DISCOURSE ON THE THAI Thai culture. Furthermore, they NATION BY PROGRESSIVE recognised the importance of all , regardless of class, and. the INTELLECTUALS FROM minority ethnic groups in shaping the Thai THE 1950's - 1960's Nation. ·

Sopha Chanamool1 Introduction

Abstract The old concept of 'nation' seems to face criticism in the modem world, which has A discourse on the Thai Nation by been affected by globalization. Since the progressive intellectuals in concept of the nation state emerged in during 1950's-1960's is discussed. During many Asian countries during the 18th this period they formed a narrative, and a century, nations were created with respect 2 new meaning of "Chat Thai" or Thai to borders and geo-body. These nation. The progressive intellectuals, such countries not only identified themselves as Malai Chupinit, Sod Kuramarohit, with the new idea of modem geography Assani Ponlachan and Chit Phumisak but they also identified themselves with debated a new meaning of national their origin. In this way, the concept of identity. They described the Thai Nation nation-states involved the integration and differently to the previous elite groups, centralization of themselves with such as King VI in the 1920's and autonomous power. Luang Wichitwatakan in the 1940's. King Rama VI wrote about the great ancient In response to the view of some western kingdom of Sukhothai. Luang groups during the colonial period that Wichitwatakan expanded on that to show Thais were barbarian, the concept of "Chat the greatness of the Thai nation since Thai" or Thai Nation was produced by ancient times, and also that the Thai race Thai elite groups in the early 20th Century. was shaped from a pure race and had a At that time King Rama VI wrote the unity of Thai culture. Conversely, the narrative of Thai History in his work, progressive intellectuals argued that the 'Thiaw Muang Phra Ruang' (Travel to Thai nation was not shaped from a pure Phra Ruang's City), which described the Thai race, and also that it did not have a Golden Age in Sukhothai, the first unity of Thai culture. According to them Kingdom of Siam (Thailand). (see the Thai nation was formed from ethnic Mongkudklaochaoyuhao, 1967). After the heterogeneity and cultural diversity. Their 1932 revolution there was no change to this ideas a bout the communities which made idea or this narrative even though the up the Thai nation held that Thai people absolute monarchy had ended. Challenging from different regions have their own this idea of Thai History was Luang . cultures (their own historical background, their own local languages, their own way 2 The word 'geo-body' used with the meaning of of life), which are different to the central nation was used with respect to modern geography. For more detai~ please see Thongchai Winitchakul 1994. Siam Mapped· The Geo-Body 1 Ph.D., Department of History, Faculty of Arts, of the Nation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Chulalongkom University Press.

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Wichitwatakan in Phibunsongkram's Ponlachan (1918-1987) and Chit government (1938-1944 and 1948-1957). Phumisak (1930-1966). He employed the concept of "Chat Thai" in a new narrative in which the Thai nation The Plot of Thai National Identity was shaped from a pure Thai race and by Elite Groups there was a long history of the Thai kingdom since ancient times. The King Rama VI (King Wachirawut), who Kingdom of Nanchao, in southern China had many pen names for writing, such as was described as the first kingdom of Thai Aksawaphahu, and RamChitti, began to History. Later, this group of Thai explore Thai History when he traveled to immigrants from the south of China to Nakorn Prathom and was inspired to 'Suwannaphum' or the "Golden Peninsula" investigate the plot of Thai History. He settled the kingdom of Sukhothai, and then began to clarify the meaning of "Chat" or Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin which are part 'nation' from the point of view of of modem Thailand. Therefore, the plot of language, meaning that Thai people must Thai History was a narrative employing speak Thai. He wrote the article "Khwam the concept of a pure Thai race and the Pen Chat Doi Thae Ching" (The Real Thai harmony of Thai identity. Nation) in 1915, and he expected to form the real nation as follows: In this paper, I would like to argue that there is a discourse surrounding the "The vocabulary of this "nation" narrative of Thai national identity, which has been translated in many was constructed by the mainstream ways, and each way should be ideology until the 1950's. At that time, corrected to form one national Thai progressive intellectuals, most of language. However, that is not them journalists in magazines such as the end of the debate as to Aksonsan, Siamsamai and Pituphum, whether it should be called a real were against the ideals of the government nation because each language of Field Marshal P. Phibunsongkram. forms a different character of the They also debated the plot of Thai History nation" and went against the theories o f the elite (Aksawaphahu, 1977: 71-72) groups. The new narrative of the 'Thai nation' presented by progressive At that time, the challenge to the nation intellectuals had two meanings. Firstly, state was the Chinese movement in that the nation had formed from ethnic Thailand which opposed the role of the heterogeneity as well as from cultural Manchu Dynasty in China and also diversity. Secondly, that the economy of opposed the Japanese who tried to capture the Thai nation was formed for the people China. The activity of the Chinese in and supported the people, rather than Thailand, which was called 'look }in nai being concerned only for the government. Siam' (meaning Chinese who were born in Thailand) was trouble for King I will present the new analysis of the 'Thai Wachirawut and he thought it might affect nation' from progressive intellectuals, the stability of his throne (see Tejaperi, such as Malai Chupinit (1906-1963), Sod 2001 and Murashima, 1996). Tejaperi's Ktiramarohit, ( 1908-1978), Assani work mentioned the political situation of King Wachirawut:

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"For the Siamese Government surname, compulsory primary schooling the peculiar trouble with thes~ and the establishment of the "Wild Tiger lookjin communists was that they Corps" (Kong Suea Pa). The Wild Tiger were in a legal sense "Thai" and Corps was the controversial para-military hence could not be easily organization he established at the expelled. It was the National Act beginning of his reign. This organization of 1913, a legal invention of none other than the arch-anti• is generally held to have provided the communist King Wachirawut monarchy with a forum for disseminating himself, which, while furnishing his ideas to the officials of the realm the government with the power (Mongkudklaochaoyuhao, 1962). In this to banish Chinese and Vietnamese way, the official nationalist discourse that communist immigrants, precluded King Wachirawut articulated and set in . deportation of the arrested place in the context described above can lookjin communists, for it be seen as a particular expression of things claimed as Thai "every person like 'selective tradition'. Barrne said in his who was born on Thai territory" thesis that in the case of King Wachirawut, (fejaperi, 2001: 22). the 'selective tradition' involved a delineation of the nature of 'Thai' identity, We can see that the creation of. an official together with an explication of the slogan nation began during the reign of King 'Nation, Religion and King' which had Wachirawut, but the concept was not first been articulated at the end of the concerned with the people's rights or nineteenth century. These ideas were first freedom. There were three main themes made public in a series of speeches the which King Wachirawut considered to king made to the Wild Tiger Corps represent the Thai identity; loyalty to (Barrne, 1989: 26). King, loyalty to religion and loyalty to nation. In addition, he attempted to make Therefore, the concept of 'Chat Thai' or the monarchy the focal point of Thai 'ThaiN ation' has been further developed nationalist sentiment. However, he by state ideology since it's creation by appears to have met with early difficulties King Wachirawut. Later, following the as well. The King began by noting that commencement of the Phibunsongkram the kingdom contained a growing number government in 1938, this period was of people who felt compelled to pass influenced by the nationalism policy. A judgment on the government and its key player in the development of this policies. He added that there was nothing policy was Luang Wichitwatakan. In the necessarily wrong with this in that it latter period, it is argued that he was signified that people were coming to instrumental in formulating an official perceive the country as being their own. notion of Thai identity on behalf of the The problem was said to lie with the fact military-dominated state, and helped to that most people still lacked a "true have this deployed on a broad scale via the understanding" of national affairs media and through the expanding school (Copeland, 1993: 34). system.

