 2 Elongation E 1 at failure Strain (%) = 2% secant modulus 9 modulus Tangent Strain K 1 K svr ag oprdto compared large very is + 3 fi 1 G es n oepatc,however, plastics, some and bers, lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics x Ultimate strength G n hrfr from therefore and , K utbe must (3.13) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eu n eoeal.Teei opraetdslcmn ftemlclsrltv oec other. each to instanta- relative nearly molecules is the deformation of of displacement type permanent bonds This no inter-atomic is 3.4a). the There Figure of recoverable. (see stretching and or molecules bending neous polymer the the with of associated atoms is between small, is which stress deformation, This observed the with instance, for 0.7E, of slope stress. a with drawn line scneinl oae rpial yofetn otergttesae muto .%(r1)and the 1%) intersects line (or this 0.2% which of at point amount The stated modulus. elastic the the right the for stress the In drawn observed that 3.3b). to paralleling (Figure offsetting line modulus by a elastic drawing graphically the located of conveniently 70% or is 50% stress say yield offset amount, 1% selected the or 0.2% the is values arbitrary these of 3.3a). Typical (Figure them. to assigned usually is point Young the determining For 3.2a). (Figure study strain 1. point as such knee, fueuns o n aeil niesm eas npriua,tefrosaly,tedrop-of-beam the alloys, stress ferrous the the in particular, in knee metals, sharp some a Unlike and material. 3.2b). effect Figure any (see for plastics for usefulness used of also are values moduli Other measured. is curve, the of portion steepest stress the and strains, low at fracture Testing and Properties Plastics hi.()Itroeua slippage. Intermolecular (c) chain. 3.4 FIGURE 3.3 FIGURE pt on nFgr .a h aeilbhvsa neatcsld n h eomto srecoverable. is deformation the and solid, elastic an as behaves material the 3.2a, Figure in 1 point to Up lentvl,ayedsrs a ede be can stress yield a Alternatively, (Young modulus elastic and elongation, strength, Ultimate h perneo emnn e ssi omr il on,wihidctsteuprlimit upper the indicates which point, yield a mark to said is set permanent a of appearance The eomto npatc.()Srthn fplmrmlcl.()Sagtnn u facie molecular coiled a of out Staightening (b) molecule. polymer of Stretching (a) plastics. in Deformation oaino il value. yield a of Location – tanln de line strain (b) (a) (c)

a (b) (a) Stress Offset Slope =

E fi e h il tes ntescn aeas h on fitreto fthe of intersection of point the also case second the In stress. yield the ned Strain – – tancrei olwdn ute hnt oepitblwthe below point some to than further no followed is curve strain fi tandarmaentehbtdb lsis nabtayyield arbitrary An plastics. by exhibited not are diagram strain e sta twihtertoo oa test oa tani some is strain total to stress total of ratio the which at that as ned ’ Yield ouu ( modulus s

0 Stress Slope = ’ E stress- the from obtained be can modulus) s

Slope = 0.7 E h lp fteiiiltnet .. the i.e., tangent, initial the of slope the )

Strain E – tanln eemnsteyield the determines line strain fi s aeteyedstress yield the case rst 311 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 u lowt h antd ftesri o ie aeil l ausctdhr r o eostrain. zero for are here cited values All material. given a for strain the of magnitude the with Poisson ebonite. also for but 0.3 about to and rubber canized oe ouu n ihdciiy eas tlwetninrtsteplmrmlclrcan aetime have chains molecular polymer a the in exhibits rates the material extension under themselves same low align at the to because mm/sec) ductility, (<0.05 high rates a extension and modulus low lower of At rates strength. high and modulus under high solid relatively elastic an as behaves d). but or a) b curve curve (type loading (type of impact rates slow under putty-like is elongations de high very have also materials Stress Tough volume. materials. unit per higher soft a energy than have strain slope) materials large unyielding initial with or (steeper Hard elasticity materials. of toughness weak to than modulus related strength is ultimate and higher stress treatment have rough materials The withstand material. to material the a of of ability the measures that property ihr bu .5 Poisson 0.45. about higher, ai o ayo h oebitepatc uha oytrn,tearlc,adtetemstmtrasis materials thermoset the and acrylics, more the polystyrene, the as for such plastics 0.3; brittle about more the of many for ratio otadwa thge eprtrs hsbhvo a eatiue ovral oeua slippage molecular variable to attributed be may and behavior temperatures, action. This ordinary plasticizer at with temperatures. 3.6b). tough associated higher relatively (Figure effects temperatures, at temperatures low weak different at and at strong and soft determined hard when is acetate material the cellulose Thus plasticized drawing.) for cold as curves known is strain plastics some in observed phenomenon interesting (This strained. being is it as ai ftetases tan( otato o esl tes olniuia tan(lnain.Poisson (elongation). strain longitudinal to stress) tensile for contraction (a strain transverse the of ratio 312 IUE3.5 FIGURE hrfr hs eomtosaepraetadntrecoverable. not and Newtonian in permanent as are 3.4c), deformations (Figure these other therefore each to respect with molecules fl of displacement by occur extensions nonline- state. and rubber recoverability the by the in characterized Although pronounced deformation, spring. change very permanent of recoverable nonlinear is no kind arity, is a is there This of limit, deformation arrangement. proportional that the The intermolecular to at in stress slippage. analogous the exceeding intermolecular is stresses hence at without occurs compression and deformation occur (For instantaneously tension. can in not loaded This but if ultimately true.) 3.4b), Figure is (see chains reverse molecular the the of portion coiled or kinked c togadtuh d adadstrong. and Hard (d) tough. and Strong (c) wo iud h ipae oeue aen ednyt lpbc oteroiia positions, original their to back slip to tendency no have molecules displaced The liquid. a of ow taneeg e ntvlm srpeetda h raudrtestress the under area the as represented is volume unit per energy Strain iue36 hw hta ihetninrts(1m/e)upatczdPCi lotbitewt a with brittle almost is PVC unplasticized mm/sec) (>1 rates extension high at that shows 3.6a Figure but material the on only not depends 3.5 Figure in shown behavior type the that emphasized be must It ute xmlso h feto odtoso h eairo lsisaeilsrtdb h stress- the by illustrated are plastics of behavior the on conditions of effect the of examples Further Poisson point this Beyond material. the for limit elastic the marks recoverable is that extension greatest The a of out straightening a with associated been have deformations 3.2a, Figure in 2 and 1 points Between ’ ai samaueo h euto ntecosscinacmayn tecigadi the is and stretching accompanying section cross the in reduction the of measure a is ratio s fi ieyo odtosudrwihtets smd.Freape h onigptysilicone putty bouncing the example, For made. is test the which under conditions on nitely Classi fi

aino lsiso h ai fstress of basis the on plastics of cation Stress (σ) 0000 a b c (d) (c) (b) (a) tan()εεε ε ε Strain (ε) fl xbepatczdmtras uha ells ctt,tevlei somewhat is value the acetate, cellulose as such materials, plasticized exible ’ – ai o ubri . caatrsi falqi) tdces o04frvul- for 0.4 to decrease it liquid); a of (characteristic 0.5 is rubber for ratio s tandarmtu evsa ai o classi for basis a as serves thus diagram strain fl ec fteapidla.Tu h aeili beto able is material the Thus load. applied the of uence

σ – tancre o yecssaesoni iue3.5. Figure in shown are cases type for curves strain ’ ai aisntol ihtentr ftematerial the of nature the with only not varies ratio s –

tandarm a otadwa.()Wa n brittle. and Weak (b) weak. and Soft (a) diagram. strain σ

σ Handbook Technology Plastics – fi tancre ti another is It curve. strain aino lsis Strong plastics. of cation fl wa h aerate same the at ow ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eaainmodulus, relaxation n ieads a edsrbdb neuto fteform strain the both of of equation function an a by is described stress the be material may viscoelastic so a and In time viscoelastic. and termed are they hence, cases; eomto rsri hnsbetdt osatsrs cep n iedpnetsrs when stress the time-dependent when recover a to and ability a the (creep) To have removed. also stress is materials stress constant Viscoelastic applied (relaxation). a strain constant to a subjected to subjected when strain a for or material, deformation viscoelastic linear on test tensile a in that means fi It viscoelasticity. linear represents which form the viscosity. the as to referred is constant the where osdrtetnieeprmn fFgr .aa tesrlxto td nwihtedfrainis deformation the which in study relaxation stress a held as and 3.1a suddenly Figure of imposed experiment tensile the Consider Compliance and Modulus 3.2.3.1 g hr h osati eerdt stemdlso elasticity. of modulus the as to referred is constant the where tesadsri h eainhpmyb rte as written be may relationship the strain stress, and the stress material (Hookean) elastic perfectly a In Plastics of Behavior Viscoelastic 3.2.3 3.6 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics eettemperatures. ferent _ n h eainhpmyb rte as written be may relationship the and , e au feasdtm,tesrs ilb ietypootoa ostrain. to proportional directly be will stress the time, elapsed of value xed h otcaatrsisfaue fvsolsi aeil r htte xii time-dependent exhibit they that are materials viscoelastic of features characteristics most The to reduced often is it analysis of simplicity For behavior. viscoelastic nonlinear represents equation This stress exhibit materials Polymeric napretyvsos(etna)lqi h ha stress, shear the liquid (Newtonian) viscous perfectly a In (a) Stress a yia esl eairo nlsiie V.()Stress (b) PVC. unplasticized of behavior tensile Typical (a) extension rate Fast E ( t ,i hnotie as obtained then is ), Slow extensionrate Strain Cold drawing fi fi e hl h eutn stress, resulting the while xed s prxmto,ti eoeycnb osdrda eeslo creep. of reversal a as considered be can recovery this approximation, rst x – -Fracture tanbhvo hc al oehr ewe hs w ideal two these between somewhere falls which behavior strain s t E constant = constant = ( t s s )= = = s f s e sdrcl rprinlt h strain, the to proportional directly is , ( (b) f ( e ( t ,

t 2 ) t (3.17) )

= Stress (kgf/cm ) (3.16) ) e 350 700 0 g t e _ 0 sdrcl rprinlt h aeo strain, of rate the to proportional directly is , s ( t ,i olwdwt ie h tensile The time. with followed is ), –65°C – tancre fcluoeaeaea dif- at acetate cellulose of curves strain Elongation (%) 04 60 40 20 0°C x -Fracture 25°C 75°C e 0 34 69 o uniaxial For .

Stress (MPa) (3.15) (3.14) (3.18) 313 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eur re xeiet o hi ietobservation. direct their for experiments creep require with 314 a eue oaayetedfrainudragvnstress. given a under deformation the analyze to used be can fol- the of sum a as considered be may produced 3.4): deformation Figure the (see stressed deformations is three lowing polymer of mass a When Stress 3.2.4 eaaineprmn esrsthe measures experiment relaxation aeil.Cnie,freape w xeiet are u ihietclsmlso viscoelastic stress a tensile of a samples to identical subjected is with sample out the carried (a) experiments experiment In two material. example, for Consider, materials. erae ota h tanrmisat remains strain the that so decreased ntemtra ttime at material the on iperltosi o obndo oa strain total and or responses, combined basic three a the for of relationship combination a simple are a which curves deformation-time exhibit polymers Real udnyapidt h oye pcmnadhl osat ngnrl h eutn strain resulting the general, In constant. held and specimen polymer the to applied suddenly ntrso opine ahrta oui h esl re compliance creep tensile expressed The often moduli. are than experiments creep rather of compliances results The of load. terms of imposition in the from starting time of function where compliance creep shear The where tanat strain ueet fti ye tcnb xetdthat expected be can it type, this of surements apei tesdt level a to stressed is sample lsi eomto ny(iue37) n hr oysoigvsosdfrainol Fgr 3.7d). (Figure time only at deformation imposed viscous is showing high stress body showing the body third case, second a each a and In 3.7b), 3.7c), (Figure (Figure only only deformation deformation elastic elastic ordinary showing body a on imposed E opinei h nes famdlsfra da lsi oy u hsi o refrviscoelastic for true not is this but body, elastic ideal an for modulus a of inverse the is compliance A osdrnwtetnieeprmn fFgr .aa re td nwihased stress steady a which in study creep a as 3.1a Figure of experiment tensile the now Consider iue37sosshmtclyteaoetpso eomtoa epnea euto a of result a as response deformational of types above the schematically shows 3.7 Figure .Adfraindet odbnigadsrthn hc sisatnosadidpnetof independent and instantaneous is which stretching and bending bond to due deformation A 1. .Adfraindet hi noln hc sntisatnosadwoert eed on depends rate whose and instantaneous not is which uncoiling chain to due deformation A 2. .Adfraindet lpaeo oye oeue atoeaohr(icu deformation (viscous another one past molecules polymer of slippage to due deformation A 3. ( t e and ) eprtr odnr lsi deformation, elastic (ordinary temperature eprtr hg lsi deformation, elastic (high temperature fe sue httertso uhvsosdfraind o hnewt iei h applied the if time with change not do deformation viscous such constant. of is rates stress the that assumed often 0 t g en h osatsri n h aetei hwn h ucinldpnec.Smlryashear a Similarly dependence. functional the showing parenthesis the and strain constant the being 0 0 t stecntn strain. constant the is stecntn ha tesand stress shear constant the is is G e ( 1 t n h re opinemaue tta ieis time that at measured compliance creep the and , r banddrcl nyfo tesrlxto esrmns while measurements, relaxation stress from only directly obtained are ) – Strain t – ieBehavior Time be s J s ( 2 t 3 ssmlryde similarly is ) uhta strain that such h orsodn eaainmdlswl be will modulus relaxation corresponding the ; shear ϵ 1 o time for t g 0 eaainmodulus relaxation ( t n eda osatvleutltime until value constant a at held and e stersligtm-eedn strain. time-dependent resulting the is ) D G J e = ( he ( ( fi t s t t e )= e ). )= e as ned )= oe 2 1 e t > oe + sahee meitl.Tesrs ste gradually then is stress The immediately. achieved is ie,tesml osntcepfrhr.Lttestress the Let further). creep not does sample the (i.e., g e t ). s e ( e ( ( t t 1 t he ) ) ) = > = = + t s g s 0 0 0 e 3 v and G ( t E ): ( t ) D ≠ s lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 1/ 1 1 ( t D o time for )= ( t D ). e ( 1 t )is = s E t 1 t 2 h eutn tensile resulting The . 1 neprmn b a (b) experiment In . ( hni sremoved. is it when , t )= s 3 D = e e ( ( fi t 1 t and ) e stress xed ilb a be will ) nmea- In . e v (3.21) (3.20) (3.19) .I is It ). s 0 J ( t is ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 b riayeatcmtra;()hgl lsi aeil d icu material. viscous (d) material; elastic highly (c) material; elastic ordinary (b) IUE3.7 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics oet fsri;()mtra nwihhg lsi eomto predominates. deformation elastic high which in material (b) strain; of ponents 3.8 FIGURE iecre.I ilb oe ht ie suf given that, noted be will It curves. time osdrtebcgon oti ati rae eali h olwn section. to following proposed the therefore in is detail It greater properties. in polymer fact many this affecting to factor This background important temperature. the and an consider time of be on depend components to will viscous shown also the strain been and total has the elastic temperature high and the time both both on since depend that strain is this from resulting conclusion important nraewt ie nrlaeo stress, of release On time. with increase h obndrsos,hwvr ifr ieyaogplmr.Fgr . hw yia deformation- typical shows 3.8 Figure polymers. among widely differs however, response, combined The ye fdfrainlrsos sarsl f()a (a) of result a as response deformational of Types tantm uvs a aeilsoigsbtnilodnr lsi,hg lsi,advsoscom- viscous and elastic, high elastic, ordinary substantial showing material (a) curves: Strain-time (c) (a) (b) (a) Strain Strain Strain Load t t 0 0 Time Time strain Total t t (ε) 0 0 strain Total ε (ε) oe Time Time t t 1 1 fi e ε he in time, cient oe ε he ileetal iapa but disappear eventually will ε ε v he t t 1 1 e he ilrahacntn au while value constant a reach will b Time (b) (d) Strain Strain fi e odbigipsdbtentimes between imposed being load xed t t 0 0 Time

Irrecoverable Recoverable Irrecoverable Recoverable t t 1 1 e v ilrmi osat An constant. remain will e v otne to continues t 0 and 315 t 1 : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 r h coef the are place take cannot volume. motion free called molecular are that collectively, the is holes, in point These holes holes. some important of be The presence must move move. the there can without site may segment adjacent segment the its which another to into which position material its the from of move mass to segment polymeric a For Equations WLF The 3.2.4.1 316 nw steWlim,Lne,adFryEuto WFeuto) ovn qain32 n Equation and 3.26 Equation Solving equation). obtains (WLF Equation one Ferry 3.27 and Landel, Williams, the as known form hne ihtmeaue n fti hneaie rmcagsi h icst ftesse,te it then change. system, property the the of to viscosity equation the WLF in the changes apply from to arises possible be change well this may if and temperature, with changes viscosity. on temperature of effect at ( h equation the revlm sral o ml o uhmlclrmvmn.Hwvr to above or at However, movement. molecular much for small too really is volume free where that so where equation suf h hra xaso coef expansion thermal the temperature. in increase a a T n nepeaino h ls rniintmeaue( temperature transition glass the of interpretation One o thsbe hw httevsoiyi eae otefatoa revlm ya xrsino the of expression an by volume free fractional the to related is viscosity the that shown been has it Now hr r loohrapiain fteWFeuto.I sec,i h au fmtra property material of value the if essence, In equation. WLF the of applications other also are There temperature some at viscosity the know we if that implies 3.27 Equation xeietldt nalrerneo oyeshv eosrtdteapoiaegnrlvldt of validity general approximate the demonstrated have polymers of range large a on data Experimental usiuigfor Substituting ti sa oepestetmeauecoef temperature the express to usual is It fi − g in nryfrmvmn,jsln cusadtefe oueicessqiesapywt an with sharply quite increases volume free the and occurs jostling movement, for energy cient n rmti siaetevsoiya nte temperature another at viscosity the estimate this from and , a f K b stefatoa revlm ttemperature at volume free fractional the is ). and fi inso hra xaso bv n eo the below and above expansion thermal of cients A r osat.Cmiigteeoemywrite may one these Combining constants. are f g f .2 and 0.025 = rmEuto .2 hsepeso yields expression this 3.22, Equation from fi insaoeadbelow and above cients f log = Da 10 f g ! +( . 10 × 4.8 = log h h a T T 10 g a ! − log h = h a e T T b fi h ! h 2 g )( − 1 in ftefe ouea en h ifrnebetween difference the being as volume free the of cient 1 T : 4 T h 303 g T h deg T = = T = − g T f K K − 51 g T , − ½ 17 T e e 1 ( g = f : − − f − . g )= g 6+( g A A : hsmyb xrse ahmtclyb the by mathematically expressed be may This . — ( stefatoa revlm at volume free fractional the is 1 = f 44( = = T Da f f T g − n iutnosylaeavcn pc into space vacant a leave simultaneously and f g − g T T sta ti eprtr eo hc the which below temperature a is it that is ) f 1 + )+( g T − − T Da g g ) T T epciey h au of value The respectively. , T g g ( ) ) T T − 1 − h L qaintu ie the gives thus equation WLF The . T lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics g T ) g (3.22) ) T ecnetmt h viscosity the estimate can we T g h oeue have molecules the T g and , Da a ssimply is a and (3.27) (3.26) (3.25) (3.24) (3.23) a b Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 tefi eae otesrs eaaintime relaxation stress the to related is itself lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics uvsfrpl(ehlmtarlt)a 0C( kgf/cm (1 20°C at methacrylate) poly(methyl for curves 3.9 FIGURE and Plastics temperatures. higher signi at exhibit creep they exhibit behavior; creep generally temperature-sensitive metals very lead, possess however, like rubbers, exceptions few a for Except Behavior Creep 3.2.5 nayo taysaecepC saeI) n etayo ceeae re E(tg III). (stage sec- DE 1), creep (stage accelerated BC or creep tertiary transient and or II), primary (stage stages: CD three creep in steady-state shown occurs or is which ondary test of creep strain, variation a time-dependent the such a from and plotted material, by curve the creep The to typical 3.9a. applied A Figure is recorded. in is stress time or with load strain constant or a deformation tests creep In temperature. room eainhp rmWFdt,tog npatc hs r etdtrie yexperiments. by determined best are these practice in though data, WLF from relationships dsusdltr.I hscs,i sfudthat viscous found is to it due case, time this time relaxation In with the later). is decay relaxation (discussed stress will or strain decay de of that rate be this may maintain of measure to One molecules. required of slippage force the temperature, constant tesrlxto ha modulus shear relaxation stress 3.27. Equation as form same the of is which J for ( t )de n xml fti si eaint tesrlxto.I oye sdfre oa to deformed is polymer a If relaxation. stress to relation in is this of example One o xeiet efre nser hr sarte opiae eainbtentetime-dependent the between relation complicated rather a is there shear, in performed experiments For m ..Ntol are only Not 0.8. < fi e yEuto .1 u ftesoeo log of slope the if But 3.21. Equation by ned fi e stetm ae o h test eraet / fisiiilvleo plcto fstrain of application on value initial its of 1/e to decrease to stress the for taken time the as ned yia re uv a ihlna iesaead()wt oaihi iesae c aiyo creep of Family (c) scale. time logarithmic with (b) and scale time linear with (a) curve creep Typical

Strain Strain (a) b (c) (b) fi A B uesosta hr stpclya lotisatnoseatcsri Bfollowed AB strain elastic instantaneous almost an typically is there that shows gure IIII II I C G ( t and ) Log time Time G J ( ( t Stress =σ t )de eae,bttefre ntr srltdt h esl ouu which modulus tensile the to related is turn in former the but related, ) Stress =σ log D fi 10 e yEuto .9adtetm-eedn re compliance creep time-dependent the and 3.19 Equation by ned ! l G 1 ti hrfr osbei hoyt rdc creep-temperature predict to theory in possible therefore is It . l l ( t E 1 T T ) g ·J ( = t 2 G )= .9 MPa). 0.098 = − 51 Strain (%) ( t 17 esslog versus ) : 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 sin 6+( : 10 0 44( m –1 m p T T p − − 10 T T 0 g g t ) ) Log time(h) is

10 357 kgf/cm − 1 m hn oago approximation, good a to then, ,

10 2

71.4 kgf/cm 143 kgf/cm

2 286 kgf/cm 214 kgf/cm 10

3 2

2 2 10 2 fi atcepee at even creep cant 4 fi e tanat strain xed l which , (3.28) (3.29) 317 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 oeua tutrswihbhv ieidvda lmnso h oes hynvrhls i in aid nevertheless discrete they no models, are the there of Although materials. elements plastic deformations. individual of viscous response like the ideal behave understanding and which elastic structures ideal molecular for models mechanical ls lt,snete euetert of rate the reduce they since cloth, glass lsisi osdrbyicesdb adding by increased considerably is plastics cu.Ti eairi eerdt sceprpue h re tegho hs aeil sde is materials these of strength creep The rupture. creep as to referred is behavior This occur. aiu teswihmyb ple o speci a for applied be may which stress maximum otnosy lal,temtra antcniu ogtlre inde larger get to continue cannot material the Clearly, continuously. 318 IUE3.10 FIGURE viscous is the load by a followed When is 3.10a). and immediately (Figure occurs series spring in the connected of dashpot displacement and elastic spring the a applied, of consists model Maxwell The Model Maxwell 3.2.6 h pigi h lsi opnn ftersos n by h relation the obeys and response the of component elastic the is spring The Stress recovered is recovered. 3.2.6.1 displacement not elastic is the removed, displacement is viscous load the the After but time. immediately, requires which dashpot the in liquid iisteruefrsrcua upss re eairvre ieyfo n oye oanother; cold to as to polymer referred one (often steady- The from rubbers polymers. and widely thermoplastic plastics than varies resistant in creep behavior creep more Creep state much are purposes. general, in structural polymers, thermoset for use their in limits indicated be as may nonlinear, is behavior behavior of the type cases viscoelastic this most in Although stress linearly times, amount. spaced 3.9c. short is same equally and Figure (with the material strains low curves by a at creep axis plastics of If strain for family the observed included. a along in be offset line be can each should time periods specimen. levels) selected the long any of at after then necking 3.17), strain to (Equation is of due stress state dependence true occurs time this the creep is the Tertiary in during material. creep increase rate the an steady-state of strain of life or because useful The secondary the rate determines nonrecoverable. accelerated The It an rate. therefore removed. at creep is the is as stress and to referred the character commonly if in recoverable viscous is essentially such, as and, elasticity s 1 h re n eoeyo lsiscnb iuae ya prpit obnto felementary of combination appropriate an by simulated be can plastics of recovery and creep The lsisgnrlyehbthg ae fcepudrrltvl o tessadtmeaue,which temperatures, and stresses low relatively under creep of rates high exhibit generally Plastics that so 3.9b, Figure in shown as curve, creep the plot to used is scale time logarithmic a Normally retarded to mechanism in similar essentially is It rate. strain decreasing rapidly a has creep primary The and e a b (c) (b) (a) 1 r h tesadsri,rsetvl,and respectively, strain, and stress the are a h awl oe.() c epne ftemdludrtm-eedn oe fdeformation. of modes time-dependent under model the of Responses (c) (b), model. Maxwell The (a) – tanRelation Strain Stress σ σ σ 2 η 1 , ε E , ε 2 1

Strain ε

Creep ε o

= σ fl ow. Time Unloaded fi o /E lr n te enocn aeil,sc sglass as such materials, reinforcing other and llers s t fi 1 dtm ihu asn rcue h re teghof strength creep The fracture. causing without time ed Recovery = ε o E E

= σ e saconstant. a is 1 o / E fl w sdet viscous to due is ow) Strain σ fi lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics iey n vnulyfatr will fracture eventually and nitely, σ o Time t fl ( Relaxation ε w n increases and ow, constant) fi e sthe as ned fi esand bers fl (3.30) wof ow Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 hc stegvrigeuto fteMxelmdl ti neetn ocnie h epne htthis that deformation. responses of the modes consider to time-dependent interesting common is three It model. under Maxwell predicts the model of equation governing the is which lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics aho elements: dashpot o h icu opnn ftersos.I hscs h stress the case this In response. the of component viscous the for i.e., n rmEuto .0truhEuto 3.32, Equation through 3.30 Equation from and is time with displacement total of rate the 3.32 Equation From where hrfr qain33 a ewitnas written be can 3.34 Equation Therefore stress, entire the to subjected are elements both But where epne htti oe rdcsudrtrecmo iedpnetmdso deformation. of modes time-dependent common three model. under the predicts of model time this relaxation that the responses or occurring naturally time This response portion. the elastic the be to to response the taken of is portion viscous parameter the of ratio the as concisely, qain33 scmol eragda follows: as rearranged commonly is 3.36 Equation h oa strain, total The h aho cnitn fapso loosely piston a of (consisting dashpot The qain33 stegvrigeuto fteMxelmdl ti neetn ocnie the consider to interesting is It model. Maxwell the of equation governing the is 3.37 Equation that Note 2. 1. nerto yields Integration qain33 ecie h re epneo h awl element. Maxwell the of response Relaxation creep the time with describes strain 3.39 of Equation increase of rate constant a indicates which Creep h l = samtra osatcle h coef the called constant material a is h facntn stress constant a If . / l E a h nt ftm n hti hrceie h iceatcntr fteeeetvery element the of nature viscoelastic the characterizes it that and time of units the has stertoo h viscosity the of ratio the is ftesri shl osat hnEuto .7becomes 3.37 Equation then constant, held is strain the If . e ftemdludragvnstress, given a under model the of , s 0 sapid hnEuto .7becomes 3.37 Equation then applied, is h e _ ftedsptadtetniemodulus tensile the and dashpot the of e _ s fi _ s = fi e e _ = in fvsostraction. viscous of cient e tn naclnrclvse otiigalqi)accounts liquid) a containing vessel cylindrical a in tting s = e _ = E 1 = = s 2 E _ = 1 = E s s _ e e = _ + s e e _ _ 1 1 1 1 s E 0 s h s − + + + + 0 = 1+ (1 , e = _ l 1 e e h h l _ 2 1 1 1 s l 2 2 s 2 s s = (3.40) 0 = t s 2 = e l sdsrbtdbtentesrn n the and spring the between distributed is , l 0 (3.39) ) s 2 — spootoa otert fstrain of rate the to proportional is , .. taysaecep(iue3.10b). (Figure creep steady-state i.e., E ftespring. the of (3.36) (3.38) (3.33) (3.32) (3.31) (3.35) (3.34) (3.37) 319 e _ 2 ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 elsse.I 83 ecetsoe htstress that showed Weichert Maxwell of 1893, a of generalization behavior of In the time approach response system. cannot the above real with described it model a simple represent the cannot words, we other that In complicated element. Maxwell so single is system polymer a of behavior The Model Maxwell Generalized 3.2.6.2 bantettlsrs safnto ftm,i.e., time, of function a as parallel. stress in total coupled the elements obtain Maxwell of number large a of consists it 3.11; Figure in 320 IUE3.11 FIGURE where o eaainwt osatstrain constant with relaxation For h vrl ouu safnto ftime, of function a as modulus overall The ic h tani aheeeti omn esmtefre cigo h niiuleeet to elements individual the on acting forces the sum we common, is element each in strain the Since h ytei of synthesis The 3. ovn hsdfeeta qainwt h nta condition initial the with equation differential this Solving Fgr 3.10b). (Figure strain, eaaintime relaxation hr E( where ieo deformation. of time where Recovery G hsidctsa xoeta ea fsrs ihtm Fgr .0) h teswl ea and relax will stress The 3.10c). (Figure time 1/ with to time stress relaxation The of monotonically. zero decay approach exponential an indicates This l i fteeatccmoeto h model. the of component elastic the of h orsodn qainfrteMxeleeeti ha is shear in element Maxwell the for equation corresponding The ic h tanrmiscntn narlxto xeiet qain34 a lob rte as written be also can 3.41 Equation experiment, relaxation a in constant remains strain the Since = e h r03,o t nta value. initial its of 0.37, or , G e i / 0 ( E hnteiiilstress, initial the When . n hn ssonb qain33,tesri aei eo oteei ofrhrrecovery further no is there so zero, is rate strain the 3.36, Equation by shown as then, and , t eeaie awl oe (Weichert model Maxwell Generalized t stetniemdlso h awl lmn ttime at element Maxwell the of modulus tensile the is ) i stesermdlso h awl lmn ttime at element Maxwell the of modulus shear the is ) sterlxto ieo the of time relaxation the is E ( l t rmkonvle of values known from ) snwtertoo h viscosity the of ratio the now is E ’ qain h ehnclmdlacrigt Weichert to according model mechanical The equation. s 1 η 1 E η 2 e 2 E 0 ( ecmieEuto .1adEuto .4t obtain to 3.44 Equation and 3.41 Equation combine we t s )= s ( t 0 )= srmvd hr sa ntnaeu eoeyo h elastic the of recovery instantaneous an is there removed, is , E η s 3 3 e ( G( E( 0 s e i t helement. th E s ) 0 ( E t t ( t X = )=G )=E i t = )= ,i thus is ), ’ and σ ( formulation). s X s E t 0 X – ), ε exp 0 i 0 h eaaineprmnscudb ersne sa as represented be could experiments relaxation exp l E exp exp o i i ftevsoscmoetadtesermodulus shear the and component viscous the of l exp s ð ssimpli is − i ð stu h ierqie o h test decay to stress the for required time the thus is ð − t − − = t t = l l = − t l ) i l l ) ) t i s fi db h s fsmlgpaper. semilog of use the by ed = t s and , lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics t E 0 and , η i at i t G = E 0 0 stemdlsat modulus the is t 0 λ h ouu tteinitial the at modulus the i gives

= η ’ omlto sshown is formulation s i / E i t ;the 0; = (3.46) (3.45) (3.42) (3.43) (3.44) (3.41) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.12 FIGURE parallel nFgr .1 h ag falwberlxto ie eoe eot in as to Thus zero times. becomes elements, relaxation times individual all relaxation the over allowable in integration of stresses an range the by the explained 3.11, be Figure can in 3.44) (Equation model the ersn h eairo elsseswudse oflo aual rmtefc htra polymeric real that fact the from naturally crosslinks. between follow distance and to weight, molecular seem size, conformational would in distributions exhibit systems also systems real of behavior the represent viscoelastic a of characteristic be would times eot in to in or zero skewed long be would very spectrum the crosslinks toward containing system heavily real a For solid. viscoelastic a of characteristic be otlt h xsec facniuu pcrmo eaaintms( times relaxation of spectrum continuous a of existence the postulate necp ( intercept directly: Answer: 3.1: Example oethat Note ftenme fuisi loe obcm in become to allowed is units of number the If scnb en h Maxwell the seen, be can As ∑ E i ( fi t iy h ocp htacniuu itiuino eaaintmssol erqie to required be should times relaxation of distribution continuous a that concept The nity. ). o ahelement, each For E E ( i ) iedpnetmdlsfridvda awl lmnsadfrtesmo he lmnsin elements three of sum the for and elements Maxwell individual for modulus Time-dependent t 0 sntasrih iei iue3.12. Figure in line straight a not is ) eieteoealtm-eedn modulus time-dependent overall the Derive n eaiesoeof slope negative a and E i 10 10 10 9 7 8 050100 fi iE .3 25 50 100 0.333 0.667 1.000 3 2 1 E ierlxto ie.I generalizing, In times. relaxation nite – i ( ecetmdlpsessmn eaaintms o elmtraswe materials real For times. relaxation many possesses model Weichert t sgvnb tagtln nsmlgppr(qain34)with 3.42) (Equation paper semilog on line straight a by given is ) s 0 E l i i [(dynes/cm r ucin ftm n eaaintimes, relaxation and time of functions are , ( i t Fgr .2.Adn h uvsaiheial gives arithmetically curves the Adding 3.12). (Figure )=( E fl ( i,weesasetu kwdtwr ogrtmswould times longer toward skewed spectrum a whereas uid, t )= E Time (sec) i ) 2 0 X fi )×10 i exp =1 3 ie h umto vrtedfeeta nt of units differential the over summation the nite, 1.00 exp(– E Σ i 0.667 exp(– ( − E − t 8 i ) 0.333 exp(– ]

( l t t i ) E ( 100 t t o < 0 for ) ) l 50 l l t i i .Asetu-kwdtwr lower toward spectrum-skewed A ). 25 a hsb loe ornefrom range to allowed be thus may (sec) ) t ) t 0 e when sec 200 < fi iy rmtento that notion the From nity. s i = s i ( t , l E i i ( ,we ), ! t 321 ) ∞ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eomto iltk lc qal n iutnosyi oho hm htis, that them; of any both but them, in between simultaneously distributed and be will equally stress place total take the parallel, will in deformation connected are elements two the Since next. derived are relations Stress mathematical The 3.2.7.1 strain. no is there ultimately and dashpot, oeet nrmvlo h odtesrn eoestedslcmn yrvrigthe further reversing resists by it displacement and the recovers spring spring the the of load deformation the of elastic removal the On equals movement. strain the until continue Displacements de 322 nteKli rVitmdltesrn n aho lmnsaecnetdi aall ssonin shown zero at as applied parallel, of is rate in load the connected the because immediately When are occur rubber. elements cannot of deformation dashpot behavior elastic the and the approximates time, spring roughly the model This model 3.13a. Voigt Figure or Kelvin the In Model Voigt or Kelvin 3.2.7 3.44): Equation practice once principle, i.e., modulus, relaxation the of dependence ra,i smr ovnett osdrln consider to convenient more is it broad, Since aetei eoe ucinldpnec,t replace to dependence, functional denotes parenthesis n o eaainwt osatstrain, constant with relaxation for and ital mosbet odrcl,adanme fapoiaemtoshv endvsd These [6]. devised. Tobolsky been and have [5] Ferry methods of approximate works of reference advanced number the a in and discussed directly, are approximations do to impossible virtually ln as considered are times relaxation all and fi h function The hnEuto .9bcms(oetecag flimits): of change the (note becomes 3.49 Equation Then htw eienwi en odetermine to means a is now desire we What eacniuu function continuous a ne E ( E t )= ( l sdtrie rmeprmna aaon data experimental from determined is ) s ( E – t )/ E ( tanRelation Strain l ( e l skon h euto n te yeo ehncleprmn a epeitd In predicted. be can experiment mechanical of type other any of result the known, is ) 0 srfre oa h itiuino eaaintmso h eaainsetu.In spectrum. relaxation the or times relaxation of distribution the as to referred is ) ,we fi dta ehv eeoe nepeso utbefrrpeetn h time the representing for suitable expression an developed have we that nd s ( t , l uhta h oa stress, total the that such ) E ( t ϵ )= s 0 E ti ie ytefloig(opr qain3.45): Equation (compare following the by given is it , ( t s ( )= t E ( − + )= l ð t ∞ ( ∞ l s )= . l e H ec eitouetefunction the introduce we Hence . e )= = = 0 ð ∞ 0 (ln H ð ∞ 0 s ð E ∞ 0 e (ln E 1 H s ( 1 l l ( + ( + l (ln )e )e t E l E l , )e e s ( − − l rmdt bandas obtained data from ) 2 ( t 2 t t − l .Snetedsrbto frlxto ie sso is times relaxation of distribution the Since ). l )d = = t l l )as ) = d(ln l l d d l l s l ( (3.51) ) t ,i ie ytefloig(compare following the by given is ), lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fl wi iie ytedashpot. the by limited is ow E ( t essln versus ) H (ln fl wtruhthe through ow l ,weethe where ), t hsis This . (3.49) (3.48) (3.50) (3.53) (3.52) (3.47) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 deformation. 3.13 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics r sn qain3.53, Equation using or, 3.52, Equation and 3.31, Equation 3.30, Equation From hc stegvrigeuto o h evn(rVit oe.Ispeitosfrtecmo time- common the for predictions Its model. Voigt) next. (or derived Kelvin are the deformations for dependent equation governing the is which 1. Creep h ifrnileuto a esle o h oa strain, total the for solved be may equation differential The ie(iue31b.TeVitmdli hssi oehbtrtre lsi eomto ncreep in deformation elastic retarded exhibit to said thus quantity is The model experiments. Voigt The 3.13b). (Figure time rte as written tes u ticessgauly tann smttclyismxmmvalue maximum its asymptotically attaining gradually, increases it but stress, lsi component; elastic where n og oessol o econfused.) be not should models Voigt and 1/ by retarded is deformation hseuto niae httedfrainde o perisatnosyo plcto of application on instantaneously appear not does deformation the that indicates equation This ycmaio ihEuto .6tecepeuto ne osatserstress shear constant a under equation creep the 3.56 Equation with comparison By facntn stress, constant a If . g stetm-eedn ha tano h og lmn and element Voigt the of strain shear time-dependent the is a h evno og oe.() c epne ftemdludrtm-eedn oe of modes time-dependent under model the of Responses (c) (b), model. Voigt or Kelvin The (a) b (c) (b) Strains (ε) ε =σ Creep l stertraintm (= time retardation the is 0 / E ieTime Time s h 0 / sapid qain35 becomes 3.54 Equation applied, is , E e σ Unloaded fismxmmvle Tepyia enn of meaning physical (The value. maximum its of = (a) 1 E , ε l 1 scle eadto ie ti h ie( time the is It time. retardation a called is e g = s = s Recovery s E = t G 0 = s 0 E 0 ½ E e 1 1 = e 1 − − h Stress (σ) Stress + + E / exp exp( e G h h + e e ). _ _ 2

h Stress (σ) − − e σ _ t 2 h E η , ε = l 2 σ ) t 0 e ogive to , ε constant Relaxation G stesermdlso its of modulus shear the is t e = = h l s / twihthe which at ) E 0 / E o Maxwell for t tin at 0 a be may (3.54) (3.55) (3.56) (3.57) fi 323 nite Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 324 IUE3.14 FIGURE The 3.14a. Figure in shown is elements four is comprising strain models Kelvin total and Maxwell the of combination A Model Four-Element 3.2.8 con o eaainbtwspo nrlto ocepadrcvr.I seietteeoeta better models. a two that the therefore evident combining could is by model) It achieved recovery. (Maxwell be and may model creep materials to previous viscoelastic relation the in of comparison, poor simulation was By but relaxation. relaxation for predict account not does but behavior h evn(rVit oe hrfr ie nacceptable an gives therefore model Voigt) (or Kelvin The 2. 3. hseuto ersnsa xoeta eoeyo tanwih sacmaio ihEquation creep. with predicted comparison the a of as reversal which, a strain is of shows, recovery 3.56 exponential an represents equation This ogive to where Relaxation application. stress of time Recovery hsdfeeta qainmyb ovdwt h nta condition initial the with solved be may equation differential This qain35 scneinl rte as written conveniently is 3.57 Equation J stesercepcmlac (= compliance creep shear the is ftesrs srmvd qain35 becomes 3.54 Equation removed, is stress the If . a oreeetmdl b,()Rsosso h oe ne iedpnetmdso deformation. of modes time-dependent under model the of Responses (c) (b), model. Four-element (a) ftesri shl osat hnEuto .4becomes 3.54 Equation then constant; held is strain the If .

b (c) (b) Strain (ε)

ε Creep 0 =

σ 0 / Time E Unloaded E (a) 2 σ 2 η , ε ε 1 0 J 2 e = = e =

g Recovery σ / 0 J = e t 0 / 0= 1 E 0 ½ e 1 ttime at ) + 0 s − exp e E = exp( Stress (σ) Stress 2 e + E + e − e _ σ h k − 1 E h E t e , ε _ 1 Stress (σ) and , t 1 = fi η t l s prxmto ocepadrecovery and creep to approximation rst 2 ) σ J 0 0 stesercepcmlac tthe at compliance creep shear the is Time lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics e = Relaxation e 0 (ε constant) ttetm fsrs removal stress of time the at (3.59) (3.58) (3.60) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 nte oe,atiue oZnr ossso he lmnscnetdi eisadprle,as parallel, and given, series already model: procedure in this the connected Following of solid. equation elements linear governing standard three the the derive as of known we and consists 3.15, Zener, Figure in to illustrated attributed model, Another Model Zener 3.2.9 where Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.15 FIGURE qain3.56, Equation etra oeadmr lmnsaeaddt h oe,bttemteaisas eoe more becomes also mathematics the but model, the to added becomes are simulation elements The more behavior. complex. actual and the more to approximation as 3.14b. acceptable better an Figure nonetheless in is illustrated it is materials, and models Kelvin and Maxwell the for previously described hstesri aeis rate strain the Thus hseuto a ewitni h form the in written be may equation This where huhtemdli o rerpeetto ftecmlxvsolsi epneo polymeric of response viscoelastic complex the of representation true effects the a of not sum the is thus model is the situations recovery Though and relaxation, creep, to model this of response The σ σ 3 1 , ε , ε η E a 3 3 1 e 1 1 k , a stesri epneo h evnmdl rmEuto .0 qain33,and 3.31, Equation 3.30, Equation From model. Kelvin the of response strain the is 0 , b 1 h tnadlna solid. linear standard The and , b 0 r l aeilcntns oegnrlfr fEuto .4is 3.64 Equation of form general more A constants. material all are e h = 3 s E s _ 1 0 + e _ + a = E 1 s 1 h σ s h s _ s 0 2 1 E 1 0 t , ε + = 2 + + 2 a h 0 s E h s s 3 2 0 2 0 ( E = exp 1 1 b pca ae fti equation. this are of earlier cases described special models The equation. of type and a + − 1 0 e , _ E oka body Hookean this favors viscoelasticity of theory modern The awl element Maxwell exp − a + 2 b 1 ) h E and , e b 0 _ 2 2 0 a + r eo qain36 becomes 3.65 Equation zero. are e − n E t = ∂ ∂ h E 1 n b 2 E 2 t b s 1 n m 2 e r eo qain36 becomes 3.65 Equation zero. are + t a ∂ ∂ 0 m a t s l constants All . m n e − + l constants All . 1 + a a ∂ ∂ 0 ⋯ 1 n s t − n ∂ ∂ 1 + = − s s 1 t b b 0 + = 0 e e ⋯ b 1 + a ∂ ∂ a e t and 0 a s and b except b (3.65b) (3.65a) except (3.62) (3.61) (3.63) (3.65) (3.64) 325 a 0 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ipygvnb h leri u ftesrisdet ahse ntela.Tepicpemybe may principle The as load. stress, expressed the constant be a in may under time step time of of each function function a to as a obtained due as is is modulus strains strain latter the the the for the then equation of and an response, If sum follows. strain algebraic as the expressed the to contributes by history pattern. given loading loading simply given entire a the to material material viscoelastic a of linear response the describing a for cases stress. such useful In constant loading. very and of a be histories, combinations under all can stress for or model material data stresses creep theoretical a experimental of obtain of sequence to complex response practical not a strain is to it the subjected obviously often depicts are 3.9c materials Figure service, in in However, curves creep the of Each Principle Superposition 3.2.10 326 eetdi iia a o te teschanges. stress other for way similar a in repeated s otmn uepsto rnil asta h oa tana time at strain is, total that the responses; that pendent says principle superposition Boltzmann hsi h ple tesis stress applied the if Thus s o n eiso tesiceet hseuto a egnrlzdto generalized be can equation this increments stress of series any For eoigtecepsandeto due stain creep the removing ytemdli hw ceaial nFgr .6.Tetm-eedn tanrsos cepcurve) (creep response strain time-dependent The 3.16b. Figure stress the in to schematically due shown is model the by response. 1 1 saddto added is , h otcmol sdmdli h otmn uepsto rnil,wihpooe htfra for that proposes which principle, superposition Boltzmann the is model used commonly most The hsi h pigaddspti eisadapist tesrlxto tcntn strain. constant at relaxation stress to applies and series in element dashpot Voigt and spring the is This otk noacutacniuu odn yl,w a ute eeaieEuto .9to 3.69 Equation generalize further can we cycle, loading continuous a account into take To h oe ii ftesmaini ae as taken is summation the of limit lower The hsi h pigaddspti aalladapist tanrtraina osatstress. constant at retardation strain to applies and parallel in dashpot and spring the is This nteohrhn,i h stress, the if hand, other the On sa lutain o eiso tpcagsi tesa nFgr .6,tesri epnepredicted response strain the 3.16a, Figure in as stress in changes step of series a for illustration, an As oteatcptdcepdeto due creep anticipated the to s 0 l constants All . s h e uv ilb band silsrtdi iue31b yadn h re u to due creep the adding by 3.16b, Figure in illustrated as obtained, be will curve new the , 0 ple tzr iei rdce yEuto .6with 3.66 Equation by predicted is time zero at applied s 0 a tzr ie h re tana n time, any at strain creep the time, zero at s and s s 0 0 0 and eoa falsrs tasbeun time subsequent a at stress all of Removal . a ple tzr ieada diinlstress, additional an and time zero at applied was , b e e ( ( except t t s )= e )= ( 1 t a neednl,a hw nFgr .6.Tepoeueis procedure The 3.16b. Figure in shown as independently, , )= 0 − E e s ð ∞ t ( 1 ( E a t t = E u )= ( 0 ) X u t = , ( b s )= = − t b − 0 t ∞ 0 1 0 − e E ∞ s and , + 1 ( + e u i t ( s E E ic h niesrs itr otiue othe to contributes history stress entire the since ) ) b t ( ( s ) 1 d t t 0 1 ∂ ∂ s b 1 − d − 1 e ( t u u u u r eo qain36 becomes 3.65 Equation zero. are ) ) ) s d u 1 t lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics steagbacsmo w inde- two of sum algebraic the is t s ilb ie by given be will , = s 0 u hnascn stress, second a When . 2 ste qiaetto equivalent then is s 1 ttime at , (3.65c) (3.66) (3.69) (3.68) (3.67) (3.70) u the , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 xeiet culyivleasre fmn re n eoeytsso h aeil hsasrs is stress a Thus material. The time the a testing. after on recorded creep tests is than strain recovery the preparation and and material, creep specimen the of mini less specimen of a require to series applied and a consuming involve approxi- actually time good experiments less a are as they used often because an is testing, curves, creep creep than from procedure property. curves experimental this preceding common of the mation less like a derived is curve, relaxation isometric stress Since the 3.17. through constant. Figure respectively, kept in section, shown constant-time as data, a the the and from replotting section obtained and be constant-strain may curves curves a creep These taking loading. of by time constant curves a creep for strain vs. stress plotting by obtained Testing and Properties Plastics smti uvsaeotie ypotn tesv.tm o osatstrain; constant a for time vs. stress plotting by obtained are curves Isometric Curves Isochronous and Isometric 3.2.11 3.16 FIGURE ihnlmt ie h tana h ie ie h tesa ie iei iial bandfrom obtained similarly is time given a at stress The time. given the at 3.71. strain Equation the gives de limits been within has history stress the When scrnu uvs nteohrhn,aemr datgosyotie ydrc experiments direct by obtained advantageously more are hand, other the on curves, Isochronous is strain the when material the in stress of relaxation the of indication an provides curve isometric An ntesm a h tesrsos oacmlxsri itr a edrvdas derived be may history strain complex a to response stress the way same the In a teshsoy b rdce tanrsos sn Boltzmann using response strain Predicted (b) history. Stress (a) (a)

