On Brownian Motion of Asymmetric Particles an Application As Molecular Motor

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On Brownian Motion of Asymmetric Particles an Application As Molecular Motor Diploma Thesis On Brownian motion of asymmetric particles An application as molecular motor MARTIN REICHELSDORFER May 2010 Institut f¨urTheoretische Physik I Prof. Dr. Klaus Mecke Friedrich-Alexander Universit¨atErlangen-N¨urnberg Zusammenfassung Asymmetrische Brownsche Teilchen k¨onnenunter Nichtgleichgewichtsbedingungen eine im Mittel ge- richtete Bewegung ausf¨uhren. Dies kann zur Konstruktion molekularer Motoren genutzt werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Erweiterung und Analyse eines biologisch inspirierten Modells, welches von Susan Sporer et al. [42] eingef¨uhrt wurde. Aufgrund der oft sehr allgemeinen und abstrakten Darstellung sind die Betrachtungen jedoch auch im weiter gefassten Kontext der generellen Brownschen Bewegung asymmetrischer Objekte relevant. Das Modell besteht aus einem asymmetrischen zweidimensionalen K¨orper, der sich entlang einer Schiene in einem zweidimensionalen, unendlich ausgedehnten idealen Gas bewegt. Durch vor¨uber- gehendes Verlangsamen an Stoppstellen wird der Motor bzw. das zugeh¨origestatistische Ensemble aus dem Gleichgewicht gebracht. Anhand des Beispiels eines parabolischen Potentials mit exponentiell abfallender Federkonstante wird gezeigt, dass sich diese Bindungspl¨atzedurch zeitlich ver¨anderliche Potentialmulden darstellen lassen. Ahnlich¨ der K¨uhlung eines Gases durch Expansion, f¨uhrtdieser Ausschaltevorgang zu einer Verschm¨alerungder Geschwindigkeitsverteilung. Haupts¨achlich w¨ahrend der darauffolgenden Relaxation erh¨altdie zuf¨alligeBewegung eine Vorzugsrichtung bis sich erneut die Gleichgewichtsverteilung einstellt. Ein einmaliges L¨osendes Motors aus einer Stoppstelle erweist sich im betrachteten Beispiel als eher ineffizient, in dem Sinne dass die Breite der Ortsverteilung stets deutlich gr¨oßerals die Verschiebung ihres Mittelwertes ist. Durch periodische Anordnung der Bindungspl¨atzejedoch kann eine effektive Gleichrichtung der Bewegung erreicht werden, da eine Equilibrierung des Systems verhindert wird und sich stattdessen ein station¨arerNichtgleichgewichts- zustand einstellt. Da das Modell, bedingt durch seine Komplexit¨at,nur n¨aherungweise gel¨ostwerden kann, werden ferner eine Reihe reduzierter Modelle entwickelt. Diese weisen die gleichen charakteristischen Eigen- schaften wie das allgemeinere Modell auf, sind jedoch analytisch besser zug¨anglich. Hervorzuheben ist insbesondere ein System aus nur drei diskreten Geschwindigkeitszust¨anden,welches als Minimalmo- dell eines asymmetrischen Brownschen Teilchens in einer Dimension angesehen werden kann. Es zeigt sich, dass sich die Bewegung von asymmetrischen und symmetrischen Teilchen nicht nur im Nichtgle- ichgewicht (wie vielleicht aus den vorangegangen Beobachtungen zu vermuten gewesen w¨are)sondern auch im Gleichgewicht unterscheidet. Durch Erg¨anzungum diskrete Ortszust¨aendeerlaubt dieses Modell dar¨uber hinaus die bereits angesprochene Untersuchung sich wiederholender Stoppstellen. Hierbei lassen sich qualitative Ubereinstimmungen¨ zu experimentellen Daten eines monomerischen Kinesin KIF1A Motors feststellen. Zu ¨uberpr¨ufen, ob sich die Ergebnisse auch quantitativ repro- duzieren lassen, w¨areAufgabe weiterer Untersuchungen. Verh¨altnism¨aßiggroße thermische Fluktuationen sind die treibende Kraft des Motors, weshalb neue Methoden zu seiner thermodynamischen Beschreibung angewandt werden m¨ussen.Im Rahmen der sogenannten stochastischen Thermodynamik k¨onneneinzelnen Phasenraumtrajektorien Gr¨oßen wie Energie, Arbeit, W¨armeoder sogar Entropie zugeordnet werden, die nunmehr als stochastische Variablen mit ausgedehnten Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilungen zu verstehen sind. Hinsichtlich dieser Verteilungen l¨asstsich eine Reihe von Relationen, genannt Fluktuationstheoreme, finden, die oft eine detailliertere Fassung bekannter thermodynamischer Aussagen, wie etwa des zweiten Hauptsatzes, darstellen und bereits bei der Analyse experimenteller Daten, z.B. bei der Messung von freien En- ergien, Anwendung gefunden haben. Die G¨ultigkeit dieser Theoreme f¨urdas vorliegende Modell kann durch direkte Rechnung best¨atigtwerden. Abstract Asymmetric Brownian particles are able to conduct directed average motion under non-equilibrium conditions. This can be used for the construction of molecular motors. The present paper is concerned with the extension and analysis of a biologically inspired models, which was introduced by Susan Sporer et al. [42]. Due to the often quite abstract formulation, the considerations are also relevant in the broader context of general Brownian motion of asymmetric objects. The model consists of an asymmetric two-dimensional body, which moves along a rail through a two-dimensional, infinite ideal gas. By