Fueling Plastics Plastic Industry Awareness of the Ocean Plastics Problem • Scientists became aware of the ocean plastics problem in the 1950s, and understanding of the nature and severity of the problem grew over the next decades. • The major chemical and petroleum companies and industry groups were aware of the ocean plastics problem no later than the 1970s. • Plastics producers have often taken the position that they are only responsible for plastic waste in the form of resin pellets, and that other forms of plastic waste are out of their control. The use of plastics in consumer resins and the fossil fuel companies the twentieth century. Early observ- goods has been expanding exponen- supplying them with chemical feed- ers concerned about marine plas- tially since the late 1940s. Within stocks — have known about this tics were specifically worried about years of that expansion beginning, problem and for how long. The re- marine animals becoming entan- observers began to document plas- mainder of this document presents a gled in discarded fishing gear and tic pollution in the environment, brief overview of the history of pub- other plastic wastes. As noted by including in the world’s oceans. lic and industry awareness of marine the United States’ National Oce- Plastic is a pollutant of unique con- plastic pollution. Although this his- anic and Atmospheric Administra- cern because it is durable over long torical account is detailed, it is far tion (NOAA), “[p]rior to the 1950s periods of time and its effects accu- from comprehensive, and additional much of the fishing gear and land- mulate as more of it is produced and research is forthcoming. based disposables were made of bio- discarded. degradeable products such as hemp Early Accounts of rope or paper bags.”1 Once plastic As the problem of marine plastic became a preferred material for fish- pollution gains greater public at- Plastic Pollution ing gear, concerns grew that these tention, it is critical to begin in- materials, which don’t break down Researchers began to notice the vestigating what industry actors — quickly in the environment, would dangers plastics presented to ma- including manufacturers of plastic become entanglement threats. Their rine animals around the middle of Plastic Industry Awareness of the Ocean Plastics Problem | 1 | Center for International Environmental Law concerns were correct: in a case-by- dence not only that plastics were cates that the petrochemicals indus- case analysis of turtle entanglement, accumulating in the oceans, but try knew, or should have known, of NOAA’s George Balazs notes that also that these plastics could serve as the presence of plastic in such ocean “[n]one of the cases occurred before aggregators of other contaminants, surveys no later than 1973. the 1950’s,” and nearly all have tak- making them more hazardous. en place since 1970.2 It is clear that the industry was not As the problem of marine only aware of the environmental Despite the early focus on fish- longevity of plastics, but was in fact ing gear, science and industry were plastic pollution gains touting that feature as a benefit.10 In also aware of other forms of plastic greater public attention, it 1973, E. S. Nuspliger of the Society waste, including waste from land- is critical to begin investi- of the Plastics Industry (SPI) argued based sources. Late in the 1950s, an- in a letter to the editor that its non- ecdotal reports also began to emerge gating what industry actors biodegradable nature makes plastic of turtles ingesting bags and other — including manufactur- “desirable material for sanitary land- plastics.3 ers of plastic resins and the fills.”11 Beginning as early as 1960, research- fossil fuel companies sup- The same year, the National Acad- ers discovered plastic in the gizzards plying them with chemical emy of Sciences convened another 4 and digestive tracts of sea birds, in- feedstocks — have known workshop to study ocean pollutants cluding petrels in New Zealand5 and and later issued a report entitled As- Canada6 and puffins in the North about this problem and for sessing Potential Ocean Pollutants.12 Atlantic,7 among others. how long. Among the participants were rep- resentatives from DuPont, Dow, In addition to the research into Several of the studies in this work- and Monsanto Chemical (now marine animals, another series of shop were funded or studied by sci- Eastman).13 The investigation into experiments were taking place to entists at Esso, Chevron, and the marine litter observed that “Plastic determine the nature, origins, and American Petroleum Institute. Their objects are prominent in reports of consequences of oceanic petroleum participation in this conference indi- litter sightings although they are a pollution. In 1973, the Nation- al Academy of Sciences sponsored