(b) Stress (σ) σ σ

Strain (ε) 3 0 0 0 Creep due t 1 to σ σ 1 fi 0 e ahmtcly usiuini qain37 n integration and 3.70 Equation in substitution mathematically, ned s u ( t u 1 t )= 1 1 B − ð ∞ t E ( Creep due t u 2 − u to σ t 1 2 u ) 1 d A +B e d ( u u u ) 3 t u d 1 3 u C Time Time Creep due ’ uepsto principle. superposition s t to σ tpcly10sc.Testress The sec). 100 (typically 3 scrnu curves isochronous (3.71) 327 are Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 328 ouu scntn n 2 h tan r ml n needn flaigrt rhsoyadare and derived history are or equations rate classical loading example, of the For independent (1) indiscriminately. and under relation that small used the time assumptions are using be the the com- strains cannot under structural as the derived reversible, of (2) and factors immediately design and cylinders, the such and constant for on plates, is available beams, modulus depend equations springs, classical deformations as the such plastics, Therefore ponents, of temperature. the nature and viscoelastic load the to Due Method Design Pseudoelastic 3.2.12 suf are there unit repeated is procedure This recover. to allowed is material the and removed then is 3.17 FIGURE nti ehdaporaevle r hsnfrtetm-eedn rpris uha ouu,and modulus, as such properties, time-dependent the equations. for classical chosen the are into substituted values appropriate method this In the and recognized is creep of presence the that in only differs and test tensile curve. isochronous the plot to points iie hi s.Hwvr n ehdta a enwdl cetdi the has is this accepted and widely complex, been quite has are that they fact, method clear mathematically this one is but for However, it results; allow use. to 3.17a, accurate their developed very Figure limited been give in have also shown approaches them Several curves of constant. creep some not the and is of plastic a nature of the modulus From the modulus. that the is constant the where log on presented often are data Isochronous periods. recovery the by overcome is history stress its for clsbcueti rvdsamr rcs niaino h olnaiyo h aab iligastraight- a yielding unity. by than data the less of slope nonlinearity the of of plot indication precise line more a provides this because scales oeta h scrnu etmto sqiesmlrt hto ovninliceetlloading incremental conventional a of that to similar quite is method test isochronous the that Note a (b) (a) a smti n b scrnu uvsfo re curves. creep from curves isochronous (b) and Isometric (a) Stress σ 5 σ 4 σ 3 Log time Strain =ε ε

' Strain tes=constant = Stress Creep curves σ 5 t´ σ strain 4 σ Log time σ σ Stress 3 2 1 σ σ 1 2 σ σ lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 3 4 suolsi einmethod design pseudoelastic Time = “ memory Strain t´ ” ftematerial the of fi cient – log . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics 1kgf/cm (1 3.18 FIGURE n h lsia qain r ut tagtowr,a hw ntefloigexamples. following the in shown as product straightforward, quite and are designer equations classical between the situations and consultations most in In decided crystalline. highly therefore are is which strain those manufacturer. particularly allowable plastics, maximum an stress many the the at for intersects restrictive arriving this too for which be at suggested strain been the have note methods several although The chosen, applications. different value. in arbitrarily plastic appropriate same often the the for of even is and strain for plastics value limiting various method the for differ straightforward and may component value no The the is plastic. of there life however, service the Unfortunately, account plastic. into taking judiciously, chosen is h ehdhsbe on ogv suf give to found been has method The aeila h evc eprtr f2° r hw nFgr .8.Temxmmpermissible maximum Answer: The 1%. 3.18a. be Figure to assumed in is shown the material are that this 20°C so depth in of suitable strain temperature a calculate service mm, the 14 at is beam material the of width the de If mid-span. central its at kg 10 of load curves creep 3.2: on Example based methods design chosen, is strain to maximum the and for modulus value appropriate tangent an Once initial the of 0.85 is which modulus secant a draw to is method One where fba rs section cross beam of h eodmmn fae is area of moment second The a (b) (a) 2

Strain (%) P .9 MPa). 0.098 = oda mid-span; at load , 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 h iereatceuto o h eta de central the for equation elastic linear The 10 0 fl cinde o xed5m nasrielf f2,0 .Tecepcre o the for curves creep The h. 20,000 of life service a in mm 5 exceed not does ection –1 a re uvsfrmtra sdi lutaieeape.()Iohou uv t2,0 evc life service h 20,000 at curve Isochronus (b) examples. illustrative in used material for curves Creep (a) lsi em 0 mln n ipyspotda ahed ssbetdt point a to subjected is end, each at supported simply and long mm 200 beam, plastic A 010 10 Log time(h) 1 250 kgf/cm L 10 214 kgf/cm beam; of length , 2 2 10

10 71 kgf/cm 7 kgf/cm 143 kgf/cm178 kgf/cm 2 3 fi 10 2 2 I 2 modulus the of value the that provided results, accurate ciently =

4 2 bd 12 10 E d 3 ouu fba material; beam of modulus , 5 = – = tancre(e iue32) u hsmto may method this But 3.2b). Figure (see curve strain 48 14 PL 12 EI d 2 3 Stress (kgf/cm ) 3 fl mm 120 160 200 ection, 40 80 0 4 modulus Initial = 9490 kgf/cm d fteba is beam the of , . . . 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2 1% secant fi modulus = 9285 Strain (%) dn h iiigsri fa of strain limiting the nding I eodmmn farea of moment second , kgf/cm 2 329 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 330 eauedpnec ftesrnt fpatc.Snefrmn lsisa osattmeaueapo of plot a temperature tem- constant and at time plastics the many for describe Since which plastics. expressions of strength mathematical the obtain of to dependence made perature been have attempts Many Temperature of Effect 3.2.13 n r tts n prpit aasol eue,dpnigo h evc conditions. service the wet on both depending in used, material the be for should available data normally appropriate are curves and creep states, case dry a and such In behavior. creep its on hncepcre tteaporaetmeauesol eue.Hwvr fnn r vial,a available, are none suf if be However, may used. temperatures be available should between temperature extrapolation appropriate linear the at curves creep 2% then of limit its reach to steadily increases strain the creeps, h. material 20,000 the at as Then 1%. than less is strain kgf/cm 8 3.3: Example ofo h xrsinfor expression the from So a etkna hsvle ti 25kgf/cm isochronous 9285 modulus the secant is gives a It 1%, h value. as 20,000 recommended this is at at strain curves taken maximum the these be Since across may 3.18b. curves Figure section creep in the constant-time to shown referring A curve by 3.18a. obtained be Figure may strain in permissible maximum the to corresponding smti uv rmtecepcre n edn h einsrs tasrielf f2,0 h.) 20,000 of life service a at stress for equation design the the into reading stress and design curves the creep Substituting the from curve isometric nenlpressure, internal suitable Answer: a Calculate 3.18a. Figure in shown pipe. are the material for plastic the thickness for wall curves creep The 2%. of strain 000hiohooscre(iue31b eie rmteecre,tedsg tesa %sri is strain 2% at kg/cm stress design 167.7 the curves, as these obtained from derived 3.18b) (Figure curve isochronous 20,000-h qaingives equation gi,frsm aeil ienlntemitr otn ftemtra a signi a has material the of content moisture the nylon like materials some for Again, nbt xmlsi a enasmdta h evc eprtr s2°.I hsi o h case, the not is this If 20°C. is temperature service the that assumed been has it examples both In tmyb enfo h re uvs(iue31a htwe h ieis pipe the when that 3.18a) (Figure curves creep the from seen be may It h nyukono h ih ieis side right the on unknown only The utbedsg tesmyb bandfo h re uvsi iue31a yrfrigt the to referring By 3.18a. Figure in curves creep the from obtained be may stress design suitable A 2 h opstress, hoop The t2°.I ssgetdta h evc ieo h iesol e2,0 ihamaximum a with h 20,000 be should pipe the of life service the that suggested is It 20°C. at hnwl lsi ieo imtr10m ssbetdt nitra rsueof pressure internal an to subjected is mm 150 diameter of pipe plastic thin-wall A P sgvnby given is , 2 Nt htasmlrrsl ol aebe bandb ltiga2% a plotting by obtained been have could result similar a that (Note . s d nati-alpp fdiameter of pipe thin-wall a in , , h = s d 3 2 = 8 E = o lsi hsi iedpnet u utbevalue suitable a but dependent, time is this plastic For . Pd 2 d d 56 h 167 3 150 =14 2 = 10(200) : =28 kgf/mm (=92.85 so 7 56 92 PL : =3 5mm h E : h 3 85 d gives : = 8mm 58 3 Pd 2 s 5 d fi in o otpurposes. most for cient 2 n thickness and .Uigti au nteabove the in value this Using ). lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fi s rsuie,the pressurized, rst h ujce oan to subjected , fi ateffect cant Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 8.Bcueo h qiaetefc ftm n eprtr,dt tdfeettmeaue a be can temperatures different at data log temperature, the along and consecutively time and time of speci methacrylate) a effect at poly(methyl taken for equivalent data on temperatures the superposed several of at amorphous taken of Because data values modulus [8]. modulus the shows on effects 3.19 equivalent Figure essentially have polymers. temperature amorphous and time for that fact available the period is the during extrapolations change not such does structure for conditions where method systems experimental testing. polymer empirical practicable of for general, under An in obtained and, scales. systems data time polymer extrapolate short then these must to One scale. time short (e.g., ( amorphous temperature largely transition is glass plastic the a is If it amorphous. then or polystyrene), crystalline methacrylate, is polymethyl it whether particularly, and, material predicted. be then could temperatures and is used commonly most expressions stress, Testing and Properties Plastics edtrie o s ndsg.O h te ad ti oeie dif sometimes is it hand, can other longer modulus the the to of On temperature limit lower design. higher a in that at so use studies temperature for desired time the determined shorter at be scale from time data of decades extrapolate several to over times needed know, thus load. We is under modulus. method time elastic A the increasing is with work decreases time design modulus of in period the long use polymers a to over for parameter material that a common however, of A use example. the for for design years, to many necessary often is it practice, engineering In Time 3.2.14 ihi hpe 1. Chapter in with ietemxmmsrietmeaue ic above since temperature, service maximum the mine where hc a eue r omlylmtdb h rtlns nrdcdit h aeil h eairof behavior The material. respective the their into to related introduced is brittleness temperature the room by at limited temperatures materials normally service plastics are lowest The used temperature. be service can maximum which the limit will which temperature melting yee,teaoposrgosaesal so small, are regions amorphous the pylene), 1.19). Figure enmd yZukvadBeh,woue neuto ftefr [7] form the of equation an used who Bueche, and Zhurkov by made been temperature. where nryo h rcueprocess, fracture the of energy oa a osat and constant, gas molar h frsi xrpltosmk s fatm-eprtr uepsto rnil hc sbsdon based is which principle superposition time-temperature a of use make extrapolations aforesaid The each of structure the on depend materials plastic different on rises temperature of effects relative The cuuaino ogtr aafrdsg ihpatc a evr novnetadexpensive. and inconvenient very be can plastics with design for data long-term of Accumulation nteohrhn,i lsiswihhv ihdge fcytliiy(.. oytyee polypro- polyethylene, (e.g., crystallinity of degree high a have which plastics in hand, other the On h otscesu tepst nld h fet ftmeauei eaieysml xrsinhave expression simple relatively a in temperature of effects the include to attempts successful most The eiso re utr et nagvnmtra ta at material given a on tests rupture creep of series A g o h aeilt edtrie rmti xrsin h ie ofiuea te tessand stresses other at failure to times The expression. this from determined be to material the for A s t 0 gis h oaih ftm ofiue(re rupture), (creep failure to time of logarithm the against , and sacntn hc a prxmtl h aevlefrms plastics, most for value same the approximately has which constant a is B r osat.I elt,hwvr hydpn nfcossc smtra tutr n on and structure material as such factors on depend they however, reality, In constants. are – eprtr Superposition Temperature T steaslt temperature. absolute the is g sacoef a is fi drfrnetmeauemrl ysitn niiulcre n ta at one curves individual shifting by merely temperature reference ed t xsaotterfrnetemperature. reference the about axis fi in hc eed ntesrcueo h material, the of structure the on depends which cient t = t t T 0 exp = g sol fscnayiprac.Frte ti the is it them For importance. secondary of only is A e T − U B RT g s fi 0 − h aeilpse noterbeyrgo (see region rubbery the into passes material the gs e eprtr ol emttevle for values the permit would temperature xed t T sapoiaeylna,oeo the of one linear, approximately is , g aus hsapc a endealt been has aspect This values. fi utt bandt vravery a over data obtain to cult T U g hc ildeter- will which ) 0 steactivation the is R (3.73) (3.72) sthe is 331 U — 0 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ehcyae of methacrylate) 3.19 FIGURE 332 eerdt eprtr f115°C. of temperature to referred 3.20 FIGURE nti a,a hw nFgr .0(iharfrnetmeaue15C,i nw stemse curve. master the as known is 115°C), temperature reference a (with 3.20 Figure in shown as way, log this of decades in many over extending values modulus of ettmeaueo iceatcpoete stesm sta fmliligo iiigtetm cl ya by scale time the dividing or multiplying of ( that as quantity same the constant is properties viscoelastic on temperature test o esl tesrlxto xeiet( experiment relaxation stress tensile a for banddrcl rmteeprmna uv ymauigteaon fsitaogtelog the along shift of amount the measuring by curve experimental the from directly obtained h ietmeauesproiincnb xrse ahmtclyas mathematically expressed be can superposition time-temperature The hstime This – eprtr uepsto rcdr a h feto rdcn igecniuu curve continuous single a producing of effect the has procedure superposition temperature ouu-iemse uv ae ntime on based curve master Modulus-time oaih ftnierlxto ouu esslgrtmo iefrufatoae poly(methyl unfractionated for time of logarithm versus modulus relaxation tensile of Logarithm M v

2 =3 Log E(t) (dynes/cm ) a 10 T : 7 8 9 tec eprtr.Tequantity The temperature. each at ) 6 1 5+5 –5 –10 10 6 AtrMLuhi,J .adTblk,A .1952. V. A. Tobolsky, and R. J. McLoughlin, (After . Log E(t), (dynes/cm2) 10 .0 .01011 0.1 0.0001 0.001 8 9 7 135°C E T 115°C ( Master curve 2 T > 1 , t Log T )= 1 .Tepoeueasrsta h feto hnigthe changing of effect the that asserts procedure The ). t Time (hr) E (hat115°C) 110°C – ( T eprtr uepsto fdt nFgr .9 Times 3.19. Figure in data of superposition temperature t 135° tterfrnetmeaue uv constructed curve A temperature. reference the at 2 , t 110° 10 = 115° a Stress relaxationStress 100°C a T T (3.74) ) of PMMA 0 1000 100 scle the called is 0 80°C 40°C 100° lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 40° hf factor shift .ClodSci. Colloid J. n tms be must it and , ,555.) 7, , t scale Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ihtesrs taytm.Smlry rjcinO fvector of OI projection Similarly, time. any at stress the with odly Tesm od rei h tani h nu n h testeotu. tsuf At output.) sinu- the vary stress also the will and input strain the resulting is the strain sinusoidally the applied if is true stress holds the same (The if soidally. Then, enough. small is strain edn h tanvco by vector strain the leading p to tan as by stress the behind lags which other phase. the of and out be stress will strain the case general the in However, phase. in stress the follow will strain the quencies, yai ehncleprmns hsofrapwru ehiu osuymlclrsrcueand structure molecular study as to to technique 10 referred e.g., powerful (also a signi offer experiments A thus Oscillatory morphology. experiments. experiments) step-function mechanical in dynamic viscous the than methods constitution these parameters. polymer by damping measure characteristic of to of possible behavior terms is in viscoelastic it material the modulus, the studying the experimental of elastic for to behavior to by experiments applied addition is of limited In strain class solids. are or important polymeric stress which an oscillating long constitute an measurements very which These over relaxation in specimen. information performed stress therefore requires are and material experiments a creep limitations, of supplement properties To viscoelastic the times. of description complete A Properties Mechanical Dynamic 3.2.15 parameter The curve. the match to necessary Testing and Properties Plastics qain37 skona h L qain(e qain32)atrteiiil ftersaceswho researchers the of initials the between after holds 3.27) given Equation expression (see The equation [9]. WLF it the proposed as known is 3.75 Equation noacmoeti hs ihtesri n n hc ed h tanby strain the leads which one and strain the with phase in component a into ieto as direction ucino h eprtr ln,dcesn ihicesn temperature. increasing with decreasing alone, temperature the of function atrcrecntuto.Frms mrhu oyes h hf atra n te temperature other any at by factor shift well the fairly polymers, given amorphous then most For construction. curve master sal euetebhvo aki h ieto fEuto 3.75. Equation of direction modi the Whatever in materials. back behavior amorphous the partially reduce and usually amorphous in properties on one constants again, the but used, re-evaluated. be be can 3.75 must Equation side as hand form same right the the with equation an chosen is temperature yueo oaigvco cee ssoni iue3.21. Figure in shown as scheme, vector rotating a of use by eetdb h rjcinO fvector of OD projection the by resented eghof length Vector axis. vertical 2rd(n ure yl)oto hs ihtestress. the with phase of out cycle) quarter (one rad /2 OA nadnmceprmn,tesrs ilb ietypootoa otesri ftemgiueo the of magnitude the if strain the to proportional directly be will stress the experiment, dynamic a In h tescnb iial eovdit w opnnswt n ln h ieto of direction the along one with components two into resolved similarly be can stress The vector strain The components two into factored be can strain the instance, last the In apn sa niern aeilpoet n h bevdrsos smc oesniiet the to sensitive more much is response observed the and property material engineering an is Damping ti omnpatc o ouetegastasto eprtr ( temperature transition glass the use to now practice common is It h signi The h antd ftesrs taytm srpeetdb h rjcinO ftevector the of OC projection the by represented is time any at stress the of magnitude The hntepoeto Hof OH projection the Then . d − 5 . – OA 10 fi OA d nteltrtr ehd fsproigtm n eprtr o ehncladother and mechanical for temperature and time superposing of methods literature the in nds fi 8 ac fteWFgnrlzto Euto .5 antb vrepaie.Aanand Again over-emphasized. be cannot 3.75) (Equation generalization WLF the of cance cycles/sec. stesrs mltd mxmmsrs)ivle nteeprmn.Tesri srep- is strain The experiment. the in involved stress) (maximum amplitude stress the is ihfrequency with OB fi OA atfauei h rat ftetm-cl pcrmaalbewt hs methods, these with available spectrum time-scale the of breadth the is feature cant a ersle novector into resolved be can oae ihafrequency a with rotates p 2rd h ai ftei-hs test h tanapiue(maximum amplitude strain the to stress in-phase the of ratio The rad. /2 w log u tlags it but OE 10 a ntevria xsi h antd ftesri hc si phase in is which strain the of magnitude the is axis vertical the on T OB log = OA ntevria xs h tanvector strain The axis. vertical the on a T t t ya angle an by ( ( scoe suiya h eeec eprtr n sa is and temperature reference the at unity as chosen is T T w g ) ) OE p T qa ota ftesnsial ayn tes The stress. varying sinusoidally the of that to equal = 2rd lentvl,tesrs a edecomposed be can stress the Alternatively, rad. /2 g − 51 and ln h ieto of direction the along 17 : 6+( : d 44( T h ostnet(icse ae)i de is later) (discussed tangent loss The . g OF 0°.Hwvr fadfeetreference different a if However, 100°C. + T T − − stemgiueo h tanwihis which strain the of magnitude the is T T g g T — ) ) g sterfrnetmeauefor temperature reference the as ) n fwihi npaewt the with phase in is which of one p 2rd hsi accomplished is This rad. /2 OA fi ain r introduced are cations OB and oae ntesame the in rotates OF fi inl o fre- low ciently perpendicular OB OA n one and nthe on (3.75) fi 333 T ned is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 J fl ha eomto a esmaie yayoeo h olwn ar fparameters: of pairs following the of one any by summarized be can deformation shear J n opeerlaeo nryi h iuodldfrainpoes h osparameters loss The process. deformation sinusoidal the in energy of release complete and otesrs mltd stels compliance loss the is amplitude stress the compliance storage to the is stress) (maximum amplitude stress h oeue oati oprtv anr oercvr fsaecrepnigt h recoiling the to corresponding shape of recovery some manner, cooperative cause a entanglements molecular in Since act forms. coiled-up to con random molecules to coiled-up revert the to random tend molecules equilibrium, these their stresses, from deformed are hsi nyt eepce hnoei rigt eomvrosyetnldln-hi oeue iha with molecules long-chain elastic. entangled and variously viscous deform to both weights. trying are is molecular one that of when characteristics distribution expected involving be to complex, only more is is This materials equally such materials. also of of is response It properties structure. viscous and measuring weight, of molecular means shear, reliable of have rate to pressure, important temperature, as factors such the involve of all calendering and extrusion, injection, fl as such undergo processes fabrication to Important manufacture. required are resins) thermosetting h ai fteoto-hs test h tani h osmodulus loss the is strain the to stress out-of-phase the of ratio The 334 hooyi h cec fdfrainand deformation of science the is Rheology Behavior Rheological 3.2.16 labeled is quantity this experiment deformation shear a In modulus. storage the called is strain) 3.21 FIGURE ′ ″ wi h aeil taspeci a At material. the in ow wo otnplmr.I lsisfbiain ti motn oudrtn h fet nml viscosity, melt on effect, the understand to important is it fabrication, plastics In polymers. molten of ow ( w w ti vdn rmteaoedsrpinthat description above the from evident is It f nteohrhn,tesri etri eovdit t opnns h ai ftei-hs tanto strain in-phase the of ratio the components, its into resolved is vector strain the hand, other the on If, During The ,o h te ad re hand, other the on ), and ) fl wbhvo fplmrcmlscno ecniee ob ueyvsosi hrce.The character. in viscous purely be to considered be cannot melts polymeric of behavior ow J fl ″ w oye oeue o nysieps ahohr u lotn ouncoil to tend also but other, each past slide only not molecules polymer ow, ( w ,o bouemdls| modulus absolute or ), eopsto fsri etrit w opnnsi yai experiment. dynamic a in components two into vector strain of Decomposition

ω fl c h orcvrbeueo ple ehncleeg ocueviscous cause to energy mechanical applied of use nonrecoverable the ect O D H C fi I dfeunyadtmeaue h yai epneo oye in polymer a of response dynamic the temperature, and frequency ed G F n tan and | fl wo atr setal,altempatcrsn admany (and resins thermoplastic all Essentially, matter. of ow J ″ G fl ( δ w wi h otnsaedrn h oreo product of course the during state molten the in ow ′ d ( ). w . and ) J ′ ( J w ′ ( w r soitdwt h eidcstorage periodic the with associated are ) fi uain nrlaeo h deforming the of release On guration. n h ai fteoto-hs strain out-of-phase the of ratio the and ) E G lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics B ″ ( w A ). G — ′ ( ra es they least at or w and ) G ″ ( w G G and ) ″ ′ ( ( w w ), ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h otgnrlrelgcleuto is equation rheological general most The Newton viscosity. apparent the as known also is 3.78 Newton from iud hc eaei hsmne r aldNewtonian called are manner this in behave which liquids between relationship where write may one that such rate shear the to proportional directly eaircnb classi be can behavior fi area large very viscous to addition in elasticity shows melt the that elastic say we terms, phenomenological In occurs. Testing and Properties Plastics w aallpae,oesainr n h te moving. other the and stationary one plates, parallel two 3.22 FIGURE asstepaet oea nfr velocity uniform a at move to plate the causes eoiydsrbto setbihda niae ytearw ntedarm h eoiygradient velocity The diagram. the in arrows the the as d laminar by in is velocity state indicated plates same steady two the as at the at and established between moves velocities, plate is intermediate top at distribution the move velocity to liquid adjacent of layer layers the Intermediate plate. while stationary is plate stationary lhuhoecnmauedfraini oi,oecno omlyd hsi iudsneit since and versa, liquid vice or a stress, can in shear one applied this But an applied. by do is caused normally rate) stress shear shear cannot (the a one rate when deformation deformation solid, the of determine a amount increasing in continuously deformation a undergoes measure can one Although section. this Classi in later 3.2.16.1 considered be will which fracture, melt and hr h aibe are variables the where e n ha force shear a and xed r npatc,teNwoinbhvo scon is behavior Newtonian the practice, In ftelqi sieladi smitie tacntn eprtr,tesersrs slnal and linearly is stress shear the temperature, constant a at maintained is it and ideal is liquid the If ebgnb aigarfrnet iue32,wihshmtclyilsrtstoprle ltsof plates parallel two illustrates schematically which 3.22, Figure to reference a making by begin We tmyb sue httelqi estepae n httemlclrlyro iudajcn othe to adjacent liquid of layer molecular the that and plates the wets liquid the that assumed be may It — h ’ hti osy time-dependent say, to is that a nya ha ae ls ozr n oye ouin nya ocnrtoscoet zero. to close concentrations at only solutions polymer and zero to close rates shear at only law s stecoef the is and velocity and velocity plateMoving A ofarea ’ Stationary plate Stationary a r ecie snnNwoin o such For non-Newtonian. as described are law s v A eoiydsrbto falqi between liquid a of distribution Velocity eaae yadistance a by separated fi aino li Behavior Fluid of cation fi d in fvsoiyo ipytevsoiyo nenlfito ftelqi.Telinear The liquid. the of friction internal or viscosity the simply or viscosity of cient v v d t fi r do hsbasis. this on ed g _ and F ha ae(tefafnto fteserstress), shear the of function a (itself rate shear = s sapidt h o lt farea of plate top the to applied is v g /d _ ie yEuto .7o qain37 skona Newton as known is 3.78 Equation or 3.77 Equation by given r .Itisde — fi fet lyams motn ati i wl,etuindefects, extrusion swell, die in part important most a play effects r t e sthe as ned h ihtesaei between in space the with = force ( Shear = h fi f (d ( e olwmlclrwih iud.Plmrmlsobey melts Polymer liquids. weight molecular low to ned g v _ g _ h v F , =d nadrcinprle otedrcino h force. the of direction the to parallel direction a in T = 5 = ) d , t r ha rate shear , v t P )= = = , g d c r hw nFgr .3bsdupon based 3.23 Figure in shown are that assuming constant. remain time, others a the the at of one some variables, clearly here principal consider is shall equation we so an unrealistic, Such history. to processing relate that factors and additives), of presence the and (crystallinity distri- variables compositional weight bution), molecular and weight molecular follow (such as which parameters molecular dots example, for multiple include, the and centration, rsue(tefafnto fvolume), of function a (itself pressure _ , r h …… eea omntpso hooia behavior rheological of types common Several fl g _ iso ideal or uids r(3.77) or A (3.79) ) n scmol ie h symbol the given commonly is and fl rdcn ha tes( stress shear a producing is h icst de viscosity the uids, fi ldwt iud h oe lt is plate lower The liquid. a with lled fl is Other uids. T temperature, = fl iswihdeviate which uids fi e yEquation by ned t t t = vs. time, = ’ F a and law s fl c s g _ / w The ow. A con- = curves. fl (3.78) (3.76) that ) g _ wa ow fl 335 P i.e., uid = Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 two 3.23 FIGURE 336 IUE3.24 FIGURE dilatant. a in proportionately than more and shear-thickening increasing as pseudoplastic with dilatants increases and a shear-thinning stress as shear in described the thus proportionately say, are to Pseudoplastics than is that less rate; shear rate increasing shear with increases it latter the in rate. shear of independent and constant is viscosity the These (d g npedpatcaddltn iud h icst sn ogrcntn.I h omri erae and decreases it former the In constant. longer no is viscosity the liquids dilatant and pseudoplastic In /d fl t o ifrn ye of types different for )

Log τ the Equation an by described be can phenotypes ow fl wpeoye r ae etna,pedpatc iaat n iga.I etna liquids, Newtonian In Bingham. and dilatant, pseudoplastic, Newtonian, named are phenotypes ow n > 1 lwcre ( curves Flow oe-a ltsoiglog showing plot Power-law Dilatant Log (dγ/d n (a) (c) Non-power-law = 1 n