During his reign of about 15 years, laws Luang Wichitwatakan (1898-1962) was were passed to assist the building of the from a Chinese family background and he natiqn, such as legal nationality, legal was given the Chinese name 'Kimliang'.

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However, in his speech for his uncle, Thai Embassy in Paris. At that time, he 'Somdet Ph;a Wannarat' (Heng went back to study law again at the Khemmachari), at Wat Mahathat, the place University of Paris. He then continued his where he gained priesthood, he claimed to studies in Political Science when he refuse his relationship to the background moved to work in London, England. of this fellow: (Wichitwatakan, 198_9: 3-5)

"As my lineage I can count to be From his life in the West, Luang the nephew of Somdet and live Wichitwatakan's ideas regarding the close to his house. S ince I was history of civilization and progress and born I never saw Chinese people personal development were influenced by in his house. The special the concept of history there. In looking at tradition in Uthaithani at this the latter aspects of his work, it will be time is if the parents have Thai shown that although Luang Wichitwatakan names then the children must was supportive of the royalist have Chinese names. My administration, the support he offered was father's name is In and my not without a degree of criticism (Banne, mother's name is Klai which are 1989: 3 5). As he was a good reader, he Thai names. My father was a novice Buddhist, never respected had an ambition to hold a position at the the Chinese God and everything Thai National Library. He wrote in 1930 about him is Thai. Anyway, I " ... the highest position that I prefer in my was given a Chinese name while life is a commander of the Thai National my younger sisters and brothers Library ... " (Anonymous, 1963: 41) were given Thai names. When I went to Europe and then returned Luang Wichitwatakan had worked in I found that they had changed government service as Minister of Foreign their names to Chinese. It seems Affairs from 1918 to 1933, and he then the Chinese influence m achieved the position of Director of the Uthaithani is strong ... " Arts Department in the new Ministry of (Wichitwatakan, 1989: 11) Education. In 1934 this position gave him responsibility for the Thai National So when he grew up he had changed his Library, as had been his goal. He then name to Thai, as 'Wichit Wichitwatakan'. went to work as a politician for In later life, after he had become a Phibunsongkram's government in many renowned Thai nationalist figure, Luang ministries, such as the Ministry of Wichitwatakan denied this part of his Education, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, heritage and was adamant that he had Ministry of the Treasury-House and come from pure Thai stock. He achieved a Ministry of the Economy. Moreover, he great deal since he was a novice at Wat was also posted to the Thai Embassies in Mahathat by learning foreign languages, Japan·, India, Switzerland, Austria and including ~nglish and French and also by Yugoslavia. Meanwhile, Luang reading foreign books. After he left the Wichitwatakan took this opportunity to monkhood he found a job at the Ministry develop a writing career. He became of Foreign Affairs while he studied part involved in the movement of capital into time at Law School. In 1920 he went to the publishing business after he solicited a France to take on a position of clerk at the series of private loans and established the

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Wiriyannuphap Printing Company in Luang Wichitwatakan was by and large a October 1927. The creation of this conservative one, trying to emulate the enterprise put him in a position to ensure success of others, such as Prince that the texts he produced would be Damrong. This style changed after 1932. published, and that he would receive Direct involvement in national political guaranteed payment for their sale. It also life during the post 1932 period made him gave him an opportunity to promote turn to King W achirawut' s intellectual writers with whom he was friendly and heritage and away from that of Prince shared similar views. (Barme, 1989: 40) Damrong. In Wattanatham Sukhothai (Sukhothai Culture), he adopted King For his work in history, Luang Wachirawut's overview of Thai history by Wichitwatakan wrote Thai history using quoting a long passage from Thiaw Muang the plot of race in formulating the identity Phra Ruang. Contrary to his earlier beliefs of the Thai nation. His important his ideological position now moved toward publication was Siam and Suwannaphum a 'radical right' or somewhat fascist (Siam and Golden Peninsula) which was tradition. (Wantana, 1986: 307-308) published in 1933. Many years later at the University of History he gave lectures Although the ideas of Luang titled 'Ngan Khon Khwa Ruang Chat Wichitwatakan seem to back tradition, he Thai' (Searching for the Thai Nation) and also played a role in bringing a modular 'Kham Banyai Prawattisart Thai' (Lecture form of nationalism from Europe. for Thai History). He not only wrote Reynolds mentioned that Luang fictional texts based on Thai history, but Wichitwatakan constructed the pure Thai• also produced narrative Thai history, such Buddhist paradigm from the dominant as his novel Leaud Suphan (Suphan's ethnic group. He also made Sukhothai the blood), in which he demonstrated the earliest site of this pure Thai-Buddhist bravery of the villagers in the Ayutthaya society; 'pure' both in terms of ethnic period by describing how they fought the dominance and in terms of social structure. Burmese troops. This novel was very (Reynolds, 1992: 324) popular for people to perform as a play. There were three concepts to the main plot However, Luang Wichitwatakan worked of the Thai Nation which appeared in his to distinguish the Thai nation and he tried work. Firstly, the concept of the 'Great to identify a form of 'Thainess' during the Man', secondly the concept of the 'Great 1930s-1950s. I would like to discuss how Pure Thai Race' and thirdly, the concept his ideas differed over 3 decades. Firstly, of a 'Great Thai Kingdom in the Past'. in the 1930s, he described how Sukhothai Reynolds argued that " ...The concept of was the founding civilisation of Thailand, the 'Great Man' theory of history, which is such as in his works Searching for the indispensable to the motif of national Thai Nation and Siam and Golden liberation, seems to me notable not as a Peninsula. He took advantage of his work legacy of royalist historiography, in which as director for the Fine Arts Department the monarchy is the most important actor, by researching and learning history, but as a paradigm common elsewhere at archeology, liberal arts, fine arts and the time ... " (Reynolds, 1992: 324). The culture. He said "khong di khong chat" work ofSomkiet Wantana (Wantana,1986) (National heritage) was combined to form argued that the historiographical style of the identity of the Thai nation; " ... each

