S. <^. t> yu 1 OKJ Pu J> I 65 c oc>'in\c, \a T 3 t CL Ar2 iA—v \(j(o 0 PcU-OUiM ProQuest Number: 10731345 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731345 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 THE IDEA 0F FREEDOM IN THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OP VIVEKANANDA, AUROBINDO, GANDHI AND TAGORE t>y Dennis Gilmore Dalton Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of London School of Oriental and African Studies. February, 1965* 07 23 MAR 1965 a b s t r a c t The thesis is concerned with the development of the idea of freedom in modern India, and particularly in the political and social thought of four major Indian writers, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo Ghose, Gandhi, and Rabindranath Tagore. Three major areas of discussion may be distinguished here. First, there is a consideration of the common ground on which these four thinkers stand. It is argued that they comprise a "school" of modern Indian thought, both because of the purpose that they share, and the fundamental principles on which they all agree. Ghief among these principles is that concerning the nature of freedom* Two broad forms of freedom are distinguished: "external" (political and social), and "internal" (moral and spiritual)* These two forms are seen as complementary; as corresponding qualities which must both be achieved for freedom to be wholly realised. Second, the background of the schools thought is briefly discussed. Certain key themes in the writings of prominent nineteenth-century Indian figures are examined, to suggest the nature of the climate of opinion out of which Vivekananda*s conception of freedom emerged. Finally, the greater part of the thesis is devoted to an analysis of precisely what these four men thought about freedom, and how one of them, Gandhi, carried on experiments with his ideas in Indian society and politics* It is argued that while all the members of this school agree on funda­ mental issues, each made a distinctive contribution to the development of the idea of freedom* Vivekanandafs contribu­ tion arises in the synthesis that he created of various strands of nineteenth-century Indian thought * and which he used in his formulation of a particular conception of freedom* The major aspects of this conception were developed by the other thinkers, each adding new dimensions. If Vivekananda was the seminal influence behind the school, Aurobindo was its outstanding theoretician* He attempted to show a natural correspondence between individual freedom as self-realisation and social unity as a state of universal harmony in which each had recognized his spiritual identity with all* Gandhi was the most active participant in the nationalist movement* He sought to implement his school's ideas on freedom and harmony with a programme of social and political change; a method rooted in the belief that social progress could only come through a moral trans­ formation of the individual in society* And finally, Tagore; who is seen, here, as the critic or "conscience" of the school, warning it against the cult of Nationalism: the threat to individual freedom and -universal harmony which the others had overlooked. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Glossary Chapter Is Continuity and Innovation in the Modern Indian Idea of Freedom.*.,. Chapter II: Vivekananda and the Emergence of a Philosophy of Freedom in Modern India ............... ..,, Chapter III: The Development and Nature of Vivekananda1s Idea of Freedom.*.*• Chapter IV: Aurobindo Ghose: Individual Freedom and Social Harmony, Chapter V: Aurobindo on the Nature of Freedom* Chapter VI: Gandhi: Individual Freedom and Social Action. ........... Chapter VII: Swaratj Through Satyagraha..... Chapter VIII: Tagore: Freedom and Nationalism... Conclusion ................................... Bibliography.......... 9 5 GLOSSARY advaita Vedanta: one school of classical Indian thought which teaches that the sole reality is Brahman, the impersonal World Soul; hence, a doctrine of monism* ahimsa: non-violence* Arthasastra: the literature of "wealth11 and, more particularly, politics. atma or atman: the Self or soul of the individual* bhakti: devotion to God; bhakta, the devotee* "brahma chary a: continence * Brahmos: members of the Brahmo Samaj * dharma: a complex term, but generally, as used here, "sacred law". Dharmas'as tra: the literature of dharma; religious texts, guru: spiritual teacher* Kali Yuga: Dark Age, the era of universal decay which is the present age. 'karma: action or work; karmayoga, the yoga of action. khaddar: cloth made of homespun yarn* Khilafat: variation of Caliphate. Lok Sevak Sangh: people’s service organization® Lokamanya: "Honoured by the people"; title given to B.G-oTilak* Maharshi: great sage or saint, Mahatma; great soul, maya: illusion. moksha or mukti: spiritual freedom or liberation of the spirit. 6 panchama: an untouchahle. panchayat: an organ of government, comparahle on a local level to a town or village council* Fatanjali: ancient Indian philosopher of Yoga* Ram Raj: an ideal society; a reign of righteousness, patterned after the legendary rule of Ram* sad.hu (sahdu): Hindu holy man* Sanatana Dharma; the Eternal Religion. sannyasa: renunciation; sannyasin, one who has renounced material for spiritual pursuits* sarvodaya: "the welfare of all". satya: Truth • satyagraha; "adherence to the Truth"; truth or soul- force. Satyayuga: Age of Truth; legendary Indian Golden Age* shraddha ceremony that of the customary Hindu funeral rites. Shvetaketu: the name of a young seeker in the Chandogya Upanishad. slok: Sanskrit couplet or stanza. swadeshi: one's own country; as a movement, the use of goods produced within one's own country* swaraj or self-rule or self-control, used Doth in swarajya: the political (national) and moral (individual) sense. tapasya; penance, the self-discipline associated with asceticmsm. tat tvam asi; "Thou art That"; the XJpanishadic maxim asserting the identity of the individual soul with the Absolute. Vaishya: one of the four* traditional divisions of Indian society; a caste of merchants and traderso varnashramadharma: the theoretical social order of ancient India, used by modern Indians as a model for an ideal society. yajna: religious sacrifice. 8 CHAPTER I CONTINUITY AND INNOVATION IN THE MODERN INDIAN IDEA Off FREEDOM Introduction: Method of Analysis "The Indian mind," observed Louis Renou in his series of lectures on ancient Indian religions, "is constantly seeking hidden correspondences between things which belong to 1 entirely distinct conceptual systems*" The method of analysis used here will involve two general approaches to the study of modern Indian political and social thought* The first of these will examine the attempt of certain recent Indian thinkers to construct a social and political theory through the development of conceptual correspondences5 that is, the relation of select concepts, usually derived from ancient Indian thought, to modern ideas, often imported from the West* The purpose of these particular Indian thinkers was at once to preserve continuity with their own tradition and to introduce con­ ceptual innovations demanded by a society in the midst of rapid transition* Their thought may be considered first, then, as a specific response to the historical sitiiation in which they found themselves* The nature of their response 1, Louis Renou, Religions of Ancient India (London: Athlone Press, 1953) pTTBI * was not unique: other thinkers, of other civilisations, during other periods of social change, have made similar attempts at dealing with the general problem of "continuity and innovation*" This work will confine itself exclusively to an analysis of modern Indian political and social thought; of the historical evolution of certain key concepts during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It will concentrate on one of these concepts in particular, the idea of freedom, as well as on its development among four major Indian thinkers, Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950), U.K. Gandhi (1869-194-8), and Rabindranath Tagore (1861-194-1). An analysis of the meaning of freedom has been selected as a central theme for two main reasons* Rirst, during much of this century, India has been engrossed in a national movement for political and social freedom; it is natural that the minds of India's leading political thinkers should have turned increasingly to this issue* A considera­ tion of this particular idea, which occupied a dominant place in their political thought, throws light upon their whole understanding of the nature of politics* Second, their thinking on the meaning of freedom presents a fruitful study in the theme of continuity and innovation* Through the use of this one concept, an analysis may be made of the Western impact on modern Indian political thought, with the 10 purpose of examining the foreign ideas which, that impact introduced, as well as the restatement that it induced of traditional Indian beliefs* In this sense, the idea of freedom offers