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Shear stress a (b) (a) a Generalized (a) – tancrefratpcltuhsldi eso fe ovrino h conventional the of conversion after tension in solid tough typical a for curve strain Initial Newtonian region Initial Newtonian Pseudoplastic region Pseudoplastic fl wcre h generalized The curve. ow Shear rateShear Dilatant Second Newtonian region Newtonian Second region fl wcre b yia ul eeoe stress developed fully Typical (b) curve. ow fl wpeoye ompr fagnrlrsos atr hc a be may which pattern response general a of part form phenotypes ow Turbulence/melt fi ietrsodserrt eodwihdvainfo linearity from deviation which beyond rate shear threshold nite fracture fracture t exceeds t y fl h aeilsdel eae iealqi iha with liquid a like behaves suddenly material the wcrei hw nFgr .5aogieafully a alongside 3.25 Figure in shown is curve ow Tensile stress Initial Hookean region Hookean Initial t Strain softening region Strain softening = g _ – Strain-hardening tancrea on ntuhplastics tough in found as curve strain uv Fgr .3 scntn and constant is 3.23) (Figure curve Strain region Second Hookean Second “ region iiigviscosity, limiting Rupture fi s n second and rst ” 337 the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eprtr n uv sfrtelws eprtr.Fratpclplmr h eprtr ifrnebteneach between difference temperature the polymer, typical a 10°C. For approximately temperature. is lowest the curve for is 5 curve and temperature 3.26 FIGURE iue32.Teplmrml a etna icst hc shg tvr o ha ae.Viscosity with rates. 3.80) shear (Equation low very log equation a at law on high power plotted is when the which rate in shear viscosity shown with Newtonian are linearly curves a nearly viscosity has decreases vs. melt rate shear polymer Typical The rates. 3.26. shear Figure low at viscosity the than smaller magnitude eoservsoiyi prxmtl rprinlt h egtaeaemlclrwih ( weight molecular the polymers weight-average most the For to rheology. affecting proportional factor approximately important is most viscosity the is in zero-shear polymer of a of advantage weight Viscosity molecular taken The on Weight also Molecular pigments. is of containing Effect rate solutions/suspensions and polymer shear 3.2.16.3 economically are increasing as which level with paints a of viscosity high spraying as in and to brushing reduction rate shear A the the possible. raising raising without by otherwise equipment simply d levels, an detrimental machines processing to in temperature polymers for viscosity optimum and desirable otplmrmlsehbtnnNwoinbhvo ihteaprn icst eraigwith decreasing viscosity apparent the with behavior ( non-Newtonian rate shear exhibit increasing melts polymer be Viscosity may Most on region Rate the Shear linear at of seen plastics. a Effect be among dilatancy can common 3.2.16.2 of portion not linear cases is distinctly some type no Bingham In cases The whole. other end. In a low-shear-rate appears. as curvature curve the before the distinguished of portion small vanishingly 338 generalized heavily and rtclvle( value critical h euto fvsoiywt nraigrt fser[11]i ae datg fi achieving in of advantage taken is [11,12] shear of rate increasing with viscosity of reduction The h iaattp sls omnaogpatc ne riaycniin,bti a efudin found be can it but conditions, ordinary under plastics among common less is type dilatant The fi ldssesadi oePCpse.Tedltn ye(iue32c ersnsteentire the represents 3.23c) (Figure type dilatant The pastes. PVC some in and systems lled fl wcrei hc h nta etna n suolsi ein aedgnrtdt a to degenerated have regions pseudoplastic and Newtonian initial the which in curve ow M yia o viscosity log Typical c n eed on depends and ) ha thinning shear Viscosity, η 10 10 10 10 10 3 4 5 6 –3 1 2 3 4 5 – o ha aecre at curves rate shear log M .Vsoiyo oye thg ha ae a esvrlodr of orders several be may rates shear high at polymer of Viscosity ). h w h = oapwreult . tmlclrwihsabove weights molecular at 3.5 to equal power a to = 10 K K –2 2 1 M M n w 3 w 1i applicable. is <1 : 5 Shear rate,Shear γ for for 10 –1 fi M M edfeettmeaue.Cre1i o h highest the for is 1 Curve temperatures. different ve w w . < – > o cl Fgr .6.I hslna range, linear this In 3.26). (Figure scale log M M c c 10 0 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 0 M M w c eo a below ) : (3.83) (3.82) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h icst fms oyescagswt eprtr.A rhnu qaino h form the of equation Arrhenius An temperature. with changes polymers most of viscosity Viscosity The Polymer on Temperature of Effect poorer possibly 3.2.16.4 and forces bonding with secondary is than weaker branching linear chain in molecular that properties. with results mean given mechanical not branching higher a does fact, is This at In weight. viscosity molecular entanglement desirable. and that necessarily of rate therefore, shear degree given observation, a its at general polymers lower the branched the make and can volume One hydrodynamic weight. its be will lower ihbodmlclrwih itiuinaeese oetueta hs ihnro distribution. narrow with those than extrude polymers Thus to develops. easier viscosity) in are (decrease distribution thinning shear molecular-weight which broad at with rate shear the lower the range, the h eainhpbtenvsoiyadmlclrwih hw yagahcllgrtmcpo in plot logarithmic graphical a ( weight by molecular critical shown the at weight change sharp a molecular by characterized and is 3.27 viscosity Figure between relationship The Testing and Properties Plastics gis log against ( weight molecular on 3.27 FIGURE diinlhnrneto hindrance additional oeua egthg nuht tango ehnclpoete u o ohg httemolten the that high so not a but needs economically. One properties processed processing. be mechanical polymer to good in viscous attain important too is is to polymer control enough weight high molecular weight why molecular clear be should it others 3.27, viscosity of of rate dragging high very involves a with one associated of is weight movement molecular increasing that increase. mutual consequence, prominent point a as this so it; above with is along but molecules liquids, chain low-molecular-weight of in entanglements as independently move usually molecules rmoeplmrt nte.Frms polymers most For another. to polymer one from hi rnhn saohrfco htin that factor another is branching Chain h itiuino oeua egt naplmras in also polymer a in weights molecular of distribution The Figure in weight molecular with logarithmically increasing is viscosity the that fact the Considering h rtclmlclrwih orsodn otetasto ntevsoiybhvo at behavior viscosity the in transition the to corresponding weight molecular critical The Log viscosity poise –2 0 2 4 6 M Slope~1 . 3456 eedneo oye ml)viscosity (melt) polymer of Dependence Slope: 3.4–3.5 Slope: M :atpclpo flgviscosity log of plot typical a ): fl wfo hspitowrsdet hi nageet.Blwti on the point this Below entanglements. chain to due onwards point this from ow Log M c M fl uences h = M A fl e c w h oehgl rnhdagvnplmr the polymer, given a branched highly more The ow. E = sbten500ad15,000. and 5,000 between is RT qain safnto f( of function this a to according is viscosity, equation, Melt useful. more is where n eprtr (where temperature process- ing its at poly(methacrylate) of between difference viscosity the the of cause major a example, ead h L qain(e qain3.27): Equation (see equation this WLF the In regard, polymers. between difference the explain of fi range large give reasonably materials over temperature. a most as line for rate straight data shear or The stress parameter. shear tem- absolute using of perature, reciprocal the of against logarithm the viscosity plotting by equa- evaluated be Arrhenius can tion the in Constants and viscosity temperature. relate to used been often has energy, xeietldt ut eli osntigto nothing does it well quite data experimental t hltteAreiseuto a emd to made be can equation Arrhenius the Whilst fl ecsisrelg.I eea,tebroader the general, In rheology. its uences A log sacntn and constant a is ! h h T T g = M − 51 c T .Tevleof value The ). 17 : − 6+( : 44( T T E g T T 0°)adthe and 100°C) = − steactivation the is − − T T T g M .Tu,for Thus, ). g g ) ) c M onsto points c (3.84) varies 339 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 icst fplehln tispoesn eprtr (where temperature processing its at polyethylene of viscosity 340 eprtr as nices nvsoiysneti assadces nfe oue ti commonly is It volume. constant free at in rises decrease pressure a causes viscosity, this in since decrease viscosity that a in found cause increase pressure an cause constant temperature at rises temperature While Viscosity on Pressure of Effect 3.2.16.5 inhp h L qainas xliswyvsoiyi oetmeauesniiewt materials with sensitive temperature more is viscosity why their explains to closer also processed equation WLF The tionship. xrso.Hro n esebr 1]osre h xsec fa of existence the observed [13] Weissenberg and Herzog ori extrusion. high-molecular-weight an through in stress found shear generally high is aftereffect elastic An Effects Weissenberg pressure. 3.2.16.6 to sensitive most the are range processing 30 temperature. range in equivalent, decrease as pressure a in to increase viscosity, an normal consider on the to effect within possible that its is found it in fact polymer in a is for It range constant. temperature remains processing also viscosity the then increased is temperature xiie ya butcag ntesaeo h otnetuaeaefudt cu.Teirregularities The occur. to found are extrudate molten the of shape the in change stress, abrupt shear an critical by the exhibited as considered stress shear temper- certain a melt Fracture Above of Melt lowering or by Flow and Irregular polymer. interior the 3.2.16.7 by the of minimized towards weight largely end molecular be aperture narrow smaller or may a the rates, swelling using with the extrusion partly design extrusion, atures, by done The die is down. conical size draw a of increased control having an The size. having nip partly or by die and the than larger is out coming arises prior die. to swell, the consequent enters die recovery elastic liquid as possible or known a melt and commonly effects the stress more before normal compression 3.29), of combination (Figure a swelling to due extrusion probably The rotating polymers. the molten up climbs of liquid the signi rotation, a On to cylinder. cylinder inner or the rod rotating inner by demonstrated easily most ast ha nacailclne ytmb oaigoewiekeigteother the liquid. keeping while the one by rotating cone by system the cylinder on coaxial exerted a in pressure in transducers shear the to pressure measuring mass by placing and by plane. face cone, shear cone the the the to into at normal channels liquid liquid, drilling the the on with without 3.28a). acts contact (Figure measured, which channels be exists these force can into a force climb that This will indicate Liquid 3.28a plate. Figure and in arrows cone The between placed liquid viscous a shear with the to perpendicular force tensile as manifested is generated force plane. additional The applied. force the etdt ha tes nteplmrcml ytm,teetnldplmrcan e deformed get chains polymer entangled the systems, melt polymeric the In during stress. elastically shear to jected o otplmr nices npesr f10ami qiaett rpo eprtr nthe in temperature of drop a to equivalent is atm 100 of pressure in increase as an polymers pressure most increasing For by constant made are volume free hence and volume the if words, other In rcia seto h esebr feto i wl sta,o xrso rclnaig h melt the calendaring, or extrusion on that, is swell die or effect Weissenberg the of aspect practical A pro extruded of diameter in increase the in manifested clearly is effect Weissenberg The h fet nw steWisnegefc,i oeesl eosrtdb ujcigavsosliquid viscous a subjecting by demonstrated easily more is effect, Weissenberg the as known effect, rotated The is plate a to normal axis its with and channels vertical with cone a when visualized is This – 0C ti lofudta hs oyesms estv otmeauecagsi hi normal their in changes temperature to sensitive most polymers those that found also is It 50°C. fl wadadfeetkn ffrei eeae ihnthe within generated is force of kind different a and ow T g o xml,pl(ehlmtarlt) oprdwt yo 6. nylon with compared methacrylate), poly(methyl example, for , fi fi atheight. cant eo i,adti sse ohpe ihnafato fascn after second a of fraction a within happen to seen is this and die, or ce ∂ ∂ T h v (3.85) 0 = T − fl wisaiiiso ayplmrmelts polymer many of instabilities ow T fl g i aeil fe xrso under extrusion after materials uid 0°)i xlcbeb hsrela- this by explicable is 200°C) = lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics “ normal fl wn eti diinto addition in melt owing ” fi oc nplmr sub- polymers in force e Fgr .8) tis It 3.28b). (Figure xed fi e favariety a of les Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 utb nw.Toknso ntuet aigsml emtyadwd s oainlviscometer rotational a use wide and rheometer. geometry extrusion simple or having capillary instruments of and kinds Two known. be must hnesdildit oead()i oxa cylinder. coaxial a in (b) and cone a into drilled channels 3.28 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics etlya ucino ha ae[6.Isrmnsfrmkn uhmaueet utnecessarily must measurements experi- such melts making and for solutions the Instruments polymer (1) [16]. of things: is rate viscosity behavior two shear the molding accomplish of or obtain function extrusion to a predicting used as in are mentally engineer methods process Several a viscosity. to melt factor important most the Perhaps Viscosity of Measurement 3.2.17 the to leading [14]. polymer the in 3.29 FIGURE testa h orsodn rnhdplmr(o-est)plehln)o oprbemolecular comparable of shear polyethylene) critical (low-density) higher polymer a by branched weight. characterized corresponding is the polyethylene great high-density than so solid. as stress is a such enhancement polymer like stress linear much The A fractures stress. branching. melt shear polymer greatest the of that zone time the relaxation is the this to since compared die the to of entrance origin the The times. show relaxation that long Polymers comparatively die. the into entry its before fl bv h rtclsersrs,temtra ertewl eae eymc atrta h oematerial core the than faster much very relaxes wall the near material the stress, shear critical the Above etfatr eed ndegoer,mlclrwih,mlclrwih itiuin n chain and distribution, molecular-weight weight, molecular geometry, die on depends fracture Melt wmyb u oRyod ublneo tutrltruec n hromcaia radw of breakdown thermo-mechanical and turbulence structural or turbulence Reynolds to due be may ow fl ceai ersnaino polymer of representation Schematic xeiet eosrtn h omlfre(esebr)efc.Lqi lm nrtto a in (a) rotation on climb Liquid effect. (Weissenberg) force normal the demonstrating Experiments wirglrte,wih codn oTrel 1] scue yafatr ftemelt the of fracture a by caused is [15], Tordella to according which, irregularities, ow Pressure sheared being Liquid Plate a (b) (a) fl i utb hae tmaual ae,ad()tesrs developed stress the (2) and rates, measurable at sheared be must uid Molten polymer fl fl wirglrte tlwotu ae r hs hthave that those are rates output low at irregularities ow wtruhadeori die a through ow fl wirglrte n h ieo etfatr snear is fracture melt of site the and irregularities ow fi ce. swell Die Die 341 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 osatsedmtrcmga seby(iue33) h pe rrtto smaue cuaeyby a accurately of measured means is by rotation speeds transducer. or different a speed at The of rotated 3.31). means be (Figure can assembly that motor-cum-gear plate speed a constant of consists It Rheogoniometer. Weissenberg nl ndgeso ain.Vsoiyi then is Viscosity radians. or degrees in angle where narttoa icmtr(sn yidr,cns pee,addss the discs) and spheres, cones, cylinders, the (using in temperature viscometer rotational a In Viscometers Rotational 3.2.17.1 342 IUE3.30 FIGURE constant a at rotated is which cone, the the 3.30b), and (Figure plate viscometer rotational bottom cone-and-plate the a between ( In velocity contained spring. the is torsion and stationary polymer a is through cup molten the a device, measure this driven 3.30a) In (Figure is Haake-Rotovisco. rotation cylinders the bob of coaxial is speed using Typical the viscometers liquids. and In Rotational viscosity stress versa. shear. low shearing vice of relatively the or rate of stationary the measure kept of a is measure is device a rotation or gives the cylinder for outer required the torque while the device case like either the or cylinder inner the of otdvrial yafitols i ern n satce oa to attached is and bearing air frictionless a by vertically ported hc smaue ymaso rndcr h oye apei lcdi h pc ewe h cone the between space the in de placed equilibrium is sample an polymer to The transducer. leads a cone of means the by by measured is experienced which torque Any spring. torsional aisi etmtr rmtr.Serrt ( rate Shear meters. or centimeters in radius where hr ( where oei lcdcnetial bv h lt,tecn nl en rud1 around being the angle cone is the viscometer plate, the plate above concentrically and placed cone is cone the A and rotates plate the if obtained is result analogous An W F K steaglrvlct ndgesprscn CS ri ain e eod(I and (SI) second per radians in or (CGS) second per degrees in velocity angular the is W stetru ndnsprcniee CS ri etn e ee S) and (SI), meter per Newtons in or (CGS) centimeter per dynes in torque the is =3 .Sersrs ( stress Shear ). a (b) (a) a a oxa yidrvsoee.()Cn n lt rheometer. plate and Cone (b) viscometer. cylinder Coaxial (a) = h 2 p R fl c 3 i sserda ie eprtr nteanlro nlsdsaedet rotation to due space enclosed or annular the in temperature given a at sheared is uid sacntn de constant a is ) t )isde R R 1 2 fi e as ned fi e yvsoee design. viscometer by ned h = t g _ α = sgvnby given is ) g _ t = g _ = 2 = 2 3 p 3 p W aF a R F R c 3 c 3 W = k W R F c fi lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics mspottruhacalibrated a through support rm Ω fl i sserda given a at sheared is uid fl Cone – cino hsspring this of ection ° h oei sup- is cone The 5°. Polymer R c a stecone the is stecone the is (3.87) (3.86) (3.88) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h resersrs ttecplaywl,priual ftertoo ailr eght ais( radius to length capillary of ratio the if calculating particularly when account wall, into capillary taken the be at should stress capillary shear the true of the exit and entrance the at deformations elastic rvn ttcpesr ntersrori ae obe to taken is reservoir the in pressure static driving h ple oc edn omv h ouni h ieto of direction the in column the move to tending force applied the osi ttewl) h icu oc eitn h oino ounof column a of motion the resisting force viscous the wall), the at slip no al hsmxmmvlei h n eeal sdfrtesersrs ncapillary in stress shear the for used generally one the is value maximum This wall. stress shear needn aibewt h te en h esrddpnetvariable. dependent measured the being other volumetric the or with pressure variable extrusion independent the Either methods. control perature where eoiyo h lt;and plate; the of velocity eoiyo h lt,teepeso o h icst ( viscosity the for expression the plate, the of velocity of speeds rotational different for measured is cone stationary the plate. by the experienced torque the and plate and 3.31 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics hs hoeesaewdl sdt td h hooia eairo otnplmr.A hw in shown As polymers. The molten means. of pneumatic behavior or rheological mechanical the study the to 3.32 used Figure widely are rheometers These shear. of Rheometers normal plane Capillary the the measure to 3.2.17.2 to perpendicular up set those also i.e., is viscoelastics, unit by The exhibited materials. viscoelastic stresses of properties dynamic the determine where quantities, (10 nnra ailr hoer o oye et,the melts, polymer for rheometry capillary normal In ne steady Under eaigtesersrs ttecn ufc otemaue oqeadteserrt oteangular the to rate shear the and torque measured the to surface cone the at stress shear the Relating h oeadpaevsoee ie eibeeprmna aaoe netnierneo ha rates shear of range extensive an over data experimental reliable gives viscometer plate and cone The – 4 – 10 R K and stetrinlcntn and constant torsional the is 4 sec Constant K t motor speed L steeoezr ttecne ftecplayadicesst aiu au ttecapillary the at value maximum a to increases and capillary the of center the at zero therefore is − and 1 r h aisadlnt fteclm and column the of length and radius the are ceeo esebr Rheogoniometer. Weissenberg a of Scheme .Ntol a tb sdt esr icste nsml ha,bti a lob sdto used be also can it but shear, simple in viscosities measure to used be it can only Not ). fl fl i sfre rmarsrorit n hog a through and into reservoir a from forced is uid wadiohra odtosfra incompressible an for conditions isothermal and ow a r bandb airto nohrmaterials. other on calibration by obtained are assembly Gear a Torsional steageo h oe While cone. the of angle the is spring q Bearing stede the is fl i smitie tiohra odtosb lcrcltem- electrical by conditions isothermal at maintained is uid h bearing Air fl = t cino h spring; the of ection 3 = K 2 R p Transducer Transducer q 2 D D R sin h L P P p 3 sotie as obtained is ) fl nsc ae,edefcsivligvsosand viscous involving effects end cases, such In . w wn temeisit h topee n the and atmosphere, the into exits stream owing a D P stepesr rpars h ailr.The capillary. the across drop pressure the is q and fl fi w Thus, ow. Amplifiers ebr ue rcplay yeither by capillary, or tube, ne-bore R fl w p fl i asmn nyaxial only (assuming uid sterdu and radius the is wrt a ecnrle sthe as controlled be can rate ow r xeietlydetermined experimentally are fl i ntecplayi qa to equal is capillary the in uid Recorders fl ow. w steangular the is L / R ssmall. is ) fl wand ow (3.90) (3.89) 343 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 Newtonian eoiydsrbto rmwl owl natb sprblc oprblcvlct pro velocity nonparabolic parabolic, is tube a in wall to wall from distribution velocity IUE3.32 FIGURE 344 a hsb bevdi h n aeil eedn ntesrieconditions. failures of service types the Both on depending temperature. material, the it one and the system, when in stress energy observed the be rate, more thus straining absorbs may the thus are which material of fashion. A important brittle warning. a in valuable than a fashion rupture before ductile as occur a serve deformations in nonrecoverable and fractures large place hand, other takes the on actually failure, fracture. ductile a precedes In that material. deformation of type the a to in refer a is terms of plastic These application the fracture. if continuous accelerated the be and will (impact), failure of time process of the period cases environment. short all rupture), aggressive In (creep very stress (fatigue). a steady stress a in varying of stress cyclically action prolonged a the of are part application plastic the a of fracture of causes principal The Fractures Plastics 3.2.18 aino h i wl,ml ntblt,adetuaedefects. extrudate and instability, melt swell, die the on mation ee netuinadijcinmdln;()acplayremtrtpclycvr h ietserrate shear widest the covers typically rheometer capillary a (10 (2) ranges modeling; injection and extrusion in tered where 1 ha aeand rate shear (1) term correction the wall; tube subscript the where orcint h ha aei eesttdb h atta niei stemlNewtonian isothermal in unlike that fact the by necessitated is rate shear the to Correction nplmrcmtrasfatr a edcieo rtl,dpnigo eea aibe,temost the variables, several on depending brittle, or ductile be may fracture materials polymeric In ductile the and of deformation fracture observable no brittle occurs there recognized; because dangerous are more potentially stresses and fractures mechanical Brittle under fracture of types basic Two hr r he anraoswytecplayremtri ieyue ntepatc industry: plastics the in used widely is rheometer capillary the why reasons main three are There t c stecretdvleand value corrected the is Δ − fl 6 P w h aioishcreto 1]i ple oserrt oeiiaeti ro sfollows: as error this eliminate to rate shear to applied is [18] correction Rabinowitsch The ow. sec ailr hoee (schematic). rheometer Capillary − 1 fl o10 to L c wgoer ncplayremtraevr iia ocniin culyencoun- actually conditions to similar very are rheometer capillary in geometry ow tnsfrcretdvleadsubscript and value corrected for stands 6 sec P − n 1 ;ad()acplayremtrpoie odpatcldt n infor- and data practical good provides rheometer capillary a (3) and ); sgvnby given is 2 R e stelnt orcinepesda ucino radius. of function a as expressed correction length the is d g log _ c = t etdvleo ha tesi eemndb h Bagley the by cor- determined [17] The is correction values. stress true shear obtain of value to rected order applied in be apparent must values Corrections and these wall. to stress tube the shear at rate apparent These shear called temperatures. certain are shear at values of rate plots shear as versus presented stress often are rheometers illary ae( rate xrse as expressed ayudrapesr drop pressure a under lary where a 3 = n h esrdvle fpolymer of values measured The o a For 4 d n +1 g _ g _ a ttewl sgvnby given is wall the at ) Q n s1frNewtonian for 1 is and g _ fl a stevolumetric the is i hwn etna eairteshear the behavior Newtonian showing uid a tnsfraprn au fserrt at rate shear of value apparent for stands h = lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics t g _ c t =4 = = g _ 2( Q fl = R L wrt hog h capil- the through rate ow = D p p + P 8 fl R R LQ e D ow. 4 3 ) D P P etvsoiyis viscosity Melt . fi fl edvlp nnon- in develops le wtknb cap- by taken ow fl wweethe where ow (3.92) (3.93) (3.91) (3.94) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 smr ersnaieo h uko h eut fteei iesatrwt e eyhg rvr low very or high very few a with scatter wide a as is expressed there normally if median are results the strengths the because strength, of Impact average bulk results. the the than of rather strength representative The median more 3.33c). the is quote (Figure to end is its cases such at in loaded practice recorded. is is and specimen cantilever the a as breaking supported in is absorbed it standard energy test a standard Izod has the specimen In 3.33b). The (Figure c. and 3.33b Figure side. in tension illustrated the are on procedures notch test The 3.33a). (Figure on ob 1 railt fsrs,()hg tanrts n 3 o eprtrs etmethods failures. Test brittle notch the temperatures. promote (at to a low stress as with of so (3) bar triaxiality rate to notched and material strain a the high rates, striking subjecting been a of involve strain have and way thus materials tip) convenient high materials most in the (2) of failure is behavior brittle stress, This impact pendulum. of of the causes determining triaxiality main for The (1) developed tests. be impact to of use found make brittleness of Tests Plastics of Behavior Impact 3.2.19 Testing and Properties Plastics matseie.()Mutn fIo matspecimen. impact Izod of Mounting (c) specimen. impact 3.33 FIGURE scnitn feeg eesr o rc ntainadfrcakpropagation. crack specimen for the and break initiation to using absorbed crack by energy impact for obtained total necessary of that the from energy considering variation different by of order that explained typical consisting an be evident in The as may is materials fact radius. It plastic This rank 3.34. 2-mm notch. even Figure blunt may a in a notch presented as sharp is a notch of thermoplastics use blunt several the for a variation radius, notch-tip 0.25-mm with strength a as taken J/m. usually or cm-kgf/cm ft-lbf/in, of units in quoted be may (ft-lbf/in h eut fipc et r fe ctee,ee ihtems aeu etpoeue normal A procedure. test midpoint careful the most the at with loaded even scattered, is often and are beam tests impact simple of a results The as supported is specimen the test Charpy the In h tnadts ehd r the are methods test standard The h hieo oc et n i aiswl fetteipc teghosre.Asapnthis notch sharp A observed. strength impact the affect will radius tip and depth notch of choice The 2 cm-kgf/cm , (a) matts.()Shmtcdarmo hryipc etn ahn.()Arneeto Charpy of Arrangement (b) machine. testing impact Charpy of diagram Schematic (a) test. Impact Pointer 2 Specimen rJ/m or , 2 .Ocsoal,tels aifcoytr feeg obekprui width unit per break to energy of term satisfactory less the Occasionally, ). mat= Impact Scale Charpy Pendulum nryaoobdt break to abosorbed Energy 0.25–3 mm raa oc section notch at Area 0.25–2 mm and Radius 45° Izod et,wihepo h edlmprinciple pendulum the employ which tests, > d /4 d = 5–13mm Impact Impact (c) (b) 345 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 aeil hstasto smc oegaul oi sntpsil oct igevlefrtransition for value single plastic a temperature, brittleness cite other a to In cases possible cited. such not in tem- be is quote it narrow to to so relatively common transition gradual, is a ductile-brittle more It over much for temperature. behavior is temperature transition strength) a this impact allows materials (low This brittle change. to perature strength) impact (high tough ln 2m)nthi sd hr side eyltl ifrnebtenaea n oyrpln at polypropylene and acetal between difference little very indeed is at there whereas used, 20°C, is notch (2-mm) blunt a at acetal; to superior is polypropylene 20°C) (e.g., (approximately temperatures temperature subzero room The at reduced. 3.35. Thus, is Figure temperature. in temperature shown the is thermoplastics as common brittle several for to temperature behavior with strength ductile impact from of variation transition a exhibit materials plastic PVC. or 346 IUE3.34 FIGURE etist matbhvo esrdwt hr 02-m oc.Nt htnthsapescan sharpness notch that Note notch. (0.25-mm) sharp a with measured in behavior impact to pertains the Thus the low. is in energy improvement crack-initiation smaller the that the suggest hand, would other notch blunt the bene a would On with used ABS is high. crack- notch of are values. blunt strength high a energies impact low when relatively crack-initiation have nylon and their acrylics have PVC that and for ABS this observed imply polystyrene, strength On and nylon, impact energy. in PVC, polyethylene propagation improvement as large the high-density The such is materials that strength whereas impact suggest energies, the would propagation to 3.34 contribution main Figure the basis and small, is crack the fl tmyb enfo iue33 n iue33 htsm lsisudroacag rmdcieor ductile from change a undergo plastics some that 3.36 Figure and 3.35 Figure from seen be may It h akn ftemtraswt eadt matsrnt sse ob in be to seen is strength impact to regard with materials the of ranking The many metals, with common In plastics. of strength impact the on effect pronounced a has Temperature hntesapnth(.5m ais sue,i a easmdta h nryncsayt initiate to necessary energy the that assumed be may it used, is radius) (0.25-mm notch sharp the When ec h matsrnt aito ihtmeaueqiesigni quite temperature with variation strength impact the uence fi eie rmuigruddcreswudb uhls o B hnfrmtrassc snylon as such materials for than ABS for less much be would corners rounded using from derived t aito fipc teghwt oc aisfrsvrlthermoplastics. several for radius notch with strength impact of Variation − 0Caea smc ueirt polypropylene. to superior much is acetal 20°C

Impact strength (ft-lbf/in2) − 10 15 20 0C oyrpln osntproma ela ctl hscomparison This acetal. as well as perform not does polypropylene 20°C) 0 5 . . . 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Notch tipradius(mm) Acetal Dry nylon Dry High density polyethylene

Polystyrene

Acrylic PVC ABS fi aty iue33 hw htwhen that shows 3.36 Figure cantly. lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 20 30 40 10

T 2

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2

fi Impact strength (ft-lbf/in ) 4 2 0 –20 –40 0 2 4 6 8 e stevlea hc h matsrnt ftemtra ihasapnotch sharp a with material the of strength impact the which at value the as ned 2 fl T 47ft-lbf/in (4.7 i hc tak t hntecakiiito nrismyb reduced, be may energies crack-initiation the then it, attacks which uid B 14,bcueti eprtr,b de by temperature, this because (1/4), Nylon (wet) Acetal T B Test temperature (°C) (1/4). 2 .We utd tpoie nidcto ftetemperature the of indication an provides it quoted, When ). Polypropylene 0.25-mm notch ABS Acrylic 20 PVC fi iin eesol oteimpact the to only refers nition, 40 5 10 15 fi

atyafce ywater, by affected cantly Impact strength (kJ/m2) fi atefc on effect cant fi iho the of nish 347 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 348 hsdvlpcak uigsriig naoposplmr rcsmydvlpa h od formed voids the at develop may may weakness, cracks of polymers areas amorphous being In 1), viscous a Chapter straining. during as (see acting during spherulites to cracks addition of develop In boundaries the molecules. thus the polymer of crystalline propagation, slip a through crack In occur for material. may the path propagation of of bulk capable the cracks within of from initiation develop will cracks fatigue that probable initiated is crack a similar. once fl be that possible may is failure it and though propagation to metals, of unlikely in of theory is as phase fatigue three process subsequent the that initiation the crack means but of polymers developed, type of well similar structure is a molecular be different metals completely of The theory not. Fatigue is failure. polymers fracture. plastics in and part growth, important crack an tiation, plays still fatigue wider that a to likely susceptible has is are Fatigue plastics it Although fatigue. mechanisms, metals. max- called in failure its of phenomenon offracture range below causes the major much to the stresses of due one at strength) as recognized fracture (tensile been may loading periods static long under over strength stresses imum alternating to subject material A Plastics of Fatigue 3.2.20 range a over thermoplastics [19]. used categories commonly broad of number three a in of temperatures behavior of impact the lists table The adequate. 3.36 FIGURE w aal fpoaainmyb nrdcd oee,i h ril a enmle,i smore is it molded, been has article the if However, introduced. be may propagation of capable aws aiu rcsmydvlpi lsisi eea as ftepatcatcehsbe ahnd surface machined, been has article plastic the If ways. several in plastics in develop may cracks Fatigue ini- crack stages three into divided is and understood well generally is process fatigue the metals For aito fipc teghwt eprtr o eea hrolsiswt ln notch. blunt with thermoplastics several for temperature with strength impact of Variation fl ow.

Impact strength (ft-lbf/in2) 10 2 4 6 8 0 4 –20 –40 2-mm notch

PVC Acetal Test temperature (°C) 0

Acryli Polypropylene

c 20 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 40 5 10 0 20 15

Impact strength (kJ/m2) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 oyufn B B B unnotched. Polysulfone V rgd A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B C C B B B B C B Glass- B C C (wet) Nylon (dry) Nylon C terephthalate) Poly(ethylene C B C oxide) Poly(phenylene A Polycarbonate C (rigid) PVC B C Te A Acetal ABS B methacrylate) Poly(methyl A Polystyrene Polypropylene density) (high Polyethylene density) (low Polyethylene lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics AL 3.1 TABLE 3.37 FIGURE lsi Material Plastic Note: fl nBAAAAAAA A B on fi ldnln(r)CCC C C (dry) nylon lled ,tuh(pcmn ontbekcmltl vnwe hrl oce) ,nthbite ,biteee when even brittle C, brittle; notch B, notched); sharply when even completely break not do (specimens tough A, matBhvo fCmo hrolsisoe ag fTemperatures of Range a over Thermoplastics Common of Behavior Impact feto ae otn nipc tegho nylon. of strength impact on content water of Effect

Impact strength (ft-tbf/in2) 2 4 6 8 4 40 –40 − 20 immersion 4-week 2 20 –20 Test temperature (°C) − 1001020304050 immersion 0 2-week 0.25-mm notch immersion 1-week eprtr (°C) Temperature Dry AAAAA AAAAA CCCCB CCCCC CCCCC BBBBB BBBBB BBBBB BBBBB BBBBB 5 10 15 AAAA BBBB

Impact strength (kJ/tm2) 349 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 350 IUE3.38 FIGURE ○ mltd hc ol o as aiu alr pt nacpal ag au of value large acceptably an to up failure fatigue cause not would which amplitude vna eaieylwsrs mltds ti eesr ode to occur to necessary continues is failure it fatigue which amplitudes, in stress plastics low For limit. relatively fatigue at the the even as of known values is large and at purposes horizontal design almost ( the becomes cycles plastics, stress curve some in of failure reduced number fatigue further is the amplitude constant, stress remaining cyclic the frequency As are 3.38). reduced. (Figure failures be frequency fatigue previous must the if cycling of Therefore, frequency failure. the fatigue may stresses, reduced, eventually frequency high is higher relatively and cycling than a at of stabilization at rather required frequency failures temperature the softening failure in if thermal that fatigue result produced 3.38 have now conventional-type would Figure which from the amplitudes evident stress promoting is then it frequency Thus failure. lower softening a thermal in plastics, failures. regimes failures softening of distinct thermal thermal behavior two as short-term relatively have labeled the thus been for be 3.38 have one will type Figure and there this in failures, point fatigue of curves crossover conventional Failures fatigue this time. The short-term above shorter a 3.38. amplitudes in even Figure stress resulting an rise, At in to material. failures continues the point but thermal type stress a in stabilizes until this the longer failure amplitudes of stress no softening where failures higher rise thermal failure, at 3.38, temperature repeated to the be Figure cycles when will of In pattern reached number This is failure. failures. the fatigue fatigue of as logarithm labeled metal-type been the have a against plotted by been failure again has fatigue amplitude followed metal-type stabilize, conventional and a further until point this The material. at the stage stabilize in a generation will eventually heat and occurs. the material rise, equals the surroundings therefore the will of to material transfer temperature in the heat dissipated of the be when temperature will reached The energy be input heat. will the as of appear some and material, the cycle of each conductivity thermal low and damping high osdr o xml,asml fpatcsbetdt ylcsrs of stress cyclic conductivity. a thermal to low subjected plastic and of damping, sample inherent a behavior, example, for viscoelastic Consider, are Included analyzed. simply . Hz; 5.0 , omly aiu alrsa n rqec nteetaoae uv alfo h aiu alrsat failures fatigue the from fall curve extrapolated the on frequency one at failures fatigue Normally, fatigue the on effect pronounced a have to expected be would stress cyclic the of frequency The rise will temperature material the value, higher a to increased is amplitude stress the test, next the in If, ubro etrsaepcla opatc,wihmk hi aiu eairacmlxsbetnot subject complex a behavior fatigue their make which plastics, to peculiar are features of number A D .7Hz; 1.67 , yia aiu eairo hrolsi tsvrlfrequencies, several at thermoplastic a of behavior fatigue Typical □ . z Aatdfo rwod .J 1981. J. R. Crawford, from (Adapted Hz. 0.5 , 2 Stress amplitude (kgf/cm ) N .Tesrs mltd twihti eeigofocr sceryipratfor important clearly is occurs off leveling this which at amplitude stress The ). 100 200 300 400 10 3 T 10 T T 4 T Log cycles to failure cycles Log T T T TT 10 5 F F F 10 fi 6 F ea nuac limit endurance an ne lsisEngineering Plastics F F F 10 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 7 fi F aiu failure; fatigue , e mltd.Bcueo the of Because amplitude. xed 15 20 25 30 35 —

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Pergamon, , Stress amplitude (Mpa) n o h long-term the for one N — . hti,testress the is, that T hra failure, thermal , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rmcohrns codn otela ple nteidne,tela en oeta gfor nonde- kg and 1 quick, purposes. than simple, control are more quality for tests being use Hardness load wide tests. the their microhardness indenter, for for account the less which on or structive, applied kg 1 load and the macrohardness to according micro-hardness or adrtemtra,ads h rae h adesnme.Temaue adesi de is hardness measured The number. hardness the greater the so and material, the harder u hydfe nyi eal aial hyaluetesz fa netpoue yahree te or steel hardened a by produced hardness indent its an of of indication size indentation, an the to as use material material all the a they in of Basically indentor resistance detail. diamond the in measuring only differ for they available but are methods test Numerous plastics. f50k o 0sc h odi hnrmvd n h imtro h netpoue smeasured is produced indent the of diameter de the is and macrohardness for removed, (BHN) then number is hardness load Brinell The The the sec. into 3.39). 30 pressed (Figure for is diameter kg in 500 mm of 10 ball steel hardened A which Number recovery Hardness time-dependent Brinell load. the indentation 3.2.22.1 and applied creep the because the of that for is result difference made a main be The as metals. must occurs for allowance used those viscoelastic to are similar are plastics plastics for used methods test The Hardness Indentation 3.2.22 rebound (2) indentation, to resistance (1) ways: several in determined be may ef material a of Hardness Hardness 3.2.21 Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.39 FIGURE h ikr adests ifr rmteBielts nta h netri imn (square-based) is diamond indent the a of is diagonal indentor average from the the If calculated that 136°. is of in angle number test apex an Brinell having the 3.39) (Figure from pyramid differs test hardness de Vickers well The not usually Number is Hardness indent Vickers the of test. 3.2.22.2 edge following the the that in is overcome plastics is for problem used This when test hardness Brinell the alsaeaalbet ovr h vrg ignlit ikr ubrue o ohmco and macro- both for used number Vickers into diagonal average the convert microhardnesses. to available are Tables imtro h netit BHN. into indent the of diameter where fi lhuhteuiso rnl adesaekgf/mm are hardness Brinell of units the Although iny n 3 eitnet cacig The scratching. to resistance (3) and ciency, D stedaee ftebl and ball the of diameter the is a (b) (a) ikr adesnme = number hardness Vickers netto adestss a rnl et b ikr et c no test. Knoop (c) test. Vickers (b) test. Brinell (a) tests. hardness Indentation Load Load H = BHN D d P otc rao netto (mm indentation of area Contact odapidt netr(kgf) indentor to applied Load d stedaee fteidn.Tbe r vial ocnetthe convert to available are Tables indent. the of diameter the is otc rao netto (mm indentation of area Contact odapidt netr(kgf) indentor to applied Load 136° fi s ehdi h otcmol sdtcnqefor technique used commonly most the is method rst d 2 ti utdol sanme.Adsdatg of disadvantage A number. a as only quoted is it , 2 fl ) (c) tsraeo h etseie ne load under specimen test the of surface at = — p D h mle h netpoue,the produced, indent the smaller the ( 172°30 D D − p 2 ' 2 P ) D ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi fi =1 e as ned 2 − : 854 d 2 ) 130° d P 2 fi d e smacro- as ned h hardness the , (3.96) (3.95) fi ned. 351 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h egh ftetodaoas ssoni iue33,aedfeet fteln ignlo h netis indent the of diagonal long the If different. are 3.39, Figure but in pyramid, as shown diamond as measured a diagonals, is two measurement the microhardness of for lengths test the hardness Knoop the in used indentor The Number Hardness Knoop 3.2.22.3 352 IUE3.40 FIGURE vroeti rbe,alwa allow problem, this overcome niaigda,wihi airtdfo o10t niaeicesn ades oalwfrcep one a creep, with for 26° allow To hardness. increasing sec. an indicate 10 to to system after 100 lever readings to a takes 0 by the transferred from normally in is calibrated indentor gripped is spring-loaded is which the dial, instrument of penetration indicating the is of surface, depth construction the The general ring. on pressed stop placed Its is the leg head device. measuring support measuring its back and the hardness hand With hand-operated 3.41. a Figure in is shown tester hardness Barcol The Hardness used. scale, Barcol any be on should 3.2.22.5 115 exceeds scale number another hardness so the When materials, lost, L high. low-hardness and is is for value R used sensitivity hardness Scales are the the L R60. when and Rockwell E in R and e.g., Scales M number can R60. scales hardness Rockwell and effects e.g., the number, with recovery low-hardness along for and quoted used is are creep letter Since scale The scale. 3.3). a (Table the load, still off de minor load a minor this read the follow to (with is to addition load essential major value In the is load. of hardness it the removal the readings, after applying sec of ball), 15 sec further the A 10 sec. scale. on within 15 the for zero on applied to is value set load hardness major is a pointer as scale indentation directly used the the read is and of is ball measurement steel indent visual hardened the no A of that hardness. is depth depth of test the the measure Rockwell and the a because necessary, of as tests is advantage taken three major is A other area indentor. the surface the its from as than differs rather macrohardness indent measure the to of used test Rockwell The Number Hardness Rockwell 3.2.22.4 iedpnetrcvr fteidnaini lsisi rbe omnt l he et.To tests. three all to common problem a is plastics in indentation the of recovery Time-dependent h netri h aclTse oe o 3- satuctdselcn aiga nlddageof angle included an having cone steel truncated a is 934-1 No. Model Tester Barcol the in indentor The test under material the of hardness the on depending used, are 3.2) (Table scales Rockwell Several ball, steel the on applied is kg 10 of load minor A 3.40. Figure in shown as steps, three involves test The fl ttpo .5 m(.02i. ndaee.Tevle banduigti ntuetare instrument this using obtained values The diameter. in in.) (0.0062 mm 0.157 of tip at D tgsi okelhrns et ,mnrla;2 io n ao od;3 io odonly. load minor 3, loads; major and minor 2, load; minor 1, test: hardness Rockwell in Stages h adesnme sotie from obtained is number hardness the , 1 Minorload no adesnme 14 = number hardness Knoop fi e iebfr aigmaueet nteindent. the on measurements making before time xed fi e ieccefrtetest. the for cycle time ned fi myadsedl notesraeutlteisrmn et on rests instrument the until surface the onto steadily and rmly 2 Minor+major loads indication of hardness as taken Measurement : 3 Minorload 23 only D P 2 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fl (3.97) uence Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 AL 3.3 TABLE Testing and Properties Plastics rnfrstedpho eerto noapitrmvmn na niaigda,wihi calibrated is which dial, indicating an on levers movement of system pointer a the a and onto material, into 0 the pressed from penetration into is indentor of the instrument spec- depth forces the the This the that ring. into transforms stop in indentor a tester reaches needle-like it Barcol a until the surface pressing sample resembles by durometer hardness a measuring Operationally, for imen. instrument respectively. an materials, is soft durometer very A and plastics plastics. for Hardness and used Durometer metals are for 936, 3.2.22.6 used is No. instrument and This 935 scale. No. M the models, on other values Two Rockwell to well correlate to found 3.41 FIGURE o ouu ubrSoeAo S903 BS or A Shore modulus High Rubber modulus Low # " – 100. hieo adesTs ehd ae nMdlsRneo Plastics of Range Modulus on Based Methods Test Hardness of Choice Lever eea osrcino aclhrns tester. hardness Barcol of construction General Indicating dial AL 3.2 TABLE 0 1/8 1/4 1/4 1/2 100 100 60 (in.) 60 Indentor of Dia. E (kg) Load Major M L R Scale Plunger tip okelHrns Scales Hardness Rockwell B okelR Rockwell M Rockwell M Rockwell R Rockwell R Rockwell 2782 BS D or Shore A Shore D D Shore Shore methacrylate) Poly(methyl Polystyrene ABS polystyrene Toughened Polypropylene polyethylene High-density polyethylene Medium-density polyethylene Low-density PVC Plasticized Spring aeilTs Method Test Material Support leg Support 26° (0.156 mm) 0.006 in.dia. Indentor 353 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 AL 3.4 TABLE 3.42 FIGURE 354 yo 5M580 70 60 60). (M 75 PVC and 102), 83), (M 99 (M PMMA 70 70 follows: 80 as polystyrene together are 25), hardness plastics Scleroscope common (M some of 45 for values M75 LDPE parentheses) Typical 74 (in piece. values 74 test M the Rockwell the of impact. with surface a after the uses object onto method the dropped common cone most of The diamond height M64 way. harder rebound this M70 15 the in the scleroscope surface: hardness greater measure the Shore the to of developed and 90 hardness 76 been the absorbed, have to energy methods related Several the is 70 less surface the a 12 surface, strikes object the an when absorbed 5 energy The M60 80 Hardness M83 Rebound 3.2.23 R100 4 7 17 D M102 Shore 12 Barcol R40 16 7 9 Rockwell 6 Knoop 5 25 11 Vickers 7 2 20 acetate Cellulose Brinell Nylon Polycarbonate 4 chloride- Poly(vinyl chloride) Poly(vinyl methacrylate) Poly(methyl Polystyrene Polypropylene Polyethylene High-density Material hydfe ntesrn oc n h emtyo h netr ssoni iue34.Det creep, to Due 3.42. Figure in shown as indentor, a the after of taken geometry the be and should force readings spring the in differ They ae ehiuscno eapidt ot ubrlk oyes o hc,priual hndealing when particularly which, for polymers, the use rubber-like can one soft, indentation- etc., The to copolymers, 3.4. blends, Table applied with in be shown are cannot methods techniques test different based by measured plastics common the of some nMaand MPa in qain ti osbet aclt the calculate to possible is it equation, h w otcmo ye fdrmtr sdfrpatc r h hr yeAadSoeTp D. Type Shore and A Type Shore the are plastics for used durometers of types common most two The T oeTpclHrns ausfrPlastics for Values Hardness Typical Some g w ye fSoedurometer. Shore of types Two gastasto eprtr)i K obnn h ueo itrs( mixtures of rule the Combining °K. in temperature) transition (glass co nwihtehrns sdtrie rmterbudhih fe h mato a of impact the after height rebound the from determined is hardness the which in , vnlaeae 051 M75 14 5 20 acetate) -vinyl 35° 3 Type A Type 822 g fi e ieitra,otncoe s1 e.Tpclhrns ausof values hardness Typical sec. 10 as chosen often interval, time xed 1.27 0.8 H vleo aeil opiigsf opnn n/rpae[20]. phase and/or component soft comprising materials of -value aio qain H equation: Fakirov 2.5 Stop ring 1.97T = Type B Type 10 lbf 1.27 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 3 g – 30° 7 with 571 H H = (microhardness) S H i j i n this and ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 oee,teMh cl snto uhvlefrcasfigpatcmtras eas otcommon most because materials, plastic classifying for value number; 2 Mohs much lower the of a in have not that fall materials is plastics the scale scratch can Mohs scale scale the the this on however, On material scale. other Each Mohs by (10). the diamond scratched of to being means (1) to by is has classi property sample are this test materials qualifying various the of resistance way common the most of The measure materials. a is hardness scratch Basically, Hardness Scratch 3.2.24 Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.43 FIGURE sals h eaiemrt fdfeetpatcmtrasfo hi blt osrthoeanother. one scratch to ability their from materials plastic different of merits relative the establish oprsno adessae (approximate). scales hardness of Comparison – osrne oee,tebsctcnqeo cac adesmyb sdto used be may hardness scratch of technique basic the However, range. Mohs 3 hardness Brinell fi dfo o1.Temtrasue,a hw nFgr .3 ag rmtalc from range 3.43, Figure in shown as used, materials The 10. to 1 from ed 500 1000 2000 10,000 100 200 5 10 20 50 Rockwell Rockwell 100 110 100 120 130 20 40 60 80 40 60 80 0 B Rockwell Rockwell 100 120 140 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 M C Nitrided steels Nitrided Cutting tools aluminum machined File hard plastics Brasses Easily alloys steels Most and Diamond Orthoclase Corundum Gypsum sapphire Apatite Fluorite Calcite Quartz Topaz or Talc hardness Mohs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 355 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h matrix. the opstoswr eeoe usqetyfrohrapiain,n omrilgasbte hnEglass E than better glass commercial no applications, other for subsequently developed were compositions the of strength The the fracture. of strength brittle-type the by a the determined preventing to load thus the propagation, transmit to is matrix oiin( ls)dvlpdspeci calcium developed low-alkali glass) a had (E reinforcement position glass successful earliest The plastics. the general, In composites. such producing used). also are spheres, glass example niomn,tetmeaue n h oeua egto h pcmn zn rcigi typical ( a propagation is crack cracking for energy Ozone critical specimen. The the polymers. of of cracking stress, weight corrosion fracture stress molecular of normal the example occurs. and the cracking temperature, than corrosion the lower stress environment, no much amount which is The below stress. cracking stress of minimum corrosion direction a the stress [21,22]. to is angles cause there right stress although to at under proceeds necessary also and and surface stress the environment of at corrosive starts a crack in of kind occurs This polymers of cracking corrosion Polymers Stress of Cracking Corrosion Stress 3.2.25 356 al 3.5. Table reinforcing as Kevlar used be can materials crystalline and amorphous of fi range wide A attained. is composite the of reinforcing The Reinforcement of Types 3.3.1 components main two of signi consists increased plastic be can reinforced plastics of strength and modulus The Plastics Reinforced 3.3 hroetn ei,adareinforcing a and resin, thermosetting esrdbfr n fe h ramn.I oetsstelgttasiso rpryo h lsi is plastic the of property abrasive transmission re light an (specular the to gloss tests subjected marring. its some after is and In and specimen abrasive, treatment. before a of the measured test stream after controlled of and a type before to measured one exposure In allowing test. by mar-resistance treatment of some by determined h au slwri ezn n ihri erlu te.Thus ether. petroleum in higher and benzene in lower is value the resraeeeg u tl uhlwrta htfrmcaia rc propagation. crack mechanical for that than lower much still but energy surface true zn rcigceia od ttecaktpaeboe yceia ecin on ihsrs is stress high no so reaction, in chemical because crack, by the broken of are propagation tip to crack due tip. the the surfaces at fresh at necessary the bonds for chemical provide cracking to ozone necessary that is crack the uhlwrta the that lower much aigcak n hti why is that and crack, gating rcigvre eyltl rmoeplmrt nte n saot10erg/cm 100 about is and another to polymer one from little very varies cracking es nldn ls,cro,abso,brn iio abd,admr eety ytei oyes(e.g., polymers synthetic recently, more and carbide, silicon boron, asbestos, carbon, glass, including bers, h rae esl teghadsifesof stiffness and strength tensile greater The h tescroinrssac fplmr eed ntemgiueo h tes h aueo the of nature the stress, the of magnitude the on depends polymers of resistance corrosion stress The ls srltvl nxesv,adin and inexpensive, relatively is Glass cac adesi atclryiprati lsisue o hi pia rprisadi usually is and properties optical their for used plastics in important particularly is hardness Scratch h rtclenergy critical The nooecakn eyltl nryi isptdi lsi rvsolsi eomtosa h propa- the at deformations viscoelastic or plastic in dissipated is energy little very cracking ozone In fi esfo rmtcplaie) oetpclpoete fteereinforcing these of properties typical Some polyamides). aromatic from bers fi lruulytkstefr of form the takes usually ller t t c c ausfrmcaia rcue hc r bu 10 about are which fracture, mechanical for values saot400erg/cm 4,000 about is t c saottesm stetu ufc nry h nyeeg upidto supplied energy only The energy. surface true the as same the about is fi e n ytentr n tegho h odbtenthe between bond the of strength and nature the by and ber fi al o lcrclislto ytm.Atog lse fother of glasses Although systems. insulation electrical for cally fi fi es opoettersrae n orieteeeg o crack for energy the raise to and surface, their protect to bers, lr hc smsl sdi h omof form the in used mostly is which ller, fi fi e omi stepicplfr frifreetue in used reinforcement of form principal the is it form ber esaetela-arigmmes n h anrl fthe of role main the and members, load-carrying the are bers fi 2 es ic ti nti omta h aiu strengthening maximum the that form this in is it since bers, fi o MAi ehltdsiisa omtmeaue but temperature, room at spirits methylated in PMMA for esa oprdwt h oye arxi tlzdin utilized is matrix polymer the with compared as bers — arx hc a eete hrolsi or thermoplastic a either be may which matrix, a fi atyb en frifreet[23 reinforcement of means by cantly t c nti aei uhhge hnthe than higher much is case this in lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 7 erg/cm – fi lmn ooiiaecom- borosilicate alumina e-enocdpatc is plastics ber-reinforced 2 fi 01J/m (0.1 es(u atce,for particles, (but bers 2 (10 fi esaegvnin given are bers 4 2 .Ti au is value This ). J/m t c fl 2 nozone in ) fi ). cin is ection) esand bers – 5.A 25]. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 elr4 .53.0 1.45 Kevlar-49 iio abd 3.2 carbide Silicon oo . 3.0 2.6 Boron sets2.5 Asbestos arxitraeadbt hssata nt ne hs odtostesrisi h arxadi the in and matrix the in strains the conditions these Under unit. a as fi act phases both and interface matrix ideal an to applied 3.44a. is Figure by load reinforced a is when material happens what examine will We Fibers Continuous 3.3.3.1 continuous (1) simpli namely, A used, factors. because all complicated further are becomes orientation analysis Theoretical complex. be to tend important most The resin. organic the and glass inorganic the between bond a provide nsln compounds silane on abn1.75 Carbon h polyole curing. (cross-linked) the during cured be liberated can are they volatiles that advantage no the and have temperature, resins These room resins. at epoxy extent, lesser a to and, speci for high-strength quantities extra small having in glasses produced special been technology). certain have However, modulus reinforcement. or plastics properties for found been has 3.5 TABLE Testing and Properties Plastics ieseetterefc yrsriigtedfraino h arxwietelte rnfr h external the transfers latter the while matrix the of the deformation to the loading restraining by effect their exert Fibers Plastics envi- Reinforced service of the Analysis application, 3.3.3 of type the by dictated is cost. thermoplastic the any and ronment, of choice The polysulfone. major The resin. thermoplastic or thermosetting a either glass- be with conjunction may in used plastics resins reinforced thermosetting in matrix The Matrix of Types 3.3.2 ie est (g/cm Density Fiber where ls 2.54 Glass E e ne odaetesm Fgr .4) n h oa odi hrdb the by shared is load total the and 3.44b), (Figure same the are load a under ber Source: e sasm htthe that assume us Let mn hrolsi eisue stemti nrifre lsis h ags ong ru is group tonnage largest the plastics, reinforced in matrix the as used resins thermoplastic Among Glass P fi stela n h usrpsc ,adfrfr epciey ocmoie arxand matrix composite, to respectively, refer, f and m, c, subscripts the and load the is rwod .J 1981. J. R. Crawford, esaeuulytetdwith treated usually are bers fi yia rpriso enocn Fibers Reinforcing of Properties Typical s olwdb yo,plsyee hrolsi oyses ctl oyabnt,and polycarbonate, acetal, polyesters, thermoplastic polystyrene, nylon, by followed ns, fi esb ha tteitrae h eutn tesdsrbtosi the in distributions stress resultant The interface. the at shear by bers — .. iytihooiaeo vinyltriethoxysilane. or vinyltrichlorosilane e.g., – – – – . 3.0 3.4 . 2.1 3.3 fi . 2.1 2.0 .63.5 2.56 fi esaegripped are bers lsi Engineering Plastic eswihaeuiom otnos n ragduixal,a hw in shown as uniaxially, arranged and continuous, uniform, are which bers fi esad()discontinuous (2) and bers 3 )10 fi daayi olw o w ye of types two for follows analysis ed fi ihs h ucino a of function The nishes. egmn London. Pergamon, , fi myb h arxs htteei osipg tthe at slippage no is there that so matrix the by rmly P 4 – – – – – – c kgf/cm . 3.0 3.6 . 3.0 3.7 . 3.0 3.6 . 2.1 3.6 . 2.1 2.8 . 3.4 3.7 = esl teghTnieModulus Tensile Strength Tensile P m fi 2 e enocmn r nauae oyse resins polyester unsaturated are reinforcement ber + P f fi bers. P 10 GPa – – – – – – fi . 32130 13.2 3.6 . 46.9 3.6 . 40.8 3.5 . 14.3 3.5 . 24.5 2.8 . 7.1 3.6 ihi oscr odwtigadto and wetting good secure to is nish fi e opst nwihtematrix the which in composite ber fi fi plctos(.. aerospace (e.g., applications c e enocmn commonly reinforcement ber fi e egh imtr and diameter, length, ber 5 – kgf/cm – – – – . 70 7.7 00460 50.0 59400 45.9 94140 19.4 08240 40.8 fi e n h matrix: the and ber fi e n h matrix the and ber fi 2 ihsaebased are nishes fi ber. (3.98) fi GPa – – – – – ber- 76 357 490 450 190 400 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 becomes oie c ragmn of Arrangement (c) posite. 3.44 FIGURE 358 or i.e., ilteeoeb are otyb its by mostly carried be therefore will fraction eragn gives Rearranging ic the Since eomto qain313cnb erte as rewritten be can 3.103 Equation deformation qain313as fod oprsno od are ythe by carried loads of comparison a affords also 3.103 Equation moduli for mixture of rule the give to rewritten be now can 3.101 Equation equal, are components the on strains the Since the of region elastic linear the for only valid is It stresses. for mixture stress of rule the represents 3.101 Equation ic h load the Since eas h ouu of modulus the Because – tancre(e iue32.Since 3.2). Figure (see curve strain F fi m esrntruhu h egho h pcmn h ratio the specimen, the of length the throughout run bers a b (c) (b) (a) Matrix Fiber = V a Continuous- (a) m P / V = c n similarly and , s A qain39,epesdi em fsrse ( stresses of terms in expressed 3.98, Equation , fi esi rs-le laminate. cross-plied a in bers fi esi sal uhhge hnta ftemti,tela nacomposite a on load the matrix, the of that than higher much usually is bers fi e enocdcmoieudrtniela.()Iosri supini com- a in assumption Iso-strain (b) load. tensile under composite reinforced ber Load Δ A L L P P f / m s f A E fi s c c c e opnn seEape34.Hwvr rtclvolume critical a However, 3.4). Example (see component ber = s c e = F by s E c c = E E A c s c m = m r s s F E m c =