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nation should be a real nation and must 'small country', rather than a great have their own fine arts which can be kingdom as Phibunsongkram and distinguished from others... different Wichitwathakarn had dreamed of building groups of people who can characterise before the 1940's. In addition, Thailand themselves by their high culture ... " feared the power of communism that had (Wichitwatakan, 1932: 20; 1936: 66) influenced Indo-china, North Korea and China. In particular, Thais feared the In the second period during the 1940s, he Communist party of China, which won constructed a 'national culture' by power in 1949. They felt that Thailand integrating the diverse cultures of all people should withstand the power of communism, from many regions, including the North, just as Luang Wichitwatakan had been Northeast and South. This stage built a against communism since the 1930's. He sense of historical consciousness, or supported four factors as role models for 'Thainess'. As in his novels and plays, he the Thai nation. One of them was 'Not to pointed out that all people from the North be Communist" (Wichitwatakan, 1989: 6). and the South are Thai. Examples are Suek He preferred to defend the Thai nation Thalang (Thalang War), · a story of the from commumsm and considered people of the South, and the northern 'nationalism' the best way to protect stories, Chaoying Saenwee (Princess Thailand. He suggested that: Saenwee) and MahaThewi (Great Queen). At that time Luang Wichitwatakan could " ...Nationalism is the only way use official media (radio) because he was to fight and prevent employed as President of the Committee communism. . . . there is no way for 'Ratthcmiyom' (Ratthaniyom was to go against communism; the created in Phibunsongkram's government) best way is to remind us to in the Ministry of Education. During this always think of 'Chat' (nation). period he promoted a generalization which If we can build nationalism the constructed Thai identity as a more same way as communism is simplistic stereotype rather than being built, we should not fear that complex. He also changed the division of communism will capture our multi-culture and multi-ethnic groups to country ... " become a unity. Moreover, he tried to (Wichitwatakan, 1989: 158) construct a representation of 'Thainess' or real Thai by creating a new meaning of This issue encouraged Phibunsongkram' s 'Thai'. He put forward a new concept of second period of government (1948-1957) empires, which was his dream since the to attempt to jail some intellectuals and 1940's, to explain the in politicians who were opposed to its anti• the period of King Naresuan. He Communist policy. For most of his life, appreciated Sukhothai culture because it Luang Wichitwatakan seemed to focus his taught people . to be diligent in work on construction of a new narrative of merchandising, construction and fighting. the Thai Nation. Conversely, the 1950's (Wichitwatakan, 1939: 18) · was the time of booming critical intelligence, and there were some Thirdly, in the 1950's, after the Second progressive intellectuals who taught a World War,. the situation for Thailand different motif of nation and gave a new changed because it returned to being a version of the Thai nation. They were

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inspired to be liberated from their own of Dien Bien Phu. The French withdrew Thai masters, and a narrative that seemed their troops from Vietnam in 1954 in increasingly out-of-date with Thailand's accordance with the Geneva Treaty (see political and economic realities. Before Duiker, 1981: 160-168). The people of attempting to understand the concepts of North Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh, these intellectuals, I would like to explain announced their independence from the world situation as it affected Thailand France. This made the USA anxious about during the 1950's-1960's. the expansion of power of North Vietnam, obviously supported by the USSR, to other The Relationship of Thailand to the Southeast Asian countries (see Osborne, and the changing 1995: 154-173). Similarly, North and situation in Southeast Asia after the South Korea were separate countries when Second World War North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. In response to that invasion, the USA sent After the Second World War, there were its army to protect South Korea. D ue to the alliance of Thailand with the USA so many changes around the world. For ' example, there was independence from the Thai soldiers were sent to fight in this war. West's colonial power for many countries in the world, and also the transactions o f Apart from the rallies for independence in the Philippines, and Burma power of Western countries; from Western ' Europe to the United States of America the USA was apprehensive about an (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist invasion of Southeast Asian countries by Republics (USSR). These countries the USSR. In particular, the USA was became powerful during the 20th Century also concerned about the communist party while arguing the political doctrines of of China, led by Mao Se Tung, which democracy (USA) and communism overthrew the old regime to become the (USSR). Republic of China in 11th October 1949. Also a matter of concern was the The expansions of power between the intervention of South Korea by North USA and the USSR increased their Korea in 1950. These alarming events alliances with other countries and resulted consequently led to the USA in confrontations in many parts of the implementing offensive policies. world; Asia, Latin America as well as Europe. Specifically, Vietnam and Korea As a result, the USA through necessity had were geographically (north and south) and to seek alliances in order to retard the politically (democracy and communism) spread of communism. Thailand was the separated into two sections by the most interesting country to the USA for respective intervention of the USA and the such purposes. This was because of its USSR. The northern Vietnam and Korean geography, since Thailand is centrally territories were communist and supported located amongst other countries in this by the USSR, while South Vietnam and region. Also, Thailand had never been South · Korea became democracies and colonized by a foreign power which was were influenced by the USA's support. thought to make political negotiations easier. During this post-war period, The USA occupied Vietnam after the Thailand was struggling after considerable defeat of France in Vietnam, in the battle defeats against Japanese troops via the role

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of the Free Thai movement. This to Thailand valued at approximately US$ organization opposed and undermined the 100,000,000 as seen in the following Japanese troops in Thailand during the report: Second World War. The Free Thai Movement had its command center in both "The aid program is designed to the USA and England. They did little assist the effort of the actual fighting against Japanese troops in Government of Thailand in the Thailand, though they greatly assisted the following key areas, which are Allies i~ the underground subsidiary tasks crucial to development in all of intelligence gathering, communication other spheres of the economy: and transportation, hiding and helping expansion of transportation, Allied secret service officials, rescuing power, and communications; and protecting Allied POWs and nationals, improvement of basic public services to Thailand's people in and sabotaging Japanese war supplies and health, education, agricultural installations. Pridi Phanomyong, as a extension, and stimulation of leader of the Free Thai Movement, industry; and modernization of conferred with the Allies to declare that overall government budgetary the relationship between Thailand and procedures and fiscal Japan during World War II was invalid management in order that and that Thailand was not defeated as the Thailand may achieve most Japanese were. This declaration was effective use of its resources. supported by the USA. Then the USA Under the terms of the 1950's negotiated its alliances to assure the status agreement between Thailand of Thailand after the war, such as and the USA, this program of aid encouraging Thailand to be a member was set up to work cooperatively of the . For these reasons like a partnership to assure that the relationship between Thailand and the the efforts and materials put into USA tightened after the Second World it are most effectively used for War. Subsequently, there was the first the welfare of the Thai people." treaty mutually signed in 1950 which (ARPA, No. 04100) designated support for Thailand m educational, cultural, economic and The affiliations and cooperation between academic areas in return for the use of Thailand and the USA were maintained from 'facilities and areas' of Thailand by the the second period of Phibunsongkram's USA, so that army bases could be government until the era of Field Marshal established (National Achrive, 1950). In , another Prime Minister of the 1954 a military contract and cooperation Thai government. Thanarat overthrew was developed which led to the first Phibunsongkram in the military coup of military base of the USA, named 1957. JUSMAG, being established. (National Achrive, 1954) However, the context of international politics post Second World War had a As a consequence of the Thai-US significant influence on Thai politics. The collaboration, Thailand obtained wide role and power of Phibunsongkram varieties of assistance from the USA. From subsided. As well as Phibunsongkram, 1951-1956, the USA gave economic support Luang Wichitwatakan and other members

