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Traitors to the Chinese Race (Hanjian)": Political and Cultural

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Traitors to the Chinese Race (Hanjian) "TRAITORS TO THE CHINESE RACE (HANJIAN)": POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CAMPAIGNS AGAINST COLLABORATORS DURING THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR OF 1937-1945 by YUNXIA A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department ofHistory and the Graduate School ofthe University of Oregon in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy September 2010 11 University of Oregon Graduate School Confirmation ofApproval and Acceptance of Dissertation prepared by: YunXia Title: ""Traitors to the Chinese Race (Hanjian):" Political and Cultural Campaigns against Collaborators during the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945" This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree in the Department ofHistory by: Bryna Goodman, Chairperson, History Andrew Goble, Member, History Ina Asim, Member, History Tze-Ian Sang, Outside Member, East Asian Languages & Literature and Richard Linton, Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies/Dean ofthe Graduate School for the University of Oregon. September 4,2010 Original approval signatures are on file with the Graduate School and the University of Oregon Libraries. III © 2010 Yun Xia IV An Abstract ofthe Dissertation of YunXia for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in the Department of History to be taken September 2010 Title: "TRAITORS TO THE CHINESE RACE (HANJIAN)": POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CAMPAIGNS AGAINST COLLABORATORS DURING THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR OF 1937-1945 Approved: _ Dr. Bryna Goodman This dissertation examines formal and popular campaigns against collaborators during the second Sino-Japanese war of 1937-1945, considering the role ofthese campaigns in the political struggles ofthe Nationalist (Guomindang) government, the interplay between discourses of law and morality, and the interactions oflegal professionals, intellectuals, and commoners in the development of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism. During the Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese army occupied vast areas in China and sponsored puppet regimes at central and local levels in areas under its occupation. These regimes variously attracted, persuaded, or forced a large number of Chinese officials, intellectuals, and local elites to work in their administrations. The Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek, which was the central Chinese government since 1928, retreated to the inland city of Chongqing to organize resistance v against Japan. The Nationalist government labeled collaborators as hanjian, "traitors to the Han." The word became widely used in legal regulations, popular literature, and newspapers and became the most derogatory and politically disastrous title possible for a Chinese citizen. Individuals designated hary'ian were exposed to public humiliation, confiscation ofland and property, and the threat ofassassination. Chiang Kai-shek's government also called for the common people to expose hary'ian. Most such accusations were then transformed into legal procedures. These accusations resulted in varying and often unfair sentences. Designed by the Nationalist government to harness the force of popular nationalism and to restore justice, the anti-hary"ian campaigns instead inadvertently exposed the corruption and incompetence ofthe Nationalist government and damaged the post-war construction effort. VI CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUlHOR: Yun Xia GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University ofOregon, Eugene, Oregon Beijing University, Beijing, China DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor ofPhilosophy, History, September 2010, University of Oregon Master ofArts, History, June 2006, University ofOregon Bachelor ofArts, History, June 2004, Beijing University AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Chinese Modem History Japanese History PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Undergraduate Advisor, Asian Studies Program, University ofOregon, 2009­ 2010 Graduate Teaching Fellow, History Department, University of Oregon, 2004-2009 GRANTS, AWARDS AND HONORS: Richard Maxwell Brown Dissertation Fellowship, 2008 The University ofOregon History Department PhD Research Award, 2008 Vll PUBLICATIONS: Yun Xia. "Duan Fang and Overseas Education in Late Qing." Graduate Students' Journal ofPeking University 2005 (3), # 82. Vlll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank my advisor, Professor Bryna Goodman, who has guided me through my graduate study and has always been vitally instrumental in my intellectual development. She has offered insightful suggestions regarding this project from its inception, and provided me with valuable feedbacks at every stage ofthis project. I could never have