= Stress σ e σ + E m c m c = c f f s E m qain310tu becomes thus 3.100 Equation . F (1 = A = A A m m s e A f m m m f F m F Strain, (Δ s e E − c ,w a write can we 1, = m F A m m m m F m m = = + = + + f )+ + + e E s s E Fiber s E E f s E f m f f

f Matrix f f F F s L f f e A / f f f A A L f F f F F ) F c f f f m f fi A e n h arx hsfrelastic for Thus matrix. the and ber m lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics / A s c n rs-etoa ra ( areas cross-sectional and ) a erpae ytevolume the by replaced be can (3.105) (3.100) (3.104) (3.103) (3.102) (3.101) (3.99) A ), Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 c neednl,adtettldfraini hseult h u ftedfrain ftetwo the of deformations the of sum the to equal thus is deformation total phases. the and independently, act fi eairfrsvrltpsof types several for behavior hw nFgr .4.( oeiorpccmoierslsi 5 le r loisre. h stress The inserted.) also are plies 45° this if counteract results composite To isotropic unidirectional strength. more of (A matrix 3.44c. layers the Figure alternate in than having shown different laminates much cross-plied not uses is one situation, strength of direction transverse the this along and composite a stresses, in realized are modulus and the strength maximum The stress. applied the .0 ob valid, be to 3.105 rcinof fraction Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.45 FIGURE iiigEuto .0 by 3.106 Equation Dividing iiigby Dividing eseetarltvl ml fet h tan nthe in strains The effect. small relatively a exert bers sarayntd ftela sapidpredclryt h ogtdnldrcino the of direction longitudinal the to perpendicularly applied is load the if noted, already As h ef The The fi e.Hwvr ftela sapida 0 othe to 90° at applied is load the if However, ber. fi e opst hshsalwrmdlsi rnvrelaigta nlniuia loading. longitudinal in than loading transverse in modulus lower a has thus composite ber fi inyo enocmn srltdt the to related is reinforcement of ciency fi es( bers s n eragn,w get we rearranging, and Stress F F crit f – tanbhvo o eea ye of types several for behavior strain > srqie oraiemti enocmn.Tu o qain312adEquation and 3.102 Equation for Thus reinforcement. matrix realize to required is ) F crit 0 Stress . 0° V fi c e enocmn scmae nFgr 3.45. Figure in compared is reinforcement ber n pligHooke applying and 45° 90° ndrcinlBidirectional Unidirectional 0° V E E c c 0° s e c = c 90° = = E Strain 45° sF m V E fi F 0°,45°,90° 45° m m e ieto ntecmoieadt h ieto of direction the to and composite the in direction ber 45° E ’ m f fi e a,snetesrs scntn,give constant, is stress the since law, s fi fi m m esadtemti r hndfeet eas they because different, then are matrix the and bers + e reinforcement. ber aetdrcin esl alr cusa eylow very at occurs failure tensile direction, lament + E + E f sF f E V F f f m f e f Random fi esrttda 0,as 90°, at rotated bers fi es the bers, (3.106) (3.108) (3.107) – strain 359 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 aisaogislnt.Aueu prxmto itrstesrs sbigzr tteedo the of end the at the zero in being stress as maximum stress the the pictures reaching approximation as useful A length. its along varies 360 hc hscryls testa h idepr fthe of part middle the than stress less carry thus which fthe If Fibers Discontinuous 3.3.3.2 eue h ef the reduces h forms the fi rmEuto 3.104, Equation From xml 4: Example hs ery9%o h odi are ythe by carried unimportant. is load the of 90% nearly Thus, fi qain315 nrarnig gives rearranging, on 3.105, Equation rmEuto 3.101, Equation From qain312adEuto .0 pl oideal to apply 3.104 Equation and 3.102 Equation 10 be to found are curing, on strength, tegho 10 × 2 of strength bu . n .5 respectively. 0.65, and 0.3 about fthe If epciey siaetemdlso h opst,istniesrnt,adtefatoa load fractional the and strength, tensile its composite, the the by of carried modulus the Estimate respectively. Answer: loading? transverse under es npatc,hwvr o l the all not however, practice, In bers. es(p r .)hvn Young a having 2.4) gr. (sp. bers o rnvrelaig rmEuto 3.108, Equation from loading, transverse For fi esaedsotnos h odbtenthe between bond the discontinuous, are bers fi esaeb-ietoa seFgr .5,te h teghadmdlsfactors, modulus and strength the then 3.45), Figure (see bi-directional are bers ouefato fglass of fraction Volume unidirectional A fi fi inyo h enocmn,s qain312adEuto .0 r modi are 3.104 Equation and 3.102 Equation so reinforcement, the of ciency e ne esl odn.Wa ilb h au ftemdlso h composite the of modulus the of value the be will What loading. tensile under ber s 4 c E kg/cm =0 E c c = =0 : 4(6 0 2 : 6 : 4(10 19Ga,ada px ei s.g.12 hs ouu n tensile and modulus whose 1.2) gr. (sp. resin epoxy an and GPa), (1.9 fi e opst smd yuig7%b egto ls continuous glass E of weight by 75% using by made is composite ber 10 10 10 P P 5 c f 5 )+0 5 2 (7 )+0 = fi +0 = es( bers ’ E E s E fi ouu f7×10 × 7 of modulus s 0 : : c 6(7 t c e tadsac rmteed(iue3.46a). (Figure end the from distance a at ber c 4(7 : : 10 75 6(2 fi F F = = esaeaindi h ieto ftela.Ti practice This load. the of direction the in aligned are bers 5 f F = m s E ) 5 = 2 0 f m m =1 ) : : fi 10 4+0 10 75 kg/cm (1 (1 4 10 e,adtewans ftepatcmti srelatively is matrix plastic the of weakness the and ber, 7 : 5 6 5 = − − )=4 − 4 ) 2 )=1 : f : f fi =2 0 10 4 25 f f e opstshvn n-xa ragmn of arrangement uni-axial having composites ber : 2 10 6=0 )+ )+ fi fi : 5 = e n h arxi rkna the at broken is matrix the and ber 98Ga n 10 × 6 and GPa) (9.8 6 e.Tesrs nadiscontinuous a in stress The ber. 5 : 1 22 k : k 2 10 2 1 : E s 10 4 0 =0 5 5 f f : f 6=0 f 5 10 kg kg/cm f f : kg 60 4 = cm = kg : cm 91 = 2 2 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics cm 2 (19 6. P) rcia fracture practical GPa), (68.6 4 GPa) (45 2 (1 : GPa) 6 : GPa) 2 2 kg/cm 2 k 5. MPa), (58.8 1 fi and e therefore ber fi esends, bers (3.110) (3.109) fi fi k dto ed 2 lrand ller are , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 betv ob ece,s st tantemxmmsrnt ftecmoie the composite, critical the the of called strength value maximum the minimum attain a to than as greater so reached, be to objective esta h aiu tes b nefca tegho h matrix the of strength Interfacial (b) stress. maximum the than less iue34a ni ii srahd eas h rnfrrgosfo h w nsme ttemdl of middle the at meet ends two the from regions transfer the because reached, the is limit a until 3.46a, maximum Figure the increased, is composite the IUE3.46 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics and fl smaller. rt,eutn h esl odo the on load tensile the equating write, exceeded. eecee,o,i te od,fragvndaee of diameter given a for words, other in or, exceeded, be where Thus, where wa h nefc ewe the between interface the at ow h eghoe hc h odi rnfre othe to transferred is load the which over length The oi h opst st altruhtniefatr fthe of fracture tensile through fail to is composite the if So osdra Consider h critical The fi e ads ofrhrtase fsrs a aepae,o eas the because or place), take can stress of transfer further no so (and ber s s ff steapidstress, applied the is sthe is fi fi opst enocdwt discontinuous with reinforced Composite e flength of ber e length, ber fi e teghand strength ber (b) (a) σ σ Tensile

l Stress in stress c a edrvdfo iia oc aac o nebde eghof length embedded an for balance force similar a from derived be can ,

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Figure in shown as matrix, polymer a in embedded σ sthe is fi l Max c e n h arx h ratio the matrix, the and ber /2 t i fi stesersrnt fteitraeo h arx hcee is whichever matrix, the or interface the of strength shear the is fi e imtr and diameter, ber Fiber e ihteserla nteinterface, the on load shear the with ber Matrix fi e tesa ela h rnfrlnt nrae ssonin shown as increase, length transfer the as well as stress ber l sp l l 4 c l d d c τ fi = 2 l e length, ber = c /2 = fi s 2 2 s es a oa length total A (a) bers. ff t tp t ff fi d i i e scle h rnfrlnt.A h teson stress the As length. transfer the called is ber d l t fi d stesersrs tteinterface. the at stress shear the is ber, fi fi l c l e ahrta ha alr u omatrix to due failure shear than rather ber ber. c / . d F nw steciia setrto must ratio, aspect critical the as known , d d 1 h critical the , d x σ Fiber F l c 3 ttetoed fa of ends two the at , F fi 2 e rcue.Frtelatter the For fractures. ber fi e length, ber fi e eghms be must length ber l c fi utbe must , e carries ber (3.112) (3.111) l 361 c /2. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rmmti to matrix from so 362 nti aetepa tesocr at occurs stress peak the case this In hw nFgr .6,te h vrg tesi the in stress distribution average stress the the on then depend 3.46a, will Figure stress in average the the shown of of portions value end The the matrix. in the of length whole the over ... ie eghLs than Less Length Fiber 3.3.3.3 considered. be now may cases Three egh htis, that length; the nertn gives Integrating r 30 are of s fthe If h stress, The osdrn ifrnilscino the of section differential a Considering h average The fthe If o equilibrium, For fi ff eswl els hntevalue the than less be will bers and – 0 n 0 respectively. 70, and 100 fi fi esaedsotnos hn ic h tesi eoa h n fthe of end the at zero is stress the since then, discontinuous, are bers e eghi esthan less is length ber t i n ievra yia ausof values Typical versa. vice and , s fi fi c ntecmoiei o bandfo qain3.109 Equation from obtained now is composite the in , e ilntocr sn qain312 ecnetmt h au of value the estimate can we 3.112, Equation Using occur. not will ber e tesi bandb iiigteae ftestress- the of area the dividing by obtained is stress ber fi esadas nterlnts ftesrs itiuin r sue ob as be to assumed are distributions stress the If lengths. their on also and bers l s c h arxwill matrix the , f s p l c 4 fmax d x 2 s Fgr .7) ofo qain3.114, Equation from So 3.47a). (Figure 0 = = hc twudhv civdi the if achieved have would it which , c F s d 2 = 4 d 4 fi f s = s d s e ssoni iue34a eobtain we 3.46a, Figure in shown as ber = l s ð f s f 0 c m F F 1 / = + f d ( d 1 F (1 1 s l s s = = 3 = d o glass for = 4 f f d f 2)2 fl − = s t − + x = F s = waon the around ow ( f l t F l 2 tp f d = t 2 d d − d fi + d d f p l s 2 t x x = )+ d x esmyb banda follows. as obtained be may bers l 4 l d f = ð F − d x 2 2 d d 3 t fi x p x = t x e n carbon and ber ) d 4 lk d d t x d 2 1 l p + f 4 d f tp 2 fi d e,admxmmtase fstress of transfer maximum and ber, d lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics x fi e eghdarmb the by diagram length ber fi e na px ei matrix resin epoxy an in ber fi fi eshdbe continuous been had bers e,teaeaesrs in stress average the ber, l c / d rmtevalues the from (3.114) (3.115) (3.113) fi ber Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 So nti aetepa au fsrs cusat occurs stress of value peak the case this In to Equal Length Fiber 3.3.3.4 3.47 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics i.e., ofo qain3.109, Equation from So ... ie eghGetrthan Greater Length Fiber 3.3.3.5 h average The .For 1. .Fr( For 2. a b (c) (b) (a) tesStress Stress σ f max l 2> /2 l σ − f l tesvrainfrsotadlong and short for variation Stress c fi x / > )/2 e tes rmteae ne h stress- the under area the from stress, ber >( l l l < x − l Fgr 3.47c), (Figure 0 > c l c C / Fgr 3.47c), (Figure )/2 2τ d s l f = vrg ie tes= stress fiber Average ( l l c c = σ 2) f max s c σ s l f c = fmax s f s s osat= constant = x m +( f l n seult h maximum the to equal is and 0 = (1 s fi = f l l bers. l s = − s − = f fmax f l l c = 4 c f d C ) t )+ s t d l = s fmax c k 2 1 f 2 1 s 2τ = l t d d fmax fi − l =1 l c 2 1 t c e eghgahis graph length ber d x l c l c = (2 Stress f σ − 2 t f max f l t d l c 2 l c l σ c l = c f d s ) fmax l c /2 fi l e tes(iue3.47b). (Figure stress ber > l l c C l c /2 (3.116) (3.118) (3.117) 363 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 for and of tension both in tfns e ntlnt sgvnteproduct the given continuous- is the length for unit than per less stiffness somewhat are modulus and strength the but reinforcement. directions, all in same the to the of unidirectional the with orientation achieved are the modulus to and strength relation in stress applied ofo qain3.109, Equation from So 364 sw aese,tepeec of presence the seen, have we Plastic As Fiber-Reinforced of Behavior Deformation 3.3.4 ra hntemtra ssbetdto subjected EI is material the When area. of behavior deformation tensile average teghadmdlsfrpletrcmoie enocdwt hpe tad fglass 20% of about strands only chopped are with values reinforced modulus composites and polyester strength for modulus and strength 3.47c). (Figure fi tinuous e tes the stress, ber where , nmn plctostesifeso aeili uta motn sissrnt.I eso the tension In strength. its as important as just is material a of stiffness the applications many In 39Ma tteitrae n h rtclapc ai fthe of ratio Answer: aspect critical the and interface, the at MPa) (3.9 qain uha qain319gv aifcoyareetwt h esrdvle of values measured the with agreement satisfactory give 3.119 Equation as such Equations Since Also, ti vdn rmEuto .1 htt e h average the get to that 3.118 Equation from evident is It egh2m meddi oye arx h arxeet ha teso 0kgf/cm 40 of stress shear a exerts matrix The matrix. polymer a in embedded mm 2 length xml 5: Example fi fi fi e enocmn hsbcm meitl paet osdrn h eyhg ouu values modulus high very the considering apparent, immediately become thus reinforcement ber es(°,btteei oehneeto arxpoete hntesrs sapidperpendicular applied is stress the when properties matrix of enhancement no is there but (0°), bers bers. fi es ihrno retto of orientation random With bers. fi fi l e tesi nyhl ftemaximum the of half only is stress ber bers. > l s l stescn oeto rao rs eto seEape32.Teeoetestiffness the Therefore 3.2). 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Figure in illustrated as bers, f − fi 3 3 f )=3 10 e enocmn hntesrs saindwith aligned is stress the when reinforcement ber =0 E 1 fi 3 e tesa ls spsil otemaximum the to possible as close as stress ber − kgf stemdlsand modulus the is : : 5mm 75 25 2 l c l = cm fi f e s50. is ber 10 fmax 2 9 MPa) 392 = ( 3 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics : kgf fi = eso imtr15 diameter of bers cm 2 1 MPa) 318 = ( A stecross-sectional the is fi es These bers. m and m (3.119) fi fi bers 2 ber Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 alr ftecontinuous the of failure fi lge,s the so aligned, odn ieto hspooeserdfrain Short- deformation. shear the continuous to promote over parallel advantages matrix thus the in direction up set loading are glass- stresses shear of loading, strength compressive the compression In Compression 3.3.5.2 latter. the the through because propagates weak, is bond interfacial the uprigpr fteetra oda etosrmt rmteboe n.I short- In end. broken the from remote sections at load however, external the of part supporting tegho h aeil eas h broken note the to interesting because is material, It 3.48. the Figure of in shown strength are tension individual in an occur when can that which fracture of different two The ihcontinuous- of With type The material. the Tension and in conditions 3.3.5.1 failure loading the brittle the of of on possibility presence depends the the occurs increases since which system up fracture This simple set under matrix. is even the example, system of For stress traction materials. the triaxial in a stress of loading, distribution tensile complex a cause also they material, lhuhtepeec ftereinforcing the of presence the Although Plastics Fiber-Reinforced of Fracture 3.3.5 Testing and Properties Plastics b agdfatr u owa nefca bond. interfacial weak to due fracture Jagged (b) 3.48 FIGURE e odi ek eodn a cu,cuiglniuia rcsi h opst n buckling and composite the in cracks longitudinal causing occur, may debonding weak, is bond ber fi e raaei o nesnilpeeust ocmlt opst rcue seilywhen especially fracture, composite complete to prerequisite essential an not is breakage ber fi yia rcuemdsin modes fracture Typical eswihaeicie otelaigpaewl eitserdfrain ftematrix- the If deformation. shear resist will plane loading the to inclined are which bers fi e enocmn ti eesr obekthe break to necessary is it reinforcement ber (a) fi e nacontinuous- a in ber fi bers. fi esi opesv odn eas ntefre o l the all not former the in because loading compressive in bers fi fi e enocdpatc suulyls hni eso.Under tension. in than less usually is plastics reinforced ber fi fi e-enocdpatc.()Fatr u osrn nefca bond. interfacial strong to due Fracture (a) plastics. ber-reinforced esehne h teghadmdlspoete ftebase the of properties modulus and strength the enhances bers esmyte esml uldoto h arxa h crack the as matrix the of out pulled simply be then may bers fi fi e opst ras tde o es ocnrbt othe to contribute to cease not does it breaks, composite ber e hnbhvslk ogshort long a like behaves then ber Matrix Fiber fi (b) fi e enocmn a hrfr have therefore may reinforcement ber e arxbonding. matrix ber fi esbfr vrl rcuecnoccur. can fracture overall before bers fi fi es The bers. e etit h aea con- lateral the restricts ber fi e n ilsilbe still will and ber fi e lge nthe in aligned ber fi e composites, ber fi escnbe can bers 365 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 tegh rm4 o7 ft-lbf/in of 70 strengths to impact the 45 and from case, strengths the not is this strength, impact the low have would resins) polyester or epoxy ( fraction volume high Since deformation. shear to resistance offer will fi the of some least ls-enocdpatc n r on ob esvleal ofatigue. to vulnerable less be to of found presence are the and by plastics reduced glass-reinforced is endurance fatigue the cases most In tension. in moisture. than worse even is plastics ae h nenocdpatcehbt rae aiu nuac hnterifre aeil nother in material; reinforced the than true. endurance is fatigue converse greater some the In exhibits cases, material. base plastic the general unreinforced of no endurance the however, fatigue the is, cases enhances There reinforcement fatigue. glass to whether susceptible concerning also rule are plastics reinforced plastics, unreinforced Plastics Like Reinforced of Behavior Fatigue 3.3.6 continuous with those than better ably In Shear or Flexure 3.3.5.3 366 coswihaptnildfeec xss hsaiiydpnso h ilcrcsrnt ftematerial, the of strength dielectric the points on material for separator depends a ability as de This act is to exists. which ability difference its potential on a depends ultimately which dielectric across or insulator an of usefulness The Properties Electrical 3.4 reinforcing brittle of combination a that expected be might it Plastics Although Reinforced of Behavior Impact 3.3.7 the of ends rcsa ihrsrse,laigeetal otesprto ftecmoetdet nesv localized e.g., intensive to loading, due of component resin the modes by of followed other separation be the may In to Debonding damage. levels. eventually stress leading stresses, modes stresses, tensile at higher cyclic even at to cycles cracks subjected few a plastics after glass-reinforced occur many many In debonding place. takes composite the of fracture codnewt h evc odtost eecutrdb h material. 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(94 – 4 kJ/m 147 fi es eas ntefre ihrno retto of orientation random with former the in because bers, fl xr rtrin h aiu nuac fglass-reinforced of endurance fatigue the torsion, or exure 2 ,weesatpclipc teghfrplse ei is resin polyster for strength impact typical a whereas ), fi esoto h arx tflosfo this from follows It matrix. the of out bers fi e n h arxi eaieyweak, relatively is matrix the and ber f lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics f a eahee ihcontinuous with achieved be can ) fi esadabitemti (e.g., matrix brittle a and bers fi es hnthe then bers, fi fi esaeprob- are bers e n rela- and ber fi esat bers fi fi bers ber Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 bu 000Vfrdeeti alr iltu nov etn eido 0 e rso. or sec 100 of of period voltage testing a a requiring involve specimen thus a thick at will 1/8-in. continuously failure a increased dielectric Typically, is for occurs. voltage V the failure 50,000 method until about former V/sec) the (500 In rate method. thickness. uniform step-by-step sample the the by on or depend method to expected be also will strength dielectric sample, the a of probability lsi hudb oewt prxmtl h hcns nwihi st eue nservice. in used be to insulation is of it testing which reason, in this thickness a the For of approximately 3.49b). strength with (Figure dielectric done specimen the be result of should a thickness plastic as the and with increases, decreases thickness material than less proportionally increases proper voltage a conditions. employ a service to of and necessary bility test inva- thus between almost is discrepancy failure It the service strength. for so, dielectric provide Even measure to step- service. the factor to in below safety Conditions met voltages until test. those at short-time V with the occurs 2,000 by nearly riably of obtained more increments those correspond than equal testing lower with electric are by-step the testing, method to short-time this exposure by by longer obtained obtained provides values testing that step-by-step of Since half occurs. is failure that value a with ob in be be to may property This current. electric of passage the to de ciae od o hs eet a eiprte,dsotniisi h tutr,adinterfaces and have structure, therefore thermally the plastics be in Common can discontinuities phases. that amorphous impurities, or and conductivity be crystalline the may fi between to defects and contribute These to crystallites so. free between are do which to ions activated or electrons of sources .. ilcrcStrength Dielectric 3.4.1 Testing and Properties Plastics eedo h antd fteapidelectric applied short the that of (tracking) magnitude path the on carbonized where depend conducting area the a in be puncture may simple it a be electrodes. or may the escaped, failure circuits and The material, volatilized material. the of the has warming of localized material failure greater warm and the currents current to leakage greater leading a The that of eventually currents.) (Note passage leakage material. the such the causing from in locally, free defects material completely of the types be various would of insulator presence perfect the a to only withstand due insulator can = the mil through insulator (1 pass mil which per an usually thickness, that of unit gradient per (V) voltage volts as maximum expressed in.). is 1/1,000 the It occurs. failure as or puncture calculated before is strength Dielectric oecsslk eiodcosadee htcnutr 2] o xml,polyphenylacetylene, from example, resistivities with For reported [26]. been have photoconductors polymers 10 even radical polyacenequinone and and semiconductors polyaminoquinones, like cases some insulators. electrical otecnuto urn yhpig(unln)fo n oeuet najcn n (see one adjacent an to molecule one from (tunneling) hopping by contribute and current molecule given “ a conduction within free are the which electrons, to unpaired of number large of existence the lcratv Polymers Electroactive ie huhvr ih eitvte rm10 from resistivities high, very though nite, fi 3 nse-yse etn,de testing, step-by-step In short-time the by either out carried usually is 3.49a) (Figure strength dielectric of measurement The nraei hcns nrae h otg eurdt ietesm otg rdet u h proba- the but gradient, voltage same the give to required voltage the increases thickness in Increase hsrssiiy(.. eirclo odciiy fapatcmtra ihapretsrcuewudtend would structure perfect a with material plastic a of conductivity) of reciprocal (i.e., resistivity This ti biu rmtecueo ilcrcfiueta h esrdvle fdeeti teghwill strength dielectric of values measured the that failure dielectric of cause the from obvious is It currents leakage electric small from results gradient voltage applied an under insulator an of Puncture eie emtiiy(ilcrccntn) ilcrcl dielectric constant), (dielectric permittivity Besides oyei aeil aeas enpoue hc aerltvl ag odciiisadbhv in behave and conductivities large relatively have which produced been also have materials Polymeric etedeeti eairo aeili h nuainr insulation the is material a of behavior dielectric the ne o10 to fi iea o electric low at nite 8 h-m thsbe ugse httecnutvt nteeogncsmcnutr sdeto due is semiconductors organic these in conductivity the that suggested been has It ohm-cm. fl wadalcllaaecretlaigutmtl ofiueas nrae.Tebreakdown The increases. also failure to ultimately leading current leakage local a and aw fl wadalcllaaecretlaigutmtl ofiueicesswt h hcns of thickness the with increases failure to ultimately leading current leakage local a and aw ” nCatr5). 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e sterssac measured resistance the as ned Glass Porcelain 10 2 trne rm10 from ranges It 15 Polyethylene Mica Polytetrafluoroethylene Amber Sulfur Polystyrene Fused quartz fl uoroeth- 10 ohm 369 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h feto ilcrcmtra nicesn h hresoigcpct facpctrcnb under- be voltage can a capacitor If a 3.53. of Figure in capacity sketched storing type charge parallel-plate the the increasing considering in by material stood dielectric a of effect The Constant Dielectric 3.4.4 are and view. resistance of ozone point good have this resins from synthetic most satisfactory Fortunately, ozone. by deteriorated and attacked 3.52 FIGURE 370 capacitor. 3.53 FIGURE ietypootoa oteelectric the to proportional directly h electric the h hredensity, charge The ea lts aho area of each plates, metal or a (b) (a) V – + fi l salse ewe h lts(iue35a is 3.53a) (Figure plates the between established eld ceai lutaino h feto ilcrcmtra nicesn h hresoigcpct fa of capacity storing charge the increasing in material dielectric of effect the of illustration Schematic r-eitnetest. Arc-resistance d (Vacuum) Charge ( Q 0 + ––– / A where , A Q 0 m ) 2 + eaae yadistance, a by separated , Test piece E Area ofplateArea ( =– Q 0 fi V stettlcag rdcdo h ufc raAo ahpae is plate, each of A area surface the on produced charge total the is eld. / + d Q Q A 0 A 0 = ) = E A Electrodes − d e = e 0 0 V E − d Q V = = + + + ++ = d e C Q 0 ,adhl aallt ahohri vacuum, in other each to parallel held and m, 0 0 V d V + + + + +++ ++ Q Arc between + + + ' electrodes ++ + + + lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics Bound charge Bound + + + Free charge + + + V sapidars two across applied is at surface charge, – negative Net charge no net of Region Q' (3.122) (3.120) (3.121) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ftecpctr(iue35b,tettlcag trdi h rsneo h ilcrcis dielectric the of presence the in stored charge total the 3.53b), (Figure capacitor the of hre a epcue snurlzn qa hre fopst in ntemtlpae.I one If plates. metal the on signs opposite of charges charge equal induced the neutralizing that instance, as for pictured assumes, be may charges nt of units lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics AL 3.6 TABLE t lts tcnb de be can It plates. its nrae hreapaso h ltsfrtesm otg,det oaiaino h ilcrc The dielectric. the of polarization to due voltage, some the for plates the applied on appears charge increased plates. the between hre,o on charges, bound or charges, n au f884×10 × 8.854 of value a and material. pligtede the applying Material aldterltv ilcrccntn or constant dielectric relative the called odnewt h ie aeila h ilcrct hto h aecnesrwtottedielectric. the without condenser same the of that to dielectric the as material given the with condense Obviously, ocli 0.010 9.6 6 Alumina Porcelain Ceramics icn9200500160 0.0001 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.1 0.035 7 4 7 9.2 Mica silica Fused Soda-lime Zircon oytyee23<0.0005 2.3 Polyethylene Polymers yo-,6400 .3300 0.03 300 0.0003 0.02 0.0002 0.1 4 2.5 7 Te 6 Nylon-6, chloride Polyvinyl Polystyrene a fl o faseto ilcrcmtra sisre ewe h ltso aaio Fgr .3) an 3.53b), (Figure capacitor a of plates the between inserted is material dielectric a of sheet a if Now h rprinlt constant, proportionality The h quantity The iiigbt h ueao n eoiao fEuto .2 yteapidvoltage applied the by 3.123 Equation of denominator and numerator the both Dividing h ai ftettlcharge total the of ratio The h eaiedeeti osato eaiepritvt stu de thus is permittivity relative or constant dielectric relative The n21<0.0001 2.1 on pcmntikes18in. 1/8 thickness Specimen fi eld e r ilcrcPoete fEetia Insulators Electrical of Properties Dielectric sawy rae hnuiyadhsn iesos o otmaterials most For dimensions. no has and unity than greater always is E assplrzto fteetr oueo h ilcrcadtu ie iet induced to rise gives thus and dielectric the of volume entire the of polarization causes fi C iinof nition 0 nEuto .2 stecpctneo aaio cnesr ihavcu between vacuum a with (condenser) capacitor a of capacitance the is 3.122 Equation in fi e stertoo h hreo ihro h ltst h oeta differences potential the to plates the of either on charge the of ratio the as ned e − r C 12 t6 z6 z10 Hz 60 Hz 60 at Q rmEuto .2,w obtain we 3.122, Equation from ′ farad/m. tissrae ersne yteed ftedpl his hs induced These chains. dipole the of ends the by represented surface, its at , e 0 e Q 0 = scle h ilcrccntn o emtiiy favcu.I has It vacuum. a of permittivity) (or constant dielectric the called is , otefe charge free the to Q V 0 = = d e A r eaiepermittivity relative = = oa charge Total coul recharge Free e − r – – V Q = = ′ = m e etaie neulpstv hrei h pe plate upper the in charge positive equal an neutralizes m e 0 2 = tan = Q C C 0 coul d 0 = wihi o etaie yplrzto)is polarization) by neutralized not is (which m 000 200 <0.0005 Q = Q , .023,000 0.0002 V 0 6 e –– – – – r zDeetr Strength Dielectirc Hz n scaatrsi ftedielectric the of characteristic is and , = fi e stertoo h aaiac fa of capacitance the of ratio the as ned farad m – – 450 300 400 – – – – – – 290 300 400 1,000 1,000 1,000 e – r ,0 (1 6,000 xed Tbe3.6). (Table 2 exceeds – Q i specimen) mil 3 = a (V/mil) Q 0 (3.124) (3.123) V + 371 Q and ′ . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rvt ftengtv hrerltv ota ftepstv hre(iue35a.Tepeoeo is phenomenon The of 3.54a). center (Figure the charge of positive displacement the small of a the that that occur statement to will the relative by there described charge that negative result the the of with gravity plate, negative the by nucleus h ioemoment, dipole the electric polarization electronic suffered have aeuisa hredensity. charge as units same Tedeeti osatfrari .06 ti sal ae sunity as taken usually is It 1.0006. is air for constant dielectric (The 372 h lcrncloud, electron the hre ulu uruddb eaieycagdcod hc smd po otiuinfrom contribution zero. Figure positively of is (see a coincident atom up are of the made charges of consisting negative is moment and as dipole which positive upon net of cloud, centers the looked the charged 3.54a), be Since negatively orbitals. may various a atom in by electrons an surrounded picture, nucleus wave-mechanical charged the of terms In Moment Dipole and Polarization give which 3.4.4.1 dielectric the in mechanisms molecular property. or this atomic to the rise and dielectric, a of property measurable de nucleus. the to relative cloud nue e ntae ntesraeo h aeil hrfr,i etk ntaeso poiefcso a of faces opposite on areas unit take we if distance Therefore, a material. by the of separated surface cube the on area unit per induced usiuigfo qain311 qain313 n qain315 eobtain we 3.125, Equation and 3.123, Equation 3.121, Equation from Substituting h eaiedeeti osati eerdt ipya h ilcrcconstant). dielectric the as simply to referred is constant dielectric relative the where qain3.123, Equation fi Therefore, charge bound or induced the of magnitude The fa electric an If macroscopic, a is which permittivity, the between link a provides later, see shall we as equation, This h lcrcdpl oeto w qa u poiecags + charges, opposite but equal two of moment dipole electric The ntemcocpcsaew aeerirde earlier have we scale macroscopic the On h ilcrcsusceptibility, dielectric The ttu ersnstepr ftettldeeti osatwihi osqec ftemtra.From material. the of consequence a is which constant dielectric total the of part the represents thus It e as ned a fi e sacntn,cle h lcrncplrzblt fteao.I spootoa otevlm of volume the to proportional is It atom. the of polarizability electronic the called constant, a is , l n h olmi trcinbtentencesadtecne fteeeto lu that cloud electron the of center the and nucleus the between attraction coulombic the and eld qr o h tmcmdlo iue35a tcnb hw yblnigteopst ocso the of forces opposite the balancing by shown be can it 3.54a, Figure of model atomic the For . fi l sapid oee,teeeto lu ilb trce ytepstv lt n the and plate positive the by attracted be will cloud electron the however, applied, is eld R m 3 hsteplrzblt nrae steaosbcm larger. become atoms the as increases polarizability the Thus . nue na tmb the by atom an in induced , d h ioemmn u oui rawl be will area unit to due moment dipole the , c ,isde fi e a nue neeti ioei h tm n h tmi adto said is atom the and atom; the in dipole electric an induced has led — lcrncbcuei rssfo h ipaeeto h electron the of displacement the from arises it because electronic fi e as ned P m c = c P =(4 = ce = = e on charge Bound fi 0 pe Q r A E recharge Free m e h polarization, the ned − 0 0 = = fi = R Q 1= eld e 3 Pd ′ Q ) 0 e ntae stepolarization, the is area unit per E ( e e − E A r = − e Q − is 0 a e 0 1) 0 e E E — hti,tesm savacuum a as same the is, that q lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics P orpeettebudcharges bound the represent to , and − q tadistance a at , P hc a the has which , r pr is apart (3.127) (3.126) (3.128) (3.125) — and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 osi nelectric an in ions oeue n rsa tutrs(iue35b ne napidelectric applied an under polarization, 3.54b) (Figure structures crystal and molecules lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics For charge. Space (d) orientation. Dipole (c) placement. 3.54 FIGURE etdpl oet r rsn,snete eoepeeetal retdb nelectric an by oriented preferentially become they since present, are moments dipole nent .4) nefca o pc hre polarization, charge) space (or Interfacial 3.54c). h au of value the rmoepriua ehns Fgr .4 r oeaporaey sa nertdsmo l the all of sum integrated an as appropriately, volume. more unit or, per 3.54) moments dipole (Figure individual mechanism particular one from hssi h nuaigmti fadeeti,cuiglclzdacmlto fcag ne the under charge of accumulation localized causing dielectric, a of matrix insulating in the in phases usint edsusdnwi,wiho h ehnssaeiprati n ie ilcrc The dielectric? given any constant. in dielectric important the are of mechanisms dependence the frequency of the studying which in is, lies now answer discussed be to question lcrncpolarization, Electronic oue(hc h nt:coul/m units: the (check volume fl ioemmn a ietruhavreyo ehnss n ralo hc a hscnrbt to contribute thus may which of all or any mechanisms, of variety a through rise may moment dipole A n ralo hs ehnssmyb prtv naymtra ocnrbt oisplrzto.A polarization. its to contribute to material any in operative be may mechanisms these of all or Any ec fa electric an of uence d ie,frui volume) unit for (i.e., 1 = P P h oa oaiainmyb ersne sasmo niiulplrztos aharising each polarizations, individual of sum a as represented be may polarization total The . i retto polarization, Orientation . ceai lutain fplrzto ehnss a lcrncdslcmn.()Incdis- Ionic (b) displacement. Electronic (a) mechanisms. polarization of illustrations Schematic fi (d) (c) (b) (a) l;i cusi l ilcrc.Smlry ipaeet fin n tm within atoms and ions of displacements Similarly, dielectrics. all in occurs it eld; fi P P l Fgr 3.54d). (Figure eld e = – sdsusdpeiul,aie rmeeto ipaeetwti tm or atoms within displacement electron from arises previously, discussed as , No external field P + + e + m + – 2 + = P olm/m coul = i P + + h polarization The . + + – P + 0 + + + P P – 0 s rsswe smerc(oa)mlclshvn perma- having molecules (polar) asymmetric when arises , = 3 ). X P s m stersl ftepeec fhge conductivity higher of presence the of result the is , e P + stu dnia ihtedpl oetprunit per moment dipole the with identical thus is X m ++++ + ++++++ ++++++ i External fieldExternal applied V + + X + + +++++ + + + m + 0 + fi + + + l iers oinc(ratomic) (or ionic to rise give eld + + X + + + ++ + m s fi l (Figure eld (3.129) 373 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 o ahoe lcrn ihtereteeysalms aeltl nri n a olwatrtoso the of alterations follow can and 10 inertia about little have mass small extremely dielectric. electric their the with of Electrons polarization one. each the for to contribution no virtually make dipoles the frequency, relaxation the ioe ilbrl aesatdt oebfr the before move to started have barely will dipoles ilcrccntn ftemtra.A h rqec fthe of frequency the As material. the of constant dielectric the the with up keep cannot dipole the when oyo hret emvdtruharssiemtra,tepoesmyb lw h eaainfre- relaxation The slow. be 10 may about process at the occurring low, material, thus resistive fre- is a mechanism smaller through this whole relatively moved a for requires at be quency polarization to occur interfacial of charge to alternation of the expected Since body range. be radio-frequency may the in polarization as quencies, orientation for fre- frequencies range. relaxation relaxation infrared The the spectrum. in electromagnetic thus are the polarization of ionic frequencies for infrared quencies the to correspond vibrations fi the to consider us Let Frequency versus Constant Dielectric 3.4.4.2 374 IUE3.55 FIGURE osatdcessa h eprtr sicesd hc sdet h ihraoi rmolecular or atomic higher dielectric the the dipoles. to melting, of due orientation to is the due destroy which change to increased, tending abrupt collisions is the thermal temperature After and the mobility 3.56a. The as Figure former. the decreases in in easier constant schematically is orientation shown dipole is because solids effect than constants dielectric higher have Liquids Temperature versus Constant Dielectric 3.4.4.3 therefore they operate; mechanism ionic the and mechanism However, this permittivity. in at only to strongly frequencies, except contribution of that low range Note relatively optical polarization. a the of makes in mechanisms mechanism four electronic all the having frequencies dielectric high solid hypothetical a for quency l,bti iltk a take will it but eld, emynwcnie h aiu ehnssadpeit nagnrlwy h eaainfrequency relaxation the way, general a in predict, and mechanisms various the consider now may We oeue rgop faos(os eaiga emnn ioe a aecnieal nri,so inertia, considerable have may dipoles permanent as behaving (ions) atoms of groups or Molecules iue35 hw uv ftevraino h ilcrccntn rltv emtiiy ihfre- with permittivity) (relative constant dielectric the of variation the of curve a shows 3.55 Figure fi l.Fra sebyo ioe nadeeti,ti odto eut na paetrdcini the in reduction apparent an in results condition this dielectric, a in dipoles of assembly an For eld. fi l Fgr .4) fnwthe now If 3.54c). (Figure eld fi 6 l pt eyhg rqece.Rlxto feetoi oaiaini hsntosre until observed not thus is polarization electronic of Relaxation frequencies. high very to up eld z(lrvoe ein.Aoso osvbaewt hra nry n h rqece fthese of frequencies the and energy, thermal with vibrate ions or Atoms region). (ultraviolet Hz fl ec h pia rpriso materials. of properties optical the uence ilcrccntn essfrequency. versus constant Dielectric fi s igedpl na electric an in dipole single a rst

Dielectric constant (εr) fi ietm;s ftefeunyo the of frequency the if so time; nite polarization Interfacial oe Optical Power Ionic (or atomic) polarization Electronic polarization Electronic Dipole orientation polarization Dipole fi l srvre,tedpl iltr 8°t gi i aallt the to parallel lie again to 180° turn will dipole the reversed, is eld fi l,adteatrto ftedpl ieto asbhn htof that behind lags direction dipole the of alteration the and eld, Radio, TV,Radio, radar fi l.Gvntm,tedpl illn pwt t xsparallel axis its with up line will dipole the time, Given eld. Frequency fi fi l eess eodti rqec,called frequency, this Beyond reverses. eld fi l eeslicess on ilb reached be will point a increases, reversal eld l otne oices,a oesaethe stage some at increase, to continues eld 3 Hz. lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 hu oye.Acytlieplmrcnann oa ru ol eaea hw ydse lines. dashed by shown as behave would group polar containing polymer crystalline A polymer. phous 3.56 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.57 FIGURE aaio.()Paesiti elcapacitor. real a in shift Phase (d) capacitor. ois uha lse n ayplmr.Aoetegastasto eprtr ( temperature transition glass the Above polymers. many and glasses as such solids, oaincnrbtst h oe osi dielectrics. in loss power the to contributes rotation the with of lag the and dielectrics aftereffect in fi elastic Similarly, in force. applied resulting alternating the force, an behind the under polarization mechanical behind hysteresis a lag mechanical when but by material, instantaneously dissipation a occur energy within not molecules do and applied, atoms is of force displacements The loading. applied mechanical an to under dielectric a of behavior The collisions. Losses thermal and Dielectric mobility molecular 3.4.4.4 greater the to in due decrease The again 3.56a). is Figure melting (cf. range material after temperature crystalline constant a a in over dielectric as changes temperature single constant are a dielectric at polarization the abruptly orientation than matrix, rather to amorphous contribute an the which in with groups situated dipoles identically polar permanent not the Since of constant. orientation dielectric allows the which increasing movement, of freedom some have l Fgr .7) uheeg ossaerltdt h nenldpl rcin h oaino dipoles of rotation The friction. dipole internal the to related are losses energy Such 3.57b). (Figure eld iue35bsosteshmtcvrain fdeeti osat ihtmeaueframorphous for temperature with constants dielectric of variations schematic the shows 3.56b Figure fi l sopsdb h nenlfito ftemtra,adteeeg eurdt ananthis maintain to required energy the and material, the of friction internal the by opposed is eld hredniyvru electric versus density Charge aito fdeeti osatwt eprtr shmtc.()Cytliemtra.()Amor- (b) material. Crystalline (a) (schematic). temperature with constant dielectric of Variation a (b) (a) Dielectric constant (εr) a (b) (a) density Charge Solid c (d) (c) I eprtr Temperature Temperature fi l rdcseeg ispto yeetia ytrssi nalternating an in hysteresis electrical by dissipation energy produces eld T m Liquid field Electric fi l.()Ls-recce b ihls yl.()Paesiti perfect a in shift Phase (c) cycle. High-loss (b) cycle. Loss-free (a) eld. V fi l a uhi omnwt hto aeilsubjected material a of that with common in much has eld angle Loss

Dielectric constant (εr) density Charge T δ g Amorphous angle (θ) Phase Crystalline I field Electric V T m T g ,aosadmolecules and atoms ), fi l,thereby eld, 375 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 hnaplmrhvn oa rus(.. oyehlmtarlt,plvnlclrd)i lcdi an in placed is chloride) polyvinyl methacrylate, polymethyl (e.g., groups electric polar having polymer a Polymers When desirable. Polar is of constant Losses dielectric Dielectric high a 3.4.4.5 however, capacitors, in used dielectrics For radar. atrbtahg ilcrcsrnt Tbe36 n ihislto resistance. insulation (2.3 dissipation high satisfactory constant low a dielectric for a and and 3.6) Therefore, (Table constant frequency. strength dielectric high dielectric low high and a a have factor, but should factor dissipation materials high insulating constant, electrical performance dielectric high a by ilcrcls.Ti osi ml tlwfeunisweeteplrgop r bet epn aiyto easily respond to able are groups polar the where frequencies low at small the is loss This loss. dielectric alternating an In 3.58a). (Figure rqec utb speci be must frequency be ( zero.) to loss be derived would power angle the loss applications the electrical hence and 90°, of angle phase a have would n sin and (tan tangent its and angle, 376 oye na lentn electric alternating an in polymer 3.58 FIGURE fplrzto assapaesito h urn Fgr .7) h hs hf angle, shift phase The lag 3.57d). the (Figure dielectric, current a the containing of capacitors shift real phase in a However, causes lost. is polarization energy of no and high 3.57c), (Figure at voltage the except dielectric. negligible a that usually current by the are losses energy and measuring material of ways dielectric various the are through There temperatures. conduction ionic by mainly where oytyeeadplsyeewt hi xetoal o ispto atr <.05 n low and (<0.0005) factors dissipation low exceptionally their with polystyrene and aided Polyethylene be will dielectric a in dissipation heat and loss power the that discussion this from evident is It h ieo h osage(sin angle loss the of sine The o otmaterials most For vacuum, a in it across applied is voltage alternating an if that is capacitor a of property fundamental A occur currents Leakage losses. dielectric to contribute also currents leakage hysteresis, electrical Besides fi l,adas thg rqece hr h oa rusaeual ocag hi lgmn with alignment their change to unable are groups polar the where frequencies high at also and eld, E d fi steelectric the is l,teplrgop eaiga ioe edt rettesle nrsos othe to response in themselves orient to tend dipoles as behaving groups polar the eld, =cos (= a retto faplrplmrmlcl na electric an in molecule polymer polar a of Orientation (a) a (b) (a) + + + + + fl q w oadfo tdet t ucsiecagn n icagn s9°oto hs with phase of out 90° is discharging and charging successive its to due it from and to ows ) — Field applied

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Loss factor PL )isde PL frequency at low High response = Frequency offield Frequency w fi e stert feeg osprui oueadis and volume unit per loss energy of rate the as ned E 2 2 e 0 e r tan e r d tan d scle the called is fi l.()Deeti epneo polar a of response Dielectric (b) eld. lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics q at highfrequency response Low stre h oe atr In factor. power the termed is ) (Log scale) (Log osfactor loss fi l otiue othe to contributes eld d scle h loss the called is , . — d tan , (3.130) fi eld d , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 plcto fradio-frequency of application tlwfeunyt o epnea ihfeuny(iue3.58b). (Figure frequency high at response low to frequency low at ftemtra.I eed,aogohrtig,o h egho h ih ah hc a equantitatively be can which ability path, transmitting light light the of the length of Lambert the the measure on by a things, expressed is other among clarity as depends, Optical opaque It glass. material. become most the will of of and that dyes exceeds by even colored which be clarity, can They transparent. and or clear pigments are nature by resins Most Clarity Optical 3.5.1 absorption, water and weatherability, including limitation, considered. properties, be temperature other must however, resistance, applications, scratch optical For stability, measurable [27]. directly dimensional refraction more of and index appearance, as general such clarity, properties, color, include plastics of characteristics Optical Properties Optical 3.5 the Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.59 FIGURE h ahlnt,and length, path the rnucdasrto twvlntssotrta bu ,0 Fgr 3.60). (Figure A is 5,000 there and about downward, than shifts shorter curve wavelengths transmission the at as absorption exposure pronounced outdoor to due photodecomposition. darkening reduces show greatly plastics plastic the in of dihydroxybenzophenone development material or the ultraviolet-absorbing salicylate invisible for an phenyl of responsible as Incorporation largely such sunlight. to is exposed photodecomposition plastics in Ultraviolet color radiation. yellowish. yellowish visible be red more wavelength, to the but and one energetic transmits blue at less and energy as radiant it light best emit absorb the is and dyes it and of ultraviolet, Fluorescent plastic, the the components molding. in in before soluble yellow perhaps be plastic must and it the effective green, be produced in to is blue, incorporated dye example, any for the for color, However, red absorbs 3.59). The (Figure which piece. unchanged the dye through traveling a light visible by the of part removes length. dye reciprocal a of dimension the has and length path of effect ic h rcino ioe na alternating an in dipoles of friction the Since diino leo re itit h lsi a loms h elwclr nadto oyellowing, to addition In color. yellow the mask also can plastic the into tint green or blue a of Addition the in absorb to tendency natural a show plastics clear other many and cellulosics, allyls, phenolics, Cast when results color A resin. white water a to dye a adding by obtained are materials colored Transparent fi l.Tels smxmmi h rniinlrgo hr h oye spsigfo ihresponse high from passing is polymer the where region transitional the in maximum is loss The eld. fi lr r de.Plsyeeadpl mty ehcyae r elkonfrteroptical their for known well are methacrylate) (methyl poly and Polystyrene added. are llers Ultra- violet ih rnmsindarmfrplastic. for diagram transmission Light ,0 ,0 ,0 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 A iltBu re elwOag e Infrared Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet steasrtvt ftemtra tta aeegh h bopiiydsrbsthe describes absorptivity The wavelength. that at material the of absorptivity the is

Clear plastic – erlw rlg( log or law, Beer fi l nfbiainpoess(e ihfeunywlig hpe 2). Chapter welding, high-frequency (see processes fabrication in eld Wave ( length I / I 0 )= fi l rdcsha,plrplmr a ehae ythe by heated be can polymers polar heat, produces eld − AL A ) where ,

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Transmission (%) (Log scale) 377 L is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ls n ei r dnia n h ls ssraetetdt nbetersnt e h ls completely. glass the wet to resin the enable to treated surface is glass the and identical are resin and glass fpatcand plastic of IUE3.60 FIGURE 378 n 3.61 FIGURE a in plastics light 3.7. common of Table several speed in of the materials values index of other refractive ration of The the those material. to with the to corresponds compared in ray speed also are incident an its It of to 3.61). angle closely) (Figure the air, of refraction (or sine vacuum of the angle of the ratio the of is sine material the transparent any for refraction of index The Refraction of Index 3.5.2 amn,tecytlie iapa n h aeilbcmstasaet tcntu eifre that inferred on be but, without are thus methacrylate), and temperature, can poly(methyl type or It polystyrene noncrystalline room as transparent. the such at of temperature, becomes room translucent material at transparent the are thus which and plastics is disappear crystallites polyethylene the Crystalline warming, translucent. is such a interfaces interfaces of internal particles at occurs bubble, haze, particle, translucent. for dust be responsible a to is considered by which is caused beam, material light as the the 30%, of than scattering greater forward is The value haze the When scattering. forward de (sin = fi h feto nefcsdeto due interfaces of effect The by bounded regions crystallite of myriads with plastic crystalline a interfaces, at scattering to Due arbitrarily is Haze haze. optical of lack the by measured is specimen plastics a of clarity optical The e stefato ftasitdlgtwihi eitd2°o oefo nicdn emby beam incident an from more or 2½° deviated is which light transmitted of fraction the as ned Incident angle i )/(sin fi r ). elwn fpatc nexposure. on plastics of Yellowing ercino ih.Idxo refraction: of Index light. of Refraction lr hstasaetglass- transparent Thus ller.