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of his g ovemment were to be charged as Pridi Phanomyong became Prime Minister war criminals. However, they were freed for a considerably short period (March 24 from such allegations under the "War - August 23, 1946). His adversaries later Criminal Law Act" of the Thai government, claimed that he was behind an 8th October 1945. In April 1946, the assassination attempt on King Rama VIII. Supreme Judicature of Thailand declared The 8th November 194 7 coup forced Pridi "that the War Criminal Law Act which Phanomyong to leave Thailand but he regulated the provisions of punishment, tried to return to power with the coup in were against the Thai Constitution, and 26th February 1949, (the so-called "Kabot therefore invalid". (Kasetsiri eta!, 1997: 1) Wang Luang"; see Saisen, 1989). This event was supported by the Thai Royal As such, this provided the opportunity for Navy. Nevertheless, this rebellion failed, Phibunsongkram and his colleagues to Pridi escaped but could never return to the return to power and authority. At the same Kingdom of Thailand. He stayed abroad time, Pridi Phanomyong and his Free Thai until he died. Even though, a group of Thai Movement organization, which battled Naval officers tried to stage a second coup, against Japan and its -allies during the called "Kabot Manhattan" (Manhattan's Second World War, also backed Thai Rebellion), this incident was also politics. Some members of the Free Thai unsuccessful. (see Sukrongphang, 1986) Movement organization became Members of Parliament (MPs). These MPs, such as Thong-in Phurithat, Thawin Udon, Tiang Regarding such political situations m Sirikhan and Chamlong DaoRuang were Thailand, the Thai government and in called the Isan MPs or the left wing of the particular Phibunsongkram's second Free Thai Movement. They were from the government had to cooperate with the Northeast region of Thailand. (Tejaperi, USA. During this period, Phibunsongkram 2001: 78-79). From 1945 to 1947, owing implemented the anti-communism policy, to the abrogation of the Anti-Communist which could suppress people whom he Act in 1946 and the leftist inclination of considered his adversaries, not just the Pridi/Free Thai governments, the politicians but intellectuals such as Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) journalists and writers. Specifically, operated freely and openly. However, intellectuals were charged with rebellion from 1948 to 1952, with the fall of the against Phibunsongkram, known as 'Kabot Pridi/Free Thai group and the return of the authoritarian Phibunsongkram regime, they had a more difficult political life. Project. The MPs from the Northeast, such as (Tejaperi, 200 I: 93). Later, they were Tieng Sirikhan and Thongin Phurithat, were arrested because of the Kabot Wang alleged to have tried to separate the land in the Northeast to join Indo-China as they had Luang or the rebellion and 2 relationships with the leaders in Laos and Ho Chi they were executed". Minh. For this movement of building a network of nationalists in Southeast Asia, please see Gosha, Christopher E. 1999. 'Thailand and the 2 Please see K.asetsiri, Chanvit and Thamrongsak Southeast Asian Network of the Vietnamese Petchlert-Anan (eds.). 2001. Pridi Banomyoung Revolution, 1885-1954, Curzon Press. and and 4 !san Ministers+ 1. The Foundation for the Van Hoan, Hoang. 1988. Revolutionary Promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities Reminiscences, A Drop in the Ocean, Foreign Textbooks Project and Tii.armnasart Archives Languages Press, Beijing.

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Santiphab' (Peace's Rebellion), in the lOth Background of Thai progressive November 1952. (see Katithammanit, intellectuals 1992). The intellectuals who were arrested were mostly journalists such as Kulap Malai Cbupinit (1906-1963) Saipradit (editor of Suphapburut), Supha Sirimanon (editor of Aksonsan) and Malai Chupinit was a thinker and writer Plueang Wannasri (editor of Pituphum). for his entire career. He was a serious journalist and writer, devoting his life to In the next section, the roles of the his work. He began his career as a teacher intellectuals, who influenced concepts of at Wat Saket School after he graduated discourse with a new definition and from Suankulap Wittayalai School. identification of the 'Thai nation', will be However, his desire to be a writer inspired discussed. This occurred during the him to resign from this official job before 1950's in response to the tense situation his two-year assignment was completed. between Thailand and the USA and stalemate in the relationship between Malai was born in April 25, 1906, at Phibunsongkram's government and its Klong Suanmak (currently \ opponents, who were officially called 'the Amphor Nakorn Chum) in Khamphaengpet Thai enemies'. province. His parents were wood entrepreneurs (particularly teak wood). Discourse on the Thai National They distributed their products to Identity by Progressive Intellectuals Nakornsawan province via wooden rafts. during 1950's-1960's These images were mirrored through his work in his novel named, "Thung Maharat" Before detailing the salient roles and (Great king field) (see Sukniyom, 1989: 19; critical thinking of Thai progressive Riam-aeng, 2000). Malai attended primary intellectuals, I would firstly like to provide school in his hometown. Afterwards, he some profiles of the four intellectuals that moved to and he finished his six I selected for discussion in this paper. year high school course. He then enrolled Namely, Malai Chupinit, Sod Kuramarohit, to study for a teaching certification at Wat Assani Ponlachan and Chit Phumisak. 3 Bowonniwet School. Later, he returned to finish his high school level at the same school, Suankularb Wittayalai. While he

3 studied there, he also studied an intensive There are several progressive Thai intellectuals, English course at Thepsirin School where e.g. Kulap Saipradit, Supha Sirimanon, Senee there were many students who became Saowapong and Thaweep W oradilok, who have interesting concepts. However, I intend to famous journalists and writers, such as discuss only four persons (Malai, Sod, Assani Sod Kuramarohit and Kulap Saipradit. and Chit) concerning the aim and objectives of They were good friends from the time they this study. These persons and their writings are studied together until they graduated and considered individually unique. I have selected worked as journalists (Na Bangchang, some aSpects of their work to analyze. For 1993: 13). example, the articles of Malai Chupinit, the novels of Sod Kuramarohit, the verses of Assani Ponlachan and the historical studies of Chit Phwnisak. The writings of these 4 progressive the "Thf!i nation", which will be discussed in Thai intellectuals are considered to clearly reflect detail in the next section.

