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Plastic, Plastic Everywhere © Ewan Edwards Plastic, Plastic Everywhere Plastic, plastic everywhere © Ewan Edwards © Ewan Plastic, plastic everywhere Plastic pollution: A threat to marine life and us Our oceans are constantly faced with anthropogenic induced threats; ranging from overexploitation, ocean noise, chemical contamination, dredging, acidification, and the rapidly rising sea-levels as a result of climate change. While not a new phenomenon, one particularly alarming threat is ocean plastic pollution. There is little doubt, that plastic pollution is one of the most significant stressors on the marine and coastal environment, and its manifestation is increasing at a disturbing rate. Plastic debris is not limited to the shores of the Mediterranean nor to the borders of the Atlantic. Plastic pollution contaminates marine environments all over the world, polluting both shorelines and deep-sea habitats. The threat is thus borderless. Plastic pollution has grown exponentially over the past decade and is expected to continue to do so in the decade(s) to come if mitigation measures are not improved and appropriately implemented. Experts approximations indicate, that the world population uses over 300 million tonnes of new plastic every year, of which an estimated 4.8-12.7 million tonnes ends up in the world’s oceans. Given the persistent nature of plastic and its toxicity, plastic pollution has been identified as a threat to biodiversity, an acknowledgment shared by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in its 2016 report “Marine Debris: Understanding, Preventing and Mitigating the Significant Adverse Impacts on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity1.” Dying in plastic – Impacts of plastic on the marine environment Plastic is part of our everyday life and for many it is inherently difficult to imagine a world without it. Given our current dependency on plastic, the marine environment faces one of its greatest challenges to date. Whether in the form of microplastic or as macroplastic, plastic debris poses a serious threat to marine species. A review of publications put forward by several science-based organisations, including the CBD, indicates that over 800 marine and coastal species are in some way shape of form impacted by plastic debris. It is a risk to the entire marine ecosystem, threatening the very survival of marine animals along all trophic levels, from tiny plankton species to whales. So how does plastic pollution impact the marine environment and its inhabitants? Since the late 1990s, researchers have set out to evaluate the impact of plastic debris on the marine environment. Harmful effects include: ■ Entanglement and ghost fishing: Researchers have identified over 250 species impacted by entanglement (e.g., derelict fishing gear or floating plastic packaging), including turtles, whales and dolpins, and seals2. There have been numerous incidents where marine animals trapped in plastic parts have been injured or even killed. ■ Ingestion of floating plastic: In the past, researchers have found that several marine species ingest plastic items (of all shapes) causing injuries and the blockage of the digestive tract, which ultimately led to starvation and satiation3. For instance, in 2013, a 4,5-tonne sperm whale was stranded on the shores of Andalusia, with an autopsy indicating that the whale had ingested over 17 kilogrammes of various plastic items. A subsequent autopsy concluded that the death of the whale was the result of large amounts of ingested plastic, including plastic rope, plastic sheets and flower pots4. ■ Ingestion of microplastics: Originating from the fragmentation of larger plastic items or cosmetics and synthetic fabrics amongst others, trillions of microplastic particles are present in the oceans. Intake of microplastic by marine animals can cause internal injuries or intoxications, when the body absorbs noxious substances from the material. It has also been shown that microplastic particles may accumulate high concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like biocides or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Microplastic particles are ingested by small marine animals which are generally prey for larger animals. Thus, the toxins may enter the entire food chain. 