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(Figure wavelength the in higher dB/km silica-based at 100 the approximately to rapidly is compared increases material, core and POF region as used visible generally PMMA, of attenuation The light. h edrdu sa o s015c.Telvlo nest osfo edn eed nteindividual the on depends bending from loss intensity of level The cm. 0.125 125 the (1,000 as of of diameter low characteristics millimeter outside as one with is POF radius of single-mode bend for the diameter while centimeter, outside one approximately an is for threshold) Thus, radius. bend hrceitc.Tebnigrdu eed agl ntedaee fthe of diameter the on largely depends radius bending The characteristics. more (i.e., sin methacrylate) poly(methyl For refraction. of index rmtear u tms aebe re been have must it but air, the from nenlre internal osatrn,lgtegt n ayt arct.Plmroptical Polymer fabricate. to easy and lightweight, nonshattering, 1/( to correspond to light of piping this for curvature thickness. of radius minimum the shows optics h blt ftelte,ue sardo lt,t edo ielgtaon uv.Bnigcan Bending curve. a around light pipe with material or a enter bend cannot air to in plate, beam light or a that rod 3.61 Figure a from evident as i is for responsible It used is follows. glass) as latter, or explained (plastic the be solid transparent of a for ability and air the for refraction of indexes in difference The Effect Lighting Piped 3.5.3 380 silica-based 3.63 FIGURE

Loss (dB/km) 1/ is sine the which for that is refraction of angle maximum the 1, = 90° sin Since 90°. > h ih edn blt fPFi aeueo nawd ait fapiain agn rmlighting from ranging applications of variety wide a in of use made is POF of ability bending light The teuto samaueet ndcbl d)prui egh fhwmc euto nlgt(u to (due light in reduction much how of length, unit per (dB) decibels in measurement, a is Attenuation oye a ueosavnae vrgas[8.Frtadfrms,i smr lal.I salso is It pliable. more is it foremost, and First [28]. glass over advantages numerous has Polymer − 10 10 10 10 1 2 4 6 0 114)o 2 prxmtl.Ovosyalgtba erce tagetragecno aecome have cannot angle greater a at refracted beam light a Obviously approximately. 42° or (1/1.49) 0.5 01 284 8 12 16 20 fl fi fl cin n a hsbn ih em ssoni iue36.Cnieaino geometric of Consideration 3.62. Figure in shown as beam, light a bend thus can and ections eswt wavelength. with bers xblt)adi oerslett aaeadaueta ls u oisitiscmaterial intrinsic its to due glass than abuse and damage to resilient more is and exibility) aito fatnaino MAand PMMA of attenuation of Variation PMMA (POF) Wavenumber (10 . 1.0 0.7 fi Wavelength (μm) Silica fiber Silica e,btitniyls aushv enosre t10% at observed been have values loss intensity but ber, fi e iistedt iklnt.Hwvr the However, length. link data the limits ber 3

cm fl –1 ce nenly lsi lt ihsalcraueteeoegives therefore curvature small with plate plastic A internally. ected ) 2.0 fi n e.Asrto aislreywt h aeeghof wavelength the with largely varies Absorption ber. .9 n h aiu nl frfato becomes refraction of angle maximum the and 1.49, = ea atcnb eue.Vr complicated Very deduced. be actual the can in part strain and metal stress of measurement distribution this the from with therefore anisotropy light; the polarized measuring by determined is operation, actual in sub- those simulating part, loads to machine jected a of model plastic transparent exper- simply. determined and in be imentally can available, strain readily solu- is analytical and tion no which stress for shapes, which complicated of technique by important the photoelasticity of transparent basis the of is plastics characteristic stress. to stress-optical due The anisotropy optical of the is development amor- glass) optical in in observed (also observed plastics phous phenomenon important An Characteristics Stress-Optical 3.5.4 h muto tani aiu at fa of parts various in strain of amount The fi es(e hpe 5). Chapter (see bers fi e PF a hre edradius bend shorter a has (POF) ber lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics m ) h edrdu (damage radius bend the m), fi fi e,large ber, l inse elpors in progress real witnessed eld – 5 o ed ls othe to close bends for 15% fi e iigalarger a giving ber n n where , − )tmsthe times 1) n sthe is m m, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 hog 0Ci i eurs1×03 0o 8ka/i raot2kW. 2 about or kcal/min 28 speci or of 80 perform × 1-kg 0.35 a × of 1 amount of requires required temperature the min the calculate 1 to raise in one 80°C to enables through example, time For and material power. of radio-frequency amount the with along knowledge ela odcoigrqieet yapoeso ra n error. and trial of as and requirements process radiation heating a the by by for establish by requirements than loss to released cooling molding cases heat injection mold energy both the for in as any lower customary well to minus substantially nevertheless compared is is melting losses It large of of molding. not heat proportion compression The is latent be press. any requirement the can and from heat requirement conduction heat this heat direct But theoretical this reaction. the of chemical molding sum the injection as and calculated molding compression In temperature. h aeili adt be to as vary travel said known polarization which is is of phenomenon rays material state This the the separate propagation. and two of velocities as the direction propagated Both the differently. with is polarized polymers, are and drawn velocities or different with strained and symmetry low ciently more permits it because analysis the stress of all for involving number used patterns the however, measurements. colorful by is, gives precise indicated light light is Monochromatic white spectrum. stress with the of Illumination of amount visible. colors the become and that light, rings polarized or under fringes examined is part The part. in analyzed successfully been models. have plastic wings, aircraft employing or manner, bridges this as such structures complete including shapes, Testing and Properties Plastics r oe hntoeo omnmtl,bcueo h usatal oe est fplastics. of density lower substantially the of speci because the metals, speci basis, have common volume example, of a for those along copper, However, than and temperatures. iron lower Both ordinary are metals. at most 0.1 of about that of than heats higher much is value this basis speci the plastics most For Speci 3.6.1 [30]. speci softening include thermal plastics and of properties thermal useful The Properties Thermal 3.6 The axes. different along densities different produces stress applied The coef stress. stress-optical applied to due strains hcns e rne hsmasta -n hc atwe luiae ihmncrmtclgtand light monochromatic with illuminated when part thick 1-in. polarizing a a through that viewed means This fringe. per thickness opatczdmtrassc scluoeacetate. superior cellulose are trans- as phthalate) unplasticized such poly(allyl regard, cast materials and this plasticized polystyrene, In to methacrylate), this stability. poly(methyl For or, as stress-optical separately. leisure such them have at plastics examining should parent analyzed and plastic be model the then the from however, may sections application, stress cutting locked-in by resulting conveniently, The more perhaps temperature. room to stress quenched photoelastic then in useful plastics transparent makes and glass by shown analysis. that than higher times many ndeeti rhaig oee,tespeci the however, preheating, dielectric In ngnrl igeryo ih neiga nstoi rnprn aeil uha rsaso suf of crystals as such material, transparent anisotropic an entering light of ray single a general, In plastic molded a in stresses locked-in of examination permits also characteristic stress-optical same The nweg fspeci of Knowledge by induced birefringence, of phenomenon this from arises plastics of characteristic stress-optical The noevraino h rcs h eomn tesi ple oawr,sf lsi oe hc is which model plastic soft warm, a to applied is stress deforming the process the of variation one In fi Heat c fi in fms lsisi bu ,0 s 7 kgf/cm (70 psi 1,000 about is plastics most of cient fi eto aeilhlst eemn h nryrqieetfricesn its increasing for requirement energy the determine to helps material a of heat c birefringent fi etvle(aoisprga e C isbten03ad04 naweight a On 0.4. and 0.3 between lies °C) per gram per (calories value heat c fi trwl hwadr rneo igfrasrs f100pi hssniiiyis sensitivity This psi. 1,000 of stress a for ring or fringe dark a show will lter . fi eto odn odri fmr ietcnen this concern; direct more of is powder molding a of heat c fi et hra xaso,temlconductivity, thermal expansion, thermal heat, c birefringence 2 r69Ma e nh(.4cm) (2.54 inch per Mpa) 6.9 or rdul ercin and refraction, double or fi et fplastics of heats c fi et0.35 heat c 381 fi fi c - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ra r omnyue eas hi coef their because used commonly are ureas rdcd sa xml,plsyeewt rs net ncoigfo h odn eprtr f10to 160 (70 of of temperature molding strain the a from cooling produces on 20°C inserts brass with polystyrene example, an As produced. un- in cooled manufacturer then inserts, t is to screw It due contacts, 65°C. stresses electrical to for cooled required sometimes slowly are then and 80°C at Polystyrene water cooling. in slow very air. heated by by disturbed obtained followed be is temperature, can proper it the plastics example at for held for and liquid one cycle, the a heating-cooling to in controlled similar parts process a the annealing immersing involves an It by manufacture. removed glass be in can plastics used brittle other and polystyrene in stresses part. the cold of and weakening creep shrinkage and differential stresses, to internal lead may locked-up This warping, temperature. produce uniform and a at cooling dif all during not are are tolerances parts different close that operation with is parts temperature room plastic to result, molding from contraction 1/2% thermal to about due usually shrinkage mold linear The parts. plastic oddmtrasadne esipto hra nryt xadtesrcue hsapist all to applies This structure. the expand coef to expansion energy have thermal which type of vinyl input coef the less of expansion polymers need thermal and high materials very bonded have polymers (thermoplastic) Linear Expansion Thermal 3.6.2 382 hra odciiiso lsisaerltvl o n prxmt .04(cal-cm)/(°C-cm 0.0004 approximate and low relatively are plastics of conductivities Thermal Conductivity Thermal 3.6.3 hnlclmnt,a laminate, phenolic hikg ncoigi suf is cooling on shrinkage core. phenolic the rupturing shrink or panel metal aluminum the The tearing aluminum. without of removed that be with cannot exactly and expansion completely its adheres match then to and resin the of characteristic orsodn ausae09 o opr .2frcs rn .0 o sets .08frwo,and thermal wood, low their for of 0.0008 Because 418.7). asbestos, by for multiplying 0.002 by obtained iron, are cast J/s-m-k in for values 0.12 (SI copper, cork for for 0.0001 0.95 are values corresponding etn)plmr aigatredmninlfaeoko togcvln od xii esthermal less exhibit bonds covalent strong coef of expansion have framework and three-dimensional expansion a having polymers setting) hyas aevr o lsi ouiadlresrisd o nuehg stresses. high induce because not cracking, do thermal strains undergo large easily and moduli not elastic do low plastics very expansion, have thermal also high they of spite In ceramics. auso 1×10 × 11 of values h atuees ic h esl tegho oytrn sol ,0 s 2 Mpa). (25 psi 3,600 only is polystyrene of strength renders stress tensile internal much the this since of presence useless, The part Mpa). (23 the psi 3,400 become stresses internal the Gpa), (3.2 sdn yjdcosycosn the choosing judiciously by done satisfactory. is quite mixture are a composite alumina-polystyrene and gives this stresses polystyrene in internal in inserts of Brass oxides brass. evidence aluminum of no of that show weight to identical by is 11% expansion of thermal whose Addition reduced. be can stresses o aypatc h s fmle ea net sntstsatr eas fteecsiestress excessive the of because satisfactory not is inserts metal molded of use the plastics many For which inserts metal molded of use the in problem a poses plastics of expansion thermal high relatively The to subject more are that plastics in stresses Internal mounting. suitable a by prevented be may Warping hr r ae hr h ihtemlepnino lsisi sdt datg.Oeeapei the is example One advantage. to used is plastics of expansion thermal high the where cases are There n raweetehg xaso fplmr ly signi a plays polymers of expansion high the where area One oee,b s fa appropriate an of use by However, hnsnhtcrsn r sda eet,tetemlepninnest emthd hsmatching this matched; be to needs expansion thermal the cements, as used are resins synthetic When fi tn fhnlso ells irt nsrwrvr.Aohreapei nml einweethe where design mold in is example Another screwdrivers. on nitrate cellulose of handles of tting fl wtn orleetesle lwy amn h ataclrtstepoes Internal process. the accelerates part the warming slowly; themselves relieve to tend ow − 6 – ° o idsel 7×10 × 17 steel, mild for /°C % oytyeeadcranohrmtrasehbtee ihrsrnae sa As shrinkage. higher a even exhibit materials other certain and Polyethylene 1%. fi lrcnitn faglass a of consisting ller fi in opri ml undercut. small a permit to cient − 7 10 × 17) fi sal s lsiswt o coef low with plastics use usually s insi h ag f30 of range the in cients fi lr ntepouto fpnl fauiu lo vradon overlaid alloy aluminum of panels of production the In ller. fi − lrtetemlepnino lsisad ec,teinternal the hence, and, plastics of expansion thermal the ller 6 fi (160 × in fepninaeaogtelws ftecmo plastics. common the of lowest the among are expansion of cient − 6 ° o riaybas n esta 0×10 × 10 than less and brass, ordinary for /°C − fi fi 0 r007.Fra lsi ouu f04 10 × 0.46 of modulus elastic an For 0.0074. or 20) utt ae ti lopsil uigtemolding the during possible also is It make. to cult ber ra onig,o nrae tegh ominimize To strength. increased or mountings, hread – fi trhmxuei sdt eueteexpansion the reduce to used is mixture starch inso bu 0×10 × 90 about of cients – 0×10 × 70 fi atrl stemle iesosof dimensions molded the is role cant − fi 6 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics °.Teemyb oprdwith compared be may These /°C. in fepnin hnlc and Phenolics expansion. of cient fi inssnete r weakly are they since cients − 6 °.Ntok(thermo- Network /°C. 2 sc.The -sec). − 6 ° for /°C 6 psi Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 otmtrastetoha-itrintmeaue r ihn10°. within are temperatures heat-distortion two speci the materials the de most at net a heated shows and end, each kg from 2.5 1/2-in. supported in. 5 by 1/2 speci a rmFgr .2ta h otnn on sascae ihthe with associated is point softening the that 1.52 in Figure discussed from is stability such Young improving load. for additives of use The 5. Chapter 1. in Chapter again considered be will n oecoigarneeti nldda ato h ein mrvdpromnei ob expected. be to is performance improved design, part the heated the of from part separated as be included can is handle arrangement the becomes cooling If plastic some the occurs. junction failure and the and at temperature, limitation; high temperature of any because for brittle regard without object hot the to directly example. for iron, electric an to connection composite asbestos- insulating This temperatures, teapot. higher a to suf to subjected handle 100°C parts the to For as up use its temperatures justify withstand to also enough can low still is composite this of conductivity wood- a both Wood- component. but out, ruled are Therefore, 100°C. acetate at even cellulose deform not asbestos- as must it such handle; hand. thermoplastics teapot a the common consider from) example (or an to As temperatures. energy high heat of rush continuous a prevents plastic the by odts) nteVctsfeigpitts apeo oye shae taspeci a speci at of heated needle is a polymer which of at sample noted a is temperature test the point de and softening the increase called Vicat (also the test In temperature test). distortion heat load the as known widely test the used. method between eprtrs h eainhpbtensrcueadsaiiywscniee brie considered was stability and structure polymer. between the relationship of of The stability behavior temperatures. thermal softening the the (1) (2) factors: and independent air; two in on deformed. largely particularly easily depends polymer, becomes This the and application. given rubberlike a is in it used 100°C above and below 100°C; brittle, is 1). and polystyrene hard Chapter of is temperature (see transition polystyrene solid glass 100°C The true agitation. a thermal and like expansion acts thermal the material temperature rubberlike this a Above temperature) second-order-transition the transition Below effects. (glass latent-heat any temperature without occur properties in changes transitions, Limitations Temperature and Temperatures Transition 3.6.4 cold quite or hot Quite parts. plastic of The dif feel wheels. less pleasant steering with the handled automobile be for for can responsible and objects also utensils is cooking conductivity to thermal handles low for used are plastics conductivities, Testing and Properties Plastics r copne yltn-etefcsadaekonas known are and effects latent-heat by accompanied are Both T m h etdsoto eprtr sde is temperature heat-distortion The h iiiyo oye sdtrie ytees ihwihplmrmlclsaedfre under deformed are molecules polymer which with ease the by determined is polymer a of rigidity The eino adedtrie oagetetn t evc ie ut fe ade r on fastened found are handles often Quite life. service its extent great a to determines handle a of Design each of percentage volume the to proportional nearly is mixture a of conductivity thermal The at use their for considered be to have plastics of resistance temperature and conductivity thermal Both w atclrts ehd aebcm eywdl sd hs r h ia otnn on etand test point softening Vicat the are These used. widely very become have methods test particular Two hra tblt etn eurstesuyo h hnei rpriso gn tvrosservice various at aging on properties in change the of study the be requires can testing polymer stability a Thermal which for temperature maximum the know to requires often engineer design The o ihycytlieplmr.I diin hr r ayplmr htsfe progressively soften that polymers many are there addition, In polymers. crystalline highly for fi s-adscn-re rniin r bevdi oyes etn n lorpctransformations allotropic and Melting polymers. in observed are transitions second-order and rst- fi ddsac ne speci a under distance ed T fi g ldpeoi ih econsidered. be might phenolic lled and ’ ouu safnaetlmaueo h iiiyo tfns famtra.I stu clear thus is It material. a of stiffness or rigidity the of measure fundamental a is modulus s T m n h au eemndfrtesfeigpitcndpn signi depend can point softening the for determined value the and fl our- fi ldpeoi a ihrtemlcnutvt hntepr ei,btthe but resin, pure the than conductivity thermal higher a has phenolic lled fi fi e oeua tutr sboe onprilyb obnto of combination a by partially down broken is structure molecular xed drt f2Cmn etn sas oea n-ure fti od For load. this of one-quarter at done also is Testing 2°C/min. of rate ed fi fi dload. ed ut fte r aeo lsi,snetetemlislto afforded insulation thermal the since plastic, of made are they if culty fi e stetmeauea hc h ipito em12by 1/2 beam a of midpoint the which at temperature the as ned fi inl elt ietehnl esnbesrielife. service reasonable a handle the give to well ciently fi ldpeoi sabte hie tcnb sda the as used be can It choice. better a is phenolic lled fl fi cino .1i.we oddcnrlywith centrally loaded when in. 0.01 of ection s-re rniin.Drn second-order During transitions. rst-order T fi ddmnin net notepolymer the into indents dimensions ed g o mrhu oyesadwt the with and polymers amorphous for fl cintmeaueunder temperature ection fi fl drt temperature rate ed nCatr1and 1 Chapter in y fl fi our- atyo h test the on cantly fi ldadan and lled 383 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 imns t. htmyafc h eut fa nlss Puri analysis. an of results the affect may that should etc.) pigments, sample test the however, lmns eemnto fcaatrsi aus and, values, characteristic of determination elements, tnadts ehd:B 72mto 0,AT D638. ASTM 301, method 2782 BS methods: test Standard cm ikewe bet oddfo taedopdo struck. or dropped are it metallic characteristic from a molded produces objects and brittle, when and tinkle transparent is polymer, purpose general the polystyrene, . Identi 3.7 of appropriate the to refer to work. essential the is executing it indicated. when reason are this method measured For used. properties techniques the testing and been and shown, have these are developed, tests been different have the methods of test principles simpli standard The Where (in included. [31]. schematically plastics illustrate of properties 3.90 standard Figure through 3.64 Figure Plastics of Properties Standard 3.6.5 384 h aeo odn n h min eprtr.Tniesrnt nlbf/in. in strength Tensile temperature. ambient the and loading of rate the The plastics. of load) under 3.64 FIGURE The apemyidct hte ti setal a oye racmone n rcse item, identi processed the and of process compounded bounce, the brittleness, a stiffness, in or softness, important opacity, polymer be or may raw transparency texture color, a surface odor, essentially and feel, form, is its it about whether learning indicate may sample n hp ftepr swl sismligcniin oent eti xettemxmmper- maximum the extent certain a to important. govern also are conditions humidity molding and variations its temperature size as as The such well conditions temperatures. as service heat-distortion temperature; part low-load missible the and of high-load shape to given and is used. consideration be some heat- may although the plastic to a temperature this up which hence at minimum and point load, be under limiting should shape upper its stress an maintain temperature to represents expected elevated is any plastic A at temperature. materials distortion such for and change, Identi oeta h rpryvle fpatc r ihydpneto h pcmnpeaain equipment, preparation, specimen the on dependent highly are plastics of values property the that Note eomnain fuprtmeauelmt o lsisaeuulybsdo eea experience, general on based usually are plastics for limits temperature upper of Recommendations temperature to sensitive material a indicates temperature distortion heat two these in difference large A 2 .Sadr etmtos S28 ehd31 SMD3,IOR2.Eogto ( = % Elongation R527. ISO D638, ASTM 301, method 2782 BS methods: test Standard ). fi s tpi h identi the in step rst fi aino lsis[2 scridotb ytmtcpoeue rlmnr et eeto of detection test, preliminary procedure: systematic a by out carried is [32] plastics of cation et o esl tegh(tesa rcueo h pcmn n lnain(xeso fmaterials of (extension elongation and specimen) the of fracture at (stress strength tensile for Tests fi aino omnPlastics Common of cation fi fi s rvdsamaueo h raigsrnt ftemtra u srdclyafce by affected radically is but material the of strength breaking the of measure a provides rst aino oyesi rtclvsa xmnto.Wieteapaac fthe of appearance the While examination. visual critical a is polymers of cation L 1 fi s epuri be rst a b fi ds hti otisn diie (plasticizers, additives no contains it that so ed L 2 fi al,speci nally, Load fi aini civdb ovn extraction; solvent by achieved is cation constant speed at Load 2 fi rkgf/cm or fi fi aino h oye.Frexample, For polymer. the of cation dfr)tebsso oeo the of some of bases the form) ed et.Fra xc identi exact an For tests. c lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 2 od(b rkf/ (in. b × kgf)/a or (lbf load = fi L ilsadr test standard cial 2 − L 1 100/ × ) fi cation, fi llers, 2 L or 1 . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ehd SMD9.Mdlsin Modulus D790. ASTM method: kgf)/ 0D SMD9,IOR178. ISO D790, ASTM 302D, ola-xeso uv sue.Temdlsi ie ysrs/tan tnadts ehd:B 72mto 302, method 2782 BS methods: test Standard stress/strain. by given R527. is ISO modulus D638, The ASTM used. is curve load-extension to xeso uv tspeci at curve extension 3.65 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.67 FIGURE 3.66 FIGURE a · b (in. 2 rcm or et for Tests etfrcmrsiesrnt fpatc.Cmrsiesrnt (lbf/in. strength Compressive plastics. of strength compressive for Test etfrtnetadscn ouio lsis o agn ouu,la ntnett load- to tangent on load modulus, tangent For plastics. of moduli secant and tangent for Test Specimen 2 .Sadr etmtos SMD9,B 72mto 0,IOR604. ISO 303, method 2782 BS D795, ASTM methods: test Standard ). fi Support detnini sdfrcluaigtesrs au,wiefrscn ouu odo secant on load modulus secant for while value, stress the calculating for used is extension ed fl xrlpoete fpatc.Feua tegh=3 = strength Flexural plastics. of properties exural

secant modulus secant for Load tangent modulus for Load Span (s) Span fl xr = exure Load Load (w)at constantLoad speed a s 3 (1% of original length) (1% oforiginal extensions Specified w /4 at 3 Load d (lbf/in. 2 a rkgf/cm or t b (exaggerated) curve Load/extension Specimen Extensions 2 .Sadr etmtos S28 method 2782 BS methods: test Standard ). s ws /2 at (lbf/in. (Deflection) d 2 2 rkgf/cm or rkgf/cm or 2 2 od(b or (lbf load = ) .Sadr test Standard ). 385 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 fi eurdt ersml g/m/hcns of (gf/cm)/thickness sample tear to required of (Denier specimen. 3.68 FIGURE 386 IUE3.70 FIGURE 3.69 FIGURE m ncnat(in. contact in lms etfrta rpgto eitneo plastic of resistance propagation tear for Test et o lcigo plastic of blocking for Tests etfrtnct of tenacity for Test 2 in tearing sample in tearing Calibrated scale Calibrated in units offorcein units Force absorbed rcm or fi aet,crs wns t. seult h egti rm f900mtr ftesample). the of meters 9,000 of grams in weight the to equal is etc., twines, cords, laments, (gt/cm) 2 .Sadr etmto:AT D1893. ASTM method: test Standard ). fi aet,crs wns t.Tnct g/eir raigla g)dne of (gf)/denier load breaking = (gf/denier) Tenacity etc. twines, cords, laments, samples Film Pivot fi fi m lcigfre(lbf/in. force Blocking lm. m(i) tnadts ehd:AT 12,B 72mto 308B. method 2782 BS D1922, ASTM methods: test Standard (mil). lm Load (gf) Load length and width standard Film sample Specimen Clamp Clamp fi Specimen madti heig errssac g/mml force = (gf/cm/mil) resistance Tear sheeting. thin and lm 2 rkgf/cm or Clamp lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics Clamp Standard slit Standard (initial position) weight Pendulum 2 od(b rkf/nta raof area kgf)/initial or (lbf load = ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 mo oc.Sadr etmtos SMD5;B 72mto 0A S 10 aln egtipc tegh= strength impact weight Falling R180. ISO 306A, method 2782 BS D256; ASTM W· methods: test Standard notch. of cm record; ehd36B. 306 method f lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.72 FIGURE 3.71 FIGURE oddi etn ahn hthspoiinfratgahcrcrigo odapidt h pcmn Specimen specimen. the to applied load of recording autographic for provision has that dimensions: machine testing a in loaded ln tanfatr toughness, fracture strain Plane ( a / H W tlfo -g.( m-kgf. or ft-lbf .1(rmAT standard), ASTM (from 1.61 = ) f ( a / W L emti atr Example: factor. geometric = ) egh(mm); length , et o matrssac fpatc.Io matsrnt ( = strength impact Izod plastics. of resistance impact for Tests etfrfatr ogns fpatc.Seie ntrepitbnigcon bending three-point in Specimen plastics. of toughness fracture for Test energy, Residual cm-kgf) or (ft.-lbf F 50 E steeeg eurdt rcue5%o h pcmn. tnadts ehd S2782 BS method: test Standard specimens.) the of 50% fracture to required energy the is 2 W W it (mm); width , K lc = K PSf lc 43Nmm N 34.3 = W H ( L a = Height of fall (ft. orm) =Height (ft. offall / 4mm, 64 = B W hcns (mm); thickness , Pendulum )/ Clamp specimen Notched (lbf orkgf) ofspecimen fracture effect Adjustable weight or BW Support Specimen S L 3/2 − W where , 3/2 a cm-kgf) E energy Impact 1 =10mm (ft.-lbf or (ft.-lbf .9Mam MPa 1.09 = P S pnlnt (mm); length span , od( load = B mm, 3 = 1/2 N tnadts ehd SME399-74. ASTM method: test Standard . eemndfo oddisplacement load from determined ) E 1 S − B 0mm, 40 = E 2 )/ W D notch Standard (in. orcm) width, Specimen a tlfi.o oc rcm-kgf/ or notch of ft-lbf/in. nta rc egh(mm). length crack initial , a fi D . mm, 3.2 = uain sson is shown, as guration, P 08 N, 50.88 = 387 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 mesdwr.Sadr etmto:AT D792. ASTM method: test Standard wire. immersed 388 IUE3.75 FIGURE of inch per pounds testing (in load tensile peeling of Average grips in.). (10 test mm in the 254 clamped for of are speed determined head is specimen constant width) test a specimen of at ends applied load unbonded and bent, machine The D1876-95). ASTM method: 3.74 FIGURE wire, raprmnadcniudtl alr occurs. failure till continued and min per area easo .2m ntikesi 27m.Seie spae ngiso etn ahn ota ue 54mm 25.4 80 outer of that rate so the machine at testing applied a is Load of jaws. grips the in with placed contact is in Specimen is mm. end each 12.7 of ( is in.) overlap thickness (1 of in length mm Recommended D1002-94). 1.62 ASTM of method: metals test (standard metals bonding for adhesives 3.73 FIGURE b = wt fseie opeeyimre n ftewr atal mesdi ae,and water, in immersed partially wire the of and immersed completely specimen of . test grips test in Area etfrspeci for Test omaddmnin fts pcmnfrsnl-a-on ha ett eemn ha tegh of strengths shear determine to test shear single-lap-joint for specimen test of dimensions and Form etpnladTtp et(-elts)seie o elrssac fahsvs(tnadtest (standard adhesives of resistance peel for specimen test) (T-peel test T-type and panel Test

25.4 mm 152 mm 152 fi test paneltest rvt n est fpatc.S.g.= gr. Sp. plastics. of density and gravity c Balance T-peel (23 ±2°C) Water mm 25.4 1.6 mm fi s 2 m( n)o eln fe h nta peak. initial the after peeling of in.) (5 mm 127 rst 35m 63.5mm 63.5 mm