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1 Malai started his journalism · career as an Sod was born on 27 h April 1908. He editor of Thai Ti (southern Thailand) came from a wealthy family, his father newspaper, in Songkhla province in 1926. being a high level officer, who was once a One year later, he returned to Bangkok governor and his mother was of Chinese under the persuasion of Kulap who resigned lineage (Kuramarohit, 1961: 1-3; 1966: 1). from Bangkok Kan mueang (Bangkok's He, himself, was the most outstanding politics) newspaper. Malai continuously student while he was studying at Thepsirin worked with several newspapers, such as School. Subsequently, he applied for the Suphapburut (Gentleman), Thaimai (New King's scholarship to study in England. Thai), Prachamit (People's friend) and Unfortunately, he failed, even though he Siamsamai (Age of Siam). These involved a applied for the King's scholarship twice. wide variety of writings, such as 1ife -style, Afterwards, he decided to study law and, love stories, political events and historical in 1928, he was awarded a scholarship novels. from the Ministry of Education to study in China. The purposes of this scholarship Malai was simultaneously an editor and were to educate a person who would then writer of articles, features and bypaths of oversee Chinese schools and their knowledge. He was regarded as a leading curriculums in Thailand. At that time, the novelist. He wrote several kinds of government was anxious about the novels, such as 'Longprai' (Jungle trip) influence of Chinese people in Thailand. with his pen name 'Noi Jnthanon'. This novel depicted his true experiences in Sod studied at the National University of jungle expeditions and explorations. Beijing in Chinese linguistics, literature Malai had several pen names for his and history. After he graduated he wrote writings (articles, features and novels). He many novels and features which concerned passed away from lung cancer in 1963. In several aspects of China. Examples are this study, only his articles written during Pakking Nakon Haeng Khwam Lang the 1950's will be discussed and some of (Memories of Beijing), Xing Fei, Phunum these will be selected to discuss regarding Kabuankan Chin Mai (Xing Fei, The the aspect of 'Thai nation'. leader of new China) and Kabuankan Seri Chin (The Free Chinese Movement) (see Sod Kuramarohit (1908-1978) Jeemteeraskul, 1991; Tejaperi, 2001 ). In 1936, Sod returned to Thailand and started Among progressive Thai intellectuals, it his career as an official in the Ministry of could be said that the biography of Sod Education. After working for 10 years, he was different from the other intellectuals. resigned from his position because he felt This may be because Sod graduated in that he could not solve national problems. China during the Republic Period. This He moved to Prachinburi to work as a also made his attitudes and concepts of farmer and to manage the Cooperation writing toward communism differ from project which assisted farmers in other progressive intellectuals. Although negotiating with the government and this is true, Sod is still considered a industry. However, the project was progressive Thai intellectual because of unsuccessful. Later, he moved to Chonburi his 'anti-ruler' attitudes and his alternative province and established a foundation thinking. called, "Munnithi Banrai Phandin Thai" (Foundation of Thai Farm and Thai Land)

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for helping the poor people through a magazine. These works expressed his project named "Krongkan Burana opinions on national economics. Chonnabot" (Rural Reconstruction Project). Once again, he failed to complete this Assani Ponlachan (1918-1987) project and establish the foundation. He was also a candidate for the Farmer's Party at Assani was a progressive Thai intellectual one time. Nevertheless, he never had a true who might be regarded as radical or left political life. In 1978 he passed away from wing (Ponlachan, 1998: 88). After he the effects of diabetes (Nakasart, 1976: 6-7); resigned from government office in 1952 (see also Maneerod, 1976: 32). Like his he moved to many countries such as close friend, Malai Chupinit he left several China, Vietnam and Laos as a member of writings. the Communist Party until his death in 1987. Then in 1997, there was an effort to Sod began his wntmg at the age of 12, bring his bones back to Thailand. when he was taught by his father to write verses. When he was studying at Thepsirin Assani was born on 15th September 1918, in School, he participated in writing for the Ratchaburi province. He grew up in a noble school magazine, in the section family, like Sod Kuramarohit. His father was Thalaengkan Thepsirin (Announcement of an officer and of royal hereditary through the Thepsirin). Most of his writings were governor of Kanchanaburi during the early verses. He and his classmates published a years of the Rattanakosin period. The school newspaper called, Darunsan (youth surname of his father has been hereditarily Message). He was also responsible for used as the surnames of these families: writing novels and translating. Meanwhile, Ponlachan, Phonlakul, Phonlatorn and he took part in art, copywriting and cartoon Wongsarot. His wealthy family enabled drawing. Before going to study in China, him to receive a good education, and he he started writing short stories, myths, started at a boarding school in his fiction and translating. These were hometown and then studied high school published in the newspapers; Senasueksa level at Suankulap Wittayalai School, (Military study) and Thai Kasem (Happy Bangkok. Next he became a law student Thai). While he was studying in China, he at Thammasart University and he wrote political articles, which were graduated in 1940. He was then an officer published in Prachachat (Nation) in the Department of Public Prosecution, newspaper. From the time he began Ministry of the Interior. For his duties, he writing political articles, Sod was under was appointed to Pattanee province. In suspicion of the government. When he 1944 he was moved to Saraburi province came back to Thailand, he consistently due to intelligence reports of the Thai wrote and published material in several government that he supported the Malaya newspapers and magazines. During 1946- rebels who were fighting with 1947, he and his colleagues established Phibunsonglcram's government. "Chakkawat Sinlapin" (Artists Empire). His most salient writings were novels, Assani's official duties were difficult for some of which will be discussed in this him. This was probably because of his study. Most of his works critical of the absolute honesty and the fact that he Thai government were published under his refused to undertake wrong or immoral pen name, 'Barbara', in Piyam it (Friendly) assignments from his superiors.

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Subsequently, his position was unduly Chit Phumisak is the youngest intellectual reshuffled. At that time he had many discussed in this study. He was born on friends, such as Plueang Wannasi, who 25th September 1930 in Prachantakam was one of the progressive intellectuals of district, Pracheenburi Province, to a that time. Most of his writing colleagues middle class family. His father was a had major roles in rallies against the clerk of the Excise Department and his Government. This caused increasing mother was a housewife. When his trouble for Assani in his official position, parents separated and divorced, his mother and finally he resigned in 1952. From and older sister raised him. When he grew 1953 to 1957 he studied Marxism in up, he moved to stay with his family in Bejing. After his return to Thailnd in 1958, many provinces as his father was officially he became editor of Saithan (see Buason, shifted for his work, including Pratabong 1998: 231-23 3). province (now a province of Cambodia). There, he learnt Cambodian or Khmer Assani was an intellectual during the language (Mitr Raumrob, 1976: 23-24). 1940's-1950's. Like other intellectuals He also studied the Cambodian historical mentioned previously, he started his records (Manuscripts) intensely. Chit writing activities while he was a student, returned to Bangkok and he studied high at both Suankulap Wittayalai School and school level at Triam Udom Sueksa Tharnmasart University. His writings School. Afterwards, he studied for his were published in Aekkachon and BA. At Faculty of Arts Chulalongkorn Prachamit journals, which were purposely University. When he was studying at the against the government. This made the university, he was the editor of the security of his life relatively vulnerable, university journal. Controversial articles and due to this, Assani had several pen written for this j ournal caused aggressive names. He wrote several articles from reactions from conservative individuals. either political or academic aspects, which Some students threw him downstairs, concerned the areas of language and known as 'Yonbok'. Following this literature. He boldly criticized some royal incident, the university suspended him for literary works. For example, he appraised one year. He then worked for Thaimai the writing of King Wachirawut. Assani's newspaper and he also worked as a guide usual writings were verses, which were for visitors to Angkor Wat and Angkor published in several journals (i.e. Saithan Thorn in Cambodia. Later, Chit returned and Siamsamai) under his unique and to his studies and he graduated in 1957. famous pen name 'Nai Phi'. One of his He became a lecturer at Petchaburi verses, titled 'Duean Ph en' (Fullmoon), Teaching College and a guest lecturer at has been composed as a song. It has been Silapakom University (see Art and Culture sung and played in several versions by for Life Group, 1986; 1987). He numerous artists, and is alternatively simultaneously studied a Master's degree called 'Kidthueng Ban' (Missing Home). at the Academic Institute, Prasarnmit In this study, serious verses of Assani will campus, Bangkok. be further discussed in the following section. In the meantime, Chit wrote and published several articles in many journals. His Chit Phumisak (1930-1966) works under several pen names were about language, literature, art and translation