1 Study «Marine DEBRIS: Understanding, Preventing and Mitigating the Significant Adverse Impacts on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity» CBD published 2016 (https:// www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-83-en.pdf) 2 Study «Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings» published 2009 by Murra R. Gregory (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2873013/ ) 3 ibid ((https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873013/ ) 4 Study «As main meal for sperm whales : Plastic debris » published April 2013 by Marine Pollution Bulletin (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23465618 ) 2 SOURCES Primary microplastic Secondary microplastic Sources for primary microplastic are: Industrially Improperly disposed of plastic waste such manufactured resin pellets destined to be made as bottles and bags is a source of primary into plastic end-products (e.g., packaging); microplastic. Gradually, UV radiation, wind cosmetics with microbeads (e.g., peelings); and waves break larger plastic waste into fibres from synthetic textiles; particle abrasion ever smaller pieces. from car tyres. PATHWAYS Rivers Coasts / Beaches Ships Absent or insufficient sewage treatment and Plastic debris carried into the sea by wind About 20% of plastic debris in the oceans, filter plants allow wastewater to carry primary and tides is a source of secondary micro- including fishing lines and nets, originate microplastic into rivers and oceans. plastic. from ships. © OceanCare MICROPLASTIC Trillions of microplastic particles circulate through the world’s oceans, from the Antarctic to the Arctic, both close to the surface and in the deep sea. IMPACTS Poisoning Internal injuries and reduced fitness Fake food Microplastic contains a range of chemical Sharp edges of plastic particles may cause Microplastic is taken in together with food. additives, such as plasticisers and flame injuries to the intestinal tract of small animals This problem affects a wide range of marine retardants. These additives, as well as pol- like mussels or crustaceans, which result in animals from plankton to crustaceans, mus- lutants attaching to microplastic may cause inflammation and chronic stress. Microplas- sels, worms, fish, sea turtles, whales, rays, tumours, infertility, genetic defects, abnor- tic accumulation in the stomach can also basking sharks, and sea birds. mal development of larvae, and weakened reduced food intake and compromise the immune system. animal’s energy. Even the tiniest plastic particles Zooplankton ingest microplastic. Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic may have razor-sharp edges able From here it goes all the way through substances (PBTs), such as pesticides, to cause injury. the food web. heavy metals and PCBs, adhere on microplastic particles (Ø < 5mm). SOLUTIONS Keep microplastic out of the water Avoid disposable plastic products Proper disposal Each of us Each of us Each of us Avoid cosmetics that contain microbeads / Minimise buying and using disposable plas- Disposal of personal plastic waste appropri- Use microfibre catching bag or laundry ball. tic. Use alternatives. ately / Collect carelessly discarded plastic Institutions Institutions waste Ban the use of microplastic in cosmetics / Successively replace disposable plastic by Institutions Ensure resin pellet transports do not pollute recyclable synthetics or environmentally Professional waste management / Adequate the environment / Optimise fibre detention in sound alternatives. structures for waste treatment and recycling. synthetic textiles / Equip washing machines with fibre filters. Plastic, plastic everywhere Plastic and its sources Bringing together recent research on the sources of plastic in the marine environment and its origins, the following conclusions can be made: Sources ■ 80% of the plastic that ends up in the ocean is land-based and enters the oceans via rivers, waste water, floo- dings or directly from the coastline ■ 20% of plastic waste originates from shipping, fisheries and other sea-based activities Fate5? Scientific estimates, excluding plastic ingested by marine organisms, on the deposition of plastic debris in the oceans suggest that ■ barely 1% are afloat on the sea surface ■ about 5% accumulate on the world’s beaches ■ about 94% end up on the deep sea floor Common large plastic debris (i.e. © OceanCare macroplastic) in the oceans ■ Plastic bags ■ Plastic bottles ■ Drinking Straws ■ All forms of plastic packaging ■ Fishing gear Common microplastics in the oceans ■ Microbeads from cosmetics ■ Plastic fibres from synthetic textiles ■ Resin pellets ■ Abrasion particles from tyres © OceanCare ■ Filaments ■ Fragments from larger plastic items Common types of plastics and exemplary applications ■ Polyethylene (PE) – plastic bags, bottles, food bags ■ Polyester (PES) - fibres, textiles ■ Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - (drink bottles, plastic films) ■ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – pipelines, flooring ■ Polypropylene (PP) - bottle caps, drinking straws ■ Polystyrene (PS) – plastic tableware, disposable cups, food containers International responses In recent years, ocean plastic pollution has received growing international attention. Given the cross-border and global nature of plastic debris, collective action is not only useful but has become a necessity. And while multilateral cooperation is an indispensable tool in freeing our
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