241 mm (bonded) 25 mm 177.8 + 127 + L L L mm mm Wire Adhesive

than water) lighterfor plastics (Tied to asinker Specimen 241 mm a specimen Test /( (unbonded) a − 76 mm w – lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics − 0 kg/cm 100 mm 25.4 b where ) Pull Pull a 2 = (1,200 wt test grips test in Area 76 mm 76 mm fseie without specimen of . – w ,0 s)o shear of psi) 1,400 = wt fpartially of . L o most for ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 72mto 0,IOR75. ISO 102, method 2782 hc h edepntae mit h ape tnadts ehd:AT 12,B 72mto 0D ISO 102D, method 2782 at BS temperature D1525, the ASTM is methods: point test softening Standard sample. Vicat the C. into 102 R306. mm method 1 2782 penetrates BS needle method: the test which Standard 30°. through bends sample 3.76 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics f6 lbf/in. 66 of de sample a which at temperature 3.77 FIGURE 2 46kgf/cm (4.6 et o otnn eprtrso lsis atlvrsfeigpiti h eprtr twihthe which at temperature the is point softening Cantilever plastics. of temperatures softening for Tests etfrde for Test 2 n b ihasrs f24lbf/in. 264 of stress a with (b) and ) polyethylene i.e., 2°C/minfor at aconstant rate, the temperature Heater to raise polyethylene i.e., 50°C/hfor at aconstant rate, the temperature Heater to raise polystyrene i.e., 1°C/minfor at constant rate, the temperature Heater to raise fl sample Standard cintmeaueo lsisunder plastics of temperature ection liquid Heat transfer fl csb . n 25m) w esrmnsaemd n utd a ihastress a with (a) quoted: and made are measurements Two mm). (2.5 in. 0.1 by ects Sample Clamp 2 1. kgf/cm (18.5 30° Standard weight fl xrlla.Ha itrintmeauei the is temperature distortion Heat load. exural 2 .Sadr etmtos SMD4,BS D648, ASTM methods: test Standard ). Sample needle Standard polyethylene for i.e., 1kgf Standard weight polystyrene i.e., 20gfor Standard weight liquid Heat transfer Support Supports liquid Heat transfer 389 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 aeo xgn cm oxygen, of rate tro eprtr n N and temperature room at h aeo rcsig tnadts ehd:AT 28 S28 ehd15,IOR292. ISO 105C, method 2782 BS 1238, D ASTM methods: test Standard processing. of ease the 3.78 FIGURE 390 IUE3.80 FIGURE 3.79 FIGURE etidxo lsis h etmaue h aeof rate the measures test The plastics. of index Melt eemnto foye ne.Oye index, Oxygen index. oxygen of Determination esrmn fseln fdeetuae i wl ai = ratio swell Die extrudate. die of swelling of Measurement 3 sc ttemnmmcnetainncsayt support to necessary concentration minimum the at /sec, in 10min extruded in grams weight ofmaterial Melt index = (45 cm/hr×7.5cmi.d.) 2 corresponding , at STP at 4 ±1cm/sec column flowin Gas Glass column Glass fl wrt fntoe,cm nitrogen, of rate ow Diameter Diameter standard temperature Polymer melt at Standard weight n 0 O × 100 = % Glass beads inabed beads Glass Wire screen Clamp support rod with specimen Burning polyethylene for i.e., 2.16kgf Standard weight, i.e.,190°C for polyethylene standard temperature Polymer melt at B A fl wo oye et tpoie nidcto of indication an provides It melt. polymer of ow 3 Igniter sc tnadts ehd SMD2863. ASTM method: test Standard /sec. fl N O mn obsino aeilinitially material a of combustion aming B 2 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics /(O 2 2 / A . 2 +N 2 ,weeO where ), 2 volumetric , fl ow Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 IUE3.81 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics ene)aprn et ( depth vernier)/apparent 3.82 FIGURE etfrrt fbrig unn ae=3 (cm)/ 38 = rate Burning burning. of rate for Test etfridxo ercino rnprn lsis ercieidx=ra et maue with (measured depth real = index Refractive plastics. transparent of refraction of index for Test Light source microscope Traveling D Specimen 2 Specimen − D 1 .Sadr etmto:AT 52 S R489. ISO D542, ASTM method: test Standard ). Focus Focus Base Base Apparent (microscope reading = reading (microscope of specimen Focus ontop surface depth (microscope reading = reading (microscope specimen of bottom surface Focus onapparent t mn.Sadr etmto:AT D568. ASTM method: test Standard (min). 38 cm depth Real Specimen D 1 ) D 2 ) 391 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ( hr itnevso.Sadr etmto:AT D1003. ASTM method: test Standard vision. distance short 392 IUE3.84 FIGURE 3.83 FIGURE T 1 + T 2 ). etfrhz ftasaetpatc.Hz,%=10× 100 = % Haze, plastics. transparent of haze for Test esrmn fnro-nl ih-cteigpoet fplastic of property light-scattering narrow-angle of Measurement Light source After T After Narrow-angle Light source light scatter Film sample Film sample Reflecting source Light Reflecting sphere 1 sphere is determined the sphere T isrotated to isdetermined measure Film Wide-angle light scatter Film Light stop Object reflected all transmittedlight Photocell collecting 2½°(T scattered byfilmmore than angle transmitted light Photocell allwide- collecting Light trap Object (T at =T ½°to normal greater than that light collecting Annular photocell less than 2½° less scattered byfilm alllight absorbs Light trap T 1 2 ) to normal =T to normal / T Less than ½° Less 1 o aevlei motn o good for important is value haze low A . ½° lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 2 fi 2 m lrt,%=10× 100 = % Clarity, lm. 2 ) 1 T 1 / Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 aiu otg bandwt i yajsigeetoegpto gap electrode adjusting by air with obtained voltage maximum ilcrccntn = constant Dielectric otg eoefiue()tikeso pcmn(i) tnadts ehd:AT 19 S28 ehd201. method 2782 BS D149, ASTM methods: test Standard (mil). specimen of (V)/thickness failure before voltage 3.85 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics lcrd (cm electrode ( voltage 3.87 FIGURE = thickness specimen = gap Electrode capacitor. variable adjusting by sample with obtained 3.86 FIGURE V /urn esrd( measured )/current 2 /pcmntikes(m.Sadr etmtos SMD5,B 72mto 202. method 2782 BS D257, ASTM methods: test Standard (cm). thickness )/specimen etfrpritvt deeti osat fisltn aeil.()Psto fmxmmvoltage maximum of Position (a) materials. insulating of constant) (dielectric permittivity for Test etfrD eitneo nuaigmtras lcrclrssac fseie om applied = (ohm) specimen of resistance Electrical materials. insulating of resistance DC for Test etfrdeeti tegho oi nuaigmtras ilcrcsrnt Vml maximum = (V/mil) strength Dielectric materials. insulating solid of strength dielectric for Test D a (b) (a) 1 i.o mm)/ or (in. Upper electrode Lower electrode Lower Variable voltage V A .Vlm eitvt omc)=rssac fseie om r fupper of arc × (ohm) specimen of resistance = (ohm-cm) resistivity Volume ). measurement D Voltage 2 i.o m.Sadr etmtos SMD5,B 72mto 207A. method 2782 BS D150, ASTM methods: test Standard mm). or (in. Oscillator condenser = thickness = specimen gap Electrode Resistance Specimen 1MHz Variable V D 1 specimen Standard bath Oil Upper electrode Current measurement V A Lower electrode Lower D 2 vral aaio ean ssti (a)]. in set as remains capacitor [variable Specimen Electrode gap Electrode with air= with Standard voltage (+) (–) D 2 D 1 b oiinof position (b) ; 393 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ae o 0 fteseiest al( fail to specimens the of 50% for taken uoeadpatc otiigti eg,cluod unwt xlsv ilneadohrmtrassc as such materials other and violence explosive with burn celluloid) (e.g., this containing plastics and lulose 5 s rslae s eemnto sats o nrai diie ( additives inorganic for test a as determination ash sulfated or ash (5) eeolmnssc sN ,adhlgn;()dtriaino rprissc sdniy refractive identi density, polymer to as aid such an as properties solubility of of determination determination (4) (3) range; or halogens; point and melting and S, index, N, as such heteroelements 3.88 FIGURE 394 ayplmr a eruhyidenti roughly be can polymers Ignition Many and Heating on Behaviors 3.7.1 the in and tube ignition an in heating on behavior interfere, (1) not material: do additives method the which general of in a those evaporation and for varies, or particularly solvent reprecipitation materials The unpuri many by residue. the for insoluble obtained However, the is given. as be polymer remains cannot polymer and pure out the dissolved or solvent, is material the either 3.89 FIGURE oe osi at and watts in loss power 10 S28 ehd207A. method 2782 BS D150, ngnrl h olwn eiso netgtossol ecridotfrpeiiaytsso the of tests preliminary for out carried be should investigations of series following the general, In fi dmtra a eivsiae n ulttv rlmnr et used. tests preliminary qualitative and investigated be can material ed etfrA oscaatrsiso oi nuaigmtras oe atr= factor Power materials. insulating solid of characteristics loss AC for Test etfrevrnetlsrs rcigo tyeepatc.Srs rcigrssac ( resistance cracking Stress plastics. ethylene of cracking stress environmental for Test V × I fetv iuodlvlae×creti otaprs tnadts ehd:ASTM methods: test Standard volt-amperes. in current × voltage sinusoidal effective = h .Sadr etmto:AT D1693. ASTM method: test Standard ). fi db hi eairwe aeul etdadintd Nitrocel- ignited. and heated carefully when behavior their by ed Bath Heat loss duetoHeat loss dipole reversal dipole Standard notchStandard (w) (eg., detergent(eg., soln.) Environment current alternating Applied dielectric Polymer Support specimen stressed Standard fl lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics m;()qaiaiedtcinof detection qualitative (2) ame; fi lr,pget,stabilizers). pigments, llers, W / V × fi I where , ain and cation; F 50 time = ) W = Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 V SMD2856. ASTM aeilbrs 3 hte h aeili efetnusigo otne obr fe eoa from removal the after of burn color to and continues nature or the self-extinguishing (2) is readily; how material so, the the if whether and (3) burns burns; material material the if (1) following: oo,oo,in odor, the color, from removed is sample posing tils te ptl,peiul etdt eoeaytae fcmutbeo oaiemtras and materials, volatile or Bunsen combustible colorless of small traces a any over remove gently to warmed observed. heated then be previously not may spatula, changes steel characteristic stainless the intense, or be rapid should too heating is The heating tests. heating the for if taken because be gently, therefore done should material of quantities small Only vapors. or chloride) poly(vinyl 3.90 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics rsn.Tefloigtssmyb efre o ulttv eeto fN ,adhalogens. and S, if N, additives, of and detection polymer qualitative base for the performed of be nature roughly may the to tests serve including may following material, halogens The unknown and present. the sulfur nitrogen, of as nature such the elements indicate characteristic for tests of results The Elements Characteristic for Tests 3.7.2 where , bevtoso etn n giino oecmo oyesaelse nTbe3.8. Table in listed are polymers common some of ignition and heating on Observations h apei etmvdt h ots oeo h ml Bunsen small the of zone hottest the to moved next is sample The natpclpoeue ml ic raon 01g ftets apei lcdo lae ls or glass cleaned a on placed is sample test the of g) (0.1 amount or piece small a procedure, typical a In 2. 1. fl m,ad()tentr fteresidue. the of nature the (4) and ame, e rp fa qeu ouino edaeaei de.Abakpeiiaeo edsul lead of precipitate black A sulfur. added. of is acetate presence lead the of solution aqueous an of drops few and Sulfur nitro-groups containing compounds. substances heterocyclic with fails green nitrogen-containing sometimes a with test present, This is initially). nitrogen formed little is very color (if blue nitrogen indicates blue) (Prussian precipitate or coloration acidi n h uei etdt e et ti hndopdcrflyit ae 2 l namra.The mortar. a in ml) (20 water into carefully dropped added solution then is the is material It and of heat. powdered amount red is small to solid further heated A is melts. tube sodium the the and until sodium, cut freshly of amount Nitrogen V itefehypeae eru uft saddt the to added is sulfate ferrous prepared freshly little A t ipaeetvlm fseie,cm specimen, of volume displacement , fi h uini are u sfrntoe.The nitrogen. for as out carried is fusion The . dwt iuehdohoi cd n 1 and acid, hydrochloric dilute with ed fl bv 0m ftets aeili etdcrflyi ninto uewt wc the twice with tube ignition an in carefully heated is material test the of mg 50 Above . eemnto foe elcneto ii ellrpatc.Oe elcnet(prx)=10( 100 = (approx.) content cell Open plastics. cellular rigid of content cell open of Determination maiiy n hmcliett nldn cdt,aklnt,etc. alkalinity, acidity, including identity chemical and ammability, indicator pressure Differential fl oohdoabn eops ihteeouino osnu rirritating or poisonous of evolution the with decompose uoro-hydrocarbons Valve fl m n h aueo h ueo a seaie ihrsetto respect with examined is gas or fume the of nature the and ame Valve fi Cylinder 2 ltered. Cylinder 1 Sample 3 Stop and V – emti oueo pcmn cm specimen, of volume geometric , rp ffri hoieslto de.Ade blue deep A added. solution chloride ferric of drops 2 fl m ni h apebgn ofm.Tedecom- The fume. to begins sample the until ame fi V tae( l sacidi is ml) (2 ltrate Position 2 Position 3 1 fi taeadtelte oldfr1mn tis It min. 1 for boiled latter the and ltrate fl m n oei ae fthe of taken is note and ame Position 1 fi dwt ctcai n a and acid acetic with ed 3 tnadts method: test Standard . fi fl eindicates de m sthe as ame V − 395 V 1 )/ – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 uy ubr(I)Patclysoefree smoke Practically Polysul (IIR) rubber Butyl irl ubr(B)Ylo,soyLk un rubber/burnt burnt Like sooty Yellow, (NBR) rubber Nitrile Styrene oyabnt uios ot hnlcMlsadchars and Melts of liberation fumes, acidic Strongly Phenolic Acrid bordered sooty green Luminous, Yellow, from removal on burning continues and burns material The rubber Chlorinated Polycarbonate oyuain B)Ylo,bu base, blue Yellow, gutta (NR, Polyisoprene (BR) Polybutadiene rafradhd ei saoeA bv sabove As Yellow above As above As Nylons resin Urea-formaldehyde Melamine-formaldehyde oyhoorn elw mk saoeA above As dif above Very As formaldehyde Phenol, smoky Yellow, smoky Yellow, resin Phenol-formaldehyde Polychloroprene oyvnldn hoie saoeRsmlshydrochloric Resembles above As chloride) Poly(vinylidene oycyoirl elwRsmln un arDr eiu;vprrato alkaline reaction vapor residue; Dark hair burnt Resembling luminous, Yellow, Yellow acetate) Poly(vinyl Polyacrylonitrile ehlcluoeYlo,lmnu un ae et n chars and Melts paper Burnt blue with yellow Pale luminous Yellow, cellulose Ehtyl cellulose Methyl ells irt (plasticized nitrate Cellulose oyvnlclrd)Yellow chloride) Poly(vinyl oye oo fFaeOo fVprOhrNtbePoints Notable Other Vapor of Odor Flame of Color from removal on self-extinguishes but burns material The Polymer 3.8 TABLE 396 ells ctt uyaeDr elw(edges yellow Dark butyrate acetate Cellulose ells ctt Yellow acetate Cellulose cellophane, (cotton, Cellulose ecpa ieodor) like mercaptan unpleasant, emits itself (SBR) eca synthetic) percha, resin ihcamphor) with ics ao,etc.) rayon, viscose fi – erbe (polymer rubber de uain rubber butadiene etn et fSm omnPolymers Common Some of Tests Heating mk-re lihPnet ml fH of smell Pungent; bluish Smoke-free, elw ot ugn,fut ml of smell fruity Pungent, sooty Yellow, elw ot ugn,disagreeable, Pungent, sooty Yellow, aeylo,lgtAmna amines Ammonia, light yellow, Pale elwCmhrBrsvr at fe ihexplosion with often fast, very Burns Camphor Yellow elwBrtpprCas un ihu melting without burns Chars, paper Burnt Yellow adelike candle smoky edge sooty bordered re base green sparks sooty, somewhat blue), slightly – – – rne blue orange, rne green orange, re,sak ctcai,brtpprMls rp,brsrpdy chars, rapidly, burns drips, Melts, paper burnt acid, Acetic sparks green, – lgtylk un ae etde o hrreadily char not does Melt paper burnt like Slightly iarebe we hr edl;vprrato neutral reaction vapor readily; Chars sweet Disagreeable, eebigbrthi et hrl oclear, to sharply Melts hair burnt Resembling ctcai tcyrsde cdcvapor acidic residue, Sticky acid Acetic eebe hydrochloric Resembles lgtyset burnt sweet, Slightly ctcai/uyi acid, acid/butyric Acetic fl ame hair styrene iebrtrubber burnt like formaldehyde (typically acid uulyetrlike) ester (usually plasticizer and acid paper un paper burnt fl ame fi hlike), sh 2 elw cdc(O)fumes (SO2) acidic Yellow, S lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics sabove As sabove As sabove As eydif Very sabove As togyaii ue Hl,black (HCl), fumes acidic Strongly et n chars and Melts et n om rp which drops forms and Melts C;soln lc residue black swollen, HCl; alkaline reaction a vapor into drawn be can melt ecinalkaline reaction ecinneutral reaction residue otneburning continue cdcfumes acidic fi fi utt gie vapor ignite, to cult utt gie vapor ignite, to cult fl wn liquid; owing ( Continued fi ber; ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 Ghosh, oytrn uios eysoySet(trn)Sfes aiyignited easily Softens, (styrene) Sweet sooty very Luminous, yellow Luminous, metyhacrylate) Poly(methyl Polystyrene nTbe39 h ou fidenti of focus The 3.9. Table in n et o hra erdto,adslblt retatblt nwtro ifrn rai solvents. 3.10. organic Table different in or compared water are in polymers extractability common or of solubility behaviors temperature, and solubility distortion The degradation, heat thermal range, for or point tests melting and otherwise, or fusibility e.g., observations, Poly( aoe clrn,boie iodine). bromine, (chlorine, halogen oyvnlaea)Prl deAei cdDe o rplk oy(vinyl poly like drip not Does paraf Like center) (blue acid Luminous Acetic drops forms Melts, Yellow butter rancid Like edge Purple edge) (yellow Polyethylene Bluish formal) Poly(vinyl acetal) Poly(vinyl butyral) Poly(vinyl luminous oye oo fFaeOo fVprOhrNtbePoints Notable Other Vapor of Odor Flame of Color limited Luminous, alcohol) Poly(vinyl Polymer (CONTINUED) 3.8 TABLE Testing and Properties Plastics hnteosrain n eut fpeiiaytsshv encniee n oto h possible the of most identi and speci exact considered Some an been [33]. eliminated, have tests base tests polymer preliminary the of for results structures and observations the When Speci 3.7.3 per ools n hncoe)adhae nteotrpr fthe of part outer the in heated and cooled) then and colorless appears aeili lcdo oprwr iiilyhae nannuiosbunsen nonluminous a in heated (initially wire copper a on placed is material Source: h ifrn oyesmyb classi be may polymers different The nBeilstein In 3. 1. a -ole cd oldi h uecpor ormv H remove to cupboard fume the in boiled acid, niae rmn n elwpeiiaeidctsiodine. indicates precipitate yellow a and grey bromine turning precipitate, indicates while A added. is solution Halogens oimntieudriecoe odto.Teslto is solution The and condition. b acid ice-cooled hydrochloric under concentrated nitrite and g) sodium cooled, (1 is zinc solution The granulated gently. adding warming washed by and reduced are combined mixture ml) are the 5 × extracts (2 precipitate ether solution yellow hydroxide The pale sodium dilute ml). a with yield 25 extracted then to × ml), and ml) 5 (2 × (25 re ether (2 water water under with with into heated thoroughly extracted poured is then is g) mixture is (0.1 clear which sample the polymer and The acid chain. nitric polymer the in units copolymers. styrenic and polystyrene for Tests P. npto ouinpouigade e color. red deep a producing solution -naphthol rmKas,A n ag,A 1969. A. Lange, and A. Krause, From fi h laieetat n h qeu xrc r obndadtentocmonspeetin present compounds nitro the and combined are extract aqueous the and extracts alkaline The 1990. fl s(P P,ec)A bv saoeA above As above As above As etc.) EPR, ns)(PP, m.Asbeun re oblue to green subsequent A ame. fi al ihwtr( ml). (5 water with nally ’ et hc rvdsasml en fdtcighlgn,amnt uniyo h test the of quantity minute a halogens, detecting of means simple a provides which test, s fi h uini are u sfrntoe.The nitrogen. for as out carried is fusion The . oye cec n ehooyo lsisadRubber and Plastics of Technology and Science Polymer Tests c fi et o ed identi ready for tests c etn et fSm omnPolymers Common Some of Tests Heating ot,crackling sooty, slightly edge), (blue, smoky fi – ainmyb ute arwddw ntebsso te preliminary other of basis the on down narrowed further be may cation ht lgtysetDe o rplk oyvnlbutyral) poly(vinyl like drip not Does sweet Slightly white fi dit eea rusacrigt h lmn rsn sshown as present element the to according groups several into ed nrdcint hmclAayi fPlastics of Analysis Chemical to Introduction – re oo,poue yvltlzdcpe aie indicates halide, copper volatilized by produced color, green fi fi aino speci of cation trdadte iztzdwt iueslto 5m)of ml) (5 solution dilute a with diazotized then and ltered we,fut otn,casslightly chars Softens, fruity Sweet, nlaat hryselBrsin Burns smell charry Unpleasant, etnuse candles) (extinguished h etdpnso h rmtcrnso h styrene the of rings aromatic the on depends test The 2 n C,adte e rp fsle nitrate silver of drops few a then and HCN, and S – fi le niae hoie elws precipitate yellowish a chlorine, indicates blue, wax n fi aincnb aeb arigotspeci out carrying by made be can cation fi aaMGa-il e eh,India. Delhi, New McGraw-Hill, Tata . fi oyesaedsrbdbelow. described are polymers c tae( l sacidi is ml) (2 ltrate fi al ordit xeso alkaline of excess into poured nally fl et,frsdos rpescontinue droplets drops; forms Melts, m.Cro burns Carbon ame. burning butyral) residue black removal; on slowly fl m,sl extinguishing self ame, lfeBosLd London; Ltd, Books Iliffe . fl fi fl m ni the until ame dwt iuenitric dilute with ed xi concentrated in ux fi fl s iha with rst m tests ame fl ame 397 fi c Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 Group 3.9 TABLE 398 Group Group Group Group a 4 2 1 3 e pedxA o abbreviations. for A3 Appendix See 6. 5. 3. 4. 2. moi ouin leclridctspeos(aems etknwt lsista contain that 1 plastics with with taken moistened be been and must has (care removed phenols material is indicates the paper color blue After the A air. minute, solution. in ammonia a it about drying for then pyrolyzed and 2,6-dibromoquinone-4-chloro-imide of h ot ftetb scvrdwt a with covered is tube the of mouth The etfrpeoi resins phenolic for Test duced. oiead10gK isle n2 lo : alcohol 1:1 a of ml 20 in dissolved KI g 1.0 and iodine nte et ftecnesdprlzt fplarlntieo t ooyesi aealkaline, acidi made then the is In and in copolymers sulfate, readily. its held ferrous develops or is of color polyacrylonitrile trace acid blue of a acetic bright pyrolyzate with dilute condensed boiled a in the copolymers, benzidine if its of test, or another solution polyacrylonitrole dilute of a vapors with pyrolytic copolymers moistened acrylonitrile freshly is and that polyacrylonitrile iodine borax dilute for the of with Test pinch contact a on of brown deep addition of turns solution on solution. however, acidic or acetate), or immediately Poly(vinyl neutral almost solution. 0.25% the develops of into color volume blue equal a an to alcohol), added poly(vinyl is solution) acid hydrochloric 2N yellow ∼ etfrpoly a (5%). for with hydroxide treated Test and sodium boiled methanolic are of solutions pyridine drops their few when precipitates brown dark eventually and eeosabonclrbt ntelqi n h atal wle oye.Tecag takes change The bath. polymer. water swollen a partially in the warmed poly for is and Test mixture liquid the the if in faster both place color brown a develops ei rdc ercpttdb digmethanol. adding by reprecipitated product meric aeilb te xrcinadteBisents o hoiei eetdt aecranthat certain make tetrahydrofuran, to in repeated dissolved is then test chlorine is material for the The test from present. Beilstein removed still the are is and Plasticizers chlorine extraction previously. ether described by test, material Beilstein the is determination etfrpoly for Test hntepeec fclrn scon is chlorine of presence the when Absence IR, (NR, rubbers diene S-vulcanized (ester/ polyurethane S (NBR), Nitrile N lPlclrpee chlorosulfonated Polychloroprene, Cl Element on Rubbers Found %slto ftepatczrfe aeil h itr hne ihtm rmclrest light to colorless from time with changes mixture the material, free plasticizer the of solution 5% naohrts,pl(iy hoie n iy hoieplmr edl omboncoloration brown form readily polymers chloride vinyl and chloride) poly(vinyl test, another In nadto fafwdoso a of drops few a of addition On etc. Cl, S, N, of Classi – rw,dr rw,and brown, dark brown, eoiecoslne or cross-linked Peroxide fi aino otCmo oyesAcrigt lmnsPresent Elements to According Polymers Common Most of cation PM P,etc.) EPR, IIR, EPDM, BR, SBR, IR, (NR, rubbers hydrocarbon unvulcanized B,B,C,IR PM NBR), polysul EPDM, IIR, CR, BR, SBR, urethanes) ether oytyee,etc. polyethylenes, polyethylenes chlorosulfonated ( ( iy alcohol vinyl ( iy chloride vinyl iyieechloride vinylidene fi erbesand rubbers de h etmtra dy shae na giintb vrasmall a over tube ignition an in heated is (dry) material test The . ) n poly and .Speci ). a fi .Pl(iyieeclrd) hnimre nmorpholine, in immersed when chloride), Poly(vinylidene ). al oblack. to nally fi ∼ ( et o hoiecnann oyesaepromdonly performed are polymers containing chlorine for tests c iy acetate vinyl fi 0 ehnlcslto fsdu yrxd o2 to hydroxide sodium of solution methanolic 10% mdb rlmnr et h ipetmto fchlorine of method simplest The test. preliminary by rmed fi trppr rprdb okn ti nehra solution ethereal an in it soaking by prepared paper, lter erlu eis omrnidn eis ells and cellulose resins, coumaroneindene resins, Petroleum ells irt,sl,plaie,pliie,polyurethanes, polyimides, polyamides, silk, nitrate, Cellulose oyvnlclrd) oyvnldn hoie n related and chloride) poly(vinylidene chloride), Poly(vinyl etc. ebonite, polysulfones, Wool, ehcyae,pl(iy ctt/loo) etc. acetate/alcohol), poly(vinyl methacrylate), polyole resins, polyethers acetal polyesters, or nitrate, cellulose than other cellulosics eis eaiefradhd eis etc. resins, melamine-formaldehyde urea-formaldehyde resins, resins, ABS and SAN polyacrylonitrile, yrclrntdrbe,etc. rubber, hydrochlorinated ooyes polychlorotri copolymers, .We ml oueo oieslto 02g (0.2 solution iodine of volume small a When ). fi d rsinbu rcptt sraiypro- readily is precipitate blue Prussian ed, – ae itr n iue o10m using ml 100 to diluted and mixture water hnasrpo urcaeaepaper acetate cupric of strip a When . lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics Plastics/Fibers fi s oytrn,poly(methyl polystyrene, ns, fl ootyee hoiae or chlorinated uoroethylene, fi trdadtepoly- the and ltered – rp fdilute of drops 2 – 5mlof fl ame. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 yo omcai,peos tri phenols, acid, Formic Nylon oddpeoi eisBnyaie(t20C l omnsolvents common All 200°C) (at Benzylamine resins amino Molded resins phenolic Molded oyvnlethers) Poly(vinyl oysesBny loo,ntae yrcros hnl loos esters, Alcohols, formamide, dimethyl cyclohexanone, hydrocarbons, phenols Chlorinated hydrocarbons, nitrated alcohol, Benzyl Polycarbonate Polyesters ei oul nIslbeIn Insoluble In Soluble Polyole Resin 3.10 TABLE Testing and Properties Plastics oyvnlaeae rmtchdoabn,clrntdhdoabn,ketones, hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, Aromatic acetate) Poly(vinyl oyvnlachl ommd,wtrAihtcadaromatic and Aliphatic chloroform- 9:1 in (butyrals tetrahydrofuran, ketones, Esters, acetals) Poly(vinyl water Formamide, alcohol) Poly(vinyl oyvnldn hoie uy ctt,doae eoe,ttayrfrnAchl,hydrocarbons Alcohols, hydrocarbons, Alcohols, tetrahydrofuran Polychlorotri ketones, dioxane, cyclohexanone acetate, tetrahydrofuran, Butyl formamide, Polytetra Dimethyl chloride) Poly(vinylidene chloride) Poly(vinyl oytrn ezn,mtyeeclrd,ehlaeaeAchl,water Alcohols, eg., hydrocarbons, Chlorinated acetate ethyl chloride, methylene Benzene, ABS Polystyrene oyspeeBneeAchl,esters, Alcohols, hydrocarbons, Aliphatic Benzene Acrylics Benzene Polyisoprene Polybutadiene ue,melamine) (urea, oyehcyi acid polymethacrylic acid ehlehrWtr loo,bnee hoiae yrcros tes sesPtoemether alcohols, Petroleum hydrocarbons, chlorinated benzene, ether, Petroleum esters ethers, hydrocarbons, chlorinated benzene, alcohol, Water, ether Ethyl ether Methyl oysbtln tes erlu te loos esters Alcohols, esters, Alcohols, esters Alcohols, ether (boiling) petroleum decalin Ethers, tetralin, xylene, trichloroethylene, Chloroform, (boiling) decalin tetralin, xylene, Polyisobutylene Dichloroethylene, Polypropylene Polyethylene oycyaieWtrAchl,esters, Alcohols, esters, Alcohols, of Esters Water polyacrylic of Esters nitrophenol and Polyacrylamide Dimethylformamide Polyacrylonitrile fi ns fl ootyeeIslbeAlsolvents All Insoluble uoroethylene fl uoroethylene ouiiyBhvo fSm omnPlastics Common Some of Behavior Solubility ezlmn a 6°)Alcmo solvents common All 160°C) (at Benzylamine o rmtchdoabn,clrntdhdoabn,etr,ketones, esters, hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, Aromatic ketones, hydrocarbons, chlorinated esters, hydrocarbons, Aromatic -Chlorobenzotri tes ses ketones esters, ethers, cresol methanol ehnlmixture) methanol dioxane tetrahydrofuran fl oie(bv 2°)Alsolvents All 120°C) (above uoride fl ootao loos esters, Alcohols, uoroethanol p dclrbneeAchl,water Alcohols, -dichlorobenzene Water Ol wligi usual in swelling (Only lpai hydrocarbons Aliphatic lpai hydrocarbons, Aliphatic lpai hydrocarbons Aliphatic hydrocarbons Aliphatic solvents) hydrocarbons methanol hydrocarbons hydrocarbons halogenated hydrocarbons hydrocarbons ketones, loos ethers alcohols, ses ketones esters, ethers, alcohols, hydrocarbons, uy acetate butyl ketones ketones esters, alcohols, ( Continued 399 ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 aua ubrAoai yrcros hoiae yrcrosPtoemether, Petroleum (80 oil linseed ketones, Esters, hydrocarbons chlorinated hydrocarbons, Aromatic rubber Chlorinated rubber Natural Styrene ells irt ses(ty ctt,btlaeae t.,ktns(ctn,methyl (acetone, ketones etc.), acetate, butyl acetate, (ethyl Esters nitrate Cellulose (acetate, esters Cellulose oyxmtyeeIslbeAlsolvents All In Insoluble ether Petroleum In Schweizer Soluble ethers Cellulose regenerated Cellulose, water hydrocarbons chlorinated Alcohols, Insoluble resins Epoxy oxide) Poly(ethylene Polyoxymethylene Polyurethanes Resin (CONTINUED) 3.10 TABLE 400 Source: propionate) ty ehnl ehln hoieWtr aliphatic Water, solvents Organic solvents Common chloride methylene Methanol, hydroxide Sodium dil. Water, hydrocarbons, Aliphatic insoluble Practically chloride Ethyl methylene benzene, dioxane, esters, ketones, Methyl Alcohols, Cured ether, Petroleum Uncured Dimethylformamide dimethylformamide phenol, hot chloride, Cross-linked Methylene Noncross-linked a. 7. Phenol 2 diazotized of ml 2 – – rae rbie ihwtri h rsneo nai (H acid thermally an are of presence these the when in evolved water with is boiled Formaldehyde resins, or melamine-formaldehyde treated formal). and poly(vinyl urea-, phenol-, and are polyoxymethylene examples Common polymers. and resins etfrfradhd odnaeresins condensate formaldehyde epoxide cross-linked for phosphate, Test cresyl and phenyl etc.). e.g., resins, pyrolysis, on phenols yielding substances epnigfradhd odnaersn n prpit et o hnl ra n melamine identi and urea, for phenol, employed for be tests may appropriate and of resins presence condensate formaldehyde the responding In minutes. few a is violet. for acid acid violet/dark sulfuric 100°C turns concentrated chromotropic nearly solution of to the excess aqueous warmed an formaldehyde, preferably then 5% mixture and the solution of and test drops aqueous added, the few to added A are solution acid). 6-disulfonic dihydroxynaphthalene-3, uain ubrEhlaeae ezn,mtyeeclrd loos water Alcohols, chloride methylene benzene, acetate, Ethyl rubber butadiene 5mgof rmKas,A n ag,A 1969. A. Lange, and A. Krause, From hnl ra n eaieaeas banda nemdae nai yrlsso h cor- the of hydrolysis acid on (1,8- intermediates as obtained acid also are chromotropic melamine and urea, with Phenol, treated are distillates acid or extracts aqueous The nadto oteetat(0m) prxmtl .Nptsimhdoie(8 hydroxide potassium 0.5N approximately ml), (10 extract the to addition On . p ntonln isle n50m fapoiaey3 yrclrcai,utlthe until acid, hydrochloric 3% approximately of ml 500 in dissolved -nitroaniline eos sesAihtchydrocarbons Aliphatic esters Ketons, p tetrahydrofuran 0 spoy loo,8%btlaeae+2%isopropyl 20% + acetate butyl alcohol) 80% ketone alcohol, isobutyl isopropyl methyl 20% 80% + (eg. mixtures etc.), ketone, ethyl ntonln 5 oimntieslto de oa c-odslto of solution ice-cold an to added solution nitrite sodium (5% -nitroaniline ouiiyBhvo fSm omnPlastics Common Some of Behavior Solubility ’ egn rai solvents Organic reagent s fi ainpurposes. cation nrdcint hmclAayi fPlastics of Analysis Chemical to Introduction omleyeetr notecmoiino several of composition the into enters Formaldehyde . – 0°) abntetrachloride, carbon 100°C), 2 SO 4 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics ). lfeBosLd,London. Ltd., Books Iliffe . lpai hydrocarbons Aliphatic lpai hydrocarbons Aliphatic water alcohol, methyl etc.) heptane, (hexane, esters ketones, alcohols hydrocarbons aromatic and water ethers alcohols, benzene, – 0m)and ml) 10 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 eoeecs rmn.Tersdei hnwre ihaltl hnl ntepeec fpolyisoprenes, of presence the In phenol. little to carbon a bath water with in a warmed in suspended then heated is or and residue tetrachloride dissolved The carbon bromine. is in excess bromine g) remove of solution (0.05 little polymer a with synthetic acetone-extracted treated an (the tetrachloride, test, 1,4-Polyisoprenes identi this ml). readily For be (1.5 polyisoprenes. can acid trioxide which chromium sulfuric acid, dissolving concentrated acetic by adding yield prepared rubber) and ml) natural (5 ml) solution of (5 acid equivalent water chromic little of in presence produce g) the either (2 in may tube test rubbers a Other in boiling. on color. ml) brown (85 uncharacteristic water an give and or ml) change (15 acid sulfuric centrated Poly- tinge. tinge. on yellow green a with brown reaction. distinct grey or color paper brown a this a test with in give the hand, turn SBR, blue other (neoprene) resemble the polychloroprenes or rubbers on from silicone rubbers, green nitrile and from paper NR, vapors resemble Pyrolytic the rubber turn butyl and pyrolysis isobutylenes (SBR) rubber butadiene lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics fteaoets spstv,tesml a efrhrsbetdt modi a to subjected further be may sample the positive, is test above the If heated gently is sample of g 0.1 About polyisoprenes. for test simple a provides oxidation acid Chromic color yellow bright a produce rubbers butyl and polyisobutylenes from vapors pyrolytic test, another In aosfo aua ubr(R rdc epbu rblue or blue deep a produce (NR) rubber natural from Vapors b. 10. fi 8. 9. trpprfehysae naslto bandb isligylo ecrcoie( )i con- in g) (5 oxide mercuric yellow dissolving by obtained solution a in soaked freshly paper lter lo ctn,1m fcnetae yrclrcai,ad2m fwater). of ml 2 and acid, hydrochloric concentrated added. furfural, of distilled is ml freshly solution pure, 1 of hypochlorite acetone, drops sodium (5 of reagent of ml furfural ml 2 prepared freshly 1 with and treated is hydroxide, 2 sodium Solution dilute with alkaline test. made this by differentiation possible melamine No is and phenol. Urea homologs indicating its develops color and violet phenol or between red a colorless), just becomes solution oueo 2 of volume ouino rclraei cdi spoao rdcsdfeetclrratosi h rsneof presence the rubbers. in different reactions of color different vapors produces pyrolytic isopropanol in acid trichloroacetic of solution p sdsovdi ctn n rae ih2 with treated and acetone in the dissolved and is vapors the resin. esters in urea cellulose placed of for is Test presence paper and the litmus acid thus red sulphuric and of N urea strip a 1 added, of is drop solution fl 1 urease 10% Then of indicator). neutralized ml as is 10 mixture (phenolphthalein The disappeared. hydroxide Erlenmeyer has ml sodium formaldehyde 100 of a with smell in the placed until is acid g) sulphuric (0.25 5% with sample powdered the test, colorless. this For remains resins. 2 solution and orange becomes slowly 1 solution melamine, aosfo etsmls ti of strip A samples. test from vapors rmdaisohrta dpcai rdc ryclrwe etdsimilarly. tested when rubbers color synthetic grey and polyamides rubber a of natural produce vapors for acid Pyrolytic Tests adipic developed. than readily other is diacids color from mauve-black a acid, adipic containing o polyamides for Test agents. oxidizing other of absence faslto fdpeyaiei ocnrtdH concentrated in diphenylamine of solution a interface of esters. the at cellulose ring other green from A it (glucose). differentiates cellulose indicates and liquids nitrocellulose the indicates of interface the at ring brown ntoezleyei iuesdu yrxd shl vrteprltcvpr fpolyamides of vapors pyrolytic the over held is hydroxide sodium dilute in -nitrobenzaldehyde dmtyaioezleye(% n yrqioe(.5)adte osee iha30% a with moistened then and (0.05%) hydroquinone and (3%) -dimethylaminobenzaldehyde s ssoprd h perneo leclri h imsppratrasottm indicates time short a after paper litmus the in color blue a of appearance The stoppered. is ask eeto fue ihues lopoie sfldfeetainbtenue n melamine and urea between differentiation useful a provides also urease with urea of Detection o ra ouin1rmisclresadslto eoe rnet e fe 3 after red to orange becomes 2 solution and colorless remains 1 solution urea, For oesniiets o ircluoei rvddb nitnebu oo ecinwe drop a when reaction color blue intense an by provided is nitrocellulose for test sensitive more A – . lo ocnrtdH concentrated of ml 2.5 h qeu xrc sdvddit w at.(ouin n ) ouin1is 1 Solution 2). and 1 (solutions parts. two into divided is extract aqueous The . hnasrpof strip a When . ells sesrsodt h oic etfrcroyrts h sample The carbohydrates. for test Molisch the to respond esters Cellulose . 2 SO fi trpprsae na teelslto containing solution ethereal an in soaked paper lter fi trpprsae nafehstrtdslto of solution saturated fresh a in soaked paper lter 4 – rp f2 taoi ouinof solution ethanolic 2% of drops 3 ss de st omalwrlyr e ored to red A layer. lower a form to as added so is ubr a eidenti be may Rubbers . 2 SO 4 5 /)i de otesml nthe in sample the to added is w/v) (5% – iltclr n hs rmstyrene- from those and color, violet fi db t odor. its by ed fi db etn h pyrolytic the testing by ed fi – dWbrclrts for test color Weber ed elwclradthose and color yellow fl s n boiled and ask a npto;a -naphthol; – .For h. 5 401 – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ulttv n uniaieaaye fdfeettpso polymers. of types different of analyses quantitative and qualitative ntuetlapcs ehd foeain n aiu plctos ihspeci with applications, basis, various theoretical their and highlighting operation, widely detail, most of fair and in methods presented, convenient, aspects, be rapid, will instrumental simple, polymers, techniques, are of spectroscopic which characterization two for spectroscopy, and used only NMR (DMTA), however, and analysis section, spectroscopy present IR thermal techniques namely, the mechanical thermal In dynamic (TGA). The analysis (DSC), (TLC). thermogravimetric calorimetry chromatography scanning thin-layer differential and include (GPC), chromatography permeation pcrsoy n nrydsesv nlss h hoaorpi ehiusicuegas include techniques chromatographic The analysis. dispersive energy chromatography and spectroscopy, ehiusicueifae I)setocp,utailt(V ih pcrsoy ula magnetic nuclear spectroscopy, spectroscopic light The (UV) x-ray spectroscopy, ultraviolet absorption techniques. atomic spectroscopy, spectroscopy, thermal (NMR) (IR) resonance and infrared include techniques, techniques chromatographic techniques, spectroscopic knowledge working good a have should he scenario, this technology. in plastics succeed to of analyst plastics a For alone. analysis n nfc,apatccmon a oti oeta 0dfeetigeins n oea eylow very at some and 90% ingredients, different than 10 more than that more unlikely contain it may making compound plastic levels, speci a impart fact, or In enhance on. (to additives of inorganic host as a such contain may moreover, and, copolymers or bu hne nvbainladrttoa ttso oeue hc r lsl eae otemolecular the to related closely are which molecule, a of states structure. rotational and vibrational an in changes from about transition particular a of characteristic are a that to spectrum initial electromagnetic the in frequencies or asso alr,adrvreegneigo eomlto.Hwvr lsisaayi sal oe a poses usually analysis plastics However, deformulation. or of determination engineering prediction, reverse property dif control, and quality failure, as such of purposes, causes many for used is Methods analysis Plastics Instrumental by Analysis Plastics 3.8 also is test The chloroform. rubber. with solution butyl purple and a rubber gives and natural purple for or violet positive turns solution the or solid the 402 h ai fI pcrsoy[4 et nteitrcino lcrmgei aito ihms nteIR the in mass with 1000 radiation to electromagnetic 0.7 of interaction from the ranges on which rests region, [34] spectroscopy IR of basis The Spectroscopy IR 3.8.1 oeue a odol eti de certain only hold can molecules oa to aeubr(cm wavenumber iceevle feeg orsodn otosae,rdaino wavenumber of radiation where states, holds, two 3.132 to Equation corresponding energy of values discrete h aeeghui sas ie fe ipya irn( micron as simply (s often cited also is unit wavelength the qa o10 to equal − fi ievreyo ntuetltcnqe a eue o lsisaayi.Teecnb aeoie as categorized be can These analysis. plastics for used be can techniques instrumental of variety wide A h nryo Rrdaini ml ocuetastosbteneeto nrylvl.I a nybring only can It levels. energy electron between transitions cause to small is radiation IR of energy The h bobdeeg fterdaincagstesaeo h tmo oeuefo niiilsae( state initial an from molecule or atom the of state the changes radiation the of energy absorbed The 1 ,by ), utcalnet h nls.Ti sbcuepatc a emd fmr hnoeplmra blends as polymer one than more of made be may plastics because is This analyst. the to challenge cult fi a tt ( state nal n = 4 fi / a tt nasubstance. a in state nal l c n where , s E − – 2 1 − .Ti srltdt an to related is This ). assetoer (GC spectrometry mass where , fi 1 ,rpeetdb h symbol the by represented ), lr,patczr,antioxidants, plasticizers, llers, l stewvlnt nmcoees( micrometers in wavelength the is c stevlct flgti ms]Acrigt unu ehnc,aosand atoms mechanics, quantum to According cm/s.] in light of velocity the is h sPlanck is fi ieqatte feeg,o xs nspeci in exist or energy, of quantities nite m bopinband absorption nwvlnt,ta s 400t 0cm 10 to 14,000 is, that wavelength, in m ’ constant: s – S,lqi chromatography liquid MS), n = – “ ðÞ 5 ftepatc omlto a edtrie by determined be can formulation plastics the of 95% ubar nu E 2 fi − ertrat,atsai gns rs-ikr,adso and cross-linkers, agents, antistatic retardants, re E ” 1 m hc a ede be may which , ( = .O h te hand, other the On ). n m hc ,i h ubro ae e etmtradis and centimeter per waves of number the is ), )wt 1 with m) m lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fl – m=10 oecnesetocp,Raman spectroscopy, uorescence assetoer (LC spectrometry mass fi e sarneo wavelengths of range a as ned − n fi 4 tts If states. c n srltdt frequency, to related is − m oe oee,that however, Note, cm. 1 sasre nywhen only absorbed is fi nwvnme.[The wavenumber. in xmls o both for examples, c fi E properties), c 1 and – S,gel MS), (3.132) E 2 E are 1 n ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ehd nthe In method. 00 m hc,teARsetu sidpneto h apetikesadlbrossample laborious and thickness sample the of signi independent no is of spectrum is ATR penetration the of thick, method, depth ATR mm) thickness the the prism sample in (0.02 the sample the beyond of the between independent sample into microns is contact the few absorbance good a of only is penetrates thickness there beam a the provided Since sample. spectrum, the transmission and surface a to re similarity internal remarkable the total which suffers (at beam surface the re prism that high this of way with material a contact a such of into in prism bromoiodide) small thallium a re or through internal chloride passed silver is beam (e.g., radiation index incident refractive the [35], method ATR as the known method, second the in while spectrum, absorption an yielding sured, methods two by obtained be can spectra IR Measurement of Methods 15 beyond 3.8.1.1 observed are bands 2.5 characteristic and few visible very the while between region the of since vibrations quate, from usually comes simpli then This units. spectrum bands repeating absorption absorption the the in their groups to so weight or and contribution molecular atoms small, main large relatively The a is For weak. groups spectra. are end IR also the of of interpretation concentration practical the concept for moreover, This useful polymer, small. relatively very is is modes frequencies vibrational group active of spectroscopically of number actual the that mean rdcn odsrthn irtos hra he tm ,B n ondb oaetbnscnpoueboth produce can bonds covalent by joined C and B, vibrations. A, bending atoms and three stretching whereas vibrations, stretching bond producing 3.91 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics AR,are a (ATR), esnfrti isi h atta ahlna rbace oye oeuecnan n rusjoined of groups series end a of contains repetition molecule regular polymer A branched units. or repeat linear of each sequence(s) that large fact a the by in atoms. lies this the for of reason arrows motions where relative 3.91, and Figure in movement shown atom as stretch, of bond directions a producing the axis, indicate bond the along forth and back move fl o ipeqaiaiewr,adul-emsetoee,oeaigbten25ad15 and 2.5 between operating spectrometer, double-beam a work, qualitative simple For huhplmrmlclscnanalrenme faos hi Rsetaaerltvl ipe The simple. relatively are spectra IR their atoms, of number large a may contain bond molecules covalent polymer Though a by joined atoms Two spectroscopy. IR of basis physical the are vibrations Bond cinfo hssraei uhamne htasetu sotie.Ti T pcrmsosa shows spectrum ATR This obtained. is spectrum a that manner a such in surface this from ection fl fl cina n aeo h rs.We apewoesetu st ercre spressed is recorded be to is spectrum whose sample a When prism. the of face one at ection cinsetu sotie,wihi super is which obtained, is spectrum ection w tm n ondb oaetbn a oebc n ot ln h odaxis bond the along forth and back move may bond covalent a by joined B and A atoms Two fi s ehd h rcino h nietlgtta stasitd(rasre)i mea- is absorbed) (or transmitted is that light incident the of fraction the method, rst Bond stretching Bond stretching Bond stretching Bond (asymmetric) (symmetric) Bending ABC ABC ABC AA — h rnmsin(rasrto)mto n h re the and method absorption) (or transmission the ti hsfudta ihsmlsoe bu .0 in 0.001 about over samples with that found thus is It . fi BB sgetyteaayi fplmr yI spectroscopy. IR by polymers of analysis the greatly es m so iteuefrqaiaieidenti qualitative for use little of is m fi ilyvr iia oa bopinsetu.In spectrum. absorption an to similar very cially m fl m. ABC cinocr) h apeatnae the attenuates sample the occurs), ection ABC A identical B teutdttlre total attenuated C fi nt ntecanwould chain the in units ac n the and cance fi ainwork, cation m ,i ade- is m, spectral fl fl ection ection 403 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 apeples ul nnjlpae ewe gl al B,o s ltso B elt r also are pellets KBr or plates CsI or of KBr, basis the NaCl, as ( AgCl, other used samples. between bromide, be insoluble potassium placed can of for polyethylene nujol Instead suitable or 1%.) in to chloride, Mulls 0.2% silver of pellets. bromide, range sample thallium the as the in such be if should materials solvents KBr suitable large two in the least sample the at by of using limited tration of is recorded. necessity solutions be the of to by is use and spectrum The solvents of mulls. most range nujol of whole bands in absorption or of bromide), number potassium (e.g., as solution, halide of form alkali the in prepared be may transmission at ea xds etdt bu 00C h mte nryo ohsucsi aiu ntenear- the in maximum is sources both of energy emitted (5000 The region 2000°C. IR about to heated oxides) metal earth iso rfatoa rnmsin(.. ecnaetasiso iie y10 ntevria axis vertical the on trans- percentage 100) plot by to divided ( is wavelength transmission method plot percentage to common and (i.e., A upward) (increasing data. transmission spectral fractional There these recorded. or are presenting mission thickness, of sample methods the on several depend are which transmission, percentage of values numerical laminates. in thus and is coatings method ATR surface the of of application examination important the particularly A avoided. be can procedures preparation 404 omlycvrdi h Rsetu.Hwvr h rsneo bopinbnsatiue oCH to attributed bands absorption of presence the However, spectrum. IR the in covered normally apepeaaini the is preparation Sample Preparation detectors. Sample wavenumber. radiation or as 3.8.1.3 wavelength of serve function cells a in Golay as compared pneumatic absorbance) or are intensities (i.e., or two ratio beam bolometers, the this reference The of Thermocouples, of the ratio used. reciprocal the and of the presents are that of assembly sample and logarithm gratings recording The the the sample diffraction instrument. the the both and through of prisms part disperses passed photometric is which the monochromator that for The beam wavelength the solution. the of the through intensity sample that to solvent passes the according containing beam cell making beams sample reference The reference for the through beam. used passes reference beam been the reference and has the while beam analyzed, sample be the to sample is, that paths, two into qimn savailable. is equipment aito eetrwt eodn qimn.Cmo ore frdainaeGoa ie,ardof and rod monochromator, a radiation, (i.e., of Globar are source radiation of of consist sources They Common another. carbide equipment. silicon one recording do from with technique) deal detector dispersive on radiation great (based a spectrophotometers differ IR conventional not of principles construction The 3.92). and Instruments 3.91 Figures 3.8.1.2 (see done easily is spectrum the of where rclbae hrsaeas fe sdo hc h etclai smarked affected. is not axis is vertical presentation the the spec- which but transmission on scale, the used vertical of often the of image also direction are mirror the charts a reverse Precalibrated as to the spectrum simply at absorption is absorption) the effect an 100% The Sometimes, producing as trum. wavenumber. thus incorrectly, for (assumed, ordinate, transmission right the zero the of with to top reverse decreasing in and plotted is wavelength axis for vertical right the to increasing axis, uosmksteaayi fvbain fmtyeegop mosbe oye ape a lobe also of form can the samples in or Polymer microtome, impossible. a with groups cutting methylene by platelets of thin vibrations very as of prepared analysis the makes nujols Pelletization oecmo mn h w Rmtosdsrbdaoei h rnmsinmto nwihthe which in method transmission the is above described methods IR two the among common More h bobnesaei olna u ic h oiotlsaei o fetd ulttv identi qualitative affected, not is scale horizontal the since but nonlinear is scale absorbance The n svr ag. h aie r oi n sal onthv n bopinpasi h range the in peaks absorption any have not do usually and ionic are halides The large.) very is fi ihptsimboiepwe savnaeu o noul ape.(h concen- (The samples. insoluble for advantageous is powder bromide potassium with – e o1000 to red 000cm 10,000 fi − 1 – s motn tpi Raayi fplmr.SmlsfrI nlssby analysis IR for Samples polymers. of analysis IR in step important rst n hndcessrpdy h emeaaigfo h orei split is source the from emanating beam The rapidly. decreases then and ) 20C n h entlm (the lamp Nernst the and 1200°C) bobne=log = Absorbance Nujol sahayparaf heavy a is m r simply, or, m 10 ecnaetransmission Percentage fi fi i ihesnilyakn oml C formula alkane essentially with oil n m n,i noul,i elto ikfr with form disk or pellet in insoluble, if and, lms 100 m rwvnme (cm wavenumber or ) fi aeto hc scmoe frare of composed is which of lament lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics “ fi Absorbance, esi pca microscopic special if bers − 1 ntehorizontal the on ) ” de fi e as ned fi n (3.133) H cation 2 2 n +2 in , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ifrn oyeso pca ein.Tu,frastrtdhdoabnplmr uha polyethylene, as such polymer, hydrocarbon saturated a for Thus, regions. special or polymers to different used or inch thicknesses an different of of thousandths in blades typically millimeter.) or parts, a two leaves between of steel clearance hundredths the of measure lengths and parallelism small the are check gauges (Feeler used. material kN/cm 2 plastic which preparing rapidly, of dissolve not do that resins thermoplastic a eue ssaes u o thinner for but spacers, as used be may polytetra with lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics IOO RLbais http://www.ir.spectra.com.) Libraries, IR NICODOM 3.92 FIGURE Nt:I thin If [Note: o h xmnto fplehln and polyethylene of examination the For 2 n u otesm iea ltn.T siti tipn h pressed the stripping in assist To platens. as size same the to cut and ) fi fl fl m.Teplmri rse ewe oihdsanesselpae uigatmeaueat temperature a (using plates steel stainless polished between pressed is polymer The lms. Rasrto pcr f()plehln,()plpoyee n c oytrn.(dpe from (Adapted polystyrene. (c) and polypropylene, (b) polyethylene, (a) of spectra absorption IR ootyee(TE.For (PTFE). uoroethylene wocr edl)i ml yrui rs wihgnrtsarmpesr fabout of pressure ram a generates (which press hydraulic small a in readily) occurs ow fi m r sd hcnse ifrn ya re fmgiuemyb eurdfor required be may magnitude of order an by differing thicknesses used, are lms Absorbance Absorbance Absorbance 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 4000 (b) (a) (c) 0020 00400 1000 2000 3000 fi m,tesml hcns sajse yatrn h mutof amount the altering by adjusted is thickness sample the lms, fi m ihtikessgetrta bu .5mm, 0.05 about than greater thicknesses with lms Wavenumber (cm a -ole o pressing hot fi eis uha oyrpln,adgnrlyfor generally and polypropylene, as such resins, n a eams ovnetadqikmethod quick and convenient most a be can –1 ) fi m h ltsaecoated are plates the lm, elrgauges feeler 405 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rdcsauiu yeo inlta a l fteI frequencies IR the of all has that signal of type unique a produces ulsetu fwvlntspse hog naetr wihcnrl h muto nry n enters and energy) of amount the controls the (which containing aperture beam an This through source. passes black-body wavelengths glowing of a spectrum from full emitted is radiation IR process, instrumental for method a adopt to is problem this spectroscopy. (FT-IR) to infrared solution transform A frequencies aforesaid noise! the of background all measuring but nothing recording spent uhamto eoe biu hnoecniestkn pcrmwt nyoeo w sorption two or swept one is only frequency with spectrum the a and inef taking The end considers slow. one one inherently it when thus at in is obvious peaks wave- reading method different becomes The start each method spectrum. for a to the of repeated such set span is whole is process the the spectrometer the across at and smoothly The shone measured, is frequency. is beam or absorbed light light length monochromatic of a amount above, the described minutes. sample, technique, few spectroscopy a dispersive for the 140°C In at Spectroscopy oven IR an Transform in Fourier before heating KBr, by with 3.8.1.4 condition, dried this be in while then it, may grinding disk and nitrogen) The liquid pelletization. some (in point that brittle its moreover, below procedure. the rubber noting, without disk-making disks usual worth into the sinter is in will It powder polythenes, halide linear powder. alkali some halide and of PTFE addition the especially adding form, powder before in polymers polymer of the methods solid various pre-grind on the measured to to those respond to not inferior do are that method rubbers this by obtained spectra the fi and halides alkali in disperse ohn skono h aueo ei,tefloigslet a etidi h re ttd[35]: stated order the in tried be may solvents following the resin, If a surface. of sample nature the on the chloride) condensation of methylene moisture acetone, known causing ether, is rapidly, (e.g., very nothing solvents evaporate volatile they Very as oven. avoided vacuum be and should lamp IR an of use the by o rprn ape rmsml nnplmrc ois h aoiyo eisaevr dif very are resins of majority the solids, (non-polymeric) simple from samples preparing for polymer. the dissolve usqetysrpe f,o atdrcl nasdu hoieo oasu rmd lt.Aqueous plate. bromide the from potassium removed be or may Solvent chloride plates. bromoiodide sodium thallium or a chloride silver on on cast directly be may cast latices or off, stripped solution, into subsequently taken be can by resin the removed if be Moreover, can prepared. easily are or samples thin pressing) poly(methyl very and hot apparatus e.g., by obtainable groups, limit oxygenated lower the containing represents materials necessary.] (which is mm for less 0.03 whereas to reduction satisfactory, a be methacrylate), may mm 0.3 406 xrcinwt ctn-hooommxuefloe yre by followed mixture acetone-chloroform with extraction m.Hne nplmrwr,tehld ikmto sapidol otoeislbersn and resins insoluble those to only applied is method disk halide the work, polymer in Hence, lms. TI pcrsoyeposavr ipeotcldvc aldan called device optical simple very a employs spectroscopy FT-IR modi A huhteakl aie(.. B)ple rds ehdi rbbytems ieyue procedure used widely most the probably is method disk or pellet KBr) (e.g., halide alkali the Though Casting o ubr,adepcal o abnblack- carbon for especially and rubbers, For .Wtr(isle ubro eisrc in rich resins of number a dif (dissolves more Water but copolymers, butadiene 4. for suitable (particularly ketone ethyl Methyl 3. .Tlee(atclryueu o oytyeeand polyethylene for useful (particularly Toluene including resins, thermoplastic 2. of range wide a (dissolves 1,2-dichloroethane or dichloride Ethylene 1. .Fri cd(eysial o oymdsadlna polyurethanes) polyvinyl polyacrylonitrile, linear for and (suitable polyamides formamide Dimethyl for suitable 6. (very acid Formic 5. hnteaoeadsolvents) aforesaid the than aoiyo iysadacrylics) and vinyls of majority a oeohrresins) other some — fi fi aino h ikmto,wihi fe ucsflwt ubr,dpnso oln the cooling on depends rubbers, with successful often is which method, disk the of cation m rmslet sotnpeerdfrltcsadslbersn,a trqie ospecial no requires it as resins, soluble and latices for preferred often is solvents from lms ihtesetoee e osepfo n n oteohr oto h iei hscs is case this in time the of most other, the to end one from sweep to set spectrometer the with fi trn rcnrfgn eoecsigthe casting before centrifuging or ltering simultaneously fi – ldcmoiin,aueu ehd[6 saprior a is [36] method useful a compositions, lled OH, fi mpeaain nsm ae,i sadvantageous is it cases, some In preparation. lm a ahrta niiuly hsi oei Fourier in done is This individually. than rather , – -ole CO fi fi fl 2 m im a ecs nagaspaeand plate glass a on cast be may Films lm. oyesadcopolymers) and polymers n xn with uxing ,o mn groups) amine or H, fl oie oyiyieeclrd,and chloride, polyvinylidene uoride, interferometer lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics “ encoded p cmn-yeemxueto mixture -cymene-xylene ” noi.I h normal the In it. into h interferometer The . fi utt remove to cult fi inyof ciency fi utto cult fi llers fi lm Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 lmnsts vial seScin372 ntesm oye.A hr scnieal vrapn fthe of overlapping considerable is there As polymer. same the on 3.7.2) Section (see available test elements =,C C=X, tegho h odsol nraetevbainfeuny hstedi bevdi h eisC series the in observed is trend the This in increase frequency. an for hand, vibration other accounts the the also On increase This C=O. should of sequence. that bond same than the less the is of in C=S strength group of frequency the stretching within the atom that fact the the of C mass series increasing the to in attributed decreases frequency vibration stretching the intensities. their of indication qualitative a with along quencies the below well or above eino 70cm 1700 of region n h emte asst eetrta scpbeo esrn h pca nefrga inl The signal. which interferogram special computer, the a measuring accom- of to capable being sent is ATR) that is detector or signal a spectroscopy to measured passes (transmission then analysis beam then the of re and signal or type through interferogram the transmitted Speci on resulting is plished. it depending The where surface, compartment place. sample the takes the off enters encoding and interferometer spectral the the exits where interferometer the Testing and Properties Plastics eino 00ad10 cm 1400 and 3000 of region atro e eod ahrta eea iue ftecnetoa ipriemto,thus method, dispersive well- a conventional via accomplished the is decoding of The 1000. spectroscopy minutes the to infrared 10 called several of a technique factor to than reduced mathematical a is by known rather sample typically per speed, element seconds time overall the the few so, increasing or s a signal 1 the of of Since order the wavenumber). matter on (or usually wavelength quickly, very versus measured absorbance) be (or can transmittance of spectrum IR type ape.Smlrmlcls o ntne a hwvr iia pcr tfeunishge than higher frequencies at spectra similar very show may instance, cm for 1430 molecules, Similar samples. region, frequency This spectrum. of part called this of the frequently appearance given the as the from merely to of recognized referred be typical often often may highly moiety are is whole bands a these as Thus, to bands extent. ascribed of is complex and the but structure these vibra- assign vibration molecular to stretching of possible than seldom modes is numerous It particular bands. more (see absorption to in general vibrations bands rich in particularly stretching is are spectrum several the molecule of by a region this caused in tions, absorptions vibrations bending the Since also 3.11). and Table vibrations bending by caused tions rmr hrceitcasrto ad hnte r rsn namlcl.Teebns( a bands containing These compounds all molecule. example, a For in analysis. for present used are they when bands quencies absorption characteristic more or rcia upss oee,anme fvr sflgnrlztoscnb ae ssonbelow. shown as made, For combinations. be or can overtones generalizations as useful ones very weaker of rather the content number increases of therefore a some modes is identify however, normal One to purposes, of impossible. and practical number becomes bands spectrum the strongest vibrational molecule, the the a assign of to in analysis atoms detailed of a number and rapidly the in increase an With Analysis Qualitative simple mechanically 3.8.1.5 is it (v) and scans part. throughput; 1-s increase optical adding moving greater can by one has example, it only it for (ii) (iv) sensitivity, with noise; increase calibration; can random external it out no (iii) ratio so; to requires or together that second every method scan measurement a precise collecting speed, a is it (i) reasons: hnsuyn h pcrmo nukonplmr ti eial ohv h eut ftequalitative the of results the have to desirable is it polymer, unknown an of spectrum the studying When ls oka al .1rvassm oia rnsi ru rqece.W e,frisac,that instance, for see, We frequencies. group in trends logical some reveals 3.11 Table at look close A aycmol curn ucinlgop uhas such groups functional occurring commonly Many atclryipratseta eini 1430 is region spectral important particularly A h TI pcrsoyi rfre vrdsesv or dispersive over preferred is spectroscopy FT-IR The ≡ r,t osdrbeetn,idpneto h tutr ftemlcl sawoeadcnbe can and whole a as molecule the of structure the of independent extent, considerable a to are, ) − ,weeXi rN n loi C in also and N, or C is X where X, 1 u nthe in but , fi rqece feeg,wihaeuiul hrceitco h ape r absorbed are sample, the of characteristic uniquely are which energy, of frequencies c fi − 1 grrn region ngerprint ihafwecpin,teecaatrsi ru rqece ali h ein well regions the in fall frequencies group characteristic these exceptions, few a With . ” fi ). grrn ein hr iluulyb icril differences. discernible be usually will there region, ngerprint fi grrn ein al .1cnan oeo h oeipratgopfre- group important more the of some contains 3.11 Table region. ngerprint − 1 iial,alcmonswt COgophv togbn nthe in band strong a have group >C=O a with compounds all Similarly, . seteeyueu netbihn ocuieyteiett ftwo of identity the conclusively establishing in useful extremely is , kltlvibrations skeletal ore transformation Fourier – n C=O. and O “ decodes fi – grrn bands ngerprint 1 cm 910 hc nov l h tm omc h same the much to atoms the all involve which , ” − fi CH htifraint rdc conventional- a produce to information that trmtoso Rseta nlssfrseveral for analysis spectral IR of methods lter – − ,C H, CH 3 >C=O, , − 1 3 hsrgo otismn absorp- many contains region This . – ru oss bopinbnsi the in bands absorption possess group ,C F, hnetename the (hence eas oeueo structural or molecule a because , – − l C Cl, NH 2 – n oo iers oone to rise give on so and , r n C and Br, “ ore transform Fourier – .Ti rn is trend This I. ru fre- group fl ected 407 – X, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 408 icse below. additional discussed of presence groups. the latter cases, groups these some of from in position that, directly the noted shift arising be may bands should elements hydrocarbons It characteristic for groups. bands the oxygen-containing characteristic with test, various along and elements considered elements, be the additional must elements of in additional presence these sulfur, the containing show and that chlorine polymers dif for as without Also distinguished such be spectrum. can IR they the cases, in most bands in characteristic But, test. elements simple the in rated rejecting immediately by saved test. be elements could the time by much excluded absorb, groups groups those different which in ranges wavelength omntpso rusocrigi oyesadI bopinbnsascae ihte are them with associated bands absorption IR and polymers in occurring groups of types Common sepa- not usually are oxygen and hydrogen, carbon, and hydrogen, and carbon of consisting Polymers N(irl)Srth2210 Stretch (nitrile) CN C N = ai)Srth10=75Strong 1700=1725 1670 1800 Stretch Stretch Stretch (anhydride) C=O (acid) C=O (carbonyl) C=O C C C N O N O = aoai)Srth1400 1620 O Stretch C C Stretch C C (aromatic) C=C – (alkene) C=C C C =C = aie tec 1640 1735 Stretch Stretch N (amide) C=O (ester) C=O (cm Range Frequency Vibration of Type Group Functional =C – C Compounds AL 3.11 TABLE C C – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Source: aie tec 1080 Stretch (amine) N etr tec 1000 1210 1050 Stretch Stretch Stretch (ester) O (acid) O (alcohol) O tec 0 Strong 500 500 600 1000 sharp Strong, Stretch Stretch Stretch Stretch 3300 3000 I Br Cl Stretch F Stretch ≡ (aromatic) H (alkyne) H akn)Srth2850 Stretch – (alkane) H – – aie edn 1550 Bending (amide) H aie tec 3100 Stretch (amide) H ai)Srth2500 Stretch (acid) H aie edn 60Medium 1600 Bending (amine) H achl tec fe)3500 (free) Stretch (alcohol) H achl tec Hbne)3200 (H-bonded) Stretch (alcohol) H aie tec 3300 Stretch (amine) H akn)Bnig1350 Bending (alkane) H akn)Bnig675 Bending (alkene) H akn)Srth3010 Stretch (alkene) H C – akn)Srth2100 Stretch (alkyne) ivrti,R . ase,G . n orl,T .1981. C. T. Morrill, and C., G. Bassler, M., R. Silverstein, t d,Jh ie os e York. New Sons, & Wiley John ed., 4th , hrceitcI bopinFeuniso rai ucinlGroups Functional Organic of Frequencies Absorption IR Characteristic – 80ad1740 and 1830 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 00Strong 1000 20Medium 2260 1640 30Medium-weak 1360 50Tobands Two 3500 80Strong broad very Strong, 1820 3300 30Strong more or bands Two Strong 1300 1320 1150 70Srn,sharp Strong, 3700 60Srn,broad Strong, 3600 50Mdu piayamines (primary Medium 3500 60Mdu-ek multiple Variable Medium-weak, 1600 Medium 1680 3100 0 Strong Strong Strong Variable 600 Medium 800 1400 2260 3100 60Strong Strong 1690 1750 40Variable 1480 00Strong 3000 pcrmti Identi Spectrometric – 75Tobands Two 1775 − 1 nest fPeak of Intensity ) lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics ad fe eyweak) very often band, eodr aeone have secondary aetobands; two have fi aino Organic of cation fi ut rmtheir from culty Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rud10 cm 1400 around 5 cm 758 rqec 1700 frequency ihaalbeseta Te spectra. available with con further test, the to attributed are Testing and Properties Plastics orsodt h C the to correspond of vibration stretching symmetric the to assigned is peak lower the and stretching to correspond 3.93a) (Figure aubei h eemnto fsrcueo nnw oyei opud.Tu,tepeec fa of presence the Thus, compounds. polymeric unknown 3700 of the structure in of band determination the in valuable opud,cmoe fol abnadhdoe,ehbta Rbn,uulywt utpiiyof multiplicity with usually band, hydrocarbon IR All an undertaken. be exhibit cm then hydrogen, 3000 can near and analysis peaks, carbon IR absorption only An of hydrogen. composed and carbon compounds, except elements all for al .1 nteI ein h Rsetu fplsyee(otyaatcadaopos,however, amorphous), and atactic (mostly polystyrene of cm spectrum 2849 and IR 3026 at The bands region. absorbance shows IR the in 3.11) Table The opsdo nycro n hydrogen and carbon only of composed bonded seTbe31) epciey h ek t10 n 43cm 1493 and 1601 at peaks The respectively. 3.11), Table (see rs rmmixed from arise cm 1000 beyond bands absorption the by distinguished are hydrocarbons aromatic irto.Ti adi utpe n ossso he ek t14,11,ad15 cm 1150 and 1215, 1240, at peaks three of consists and multiplet a is band This vibration. eedn ntetp fsbttto ntebneern.Ms rmtccmonsas aeoeor one cm have 1430 also and compounds 1700 aromatic between Most intensity ring. weak benzene of the bands on sharp substitution more of type the on depending aigtegnrlformula general the having nemlclrhdoe od mn V hisoigt ihhdohlcfre.Tebn at band The forces. hydrophilic high to owing chains PVA cm among 2940 bonds hydrogen intermolecular trbtdt h edn irto of vibration bending the to attributed akoecanocr narneo 1000 of range a in occurs chain backbone cm 1200 near band absorption distinctive and strong a exhibits example, for tecigbn t3200 at band stretching yrcro ruspouehgl hrceitcbnsbten10 n 0 cm 600 and 1000 between bands characteristic highly produce groups hydrocarbon rsn,cncueitreigasrtosi h yrxlrgo seTbe3.11).] formula N Table general Also, (see the groups. region hydroxyl hydroxyl for the of disks in halide measurement absorptions dry, for interfering rarely cause avoided being can powders best present, Halide thus observation. are hydroxyl region, this for preparation in dry sample absorption fully strong be shows water must Since sample exceptions. the two following the however, [Note, groups. Fgr .2)adplpoyee(iue39b r akdb hrceitcasrac ek taround cm at 750 peaks and absorbance 700 characteristic between by and marked 1500, are 3000, 3.92b) (Figure polypropylene and 3.92a) (Figure polymers. diene of and polythene of structure the determining of method simple a represent ad r oae t61 5,ad55cm 515 and 554, 641, at located are bands abnlGroups Carbonyl aieGroups Halide yrxlGroups Hydroxyl yrcro Groups Hydrocarbon iue39,freape hw h Rasrac pcr ftrecmo yrcro-yepolymers hydrocarbon-type common three of spectra absorbance IR the shows example, for 3.92, Figure nteI pcrmo oyvnlclrd)(V) nte omnplmrwt aiegop and groups halide with polymer common another (PVC), chloride) poly(vinyl of spectrum IR the In o lutain iue39bsosteI bopinsetu fpl(iy loo)(V)with (PVA) alcohol) poly(vinyl of spectrum absorption IR the shows 3.93b Figure illustration, For rmtcsrcue rdc eaieyitneasrto ad nte80t 0 cm 600 to 830 the in bands absorption intense relatively produce structures Aromatic – C − – 1 − – eomto irto ado the of band vibration deformation H hl h igdfrainvbaini bevda 0 cm 700 at observed is vibration deformation ring the while , 1 O sasge to assigned is – tecigbns sal cu t3600 at occur usually bands, stretching H – fi 80cm 1850 – mto a eotie ycnutn nI pcrlrno h oye n comparing and polymer the on run spectral IR an conducting by obtained be can rmation − netepeec fhlgn nagvnplmri con is polymer given a in halogens of presence the Once . 1 – 10cm 3150 C r sindto assigned are o opud otiigcroy CO rus h rcs ag fabsorption of range precise the groups, (C=O) carbonyl containing compounds For . – aeu xmnto ftehdoy tecigrgo Tbe31)cnotnbe often can 3.11) (Table region stretching hydroxyl the of examination careful A . – – – lbond. Cl C and H [ – – – yrcro-yeplmri niae fteeeet etpoe ob negative be to proves test elements the if indicated is polymer hydrocarbon-type A . CH fl tecigvbain 3]o ighdoes(e al 3.11). Table (see hydrogens ring of [37] vibrations stretching H − 50cm 3570 – no polytetra or on 1 − C 1 sotnsuf often is 2 – – – (2.7 – tecig hra h ad dult t1330 at (doublet) bands the whereas stretching, H C CH(OH) O – – − [ – tec.Tepa thge aeubri sindt h asymmetric the to assigned is wavenumber higher at peak The stretch. H 1 – – npaebnigvbain [38]. vibrations bending in-plane H − 3.2 CH n nte ewe 40ad13 cm 1430 and 1470 between another and 1 hc ol eatiue otefraino nrmlclrand intramolecular of formation the to attributed be would which , – C m 2 fi — – – )rgo savr eibeidcto ftepeec fhydroxyl of presence the of indication reliable very a is region m) – in odtrieterpeec.[oee,tecroy group carbonyl the [However, presence. their determine to cient CHCl lpai edn irto,wietepa t15 cm 1250 at peak the while vibration, bending aliphatic H − ] fl – oytyee oyrpln,adplsyee ohpolyethylene Both polystyrene. and polypropylene, polyethylene, – 1 − ootyee(TE ihtegnrlformula general the with (PTFE) uoroethylene C hs he ek eutfo C from result peaks three These . 1 hl toghdoy ad ffe loo,ta s non- is, that alcohol, free of bands hydroxyl strong While . – n hs r sindt h C edn modes. bending >CF the to assigned are these and , – − 10cm 1100 erC.The Cl. near H 1 – orsodn oaoai n aliphatic and aromatic to corresponding , ] fi – eajcn yrgn ftebneern per at appears ring benzene the of hydrogens adjacent ve h ek on narneo 2800 of range a in found peaks the , − 1 ial,tepasi ag f600 of range a in peaks the Finally, . – − 60cm 3650 1 r sindt aromatic to assigned are – C − 1 – . C − − – 1 1 h ek t30 n 10cm 3100 and 3000 at peaks The . V xiisabonded a exhibits PVA , tecigvbaino h PVC the of vibration stretching fi − mdb rlmnr elements preliminary by rmed 1 – − 1 wn ote>CF the to owing n C and H auae,ustrtd or unsaturated, Saturated, . – 40cm 1440 − 1 – – hs ad thus bands These . bopin (see absorptions C – C=C – C – − C − – 1 [ 1 − – – Unsaturated . .Tepeaks The H. – te major Other . 1 stretchings H – CF – rus if groups, H r ieyto likely are stretchings. 00cm 3000 2 – 2 stretching 5 cm 650 − – 1 CF region – O 2 − – 409 1 – ] − − − H – is 1 1 1 , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ti vdn nya raeigo h C the of broadening a as only evident is it Aatdfo IOO RLbais http://www.ir.spectra.com.) Libraries, IR NICODOM from (Adapted 410 a ods togyt neitn yrxlgopi t iiiyta h ado h atri h usual the in latter the of band the that vicinity its in group hydroxyl existing 3150 an range to strongly so bond may 3.93 FIGURE rsneo irgn tte eoe meaiet odc Rseta ust eemn h yeof type the determine to runs spectral IR conduct to imperative becomes then it nitrogen, of presence [39]. chain the of vibrations bending out-of-plane ( vnlaeae PA) ihtegnrlformula general the with (PVAc), acetate) (vinyl ti opsdo stretching of composed is It h otpoietbn nti pcrmi ena 76cm 1736 at seen is spectrum this in band prominent most The – =)srthn irto seTbe31) h daetrgo rm10 o50cm 500 to 1700 from region adjacent The 3.11). Table (see vibration stretching C=O) irgnCnann Groups Nitrogen-Containing – 70cm 3700 Rasrto pcr f()pl(iy hoie,()pl(iy loo) n c oyvnlacetate). poly(vinyl (c) and alcohol), poly(vinyl (b) chloride), poly(vinyl (a) of spectra absorption IR −