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(such as the socialist novels of Maxim Chit was charged and jailed for being Gorky). However, the masterpieces of his labeled a communist, according to the work were academic, with particular Communist Act that Field Marshal Sarit regard to etymology. He applied his Thanarat upheld. When he was released expertise in etymology to develop a new from prison he was determined to join the concept in Thai historical writings. The Communist Party o.f Thai (CPT). As a most important of such works are 'Thai consequence of this decision, he was shot Society Along the Chao Phraya River and died in Sakol Nakom province in May before the Ayutthaya period' and 'The 1966. legends of Siamese, Laotian and Khmer words as well as National Names Reconstruction of the Thai Nation Regarding Societies Characteristics: Facts by Progressive Intellectuals of the People of Khmer'. These will be discussed in detail, in the next section. As previously mentioned, the first two sections of this paper were about concepts Chit was the most recognized intellectual of the elite group regarding the 'Thai during the 1960's-1970's. His biography Nation' in the writings of King and writings considerably influenced Thai Wachirawut and Prince Darnrong on youths at that time. During the 1970's, Chit absolute monarchy and also Luang was raised jo hero status, as someone who Wichitwatakan and P. Piboonsongkram in inspired young people to seek out their the 1940's. The political atmosphere and lives and not become obsolete. the international situation after the Second Consequently, there was strong public World War have also been discussed. criticism of politics and society. Some These events affected the attitudes of argue that this led to an upheaval, called the intellectuals during the 1950's-1960's 14 October 1973 incident, which saw the towards the government, which led to collapse oft he Thai g ovemment ofF ield reaction against state power and governing Marshal Thanom Kittikhachon. Another policies, and finally to reaction against the theory is that the years after Chit's death concepts of 'Thai Nation' . In the 1950's- were a period of change for young people. 1960's the progressive intellectuals had Thus a researcher who studied Chit's life similar concepts with few differences. and works, mentioned that: These attitudes were relatively different from past decades. It seems they were " .. . Chit was closer in educational reconstructing a new meaning of 'Thai background, and his life had the Nation'. added meaning of a martyr's death. Moreover, the search for The analyses of essays in this study are his biography and the discovery implemented partly with the concepts of of his work between 1973 and Hayden White. He explained how writing 1976 were part and parcel of styles, such as metaphor, plot and unearthing a kind of cultural emplotment can be in the form of tragedy, excavation of Thailand's literary comedy, romance and satire (see White, ·and cultural history after the Second World War. .. " 1973; 1987). The writing styles of the four (Reynolds, 1987: 15) intellectuals depicted significant changes in Thai society. They wrote about changes of historical plot and about various groups of

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people such as nobles, kings, heroes, 356-491). The first two articles were marginal people (lower society persons, assumed to be written by Chit while he farmers and labourers) and ethnic groups, was in jail from 1958-1965. The other like Laotian, Kluner and Karen. C hanges acknowledged Thais ocieties, which have in Thai society were apparent in the 1970's, developed within five areas: ancestry, and Reynolds and Hong, reported how slavery, privilege, capitalism and various groups, such as farmers, 1abourers socialism areas. To such an extent, Chit's and rebels were affected during turning methods of analysis were considered points in Thai history (Reynolds and Hong, Marxist. Although many academics 1983: 77-104). However, it cannot be criticized his methods as not appropriate denied that the works of intellectuals during for Thai society, his articles had a the 1950's-1960's influenced ways of relatively high impact on Thai history. shaping and explaining Thai society by Historians had to consider historical events writers during the 1970's-1980's. For in the context of solemn discussions about example, the reports of Thongchai reigns of kings, monarchies and kingdoms. Winitchakul concluded that Thai historical These defined the 'Thai Nation' merely in literacy changes occurred following the 14th terms of the roles of the kings. As a result October 1973 event, as since that time it of Chit's book, 'The Real Face of Thai urgently wanted a new history and this Feudalism Today', there were several stage gave it the opportunity to reconstruct debates about the meaning of 'sal«lina' the work of Marxism in the 1950s (Feudalism). For example, Reynolds (Winitchakul, 1995: 6). suggested that Chit used the word as a metaphor for 'rebellion', as he said that In this study, 'discourse' will be defined " ... this mention of privileges did not itself by three forms of intellectual publications, provoke the arrests, but the sentence implying that there were three forms of illustrates how the term 'sakdina' now discourse in regard to 'Thai Nation'. The belongs to a discourse aimed at subverting first discourse correspondences are about the proper meanings of such legitimizing 'Thai Nation' in terms of 'historical plot'. institutions as the mon.archy and the The second are detailed as 'national Buddhist monkhood ... " (Reynolds, 1987: economy' and the last are shown as 150). 'power of the state'. Meanwhile 'Thai Society a long the Chao Firstly, the discourses about 'Thai Nation' Phraya River before the Ayutthaya Period' which appeared in the Thai histories and 'The Legends ofSiamese, Laotian and against the attitudes of governing persons Khmer Words as well as National Names were bravely acknowledged to be the work Regarding Societies Characteristics: Facts of Chit Phurnisak. In this study, his three of the People of Khmer' might be relevant articles chosen were: ' Thai Society along to each others. In these article1s Chit the Chao Phraya River before the argued that the main points of 'Thai Ayutthaya Period', 'The Legends of Nation' analyzed by King Wachirawut and Siamese, Laotian and Khmer Words cis Luang Wichitwatakan were that Sukhothai well as National Names Regarding was the first kingdom and Ayutthaya was Societies Characteristics: Facts of the the second. King Wachirawut's method of People of Khmer' and 'The Real Face of analysis considered straight line historical Thai Feudalism Today' (Phumisak, 1957: plot and this emphasized the chronology

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of historical events, with the basis being procedure for seeking the 'subject' of the history of the monarchy. This 'Nation,' or the so-called search for the commenced after the people of Sukhothai identity of the 'Thai Nation' (see emigrated to the south and later formed Winitchakul, 1991; Smart, 1985 and their own kingdom. In contrast to this Wongyannawa, 1990). basis, Chit argued that this did not provide the authentic development of communities In conclusion, Chit revived the old and groups of people, because of the historical plots with his two methods. nation states concepts. Chit also Firstly, he denied the mirage in which the mentioned that it was incorrect to solely 'Thai Nation' is one state having a follow the monarchy basis: relatively long history as a proficient and civilized kingdom, from Nanchao until " ... when stated about the Thai Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. Secondly, he histories, stories of Sukhothai argued against the historical plots which and Ayutthaya were generally attempted to unitie all races to be one, such pinpointed. However, there was as in the work of Luang Wichitwatakan in no discussion on information of the 1940's. Luang Wichitwatakan Thai societies in other parts of mirrored the development of today's 'Thai Thailand. For example, the Nation', which was evolved from several northern Yonok kingdom and groups or races of people. Thus, 'Thai others were much longer in their National Identity' has recently progressed histories than the southern from cultural diversities of individual kingdom" localities to blend together to become Thai (Phumisak, 1983: 8-9). culture. On the whole, this is the first discourse of Thai history written by Chit. Thereafter, while Chit tried to compose 'The Legends of Siamese, Laotian and The next article discussed IS Sod Khmer Words' and 'National Names Kuramarohit's novel, Raya, which he Regarding Societies Characteristics: Facts wrote during 1955-1956 (see Kuramarohit, ofthe People ofKhmer', his concepts were 1970). During this period, he also wrote more and more crystallized into diversities and published his works in the column of races, their settlements on the land, named 'Banrai Phandin Roa' (Our land called 'Laemthong' (Golden Pennisula), as and farm), in Pituphum journal. He well as their reciprocal reactions. 'Siam' proposed his concepts about 'The National itself has many meanings, for somehow it Economic Project' and his ideas were means land and/or nation without about principles of cooperation which he specifying citizenship. Chit's presentation thought might be appropriate for the Thai procedures were based on etymology and economy. There were mountains of linguistic contexts since languages were responses and opinions from readers. one of the outcomes of societies and However, he was warned by the cultures. Regarding his interest in the Department of Police about the content of history of words, it could be said that Chit his articles, and he was asked to send them scrutinized the identity of 'Thai' via for pre-checking by the police before tracking and tracing the word 'Siam'. being published. Sometimes he also had Accordingly, it helped Chit to discover the to report in person to the department. Sod root of 'Thai'. Therefore, the searches for started his 'Rural Refumishment' project, 'Siam' or 'Thai' might be deemed as the