a workshop on Inputs, Fates, and Effects of Petroleum in the Marine Environment. Although the prima- ry focus of the workshop was on pe- troleum, studies of the ocean surface Uwe Schmid | www.niederrhein-foto.de via Wikicommons Uwe Schmid | www.niederrhein-foto.de also revealed significant amounts of plastic debris.8 Moreover, because studies of marine tar included inves- tigations into the microorganisms and toxins attached to the petroleum particles, some researchers examined what contaminants were attached to plastics as well. One paper notes, “In coastal waters, polystyrene spherules are abundant … Bacteria and poly- chlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s) are found associated with these parti- cles, and the particles are ingested by a number of aquatic organisms.”9 These studies provided early evi- Plastic Industry Awareness of the Ocean Plastics Problem | 2 | Center for International Environmental Law 1973 Letter to the Editor on Plastics from the Oil Industry* and a Fellow of the Plastics Institute claimed that “plastics litter is a very Letters to the Editor small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment Brief letters—one or two pages—are more likely to except as an eyesore.”16 be printed than are long ones, which may be cut. PLASTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT The First National On behalf of the plastics industry I would like to comment on several statements Conference on dealing with the environmental effects of plastics in the article “Recycling Solid Waste in Chattanooga” (R. Vredeveld and R. Martin 1973; ABT 35 [2] : 84). Packaging Wastes The authors state, “Plastics are nonbiodegradable; they will remain in the land- fills forever.” It is true that most plastics will not biodegrade; but it is that very qual- In addition to questions of ocean ity that makes them especially suitable for sanitary landfills. Because they do not plastics and marine litter, indus- biodegrade, they do not produce polluting odors or gases. Nor do they contribute to try was concerned about waste is- the contamination of groundwater, as do decaying organic materials in improperly controlled landfills. In addition, plastics, like other nonbiodegradable matter, give sues generally. In September 1969, greater stability to the land being filled, thereby vastly improving the possibilities the University of California, Davis, of reclamation for building purposes. These very characteristics have caused sani- held the First National Conference tary officials to regard nonbiodegradable plastics as desirable material for sanitary on Packaging Wastes.17 Conference landfills. participants included representa- The article also states that incineration of plastics is “also a threat to the environ- tives from Dow, DuPont, Mobil, ment: when burned, plastics give off toxic fumes… On a citywide scale, this could American Oil Company (AMO- have damaging effects on the population.” Much of the controversy concerning the supposed toxic fumes stems from the open burning of plastics, a method of incin- CO), Chevron, Stanford Research eration the plastics industry wholly condemns. Carbon dioxide in the form of black Institute, the Society of the Plastics smoke is given off in these circumstances but is, of course, nontoxic. In a proper in- Industry, and Procter & Gamble, cinerator the black smoke is totally consumed inside the incinerator, thus releasing among others.18 Unsurprisingly, no black smoke at all. In properly operated incinerators plastics do not give off any plastic was a major focus of many of fumes that state or federal standards deem harmful to man. the presentations. In reference to the comment concerning recycling as a source of revenue: the high thermal content of plastics, which aids in the burning of other refuse, such as Thomas Becnel, of Dow Chemical, wet garbage, grass, and leaves, can be and is being used as a source of electrical power. gave a presentation entitled “Wastes from Plastic Packages.”19 In it, he re- E. S. Nuspliger Public Affairs Council of the iterated that the problems of plastic Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. waste were endemic to the material 250 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017 itself, not the particular form of the product. “[I]t is ironic that the very *See E. S. Nuspliger, Plastics in the Environment, 35(4) The American Biology Teacher 230 (1973), available at http://d30vo02hkyysua.cloudfront.net/content/35/4/230.1.chemical-industry-reinvent-itself/. molecular structure that has made [plastic] so popular creates certain minor component of the total refuse with participation from key plastics disposal problems.”20 Moreover, generated.”14 Although the research- manufacturers. Both revealed the he acknowledged that landfills and ers acknowledged