reached the heights or explored the depth without the help, support, and guidance from Professor Goodman. Professor Ina Asim has been supportive ofmy research on Chinese legal history. Both my master's thesis and my dissertation benefited greatly from her insights and suggestions. I would like to thank Professor Andrew Goble for instructing me in reading Japanese legal documents, among other aspects ofJapanese studies I have conducted with his guidance. His perspectives have been indispensible for this project. I also deeply appreciate feedbacks and comments I received from Professor Tze-Ian Sang. I want to take the opportunity to thank all the faculty member in the History Department, who have stimulated my work in one way or another. I am deeply grateful for the support and encouragement I received from my wonderful colleagues and friends, especially Feather Crawford-Freed, Luis Ruiz, Camille Walsh, Chen Zhihong and Zhang Yu. I would not have enjoyed and benefited from my graduate study so much without them. My love and deep appreciation goes to my family. In the past six years, my father Xia Zuchang and my mother Zheng Yuling have lived in China, but their love and support always accompanies me, and is the most important thing that keeps me going. They probably can never thoroughly read through my dissertation, which is in English, IX but every piece ofthe dissertation is made possible by the education and instruction I receive from them. My husband Nicholas F. Phillips has helped me with my writing since my first day of graduate school, and I have learned so much about history and culture from him. I would not have written the dissertation ofits current quality without him. My father-in-law, Mr. Frank Phillips, has been a most important English teacher to me, and I always benefit from the intellectually stimulating conversations with him and his insights ofhistory and literature, among other subjects. I am equally grateful of all the love and support from my mother-in-law, Dr. Evelyn Henry. Though the following dissertation is an individual work, it results from the support and effort of all the people mentioned above. x To myparents. Xl TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 1 The Reinvention ofthe Word "Hanjian" 4 Historical Background and Established Scholarship............................................. 13 Structure and Sources... 21 II. ESTABLISHING A LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST HANJIAN 31 The Emergence of Wartime Collaborators 32 Criminalization of Collaboration during the War.................................................. 36 Chuli hanjian anjian tiaoli: The Making and Tightening ofAnti-hanjian Laws 43 The Liquidation of "Puppet and Enemy Property" 51 Restrictions on Minor Hanjian not Convicted under the "Regulations" 58 "Hanjian" as a Criminal Label and Its Transnational Applicability............. 66 Conclusion.. 76 III. FROM WARTIME TERRORISM TO POST-WAR TRIAL 80 Work along Both Lines: Legal and Extralegal Punishment ofHanjian 82 Trials of Hanjian: the Leading Collaborators 90 False Accusations and Dismissed Lawsuits against Hanjian 98 xu Chapter Page Cases ofIndividuals Who Claimed To Be Undercover Agents 114 The Fates of Legal Professionals and Judicial Personnel in Anti-hanjian Campaigns................................................................................................... 124 Conclusion 141 IV. "ECONOMIC COLLABORATORS" ON TRAIL............................................... 143 Background.......................................................................................................... 148 Trials of"The Three Elders" 154 The Case of Li Ze 169 Conclusion....... 197 V. "CULTURAL COLLABORATORS" AND "TRAITOROUS MONKS" 200 The "Cultural Collaborators".............................................................................. 203 The "Traitorous Monks"..................................................................................... 222 Conclusion 239 VI. GENDERED DISCOURSE OF THEANTI-HANJIANCAMPAIGNS 242 Targeting "Female Collaborators": Their Hideous Histories with Male Collaborators 254 "Hideous Histories" ofMale Collaborators........................................................ 280 Conclusion 288 VII. COJ\TCLUSION 291 X111 Chapter Page APPENDICES A. REGULATIONS ON HANDLING HANJIAN CASES..................................... 305 B. RESTRICTIONS ON CANDIDACY AND QUALIFICATION OF FOR1JIER STAFF IN PUPPET GOVERNMENTS AND THEIR AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS.................................................................................... 307 C. A CATEGORIZATION OF SENTENCES OF FAJI HANJIAN 309 BIBLIOGRAPHY 310 XIV LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. An Example ofthe Execution ofHanjian, September 25, 1937....................... 83 2. An Example ofthe Execution ofHanjian, September 11, 1937....................... 84 - ~~- -_.- --- xv LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page 1. A Summary ofHanjian Cases Dismissed by the
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