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in Pracheenburi province and there he character, who was a member of the Free grew straight bamboo shoots. However, Thai Movement, graduated from abroad he failed because he did not respond to the and visited' Thung Takra' (Basket field). militarily corrupting power and price There, he felt that Thailand still had plenty tyrannizing from middlemen (Nakasart, of fertilized and unoccupied lands. He 1976: 71). These were parts of his encouraged the villagers of ' Thung Takra' experience depicted and detailed in his to form a cooperation (sahakorn), in which novel 'Raya'. he dreamt that they would equally share their lands and work cooperatively, Raya was the name of a character who is a described as follows: general member of the public. However, he was intimidated and was taken " ... having a cooperation for advantage of by a merciless local stopping money squeezing ... merchant. This merchant was enabled to everyone will own one's land, do illegal business by illegal powers will have machines to support through his relatives, one of whom was a one's work, will have markets to politician of national rank. When sell and not have to wait for Japanese · troops invaded Thailand, Raya middlemen to take and other villagers fought against the advantage ... will have money to troops together with the Free Thai build a school and a hospital as movement. Coinciding with writing this well as roads. Children go to school without paying tuition novel, Sod pointed out how to struggle fees and patients are freely cured against Phibunsongkram's government. without medical and prescription He also argued against the Nationalism charges ... " policies officially created by Luang (Kuramarohit, 1970: 544-545) Wichitwatakan using several media: the educational system, radio broadcasting, Sod's concept of a cooperation (sahakorn) songs and drama. Sod scorned Luang stemmed from his own authentic Wichit's methods through his Raya experiences, from which he believed the characters as follows: " ... Thai Nation was communist system was not suitable for already impressed into our hearts, quietly, Thailand. However, he considered it profoundly and naturally. Kao Thamon better than capitalism. The reasons why (Thamon mountain) people didn't say how Sod argued against communism were we love our nation, however we did. We because when he was in China, he found didn't sing all day and all night to bloodshed and violence. Besides, a small embolden our hearts ... " (Kuramarohit, group of people had the power to govern 1970: 919) and control the whole country. Meanwhile, Sod stood out against As mentioned previously, Sod resigned capitalism as he thought that such a system from his official job to be a farmer. While was self-oriented, which aimed solely for working on his fields, he was close to profits regardless of J;DOrality. Capitalists other.farmers and perceived their poverty: tried to take advantage without concern for lack of social welfare and infrastructure, others. With his serious experiences in and mistreatment by middlemen and price tyrannizing, Sod fought against financial agents. These were ideal financial backers and middlemen and he subject$ for his 'Raya' novel. One also alleged that the politicians practiced

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corruption with foreign investors. To his companies. Such contracts were signed mind all of them were 'national robbers' . after World War II in which Thailand had Sod mentioned that " .. .I do believe that to sell oil solely to Shell oil company destruction of our nation has occurred (England) and Standard Welcome Oil from such national robbers who are Company (USA), as a consequence of publicly honored" (Kuramarohit, 1970: Thailand holding the status of a defeated 1197) country from the war. This editorial stated that: Considering the political situation during Phibunsongkram's government during the " ... the oil case is a tangible way 1950's, in which the government to fight for the perfect eradicated the powers of Pridi independence of our nation. To Phanomyong and his colleagues, Field abandon contracts providing Marshal Phibunsongkram dictated the opportunities for Western fascists governing power of the state. Field to monopolize oil and to abandon Marshal Phibunsongkrarn also delegated contracts regarding land leases his powers to three groups of his trusted with the West. The West's power has enabled them to rob us colleagues. The first group was headed by of many properties and assets. General Phao Sriyanon, Head of the Return of these assets would be Department of the Police, who exploited our path to independence and governing power for his group '.s equality ... " (Wannasri, 1956) prosperity. The second was the group of Major General Phin Chunhawan and the For the intellectuals at that time, the last was the group of army General S arit critiques of the economy then became a Thanarat. These groups, cooperating with new concern for the economic aspect of financial backers, and businessmen, 'Nation'. The intellectuals opposed handled and controlled the state capitalism and fascism, since they thought enterprises and banks (Suwannathat-Pien, that these were used by more powerful 1995: 192-239). However, a faction led countries to override lesser ones. Sod by Sarit Thanarath eventually staged a subsequently thought that Thailand must coup against Field Marshal have a good economic plan, like the Phibunsongkram in 1957. Therefore, the unsuccessful economic proposals of Pridi images of corrupted leaders were depicted Phanomyong. Sod proposed that and detailed through the articles of principles of cooperation were required to progressive intellectuals. Intellectuals solve the nation's problems. He tried to criticized the Thai government policies, implement 'National Rural particularly on the nation's economy, Refurbishment' projects. It might be said which was the basis of nationalism and led that his national communities were 'Thai to the establishment of state enterprises. rural style', and he imagined that The state enterprises resulted from communities of the Rural Refurbishment political and economical. increments of the would be a way to refurbish the nation. government, through joint ventures with Sod always thought that cooperation was a international firms. In the editorial of good way for the country to survive Pituphum, 10 September 1956, the encroachments on its sovereignty and it government was urged to give up its could be used in national economic contracts with the US and English oil policies for lessening the poverty of the