1 Absorbance Absorbance Absorbance 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 ol eoedif become could 4000 0 (b) (a) (c) – C – fteeeet eto nukonplmrccmon eel the reveals compound polymeric unknown an on test elements the If . irto,rcig agn,adtitn irtosof vibrations twisting and wagging, rocking, vibration, O – 0020 00400 1000 2000 3000 C fi – – ut ripsil,t bev.Freape ncroyi acids, carboxylic in example, For observe. to impossible, or cult, ada 80cm 2870 at band H hi,adoeo oesrthn irtoso h polymer the of vibrations stretching more or one and chain, H Wavenumber (cm – [ – CH 2 – CH(OCOCH − –1 1 − ]Frilsrto,teI pcrmo poly of spectrum IR the illustration, For .] ) 1 hc a easge otecarbonyl the to assigned be may which , lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics 3 ) – ] – ssoni iue3.93c. Figure in shown is , − – 1 CH scomplex. is 2 groups, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 irgncnann ru nteplmr irgncnann ruscmol on nsynthetic in urethane. and found nitrile, commonly imide, groups amides, Nitrogen-containing amines, are polymer. polymers the in group nitrogen-containing Testing and Properties Plastics IOO RLbais http://www.ir.spectra.com.) Libraries, IR NICODOM 3.94 FIGURE u ohdoe odn,i rsn) nadto,piayaie ( amides primary addition, In present). if bonding, hydrogen to due iers oone ( to amines Secondary rise respectively. give vibrations, stretching symmetric and asymmetric from ( o xml,sosteI pcrmo yo-,wihi eodr oymd ihtegnrlformula general the with polyamide 3.94a, secondary Figure a spike. is one which only nylon-6, showing of amides – spectrum secondary IR and the amines, shows of example, case for the in as spikes, two showing – [ CONH – nI pcr,piayaie ( amines primary spectra, IR In l mdspoueavr strong very a produce amides All (CH 2 ) – 5 – xii Rasrtosoigto owing absorptions IR exhibit ) CONH Rasrto pcr f()nln6 b oyrtae n c oyiehlioae Aatdfrom (Adapted polydimethylsiloxane. (c) and polyurethane, (b) nylon-6, (a) of spectra absorption IR – N – – ] tec eka 3300. at peak stretch H –

Absorbance Absorbance Absorbance about at bands absorption strong three expected, as features, spectrum The . 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 4000 0 (b) (a) (c) – NH – = eka 1680 at peak C=O 2 xii w N two exhibit ) 0020 1000 2000 3000 – Wavenumber (cm N – edn t1640 at bending H – ek,oena 30adoena 10cm 3180 near one and 3350 near one peaks, H – 60cm 1630 –1 ) − 1 uulywt h rqec lowered frequency the with (usually – – 50cm 1550 CONH 2 − n eodr amides secondary and ) 1 ihpiayamides primary with , – H) however, NHR), 411 − 1 , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 20cm 2220 signi have substances 24cm 3294 412 epciey h ru otfeunl nonee,hwvr steSi the is however, encountered, frequently most group The respectively. Si the of vibration bend) metric ptemtra.Bcueec ifrn aeili nqecmiaino tm,n w compounds two no atoms, of combination unique a is making atoms material the different between each bonds the Because of material. vibrations the of frequencies up the to correspond that peaks absorption group. OH alcoholic the cm 1700 and 1540 about at occurs now pair the but structure, amide secondary the for earlier e eiso orbnso eaieyhg nest nte1600 the in intensity high relatively thus can of One bands structure. imide four and amide of the series both of a groups carbonyl see the of bands characteristic the show h otwdl sdslcn ei en oyiehlioae ihtegnrlformula general the with polydimethylsiloxane, being resin silicone used widely most the vibrations. hstentiebn t24 cm 2240 at band nitrile the thus n 90cm 2940 and niainta h nnw ei apei polyamide a is sample resin unknown the that indication aCH O adi atclryes oosre vni h rsneo te aeil bobn nti eino the of region this in absorbing materials Si other the of presence containing the Silicones in even spectrum. observe, to easy particularly is band reo te elkonasrto ad n h adcnteeoeb aiyosre.Temajor The formula observed. general easily the be with therefore polyacrylonitrile can of band spectrum the IR and the bands of absorption characteristic well-known other of free o C a for characteristic iio tmhstomty rusatce oi,dntda Si(CH as denoted it, to attached groups methyl two has atom silicon okn oebn t80±1 cm 10 ± 800 at band mode rocking eis cusbten10 n 00cm 1000 and 1100 Si between the occurs to resins, owing absorption The prominent. exceedingly oeaepasa 92ad26 cm 2862 and 2932 at peaks moderate 70cm 1780 Rsetaadaedfeetae ytepeec fawa rsaln adna 3 cm 935 near band similar crystalline have weak nylon-6,6 a and of nylon-6 presence the example, by For differentiated subtle. are more and are spectra IR nylon-6,6, and nylon-6 as such classes, forms. crystalline identi and make sequences, methylene 1400 CN, the CONH, in CO, appear NH, peaks to small attributed of are number a addition, In respectively. stretching, h ad ntergo 1500 region the in bands the nteiie[ imide the in spectrum. aeil iers oti atr.Tebn trbtdt h Si the to attributed band The pattern. this to rise give materials .4,freape hw yia oyrtaeI pcrm h hrceitcbn t13 cm 1730 at band characteristic The Figure spectrum. rubbers. IR urethane polyurethane polyester typical and a polyether shows in and example, urethanes for simple 3.94b, in recognized easily are bands hssetu sascae ihteCOgopi oyrtae hl te ad r sindas assigned are bands other while polyurethane, in cm group 3320 C=O at band the absorption with The follows. associated is spectrum this – hr ad rs er15 n 40cm 1430 and 1250 near arise bands Sharp [ linkage urethane the containing Polyurethanes Applications iio-otiigGroups Silicon-Containing h irl ( nitrile The tmyb etoe httemjrbnso yo Rsetaaecaatrsi o oymdsand polyamides for characteristic are spectra IR nylon of bands major the that mentioned be may It o oymds h anbnsi h Rsetu r hs trbtdt h abnl(=)groups (C=O) carbonyl the to attributed those are spectrum IR the in bands main the polyimides, For ] – 3 ehlgop tahdt iio tmudrotesm C same the undergo atom silicon a to attached groups Methyl . tahdt abnao,bttepstoso h ad o Si a for bands the of positions the but atom, carbon a to attached – CH − − − 1 1 1 .Teasrto adatiue oteO ru tahdt ii,hwvr iia ota of that to similar however, is, Si to attached group OH the to attributed band absorption The ). ssap hl hta 70cm 1720 at that while sharp, is fi 3 hdoe odd>N bonded (hydrogen − aino h eei ls ipets.Hwvr h etrsdsigihn h subgeneric the distinguishing features the However, task. simple a class generic the of cation — ru,bcueo lcrncefcs h bopinatiue oteubel oe(sym- mode umbrella the to attributed absorption The effects. electronic of because group, 1 – – nI pcrmmyb okduo sa as upon looked be may spectrum IR An . r soitdwith associated are eiso oritnebnsbten10 n 0 cm 800 and 1200 between bands intense four of series a ( C – ≡ CONRCO )goppoue nasrto ada 2240 at band absorption an produces group N) fi atasrto ntergo hr h togSi strong the where region the in absorption cant – – ) oyei raoiio opud r omnyrfre oa silicones, as to referred commonly are compounds organosilicon Polymeric . – 30cm 1300 ig hc pera obe t18 n 70cm 1720 and 1780 at doublet a as appear which ring, ] – − CH 1 − . 1 – – h atr fbnsi h pcrmo oyiehlioaei very is polydimethylsiloxane of spectrum the in bands of pattern The . CH tec) 65cm 1645 stretch), H 3 − – ru rdcsavr nes ada 20±5cm 5 ± 1260 at band intense very a produces group 1 − ru r loesl eonzdi itrs ic e other few since mixtures, in recognized easily also are group H r trbtdt CH to attributed are 2 1 – h ad t14 cm 1540 at bands The . − − 1 1 tecig hl te oe of modes other while stretching, − rdcn ra,cmlx n nes band. intense and complex, broad, a producing , 1 orsod o>Hsrthn n h hr ek t2860 at peaks sharp the and stretching >NH to corresponds − sbodradsrne.Tesetao polyamide of spectra The stronger. and broader is 1 wn oSi to owing – NH – – ikg,wihfrstebcbn fsilicone of backbone the forms which linkage, O CO − – 1 imide. – 2 – CO,ad14 cm 1545 and (C=O), e(sntdaoe n Si and above) noted (as Me O smercsrthn n CH and stretching asymmetric – “ ru cusa bu 20cm 2200 about at occurs group H – fi xii h rmnn adpi noted pair band prominent the exhibit ] ngerprint − – 1 – tecigadbnigvbain as vibrations bending and stretching H – r trbtdt h ru of group the to attributed are 20cm 2280 80cm 1800 – 3 CH lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics ) 2 − hr per togmethyl strong a appears there , – 1 3 ” egopa 20cm 1250 at group Me ru r ifrn rmthose from different are group seFgr .4) e other Few 3.94c). Figure (see – fasml ntefr of form the in sample a of − CH − 1 – 1 einta srelatively is that region a , adapas(2100 appears band H – ein hc saclear a is which region, 2 – 0 cm 500 – [ − – irtosgv ieto rise give vibrations 1 CH CN) h two The (CONH). − 1 2 – − − – ntenylon-6,6 the in 1 hnlgroups, Phenyl 1 − CH(CN) h adat band The . 1 – ein These region. n hna when and , [ 2 – symmetric Si(CH − − 1 – − 1 These . 1 imides – n is and – This . NH − ] 3 1 – ) 2 in is – – – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 niae yteapaac fa bopinbn fteCOgopna 70cm 1720 near group C=O the is of which band oxidation, absorption undergo an easily of polymers appearance to many exposed the materials example, polymeric by of For indicated state conditions. and quality other the monitor and to environmental cases many in used conveniently be can oevr ic h ieo h ek ntesetu sadrc niaino h muto material of amount the of later). indication (explained direct analysis a quantitative is for spectrum used be the sample. also in a can of peaks consistency spectroscopy the or IR quality of present, the check size and the materials unknown since identify Moreover, to cases many in used be can nt a ese taot70 6,ad10 cm 1500 and 760, 700, about at seen be can units the In copolymers. acrylonitrile esteri- of analysis as such reactions, chemical cases, appropriate In fi liquids. and coatings, wire powders, rsnsteI pcr fbutadiene exempli of is This spectra missing. none IR and individual of surplus the to spectra ascribed in the be presents being of should spectrum composed band the additively of no is bands absorption mixture can components, all a This that units. of and monomer spectrum components individual individual the of the that presence the considering determine by to accomplished copolymers, be of case the in and, ponents samples, opaque parts, pellets, including forms and sizes all identi effective and and materials, rapid polymer a of of provides types Comparison databases all control. reference for quality identi spectral product with and for data samples spectral in-process used measured of be analysis or can materials, starting data polymer spectral IR industry. identi proper manufacture, their in used uha ,S ,ads naeaaye eaieyesl eas hymyb nlzdvafunctional via analyzed be may they because easily relatively analyzed are on so elements special and with N, groups. groups S, various dif O, containing be polymers as will However, such alone isomers. identi possible comparison unambiguous various that spectral of identi expected IR spectra reasonably positive by be a can polymers provide it hydrocarbon can though of spectroscopy material, of IR kind Therefore, different spectrum. every of IR same the exactly produce Testing and Properties Plastics ada 20cm 2250 at band SPM lns(iue39)sosta hr sadces ntetasitneo abnl(=)and (C=O) carbonyl the of of transmittance the spectra in IR decrease the a of is ( analysis there methoxyl careful the that A of shows mixture. 3.97) shifts signi physical (Figure no a which blends as are PS/PMMA spectra, remain There they blend 3.97. and Figure the polymers constituent in in the shown group are the any proportions while various of (PMMA), in methacrylate) peaks blends poly(methyl their and (PS) of shows polystyrene spectra 3.96 resins, Figure FT-IR neat illustration, a two an to As of leads spectrum. spectra this blend FT-IR polymers, the the the in individual of between position) proportions the interaction peak relative in chemical all the (shift a difference of on is considerable dependent bands there being if absorption peaks However, contain the polymers. of to constituent intensities the expected relative the be group. blends, thus the this will of of polymers spectrum bands IR the are The only compounds them. contain two between will same the the obtained of If spectrum content different beam. the a is compounds, reference there two the if the However, of bands. in absorption path group of the free be into will compound spectrum the known identical, a and beam sample spectrophotometry fhdoy o yrprxd/loo)adcroy o abxladahdie rus hc r easily are which formation groups, anhydride) the and to carboxyl identi lead (of carbonyl may and fabrics hydroperoxide/alcohol) and (of hydroxyl plastics of polyethylene of oxidations (UV-induced) photo-chemical aino ells ycroyi cd,cnb oioe yI spectroscopy. IR by monitored be can acids, carboxylic by cellulose of cation ic ayfntoa ruscnb aiydtce n quanti and detected easily be can groups functional many Since h i fqaiaieaayi fplmrmxue st eemn h rsneo niiulcom- individual of presence the determine to is mixtures polymer of analysis qualitative of aim The components polymer of quality the on depend products plastic of performance and quality the Since ic h Rsetu a eloe pna h molecular the as upon looked be can spectrum IR the Since oye lnsaeamxueo hmclydfeetplmr rcplmr ihn oaetbonding covalent no with copolymers or polymers different chemically of mixture a are blends Polymer from obtained be can compounds two of identity the for evidence reliable most The fi dadmaue yI spectroscopy. IR by measured and ed – OCH − 3 1 nti ehd h opududrivsiaini netdit h aho the of path the into inserted is investigation under compound the method, this In . tecig a 72ad14 cm 1149 and 1732 (at stretchings ) hw h rsneo h cyoirl unit. acrylonitrile the of presence the shows fi s n h hr pcr,tecaatrsi bopinbnso styrene of bands absorption characteristic the spectra, third the and rst fi ainadqaiytsigaeciial motn o h plastics the for important critically are testing quality and cation – trn,butadiene styrene, − 1 hl ntescn n hr pcr,teabsorption the spectra, third and second the in while , fi − aino oye ape,qaiaieaayi of analysis qualitative samples, polymer of cation 1 fi epciey iha nraeo Scnet while content, PS of increase an with respectively) , sta hr sn hmclitrcinbetween interaction chemical no is there that es fi grrn fasml,I pcrlanalysis spectral IR sample, a of ngerprint – cyoirl,adbutadiene and acrylonitrile, fi db Rsetocp,ti technique this spectroscopy, IR by ed fi utbcueo h iiaiyof similarity the of because cult fi di iue39,which 3.95, Figure in ed − 1 hra and Thermal . fi aintool cation differential – styrene fi fi cation cation fi bers, 413 – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 414 IUE3.96 FIGURE 3.95 FIGURE c butadiene a (c) – Rsetao a oytrn n b oymty methacrylate). poly(methyl (b) and polystyrene (a) of spectra IR Rsetao a butadiene a (a) of spectra IR styrene (b) (a)

Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) – Transmission (%) cyoirl terpolymer. acrylonitrile 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 20 80 20 80 20 80 5040 5030 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5040 5030 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 0 0 0 0 0 2 0020 5010 700 1000 1500 2000 5000 (c) (b) (a) 51015 – trn ooye;()abutadiene a (b) copolymer; styrene Wavenumber (cm Wavenumber (cm Wavenumber (cm Wavelength (μm) 0010 00500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 –1 –1 –1 ) ) ) lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics – cyoirl ooye,and copolymer, acrylonitrile Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 esrdb rwn h tagtln akrudC bv h adadcluaiglog calculating and band the above CD background 2.15 line at straight PVAc the of drawing example, group for by acetate Considering, peak. measured the absorption of the band of side absorption each the at occurring minima the between tangentially component. absorbing the of concentration known a of value The thick). mm 0.03 oeti h ape h ocnrto ftecmoeti eae oteasrac ( absorbance the to related is component the of concentration the sample, the in ponent 3.97 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics rnmsina h admxmmb hslw rte as written law, this by maximum band the at transmission the in analysis quantitative Lambert for on used based widely is spectroscopy IR Analysis indicating Quantitative clearly content, 3.8.1.6 PMMA of increase blends. an with polymer peaks of these formation of the transmittance in increase an is there ltsit heso hcns agn,tpcly rm02t mo ovn casting solvent or mm 3 to 0.2 from typically, ranging, thickness of sheets into plates osat h apecnb rprdb o rsigtersnbtenTe between resin the pressing hot by prepared be can sample The constant. where ieradps hog h eopit rmtesoeo h ierpo,teconstant the plot, linear the be of should slope obtained the graph From the point. zero sample, the calibration through PVAc pass of and thickness linear the against absorbance this Plotting ooye sbsdo h esrmn fteasrac ai t5.8 at ratio absorbance the for of intensity measurement suitable the of on based band is a copolymer gives thickness mm 10 about of copolymers this sample For Using a performed. measurement. be acetate, resin. can 20% the copolymer, to acetate of chloride/vinyl up content vinyl containing as acetate such the copolymer, of a in value acetate calculated or measured of the value using evaluated be can o h eemnto fasrac,abs-ieclbaini omlyue,tebs iebigdrawn being line base the used, normally is calibration base-line a absorbance, of determination the For natraie(n ipe)mto o eemnn h ctt otn nvnlclrd/iy acetate chloride/vinyl vinyl in content acetate the determining for method simpler) (and alternative An c stecnetaino h bobn component, absorbing the of concentration the is k n h esrdasrac ftebn t2.15 at band the of absorbance measured the and Rsetao lnso oytrn n oymty ehcyae ndfeetproportions. different in methacrylate) poly(methyl and polystyrene of blends of spectra IR – Beer Transmittance (%) 100 200 300 400 500 ’ 0 a.I nasrto adi h Rsetu rssfo atclrcom- particular a from arises spectrum IR the in band absorption an If law. s 4500 80:20 60:40 50:50 40:60 20:80 k a edtrie ymauigteI bobneo ape containing samples of absorbance IR the measuring by determined be can 0030 0020 0010 00500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 A log = 10 ecnaetransmission Percentage Wavenumber (cm 100 m l ,soni iue39,teasrac is absorbance the 3.98, Figure in shown m, stetikeso h ape and sample, the of thickness the is –1 m ) fi ,qatttv eemnto fvinyl of determination quantitative m, l fsnhtcrsn.Teaayi is analysis The resins. synthetic of eld = kcl m m/7.0 fl m ncae tils steel stainless on-coated (i.e., m k nEuto 3.134 Equation in A – = to C=O fi rpercentage or ) m (typically lms 10 (EG/EF). (3.134) – CH k 415 sa is 2 – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 mut fplehln n oysbtn ymligadte o-rsigtebedinto known blend blending the by hot-pressing then prepared and are milling samples by standard polyisobutene of and series polyethylene a of method, amounts direct the using spectroscopy IR by Rsetocp ste ple oteetatdplmrmixture. polymer extracted the to applied then is spectroscopy IR cnann oeta 0 iy sbtlehr,freape hwapoiet huhrte broad, rather though prominent, a show example, for 9.0 ether), near band isobutyl ether vinyl 10% than 9.0 more to near (containing similar band are ether methacrylate) strong poly(methyl relatively and PVC of copolymers. blends chloride/acrylate the vinyl of of 9.75 spectra those at IR band a system. shows acrylate concentrations methyl low at even 5.8 acrylate at ethyl Moreover, band carbonyl ester an produce 416 ai) nti ehd h apetikesne o emaue steaeaecnetcnb deter- be can content acetate the as measured 5.8 of be curve not calibration a need to thickness referring by sample simply the mined method, this In ratio). method. calibration base-line the by acetate) 3.98 FIGURE a eue nwihteplmrbedcmoeti eaae rmthe from separated is component blend and/or polymer inhomogeneous the is which blend in the used if be hand, may other the On sample. the on directly un and well-homogenized With cases. group. isobutyl the for proof conclusive a not ctt ilasr tti aeegh o revnlaeae oee,tesetu a emeasured be can spectrum the however, acetate, vinyl free ( For wavelength. 1.63 this at at absorb will 2.15 acetate at band the Since copolymers. – CH=CH osdrn,a neape h nlsso polyethylene of analysis the example, an as Considering, h rsneo lpai te nvnlclrd oyesbcmseietfo h perneo a of appearance the from evident becomes polymers chloride vinyl in ether aliphatic of presence The acrylate) ethyl and acrylate methyl commonly, (most acrylates with chloride vinyl of Copolymers Rsetocp a rvd ipemaso nlzn h opsto fplmrbed nmany in blends polymer of composition the analyzing of means simple a provide may spectroscopy IR nmn ae,sm revnlaeae(eiulmnmr a epeeti iy ctt oyesor polymers acetate vinyl in present be may monomer) (residual acetate vinyl free some cases, many In m uigarltvl hc pcmn,weetebn sol trbtdt h iy obebond double vinyl the to attributed only is band the where specimen), thick relatively a (using m 2 ,adhnetemnmrcneto h apecnb determined. be can sample the of content monomer the hence and ), esrmn fasrac fteasrto ada 2.15 at band absorption the of absorbance of Measurement m ,btas obe adoigto owing band doublet a also but m, m satiue oteaeaegop ohfe n obndvinyl combined and free both group, acetate the to attributed is m m fi .Tesetao iy hoievnliouy te copolymers ether isobutyl chloride/vinyl vinyl of spectra The m. m ldbed,teI pcrsoi esrmn a eperformed be can measurement spectroscopic IR the blends, lled

,btteC the but m, Transmission D BA F G Wavelength E – m adna 8.5 near band O m/7.0 C – – CH(CH oysbtn (un polyisobutene m bobnertovru ctt content. acetate versus ratio absorbance m 3 ) 2 m lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fteaeaegopi poly(vinyl in group acetate the of m t7.3 at m m sdfeeti h w cases. two the in different is m fi ,wihi o rsn nthe in present not is which m, lrb ovn xrcinand extraction solvent by ller m .Telte s however, is, latter The m. fi fi ld ln composition blend lled) ld nidrc method indirect an lled, fi m fabout of lms Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 uae slog as culated ihsrih iebcgonsXX backgrounds line straight With ags h bobne ttebn aia( maxima band the at absorbances The ranges. sflwe the when useful r suf are h eeec adasrac a eoitdadthe and omitted be may absorbance band reference the asn hog h rgn hsclbaincrecnb sdt eemn h oysbtn otn in content polyisobutene the determine to used be can polyethylene curve unknown calibration an This origin. the through passing . mtikes hc ssial o oysbtn otnsbten5 n 5 ww.TeIR The (w/w). 25% and 5% between 9.0 over contents measured are polyisobutene samples for unknown and suitable standard all is of spectra which thickness, mm 0.3 2.4 and 3.99 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics oyes M pcr a eosre rmanme faoi uli u o h rai hms,the chemist, organic the for but nuclei, of atomic testing of and the number characterization a of for from spectra observed technique be important can an spectra as NMR established polymers. now is [34] spectroscopy NMR Spectroscopy NMR 3.8.2 pcrmo nukonsml,tertoo h t otnso oysbtn n oytyeei the in polyethylene and polyisobutene of contents wt% determined. the be of ratio can the blend sample, unknown of an value of determined spectrum the Using blend. standard the of polyethylene h yrgnaosi h oeuecnb salse.Ti nomto a edrvdfo proton from derived be can information This established. of be environment chemical can and molecule positions relative the the in if structure hydrogen atoms their containing hydrogen about compounds learned the organic be are can deal polymers great most a that and being reason the importance, practical fteblend. the of A yeo procedure. of type rwn aelnsXX lines base drawing 9.5 range wavelength olwn relation: following pcr ewe tils te lts(rfrbycae ihTe with coated (preferably plates steel stainless between spacers 10.5 h au of value The h bv ehdue eeec ad(2.4 band reference a uses method above The If / fi A m fcnrle hcns a epeae yhtpesn ih a,00 mm 0.05 say, with, hot-pressing by prepared be can thickness controlled of lms fi 2.4 m inl ii o hcns esrmn sc swt irmtrgue,temaueetof measurement the gauge), micrometer a with as (such measurement thickness for rigid ciently admxm ytebs-ieclbainmethod. calibration base-line the by maxima band m spotdaantw%plioueecnet ftebedsadrst banasrih line straight a obtain to standards blend the of contents polyisobutene wt% against plotted is 10 1 esrmn fasrac fteasrto ad faplehln-oysbtn ln t10.53 at blend polyethylene-polyisobutene a of bands absorption the of absorbance of Measurement K A/B n log and (AC/AB) ulu,ta s the is, that nucleus, H fi a edtrie rmti eainuigtekonpootoso oysbtn and polyisobutene of proportions known the using relation this from determined be can mtikesi dif is thickness lm – ′ 15

n YY and Transmission m – oysbtn ln rmteasrac ratio absorbance the from blend polyisobutene ,asracscnte emaue t1. n 13.9 and 10.5 at measured be then can absorbances m, X ′ ssoni iue310adapidt qain314 edn othe to leading 3.134, Equation to applied and 3.100 Figure in shown as , bobnea 13 at Absorbance bobnea 10 at Absorbance 10 01 222 2.50 2.25 12 11 10 D/E.Dntn h atras latter the Denoting (DF/DE). fi = ′ utt esr eg,frrbeysmls.Hwvr ftesamples the if However, samples). rubbery for (e.g., measure to cult n YY and A K B C 1 M pcr or spectra NMR H t oysbtn nblend in polyisobutene wt% t oytyeei blend in polyethylene wt% ′ ∼ Wavelength (μm) rw ssoni iue39,teasracsaecal- are absorbances the 3.99, Figure in shown as drawn 05and 10.5 m )a usiuefor substitute a as m) : : 9 5 m m X´ m m ∼ A = 2.4 10.5 log log rtnrsnnespectra resonance proton Y sml hcns ai sue nasimilar a in used is ratio thickness /sample m 10 10 )aemaue ytebs-iemethod. base-line the by measured are m) AC DF fl K n n pcr r eoddoe the over recorded are spectra and on) – n h esrdasracso the on absorbances measured the and A = = 12.5 BC EF D E F 10.5 fi mtikes h ehdproves method The thickness. lm m and (2.39 μm) A n 2.1 and m 10.5 A / A 2.4 Y´ 2.4 epciey h ratio the respectively, , m esrdwt a with measured – admxm by maxima band m r ftegreatest the of are , 2.8 elrgauges feeler m wavelength m (3.135) fi 417 lm as Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 n 13.9 and 3.100 FIGURE 418 M pcr,frtemjrt fognccmons h aual bnatisotope abundant naturally the carbon compounds, from organic obtained of be majority would the information for complementary spectra, principle, NMR in Though, spectra. resonance eoac inl.TeNRsetocp fognccmonsi hscon mean thus always will is book this compounds in spectroscopy/spectra proton organic NMR mentioned, of otherwise Unless spectroscopy spectra. resonance NMR The signals. resonance ewe h antcmmn etradtedrcino h magnetic the of direction the angle and the vector mechanics, moment magnetic the between where eti tmcnce ieH D, H, like nuclei atomic Certain Principles General 3.8.2.1 hl the while n ftevalues the of any atcesinn bu t xsi qiaett iclreeti urn,wih ntr,gvsrs oa to rise gives ( turn, energy in potential which, its current, and electric spin, circular the a to equivalent is magnetic axis its about spinning particle bu t xs saaoost hto yocp pnigi rcinesbaig.I sakonfc that fact known a is It bearings. frictionless in spinning gyroscope a of that to analogous energy. is axis) of one its quantum adjacent about an appropriate to an state of spin one emission from or nucleus absorption a of by transition occur and may state spin a represents orientation Each however, ln h ieto ftemagnetic the of direction the along magnetic applied an in words, rirr ieto,btcnhv nyadsrt e foinain.Ti stersl faphenomenon, a of result the is This orientations. of set discrete a as only known have can but direction, arbitrary osbevle of values possible rmacasclpito iw h eairo pnigpoo pcue satn a antrotating magnet bar tiny a as (pictured proton spinning a of behavior the view, of point classical a From m M (or NMR m stemgei oeto h ulu ie,tesrnt ftencerdpl)and dipole) nuclear the of strength the (i.e., nucleus the of moment magnetic the is I ytebs-ieclbainmethod. calibration base-line the by m fi 13 pc quantization space l,asinn ulu eae satn a antwoeai scicdn ihteai of axis the with coincident is axis whose magnet bar tiny a as behaves nucleus spinning a eld, / and 1/2 = ulu,wihi antclyatv,hslwntrlaudneadgvsol weak only gives and abundance natural low has active, magnetically is which nucleus, C esrmn fasrac fteasrto ad fapolyethylene a of bands absorption the of absorbance of Measurement 1 I , M)spectroscopy/spectra. NMR) H m I I − m q r ,0 and 0, 1, are 1, I