temporarily slowing it down at stopping sites, the motor or the corresponding statistical ensemble, respectively, is pushed away from equilibrium. The example of a parabolic potential with exponentially decreasing spring constant shows that these binding sites can be modelled by time-dependent potential wells. Similar to the cooling of a gas by expansion, this release process leads to a narrowing of the velocity distribution. Particularly during the subsequent relaxation the random motion is biased until the equilibrium distribution is established again. A singular release of the motor is found to be rather inefficient in the considered case, in the sense that the width of the distribution of positions is always profoundly larger than the drift of its mean value. By periodically distributing the binding sites, however, an effective rectification of the motion can be achieved, since the equilibration of the system is prevented and a stationary non-equilibrium sate establishes instead. As the model can only be solved approximately due to its complexity, a series of reduced models is developed. These systems exhibit the same characteristic features as the more general model, but are easier to access analytically. In particular, a system composed of only three discrete velocity levels can be regarded as a minimal model of an asymmetric Brownian particle in one dimension. It turns out that the motion of asymmetric and symmetric particles differ not only in non-equilibrium (as might have been anticipated from prior observations), but also in equilibrium. Moreover, augmenting the model with discrete position states allows for the already mentioned investigation of repeated stopping sites. Hereat, qualitative accordances to experimental data from a monomeric kinesin KIF1A motor are observed. To test, whether the results can also be reproduced quantitatively could be the subject of further studies. Comparatively large thermal fluctuations are the driving force of the motor, wherefore new methods have to be applied for its thermodynamic description. In the framework of so-called stochastic thermodynamics, quantities like energy, work, heat or even entropy may be attributed to individual phase space trajectories. Hence, they are now to be understood as stochastic variables with wide- stretching probability distributions. With respect to these distributions a multitude of relations, called fluctuation theorems, can be found, which often constitute a more detailed version of common thermodynamic statements like the second law, and which have already been applied in the analysis of experimental data (e.g. in the determination of free energies). The validity of these theorems for the present model can be confirmed by direct calculation. 4 Contents 1 Why Brownian motion is still interesting 7 2 Outline 9 3 Molecular motors in theory and reality { the context of this work 11 3.1 Two examples of theoretical models . 11 3.2 Kinesin . 11 3.3 A kinesin inspired model . 14 4 Brownian motion as stochastic process - the mathematical framework 17 4.1 Selected foundations of stochastic processes . 17 4.2 Description of the Model . 21 4.3 Modelling the stochastic process . 21 4.4 Time evolution of the phase space probability density . 25 4.5 Time evolution of moments of the phase space probability density . 29 5 Using potential wells as stopping sites 31 5.1 Relaxation without potential . 32 5.2 Potential-change without collisions: time-dependent undamped harmonic oscillator . 37 5.3 Time evolution with potential and collisions . 41 5.4 A remark on re-opening and multiple stopping sites . 50 6 Minimal Models 53 6.1 Two-state model . 53 6.2 Three-state generic model of an asymmetric Brownian particle in one dimension . 57 6.3 Augmented three-state model . 64 6.4 A step towards bridging the gap back to reality . 70 7 Stochastic thermodynamics 73 7.1 Energy, work and heat . 73 7.2 Entropy . 75 7.3 Fluctuation theorems . 76 8 Conclusion and Outlook 81 A Derivations and Proofs 85 A.1 Coefficients of the differential Chapman-Kolmogorov equation . 85 A.2 Relation of dissipated heat and transition rates . 88 A.3 Expansion of the Kramers-Moyal coefficients . 89 A.4 Limit of the mean squared velocity of the time-dependent undamped harmonic oscillator 90 A.5 Moments of the phase space distribution of an harmonic oscillator in equilibrium . 91 A.6 Properties of the spectrum of the transition matrix . 91 5 Contents 6 1 Why Brownian motion is still interesting For thou wilt mark here many a speck, impelled By viewless blows, to change its little course, And beaten backwards to return again, Hither and thither in all directions round. Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. 60 BC) [5] Actually, Brownian motion is a fairly old story. Observations date back as far as to ancient times, where, for instance, in the first century BC Titus Lucretius Carus [5]
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