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1 Thai people. After the events of 14 h Malai mentioned m the editorial of October 1973, Sod still entertained his Siamsamai that: concepts and ideas and he wrote a letter to the Prime Minister (Sanya Thammasak), "Though the war on the Korean stating 'how we could solve our national peninsula has been fought for a problems' instrumentally with principles long time, do not expect that it of cooperation. In fact, such ideas and will continue indefmitely who concepts of Sod's were absolutely about might tell how severe it will be new economic management, since the after those two powerful sides, economy is the concrete fundamental basis either the westerners or reds, of politics, in which everyone is equaL have clashed with each other. Modem weapons will be used The last two intellectuals, Malai Chupinit and new strategies of mass destruction will be implemented and Assani Ponlachan, will be discussed ·to fight for victory at any cost" simultaneously. Analysis of Malai will be (NL, 1955. Sobo. 6.4.1/4). primarily through his editorials in Siamsamai journal, and analysis for Malai's experiences of the horrors of war Assani will be through his verses, which encouraged him to publish articles in were partly published in Aksonsan and Siamsamai which promoted good relations Siamsamai. Additionally, other examples with Thailand's neighboring countries, of their works will be mentioned and such as positive features on Burma after discussed at the same time. the Second World War. Malai acknowledged the concerns about the Malai and Assani are alike in that they 'Thai Nation' through a metaphoric article wrote in metaphoric contexts regarding the interpreting the 'Thai Nation' as: 'Thai Nation' . They also criticized the images and strategies of the 'Thai Nation' " ...not only this meaning of which the government tried to create. Thai, however, means the Thon Considering their writing styles, however, dancing of the northeast, it means it can be argued that theirs were totally the 'Rong-Ngeng' and the 'Ma• different in terms of tone and presentation. No-Ra' plays of the south, it Malai's were simple but impartial, which means northern dances called may have been influenced by his prior 'Maeng Tub-Tao' ... since orders, experience as an editor. Meanwhile traditions and customs, which Assani's contained fantasized words, such will lead whatever nation to have as metaphors, implications and satires. its own identity, are symbols and The nature of writing verses provided him signs ofThai cultures". with opportunities for using whimsical (NL, 1955. Sobo. 6.4.3.2/2). words. Nonetheless, his works sometimes tended to be aggressive. Malai mentioned that the iaentity of the 'Thai Nation' includes the ownership of Issues which Malai criticized of the ruling this nation, in that everyone equally has party included American-oriented policies, rights to own this country, regardless of particularly in regard to sanction policies who you are: farmers, millionaires, on other countries, such as North Korea. ministers or prisoners. He also insulted the officially appealing procedures of

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devoting and sacrificing for · the nation, Due to his polite characteristics and non• which appeatjed though several media. political actlVlsm, similar to Kulap Examples were the practices of respecting Saipradit and Plueang Wannasri, Malai the Thai flag and singing the national avoided being charged and arrested anthem at set times, and learning the (Teerawanit, 1983: 85-92). historical dramas of Luang Wichitwatakan's 'Power of Sacrifices'. Like Malai, Assani wrote under pen Malai said " ... love for the nation for some names. He began to write articles in the Thais might merely start and stop by journals 'Aekkachon Raaisubda' (Private singing the national anthem ... efforts to be weekly) and 'Siamnikorn' during the an authentic nation is not dependent on 1940's and in ' Siamsamai' and devotion as an actor in the drama". This 'Aksonsan' in the 1950's. His most was the way that Malai used to pay back famous pen name was 'Nai Phi' (Mr Luang Wichitwatakan. At the same time, Ghost), which implied satires of the he also argued agajnst attempts to unite dictatorship during this period. He Thais to be unique; as shown by his article composed a verse which acknowledged published in Prachamit-Suphapburut, as the darkness of the nation's dictatorship, follows: using the imaginary of complete darlmess.

"Journeying to every region of He also explained who 'Nai Phi' (Mr the kingdom of Thailand, during Ghost) was as follows: the past 20-30 years gave me a myriad of lessons and feelings to "'Nai Phi' not being a ghost as understand how to live mutually ghostly assumed using 'Nai Phi' and together on this land ... while not as its name but being Shiva, this is true, many persons who who with three eyes, my friends, are interested in the history, being a mysterious shield from races, cultures and lifestyles of the evil of man." our people have tried and done (Ponlachan, 1998: 83, 85). the same as myself, which is to understand geography and the Assani used verses as satire to imply that differences of people. These Thailand was in a dark era, due to misuse of persons are my human friends power by Field Marshal Phibunsongkram. who together live on the same The reason why Assani used the pen name land; Nation of mine" 'Nai Phi' might be that he needed to (NL, 1955. Sobo. 6.4.3.2/2) conceal himself during rallies against the government. Besides, this name might be To such an extent, Malai's concepts were the third eye of the Shiva (the name of a similar to Chit's in that they showed Hindu God), which keeps itself for of people and differences and diversities purposes of evil or badness (it has been cultures. These acknowledged th~ 'Thai believed that if this eye were opened Identity' regarding 'Ethnic Nation-State', everything would be absolutely burned). rather than a proposal of civil society. The Moreover, 'Nai Phi' might stem from one journalistic and writing lives of Malai verse, 'Whom the Ghosts love, lives not!' were threatened several times by state Plueang Wanasee, a close friend of power. His newspaper was suppressed Assani, sometimes published works in and he was investigated by the police. Aksonsan and Pituphum under the pen

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name 'Nai Sang', which was similar to Assani offended the dictatorship of the 'Nai Phi'. government by writing verses; however his concepts were not different from other In summary, Assani's verses apparently intellectuals at that time. He pointed out criticized the government; however this that the 'Thai Nation' was like a badly ill was done discretely in the form of satire. patient because of the dictatorial toxins In one verse, Assani acknowledged present since the transformation of the Thailand during the 1950's to be a patient Thai political system in 1932. Thai people infected by governmental diseases: hoped that the 'Thai Nation' would be the ideal system, in which people are the "until Siam was ill, it needs to be major components of ' Nation'. healed giving magic pills might Eventually, the system became a cure it but worsening beyond dictatorship hidden under a veil of endurance the wrong pills will democracy. The rulers attempted to cajole weaken hearts" their people into obeying their power so (Ponlachan, 1998: 144) that the nation could be successful. They chanted their motto 'Obeying the leader Regarding his verse 'Lab Therd Chao Thai' and fending off all national dangers'. (Let's sleep, Thai people) (Ponlachan, Thus, the Thai progressive intellectuals 1998: 195), Assani made sarcastic desired to present their own and new 'Thai comments inferring that Thai people would Nation' discourses, which were opposed to prefer to sleep rather than wake up and face those broadcasted by the government. misused powers: 'Through opening eyes people are frightened by machine guns, policemen' s ·chase to dissect and destroy". Conclusion Another example, ' sang yang phi phi' (Built by ghost) mentions: In regard to the discourse of the "Thai Nation,' there are two paths which go "Siam has its fame as the against each other; the mainstream built by golden country nobles in the absolute monarchy and Siamese proudly declare government during Phibunsongkram's era, their sovereignty • and the alternative built by progressive However our homes and intellectuals in the 1950's. While the houses are built insanely nobility and government tried to build a Like house without Thai Nation according to a plot of Thai crossbeams ... history which was continuous from ancient Dwellers, day and night times to the present and was composed of a living in pain" unique Thai race, progressive intellectuals in the 1950's-1960's tried to give a new Like other intellectuals, Assani sharply idea that the Thai nation was shaped from criticized the policies of the government a· diversity of ethnic groups. For the first and he also fought against the spread of group, Thai nationhood meant to be loyal the 'Great Man' sect, as mentioned in the to the King and to obey the government, verse 'Hero and Heroism,' which and conversely, the second group argued persuades Thais to fight against this sect. that Thai nationhood 1s based on independence and is autonomous. Finally, the contrast in the concepts of these groups

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