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B − A I with , U 10.5 μm n Wavelength (μm) I − = ersnigtesi ftences hs for Thus, nucleus. the of spin the representing /,ads rtncnhv nytosi orientations. spin two only have can proton so and 1/2, X´ − H m m fi l fstrength of eld cos I ( h /2 q p ,weeteqatmnumber quantum the where ), Y E F lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics H D is 13.9 μm fi l.Acrigt quantum to According eld. Y´ – oysbtn ln t10.5 at blend polyisobutene fi e anyt proton to mainly ned 12 sinactive, is C q m steangle the is I I a have can ,the 1, = (3.136) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rcsinlmto fa riigeeto konas (known electron orbiting an of motion precessional h rcsinlfeuny( frequency merely precessional but tilt the not does axis its gyroscope, spinning a to applied is (torque) force a when Testing and Properties Plastics magnetic 3.101 FIGURE ne netgto stkni ml ls uepae ewe h oefcso a of faces radio-frequency pole the the main between the transmits sample of placed direction that the the tube to spectroscopy, coil lar glass NMR The small In a 3.102). wire. in of (Figure taken (solenoid) coil is helical investigation a under through oscillator crystal energy. frequency of emission or absorption to rise giving occur, readily the in when Thus, be interaction. to no be said will secondary there rotating differ, the frequencies the of if frequency exchanged; be can energy and proton equal h ieto ftefre iial,asinn rtn eaiga antcgrsoe ilprecess will gyroscope, magnetic a as behaving proton, applied spinning the a of direction Similarly, the force. about the of direction the where ftepoo nthe in proton the of main the from n afcceo h rcsinlmto ilb acle yteefc nteohrhl-yl.T produce To half-cycle. other the in secondary effect the the by effect, cancelled net be will a motion precessional the of half-cycle one oaigmagnetic rotating A nodrt as hneo h angle the of change a cause to order In angle the as long So fi ota ftepeesn rtn h eodr magnetic secondary The proton. precessing the of that to p l.Tescnaymagnetic secondary The eld. n fi fi sthe is eld eld. H resonance ihacntn angle constant a with , pnaglrmomentum angular spin pnigpoo,bhvn samgei yocp,peessaottedrcino h applied the of direction the about precesses gyroscope, magnetic a as behaving proton, spinning A fi l,gvnb qain316 ilas ecntn n oeeg ilb absorbed be will energy no and constant be also will 3.136, Equation by given eld, q ic nti odto,tasto rmoencersi tt oaohrcan another to state spin nuclear one from transition condition, this in since , fi ewe t pnigai n the and axis spinning its between l a epoue nasml a ysnigteotu urn faradio- a of current output the sending by way simple a in produced be can eld fi l utas oaeaottedrcino h main the of direction the about rotate also must eld w fi fsc pnigpoo a h aefr stefeunyo the of frequency the as form same the has proton spinning a such of ) l rdcdb h lcrmge.Teci smd ntohle oallow to halves two in made is coil The electromagnet. the by produced eld w fi l seFgr .0) epn h angle the keeping 3.101), Figure (see eld = q fi fi . l utntb ttoayoe oee,a tews t fetin effect its otherwise as however, one, stationary a be not must eld l n h rqec ftepeesn ulu r qa,te are they equal, are nucleus precessing the of frequency the and eld antcmoment Magnetic nua moment Angular ftencesgvnby given nucleus the of q p eodmagnetic second a , = n = 2 m p 2 H h p θ p H n N p S cycles I ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ( amrfrequency Larmor I +1) = fi s l ieto scntn,teptnilenergy potential the constant, is direction eld H radian fi fi fi l spae ihisai perpendicu- axis its with placed is eld l a hnitrc ihteprecessing the with interact then can eld l st eapidpredclrt the to perpendicular applied be to is eld = s ,namely, ), q osat h xrsinfor expression The constant. fi l ihafrequency a with eld dc precesses electromagnet (3.137) (3.138) about 419 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 0 cso 2 Mc/s. a 220 employ or today use Mc/s in 100 spectrometers NMR Most practice. in rqec fteoclao ste aidoe ag nldn 0M/,rsnneasrto iloccur will can absorption we resonance hand, Mc/s, other 60 the applied including On range frequency. a that over at varied exactly then is oscillator the of frequency ups eapya apply we Suppose IUE3.102 FIGURE 420 h neto ftesml odr h lcrccretpsigtruhteci rdcsi tamagnetic a it in produces coil the through passing current electric The fi holder. sample the of insertion the a rwudaotteplso h antalwasept emd hog h ple magnetic applied the through made be to sweep a Equation allow that magnet such the of be poles must the oscillator about the wound or from gap coil the to satis supplied is 3.137 current alternating the the of as frequency act will nucleus the of motion precessional the of magnetic direction rotating the two as same these magnetic Of two directions. to opposite equivalent thus in magnetic is alternating above, The described to motion. coil, change the periodic alternating and of an direction represents constant fact, having in vector which, a to magnitude, equivalent is directions opposite in frequency itiuinrto h aito mte nti rcs spce pb h eevrci,wihi a is which Boltzmann coil, the receiver these The approach the from tube. sample to pickup by magnetic the minimize order the around up to both tightly in picked wound to wire perpendicular level is of is turns lower process coil few receiver a the this of to in consisting coil emitted return radio-frequency separate radiation to The tend ratio. then distribution will which state, excited resonance. of condition this about bring to n h rnmte.Tesga rmtercie olcnb ipae na silsoeo recorder a or oscilloscope the an either on displayed be can coil receiver the from chart. signal The transmitter. the and odto frsnne(bopino msino nry,temagnetic the energy), of emission or (absorption resonance of condition other The l ietdaogisai,adthis and axis, its along directed eld ti eea rpryo etr htterslato w dnia etr oaigwt h same the with rotating vectors identical two of resultant the that vectors of property general a is It hnrsnneasrto feeg ae lc,i a etogto spouignce nthe in nuclei producing as of thought be can it place, takes energy of absorption resonance When xeietly h eoac odto a eotie ntoatraiewy.W ih vary might We ways. alternative two in obtained be may condition resonance the Experimentally, fi l vrarneutlasrto cus h atrarneeti ipeadwdl used widely and simple is arrangement latter The occurs. absorption until range a over eld fi fi l oaigi h poiedrcincnb goe,sneisaeaeefc szr.T bana obtain To zero. is effect average its since ignored, be can direction opposite the in rotating eld l tegho h lcrmge rtefeunyo h siltr epn h other the keeping oscillator, the of frequency the or electromagnet the of strength eld fi d h ulicnte bobeeg rmtesecondary the from energy absorb then can nuclei The ed. ceai ersnaino nNRspectrometer. NMR an of representation Schematic fi e magnetic xed Receiver coil Radio receiver fi ls ti h apeta rvdsti opigbtentereceiver the between coupling this provides that sample the is It elds. Recorder fi fi l n h amrfeunypoue yi s a,6 cs fthe if Mc/s; 60 say, is, it by produced frequency Larmor the and eld l eessisdrcinwt h aefeunya h current. the as frequency same the with direction its reverses eld Test tube fi l n h ai-rqec rnmte oli order in coil transmitter radio-frequency the and eld fi h siltrfeunya 0M/ n aythe vary and Mc/s 60 at frequency oscillator the x fi ls h n hs ieto frtto sthe is rotation of direction whose one the elds, (typical frequency Radio frequency fi transmitter = 60Mc/s) fi e siltrfeunyo ihr6 Mc/s, 60 either of frequency oscillator xed Transmitter coil lsrttn ihtesm rqec but frequency same the with rotating elds current Sweep 15,000 G Poles of magnet lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fi l.Cislctdwti h pole the within located Coils eld. fi l ttepoo n the and proton the at eld eodr magnetic secondary fi l ln h axis the along eld fi fi fi xed. eld eld . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 rprinlt h tegho h applied the of strength the to proportional Hpoo ilcm norsnnebfr h Hpoo.Tesprto ewe h resonances the between of separation degrees different The (causing proton. the environments as chemical CH different known in the is nucleus shielding) before same the resonance for into peaks) (absorption come will proton OH oeue ths oee,n feto h inlo ekitniy h nest fasrto tagiven a at absorption of us intensity tell The thus intensity. will spectrum peak or signal the on effect fi no however, has, It molecule. h fetv magnetic effective The rtni rae hnta fteC rtn osqety steapidmagnetic applied the as Consequently, proton. CH the of that than greater is proton rtosi hs niomnsaedfeetads r h hedn fet ntepoos osdr for Consider, protons. the on effects shielding the are so C and the different example, are environments these in trations molecule. a in it around rudteC rtn(.. rtni C in proton (i.e., proton CH the around Hpoo.W hudtu xetta h hedn osato h Hpoo sgetrta hto the applied of given that a than for greater that, is 3.139 proton CH Equation the from of follows constant then shielding It the proton. that OH expect thus should We proton. OH fi s uhadrcina opouea produce to as direction a such ol eo iteuet h rai hms.Hwvr ems osdrtefc htthe that fact the such consider as must and we compound, However, the chemist. for different organic peak in the one in to protons only represented use given show distinguish little as would same, can of spectrum the be NMR were it would molecule the that a then in is 3.137, protons all Equation technique of by frequencies NMR resonance the the If of environments. molecular characteristic important very A Shift Chemical 3.8.2.2 Testing and Properties Plastics fi 3.103 FIGURE uruddb neetoantccag lu aigapoiaeyshrclsmer.Amagnetic A symmetry. spherical approximately having cloud fi charge electromagnetic an by surrounded aea h tegho h ple magnetic applied the of strength the as same eld, l teghwl epootoa otenme fpoosi ie niomn ntemlcl n a and molecule the in environment given a in protons of number the to proportional be will strength eld l sdrcl rprinlt h applied the to proportional directly is eld l nue lcrnccruain ntecag lu napaepredclrt h applied the to perpendicular plane a in cloud charge the in circulations electronic induces eld ersnsthe represents rmteceia hfs esol eal oknow to able be should we shifts, chemical the From oeuemycnanpoosi ifrn hmclevrnet.Teaeaeeeto concen- electron average The environments. chemical different in protons contain may molecule A ecntu a htpoo is proton that say thus can We H b il fpitmgei dipole. magnetic point of Field (b) . qain3.137 Equation – n O and H a imgei iclto fa lcrnaotancespoue a produces nucleus a about electron an of circulation Diamagnetic (a) hedn constant shielding a (b) (a) fi – l xeine ytepoo stherefore is proton the by experienced eld o ayo ahtp fprotons of type each of many how od.Sneoye smr lcrngtv hncro,teeeto density electron the carbon, than electronegative more is oxygen Since bonds. H hmclshift chemical sthe is fi shielded eld H h xeto hedn fapoo eed nteeeto density electron the on depends proton a of shielding of extent The . fi H l tegheprecdb h rtn ntesml n sntthe not is and sample the in protons the by experienced strength eld opposing eff ti ayt e httemgiueo h hmclsitwl be will shift chemical the of magnitude the that see to easy is It . – od)sol ecnieal ihrta htaon the around that than higher considerably be should bonds) H rmteexternal the from = fi eld fi ðÞ fi eld. H eld H h applied the − rtn hte nhdoe tm rmlclsare molecules or atoms hydrogen in whether Protons . n ocnb ersne by represented be can so and s H = o aydfeettpso protons of types different many how H r rsn.Teeaetetoipratfacets important two the are These present. are ðÞ fi fi 1 l,a hw nFgr .0.Teinduced The 3.103. Figure in shown as eld, l ydaantceeto iclto and circulation electron diamagnetic by eld − s N S 70° fi l,teeffective the eld, s H fi where , l poigteapplied the opposing eld fi l sicesd the increased, is eld s fi l tteOH the at eld hr r na in are there saconstant. a is fi l strength eld fi l n in and eld (3.139) 421 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 iesols;tefco 10 factor the dimensionless; e ilgusa a at milligauss few a shows spectrum the accordingly, and protons, CH the in protons two the to assigned is peak next the The to the 3.104a). assigned group, is (Figure peak OH resolution smallest the The low 1:2:3. in under ratio (area) proton obtained intensity illustration, single ethanol of an peaks of As absorption spectrum technique. three analytical shows NMR spectrum quantitative the and below qualitative a consider it we make that spectroscopy NMR of 422 tao a ne o eouinad()udrhg resolution. high under (b) and resolution low under (a) ethanol 3.104 FIGURE agrapplied larger lcrndsrbto nteajcn CH adjacent the in distribution electron ad h C the hand, h ihrsd fams l te rtnrsnne nogncmlcls n ii ti hmclyinert, chemically is it (iii) and molecules, high organic exceptionally in an resonances at proton occurs other peak all almost resonance of its side (ii) higher equivalent); the are it in protons 12 oxygen the to closer average, and the bare on relatively is being, proton electrons OH bonding the the result, with a polar as is and bond atom, OH the that fact the itra eeec)s htbt xeinetesm magnetic sample same the the as experience solution same both the that in so dissolved reference) is substance (internal reference The respectively. substance, reference ti neetn ont htdmty te (CH ether dimethyl that note to interesting is It CH the in protons three the to assigned is peak largest the Si(CH itiue ewe h abnao n h he rtn.TeCH The protons. three the and atom carbon the between distributed tegh hrfr,i M nlss hmclsit r sal xrse narltv ai,i form a in basis, relative a on expressed usually are shifts of chemical independent analysis, NMR in applied Therefore, the strength. of strength the to proportional directly CH where hmclsit r eysalcmae otesrnt fteapplied the of strength the to compared small very are shifts Chemical htteasrto ekfrteO rtnocr ttelws au fteapplied the of value lowest the at occurs proton OH the for peak absorption the That h usac o lotuieslyslce srfrnefrpoo eoacsi ermty silane, tetramethyl is resonances proton for reference as selected universally almost now substance The 3 ek,bcueteeeto ihrwlb h xgno h Hgopas a oeefc nthe on effect some has also group OH the of oxygen the by withdrawal electron the because peaks, 3 H ) 4 s rTSi hr.Iscifavnae r sflos i tgvsa gives it (i) follows: as are advantages chief Its short. in TMS or , and – odbigams oplr h odn lcrn nteCH the in electrons bonding the nonpolar, almost being bond H fi H fi l srqie obigte norsnne h CH The resonance. into them bring to required is eld ceai ersnaino M pcrm(nryasrto essapplied versus absorption (energy spectrum NMR of representation Schematic r l tegh o rtni ie niomn,teceia hf sde is shift chemical the environment, given a in proton a For strength. eld r h applied the are fi l tegho bu 000gus oevr ic lcrncsilig( shielding electronic since Moreover, gauss. 10,000 about of strength eld (b) (a) H H 6 sicue oepesi sprsprmlin(ppm). million per parts as it express to included is fi OH l tegh twihrsnneocr nagvnsbtneada and substance given a in occurs resonance which at strengths eld 2 d ru n eue h ereo hedn o h CH the for shielding of degree the reduces and group = H r 3 H − OCH single r H H H C fi s l,teceia hf au lovre ihthe with varies also value shift chemical the eld, 3 ,wihi nioe fehnl a six has ethanol, of isomer an is which ), bopinpeak. absorption 10 unshielded 6 p (3.140) ppm 3 group. fi l.Teceia hf parameter shift chemical The eld. 3 rtn r hswl heddada and shielded well thus are protons rmteapplied the from 2 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics ekocr nbtenO and OH between in occurs peak fi H C l;termgiuebiga being magnitude their eld; single H H 3 ru r eryequally nearly are group hr ek(ic all (since peak sharp fi fi fi l.O h other the On eld. l cod with accords eld l,wihi on is which eld, fi l tegh of strength) eld 2 fi ru,and group, e by ned equivalent 2 protons. s H fi d )is eld is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 h hedn n ec h ihrthe it higher around the density hence electron and shielding the the on dependent however, is, namely, circulation, electron induced of kinds three from shielding, arise diamagnetic which recognized, be can shielding magnetic magnetic the 3.103, Figure in illustrated As Mechanisms Shielding 3.8.2.3 nucleus. the of shielding higher ymtyo h hrecodwt epc othe to respect with cloud applied charge will the the currents of to of symmetry diamagnetic respect mainly irrespective with vibration, symmetry orientation and spherical its approximately changes has part, magnetic protons of presence surrounding the distribution charge the rings. aromatic in circulation magnetic applied the large M n it and TMS eofrTSadit and TMS for zero antclyiorpc n o oln biigpit 7C,s hti a eraiyrcvrdfo most from recovered readily be can it that use. so after 27°C), point, samples (boiling boiling low and isotropic, magnetically Testing and Properties Plastics xso oeuei a aallad()predclrt h applied the to perpendicular (b) and parallel (a) is molecule of Axis 3.105 FIGURE ctlncpoos ncnrs,tedaantcaiorp ftecroy ru na leyecauses aldehyde an in group carbonyl the of anisotropy diamagnetic magnetic the external contrast, the In decrease protons. to acetylenic serves acetylene in bond triple magnetic secondary h rgno oa imgei hedn a enepandi eto ....I hudb oe that noted be should It 3.8.2.2. Section in explained been has shielding diamagnetic local of origin The eoac oiin r niae nthe on indicated are positions Resonance h iclto feetosabout electrons of circulation The ueia au of value numerical t ). fi l ( eld decreases fi l.I hsrset the respect, this In eld. h rgno imgei hedn faeyei rtn trbtdt h nstoyo acetylene. of anisotropy the to attributed protons acetylenic of shielding diamagnetic of origin The H n scalled is and ) generated bycirculatingelectrons increases fi down lsare elds Induced circulation Secondary magneticfield neighboring d of πelectrons fi mle low- a implies fi l rceia odn.Tu,ee famlcl,o hc h rtni a is proton the which of molecule, a if even Thus, bonding. chemical or eld l,bigrltdto related being eld, down anisotropic imgei shielding diamagnetic fi imgei hedn by shielding diamagnetic l.O the On eld. neighboring t saei oecnein,a convenient, more is -scale fi l twihtepoo bob a re (as absorbs proton the which at eld fi ssoni iue315 h imgei nstoyo the of anisotropy diamagnetic the 3.105, Figure in shown As . l eoac n ec a hence and resonance eld Applied field fi a (b) (a) l eeae yteidcdcirculation induced the by generated eld d H H C C saeo the or -scale H t d tm a eefciea rtnol ftegenerated the if only proton a at effective be can atoms -scale, fl by waon h rtnbcueo h lotaxial almost the of because proton the around ow fi l ieto.Tedge fsiligo proton a of shielding of degree The direction. eld t o rtn,tremi id fdiamagnetic of kinds main three protons, For . =10 t sgvnavleo 0a h eoac ekof peak resonance the at 10 of value a given is — t fi sae nthe On -scale. − h ihrteeeto est,tehigher the density, electron the higher the l ieto wn oicsatrotation incessant to owing direction eld CCH HC fi d anisotropic eld. Restricted diamagnetic The . fi l ie,ices h hedn)o the of shielding) the increase (i.e., eld Applied field larger circulation small d saehstedsdatg hta that disadvantage the has -scale H rus and groups, au of value hedn ftencesfrom nucleus the of shielding d sae(qain3.140), (Equation -scale fl ce nalower a in ected t opposes mliga implying interatomic h applied the d greater n a and local dia- 423 d is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 ( effect. lcrnwtdaiggop (e.g., groups This Electron-withdrawing 3.108). (Figure lie protons of the value where ring low the relatively of the plane the for in accounts outside deshielding but ring the of center magnetic applied delocalized 3.107). cyclically (Figure deshielding attached slight protons while experience 3.106), actually Figure carbon (see proton single-bonded aldehydic a the to at shielding decreases is, that deshielding, 424 IUE3.107 FIGURE 3.106 FIGURE id fdaantcsilig the is shielding, latter diamagnetic the of bonds; kinds chemical through directly than rather deshielding. and shielding range – OH, eas fthe of Because usiuino ezn hfsthe shifts benzene of Substitution having rings, pseudo-aromatic and aromatic with associated is shielding diamagnetic of type third The – NH 2 as the raise ) imgei hedn ytecarbon the by shielding Diamagnetic effects. anisotropic diamagnetic to owing proton aldehydic an of Deshielding fi p l.Ti eeae eodr magnetic secondary a generates This eld. eeto iclto Fgr .0) rmtcrnspoieasrn oreo long- of source strong a provide rings aromatic 3.108), (Figure circulation -electron p lcrn,wihaeraiyidcdit iclto ntepaeo h igb an by ring the of plane the in circulation into induced readily are which electrons, t au eaiet ezn (2.73 benzene to relative value H R ogrneshielding Long-range CC fi Induced circulation – s ssotrneadtels w r long-range. are two last the and short-range is rst NO CO Applied t Applied field field of electrons t au o h bopino h rmtcpoos(al 3.12). (Table protons aromatic the of absorption the for value 2 o rmtcpoos ssoni al 3.12. Table in shown as protons, aromatic for , H H – CO 2 – )lwrthe lower H) abnsnl bond. single carbon ple osiligta prtstruhspace through operates that shielding to applies circulating electrons Secondary magnetic t hr-ag shielding short-range field generatedby ,bcueo h oa imgei shielding diamagnetic local the of because ), circulating electrons Induced circulation Secondary magnetic fi field generatedby l htcue rnucdsiliga the at shielding pronounced causes that eld of πelectrons t au,wieeeto-oaiggroups electron-donating while value, lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics hs ftetremain three the of Thus, . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 IUE3.108 FIGURE Testing and Properties Plastics AL 3.12 TABLE C rings aromatic on Protons RCH C CH R CH CH rtn nstrtdcrosOhrprotons Other RCH carbons saturated on Protons Proton of Type R RC carbons unsaturated on Protons RCH C C CH R RCH 2 2 3 6 6 6 6 a =H 5.0 8.5 C=CHR C=CH 1.5 CH H H H H ≡ 3 3 3 3 h he ausgvnrfrto refer given values three The H .578 O ihyvariable Highly 9.7 5 ROH 6.6 RCHO 5 7.85 3.4 6 8.03 2.15 1.97 OR 5 CHO COCH CN H247.6 2.4 CH 2 2 2 3 NO CH NH l376.3 6.3 3.7 3.7 C 8.7 1.3 Cl OR R 3 2 2 2 a a 3 h magnetic The yia hmclSit o aiu ye fProtons of Types Various for Shifts Chemical Typical H fi l eeae yteidcdcruaino lcrn nbenzene. in electrons of circulation induced the by generated eld Secondary fieldgenerated by electroncirculation ortho Dt .53.35 2.93 3.48 6.65 2.40 7.07 2.52 6.52 1.78 7.60 2.73 7.48 8.22 7.27 11.0 4.5 RCOOH 7.66 7.91 RNH 2.54 2.09 9.1 0.9 -, – – meta . 4.5 5.5 . 5.0 5.0 ,and -, para Applied field – – 5.0 5.5 poos respectively. -protons, H Induced circulation of πelectrons yeo Proton of Type H 6 H 5 2 NH 2 d 3.4 1.5 – 12.0 425 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 cl,wihi ntergteg ftercre hr.Ms pcrmtr aepoiinfrintegration for provision have spectrometers Most chart. recorder the of edge right the on is which scale, tews niae,i speue httersnneo M scicdn ihtezr fthe of zero the with coincident is TMS Unless of right. resonance the the to that increases presumed conventionally is strength it Field indicated, paper. otherwise precalibrated on usually axis, vertical a h M pcrmi rsne sapo of plot a as presented is spectrum NMR The Analysis Polymer in Applications 3.8.2.5 0 H rqec iluulyso ifrne.I rnil,sc ifrne a eue odiffer- to used be may differences such principle, In differences. show spin usually entiate will frequency MHz 100 opesdi h higher the in compressed atal vrapdb te ad.We lte na on plotted When bands. other by overlapped partially quartets triplets, doublets, etdi iue314.B oprn twt iue314,w e httemty (CH methyl the that see we 3.104a, Figure with it comparing By 3.104b. Figure in same sented the in together environments. close for chemical very as different are (responsible in to that nucleus are protons referred but between is a coupling molecule effect homonuclear on This is effect effect molecule. important the same most the to in observed attributed nuclei phenomenon, is magnetic The other patterns. resolution, of complex high peak) more of absorption or the spectrometers quartets, components on of triplets, with number solely a doublets, expected only into be as split would often appear are than absorptions may complex resonance and more the Thus, much effect. usually shift chemical is of substance basis a of spectrum NMR The Spin 3.8.2.4 426 ipitadterrltv ra r ueial rprinlt h coef the to + proportional (1 numerically are areas relative their singlet.] and midpoint a methylene only the shows of therefore orientations spin peak the absorption of effect its averaged and an protons experiences also proton hydroxyl The proton. as known is second), per cycles (Hz, the between hertz separation in the quoted to equal separation, and This same the quartet. the is the triplet of the of components components the between separation epeitdfrtefloigcompounds following the for predicted be tv ra ::) two-proton [(CH a 1:2:1), areas ative ehln (CH methylene (CH coupling eutta h ehln rtn xeinesml naeae nonsplitting the average, with an time, of simply period experience a protons over molecules methylene spin alcohol the (proton ethyl in exchange different that chemical partake among rapid result not a proton to does hydroxyl identical attributed the group three is atom). of This OH the carbon further. transfer) with adjacent split next would interaction the the peak by of methylene on four the proton (i.e., otherwise, into The it split to [Note: is adjacent protons. peak are methyl resonance protons) proton methylene methylene two the the Similarly, (i.e., nuclei identical two where with compared large is protons is interacting multiplicity the of resonances absorption the o pi noa into split now bevn h frsi atrso eaieitniis(.. eaieaes ftecmoetpeaks, component the of areas) relative (i.e., intensities relative of patterns aforesaid the Observing sa lutain ecnie h ihrslto pcrmo omnsml fehnlrepre- ethanol of sample common a of spectrum high-resolution the consider we illustration, an As nsml ae fitrcignce,tecmoetpaso utpe r ymtia bu a about symmetrical are multiplet a of peaks component the nuclei, interacting of cases simple In nacrac ihti ue h ehlpoo eoac eki pi notrecmoet because components three into split is peak resonance proton methyl the rule, this with accordance In absorption resonance a which into components of number The opigcntn J constant coupling 3 r 3 OCH ) ) n n 2 where , CI:asix-proton a .CHI]: tmyb eeoula,freape ewe rtn n adjacent and protons between example, for heteronuclear, be may It . ubro dnia uliivle nteinteraction. the in involved nuclei identical of number = 2 CH – pnculn rmceia shift. chemical from coupling spin – n pnCoupling Spin 3 2 :athree-proton a ): bopini pi noa into split is absorption ) stenme fpooso daetaos oilsrt,tefloigmlilcte will multiplicities following the illustrate, To atoms. adjacent on protons of number the is triplet ewe h ulita neat ftedfeec i em ffeuny between frequency) of terms (in difference the If interact. that nuclei the between n oo a oeie ercgie nNRseta vntog hyare they though even spectra, NMR in recognized be sometimes may on so and , ihaeso h he opnnsi h prxmt aiso :: and 1:2:1 of ratios approximate the in components three the of areas with fi l teghsetu.Tu,setarcre t a,6 H rqec and frequency MHz 60 say, at, recorded spectra Thus, spectrum. strength eld doublet sextet singlet 11 n one-proton a and (1:1) 151:051,adatwo-proton a and (1:5:10:10:5:1), two-proton a , eki pi = split is peak — d quartet n or – rplidd (CH iodide propyl t hf ntehrzna xsaantrsnneeeg as energy resonance against axis horizontal the on shift aigrltv ra fapoiaey1331 The 1:3:3:1. approximately of areas relative having , quartet n d ,(3.141) 1, + -or septet 1331,adathree-proton a and (1:3:3:1), t sae spin a -scale, 3 CH 161:01::) ehlehlether ethyl methyl (1:6:15:20:15:6:1); 2 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics CH fi inso h ioilexpansion binomial the of cients triplet 2 ) three-proton a I): J hnasml ueo peak of rule simple a then , – pnculn atr is pattern coupling spin 121;iorpliodide isopropyl (1:2:1); fi fl l rmtehydroxyl the from eld oience,btthe but nuclei, uorine – 3 bopinis absorption ) pncoupling; spin triplet triplet spin d (1:2:1). (ppm) – (rel- spin Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 hi rnhn,weetelnt ftebace so h aesaea hto h akoe odetect To backbone. the of that as scale branching, same of the types on different is these branches quantify the ole and of another length with the where ethylene branching, of chain copolymerization from results which is molecule polymer fteitgasof integrals the of au (say value frltvl o-oeua-egtplmr yedgopaayi.Temto a eapidi the if applied be can method The analysis. end-group identi has by polymer polymers low-molecular-weight relatively and of leads helpful in provide done may often they are as These analysis applications. elemental the and con of studies some spectroscopic as IR with mentioned combination be may and measurement isomerism, structural tacticity branching, polymer polymer analysis, distribution determination, sequence weight and molecular composition and copolymer analysis end-group polymer as such analysis quantitative polymers, of achieved. the rarely sub- and is broader with usually substances are monomeric resonances polymers of for 100°C sharp at obtained characteristic often resonances comparatively detail and conditions, solution these achieved, in rapid under examined Even if be therefore 150°C. are however, can to Polymers be practice, observed. chain be can In may polymer width polymers. condition reduced with This the stantially not sharp. of but are motion solution, resonances in segmental the higher substances that having monomeric then ensures with molecules environment achieved as this magnetic solution, magnetic For average the in environment. to same preferably respect magnetic the with and orientations same state possible all the liquid assume effectively the can mobility in experience used sample are the samples in reason, axis. molecule horizontal each the in on as nuclei latter chart same the the with on alignment scale, vertical in arbitrary and an spectrum using presented, resonance is the integral The resonances. under areas of Testing and Properties Plastics yteisrmn.Cnieig o xml,pl(tyeegyo)darlt ersne yteformula the by represented diacrylate glycol) provided is poly(ethylene protons example, of for types different Considering, of instrument. absorptions resonance the of by integration accurate if and NMR by units raitgaso l h n-ru rtnrsnne n iiigb h oa ubro end-group of number total the by dividing and (say resonances value proton the yields end-group 6) (i.e., the protons all of integrals area oytyee abn a eclassi be can carbons polyethylene, akoeadln-hi branches, long-chain and backbone meitl daett ehn carbon), methine a to adjacent immediately hmclsitdpnso h egho h rnhfrbace pt abn nlnt,bti inde- is but length, On in longer. carbons or 6 long to carbons up six branches branches for all branch for The length the branch. branch of the of to length adjacent pendent the or attached on atoms depends carbon chain shift backbone chemical the of shifts chemical the of ferences akoemty ru r,hwvr estv otidarneet Fgr .0c.Teisotactic, The 3.109c). (Figure arrangements triad the of to protons sensitive three two The the however, patterns. PMMA, are, atactic resonance in two group while above ones, methyl the preceding of four backbone combination the equivalent a of magnetically exhibit center are protons the (Figure protons in methylene lines four resonance methylene of single two appearance a the an produce giving 3.109b), thus and (Figure sets, PMMA such chemical two syndiotactic are close) In there (though different and 3.109b). set, have AB so an and forming PMMA methylene values, isotactic two shift in the equivalent 3.109a), magnetically (Figure not (PMMA) are methacrylate) protons poly(methyl example, for Considering, mers. meitl daett a to adjacent immediately rnhn nPolyethylene in Branching oye oeua Weights Molecular Polymer identi and analysis Qualitative polymers. of analysis the for used been has spectroscopy NMR The well-de and sharp obtain To h n rushv oml egt F)5 n 1 hl h eetui a W4.Adn the Adding 44. FW has unit repeat the while 71, and 55 (FW) weights formula have groups end The atct nPolymers in Tacticity fi mto.Sm xmlso uhapiain r ie below. given are applications such of examples Some rmation. Y fteitga e rtnof proton per integral the of ) all fi beedgoppoosta r itnusal rmpooso eetn monomer repeating of protons from distinguishable are that protons end-group able h eetui rtn ytenme fpoosof protons of number the by protons unit repeat the n = M pcrsoyi eyueu o bevto fseeioeimi poly- in stereoisomerism of observation for useful very is spectroscopy NMR . H Y b 2 / ) C(eodCao rmed nsotbace,adcanedmty C. methyl chain-end and branches, short on end) from atom C (second 2C C), C X ¼ n oye oeua egt=(5+7)+44 + 71) + (55 = weight molecular polymer and rnhn nplehln cusi w forms two in occurs polyethylene in Branching . CH M nlssofr nes ehdfrdtriaino oeua weight molecular of determination for method easy an offers analysis NMR . fi e M pcr,i sncsayt nueta hmclyequivalent chemically that ensure to necessary is it spectra, NMR ned — fi CO ehn carbon methine X das ed fteitga e n-ru rtn hratr iiigtesum the dividing Thereafter, proton. end-group per integral the of ) — ð — ehln carbon methylene one O — b Cao meitl daett an to adjacent immediately atom (C C CH eetui.Teeoe h ubro eetuisi the in units repeat of number the Therefore, unit. repeat 13 2 M,isedof instead NMR, C — Cao oddt he te atoms), C other three to bonded atom (C CH 2 — Þ n — Cao oddt w te tm)on atoms) C other two to bonded atom (C O — CO fi eg,btn rotn) n long and octene), or butene (e.g., n — 1 M,i sdbsdo h dif- the on based used is NMR, H CH fi one ¼ 13 l.Ec ulu experiencing nucleus Each eld. CH M pcr fbranched of spectra NMR C eetui ie,4 ie the gives 4) (i.e., unit repeat 2 n : — . hr-hi branching, short-chain a C), g a Catom (C C Catom (C C fi cation 427 fi ne Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 fPM.()Poo M pcr fioatc ydoatc n tci MA c ragmnso usiunsin substituents of Arrangements (c) PMMA. triads. atactic atactic and syndiotactic, and isotactic, syndiotactic, of isotactic, spectra NMR Proton (b) PMMA. of IUE3.109 FIGURE 428 IUE3.110 FIGURE (Figure lines a syndio and and PMMA employing syndiotactic iso spectrometer different predominantly NMR the at a an between of by appears recorded spectra being line PMMA NMR line isotactic a proton predominantly the atactic and compares shifts the 3.110 chemical arrangements, Figure different 3.109b). three at the resolved for are locations triads atactic and syndiotactic, f6 Mc/s. 60 of iha6-H M pcrmtr Aatdfo oe,F .1972. A. F. Bovey, from (Adapted spectrometer. NMR 60-MHz a with cdmcPes e York.) New Press, Academic (b) Atactic Syndiotactic Isotactic . 0.0 4.0 O-Me 1 bevto ftciiyi oymty ehcyae by methacrylate) poly(methyl in tacticity of Observation M pcr f()peoiatysnitci MAad()peoiatyioatcPMMA isotactic predominantly (b) and PMMA syndiotactic predominantly (a) of spectra NMR H (a) CH CH 2 ppm 2 OO (b) (a) CH C C 3 CH CH C n 3 3 . . 9.0 8.0 7.0 SiMe 4 (c) τ Atactic Syndiotactic Isotactic COe=–e=–CH =–Me = –COOMe ihRslto M fMacromolecules of NMR Resolution High 1 M pcrsoy a eetn unit Repeating (a) spectroscopy. NMR H 10.0 lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics fi e siltrfrequency oscillator xed 2 , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 osdrn,freape yia rtnNRsetu facplmro ehlmtarlt (MMA) O resonance methacrylate of methyl absorptions the of resonance the copolymer identifying (HMA), a methacrylate of on hexyl spectrum and NMR based integrals. proton absorption typical resonance is a their recording example, method and for units Considering, The comonomer the in copolymers. proton suitable of a of absorption composition of determination the oe. .A 1972. A. F. Bovey., oye,ad()acplmro iyieeclrd VC n sbtln I) erdsqecsi h copolymer the in sequences Tetrad (IB). are isobutylene peaks and resonance (VDC) the chloride with vinylidene associated of copolymer a (c) and polymer, lsisPoete n Testing and Properties Plastics IUE3.112 FIGURE 3.111 FIGURE D-D-BVC :I-D-BVC :VCVCI-B :I-D-BI.(dpe rmBvy .A 1972. A. F. Macromolecules Bovey, of from (Adapted NMR IB-VDC-IB-IB. Resolution 7: High VDC-VDC-IB-IB, 6: IB-VDC-IB-VDC, 5: VDC-VDC-IB-VDC, d . n . p,rsetvl Fgr .1) h otn fMAi h ooye ste calculated then is copolymer the in MMA of content The 3.111). (Figure respectively ppm, 3.9 and 3.6 = ooye opsto n euneDistribution Sequence and Composition Copolymer 1 1 M pcrmo ooye fmty ehcyaeadhxlmtarlt.(dpe from (Adapted methacrylate. hexyl and methacrylate methyl of copolymer a of spectrum NMR H M pcr f()apl(iyieeclrd)hmplmr b oysbtln homo- polyisobutylene a (b) homopolymer, chloride) poly(vinylidene a (a) of spectra NMR H ihRslto M fMacromolecules of NMR Resolution High (b) (a) ...... ppm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 δ =3.6ppm CH OO 2 C CH C a (b) (c) (a) 3 CH — 67 cdmcPes e York.) New Press, Academic , 3 xy :VCVCVCVC :VCVCVCI,3 BVCVCI,4: IB-VDC-VDC-IB, 3: VDC-VDC-VDC-IB, 2: VDC-VDC-VDC-VDC, 1: 1 2 CH δ =3.9ppm 3 OO 2 C C CH 3 CH 4 2 5 6 τ (CH 7 cdmcPes e York.) New Press, Academic , M pcrsoycnofra aymto for method easy an offer can spectroscopy NMR . 2 ) 8 4 CH 3 – CH 9 3 n O and – CH 2 rtn r identi are protons fi dat ed 429 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 0 aio,S 2007. S. Fakirov, 20. fvnldn hoie(D)adiouyee(B,soni iue312,ehbt utpiiyof multiplicity a References exhibits noted. 3.112c, as sequences Figure tetrad in various shown to (IB), attributed isobutylene are copolymer which and a poly(vinylidene peaks, of (VDC) in spectrum chloride peaks the resonance comparison, vinylidene simple In of shows respectively. b homopolymers, and polyisobutylene 3.112a and Figure chloride) example, typical a As copolymers. ( integrals area respective the from 430 4 ihrsn .O .1977. W. O. M. Richardson, 24. 1977. L. Holloway, 23. 1959. 1960. E. N. Gaube, A. Gent, 22. and M. Braden, 21. 1970. I. P. Vincent, 19. 1929. B. Rabinowitsch, 1961. 18. B. E. Bagley, 17. 2 uce .adHrig .S 1958. S. W. Harding, and F. Bueche, 1967. 12. W. W. Graessley, 1978. 11. S. R. Lenk, 10. 9 am . rue,J,Zmo,P . n imn,O 2002. O. Ziemann, and E., P. Zamzow, J., Krauser, W., Daum, 29. 1991. L. In Hornak, polymers. high 28. of properties Optical England. 1965. 1962. Federation, W. W. Plastics D. J. British Saunders, Buttrey, GRP, and of 27. J. Properties J. Design Brophy, Engineering 1979. 26. F. A. Johnston, 25. 1963. E. R. Colwell, and Y., K. Kim, J.W., Lyons, R., J. vanWazer, 16. 1969. P. J. Tordella, 1945. 15. K. H. Nason, 14. 1 lnil,A .1971. B. A. Glanville, In 31. polymers. high of properties Thermal 1965. M. Gordon, 30. 1928. K. Weissenberg, and R. Herzog, 13. .MLuhi,J .adTblk,A .1952. V. A. Tobolsky, and R. J. McLoughlin, 8. 1973. G. J. Williams, 1970. 2. M. R. Ogorkiewicz, 1. .Tblk,A .1960. V. A. Tobolsky, 1970. 6. D. J. Ferry, 1981. 5. J. R. Crawford, 4. 1973. S. Turner, 3. .Wlim,M . adl .F,adFry .1955. D. Ferry, and F., R. Landel, L., M. Williams, 9. .Bree,G .adZyv .S 1968. S. Y. Zuyev, and M. G. Bartenev, 7. rtnNRsetocp a enue o bevn eunedsrbto fmnmruisin units monomer of distribution sequence observing for used been has spectroscopy NMR Proton London. London. nesinePbihr,NwYork. New Publishers, Interscience Communication York. New Reinhold, Nostrand Van 2. Chap. Diego, San Press, otadRihl,NwYork. New Reinhold, Nostrand pigr eln edleg e York. New Heidelberg, Berlin, Springer, , Kunststoffe ehnclTsigo Plastics of Testing Mechanical .MtrSci Mater J. oye Rheology Polymer oyesfrLgtaeadItgae Optics Integrated and Lightwave for Polymers iceatcPoete fPlmr.2dEd. 2nd Polymers. of Properties Viscoelastic rn.Sc Rheol Soc. Trans. ls enocdPatc nConstruction in Plastics Reinforced Glass .Ap.Phys Appl. J. Rheology tesAayi fPolymers of Analysis Stress lsisEngineering Plastics matTssadSriePromneo Thermoplastics of Performance Service and Tests Impact h lsisEngineer Plastics The rprisadSrcueo Polymers of Structure and Properties .Pyi.Chem Physik. Z. .Ce.Phys Chem. J. niern rpriso Thermoplastics of Properties Engineering 9 446. 49, , % ,4,1131. 40, ., oye niern Composites Engineering Polymer — M = MMA A hoyadApplications and Theory ,uigtefloigequation: following the using ), ,1,338. 16, ., .Ap.Plm Sci Polym. Appl. J. ple cec ulses London. Publishers, Science Applied , ,5 355. 5, ., .Plm Sci Polym. J. rai Semiconductors Organic ,4,1942. 47, ., A oli Z Colloid ,15,1. 145A, ., : ppm 3:6 egmn London. Pergamon, , teghadFiueo iceatcMaterials Viscoelastic of Failure and Strength ’ aaBook Data s A .ClodSci Colloid J. = R rs,Ceead OH. Cleveland, Press, CRC , : ppm 3:6 3+ ,4,227. 46, ., ogas London. Longmans, , ,3,177. 32, ., .A.Ce.Soc Chem. Am. J. A = : ppm 3:9 ,3 90. 3, ., 3 nutilPes e York. New Press, Industrial , o.5 .R iih d,p 5.Academic 355. p. ed., Eirich, R. F. 5, Vol. , ,7 555. 7, ., onWly e York. New Wiley, John , = hsc fPlastics of Physics uryUiest rs,Surrey. Press, University Surrey , 2 onWly e York. New Wiley, John , ple cec ulses London. Publishers, Science Applied , amla,NwYork. New Macmillan, , aclDke,NwYork. New Dekker, Marcel , hsc fPlastics of Physics 100 icst n lwMeasurements Flow and Viscosity lsisTcnlg Handbook Technology Plastics onWly e York. New Wiley, John , oye pia iesfrData for Fibers Optical Polymer ,7,3701. 77, ., .D ici,e. Van ed., Ritchie, D. P. , lsisInstitute, Plastics , .D ici,ed., Ritchie, D. P. , Pergamon, , , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 9 osi,U . ed,T,adEsne,W 2014. W. Ensinger, and T., Seidl, H., U. Hossain, 39. 7 aipa,K n ah,S 2011. S. Latha, and K. Kaniappan, 37. 8 rm,S,Lag .Y,adSteln,G .B .1956. M. B. B. G. Sutherland, and Y., C. Liang, S., Krimm, 38. 6 ans .B,Wlim,V . ai,A . n esce .1944. P. Geisecke, and R., A. Davis, Z., V. Williams, B., R. 1972. Barnes, D. 36. Squirrell, and H., Willis, J., Haslam, 35. 2000. M. Chanda, 34. 1990. P. Ghosh, 1969. A. 33. Lange, and A. Krause, 32. Testing and Properties Plastics 227. London. India. Delhi, New McGraw-Hill, India. Delhi, oye cec n ehooyo lsisadRubber and Plastics of Technology and Science Polymer tmcSrcueadCeia od nldn oeua Spectroscopy Molecular Including Bond, Chemical and Structure Atomic nrdcint hmclAayi fPlastics of Analysis Chemical to Introduction n.J hm eh Res Tech. Chem. J. Int. Identi oy.Chem Polym. fi ainadAayi fPlastics of Analysis and cation .Plm c.Pr oy.Chem. Polym. A Part Sci. Polym. J. 2,708. (2), 3 . Ry o.Ce.,5 1001. 5, Chem.), Soc. (Roy. . n.Eg hm Analyt Chem. Eng. Ind. aaMGa-il New McGraw-Hill, Tata , lfeBosLd London. Ltd, Books Iliffe , Butterworth, , d,1,9. 16, Ed., . 2 101, 22, , Tata , 431 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:42 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315155876, chapter3, 10.1201/9781315155876-3 http://taylorandfrancis.com