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University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR 77- 10,597 SEAMAN, James Edwin, 1939- AN ANALYSIS OF THE AREA OF MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP DEALT WITH IN THE OLD TESTAMENT WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT EDUCATION. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1976 Education, business

Xerox University Microfilms,Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 AN ANALYSIS OF THE AREA OF MANAGEMENT

AND LEADERSHIP DEALT WITH IN THE OLD

TESTAMENT WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR

MANAGEMENT EDUCATION

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

James Edwin Seaman, B.S., M.B.A.

A * * * A

The Ohio State University

1976

Reading Committee: Approved By

Dr. Mildred Hillestad Dr. Neal Vivian Dr. David L. Boggs ______Adviser Department of Business Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to acknowledge the many people who have encouraged and laboured with me in the process of this manuscript. I especially appreciate the time and the talents of my wife, Lila, who has laboured with me throughout this dissertation.

I wish to thank my five-year-old daughter, Julie, who said jokingly one day, "Mommy, the house is on fire; get the dissertation.11

I also want to acknowledge my advisors, Dr. Hillestad,

Dr. Boggs, and Dr. Vivian for their helpful comments and encouragement as well as my typist, Pat Monroe, who helped me make all my deadlines. VITA

August 24, 1939 . . Born - Binghamton, New York

1968 . B.S., Cedarville College, Cedarville, Ohio

1968...... M.B.A., University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio

1968-1970 ..... Instructor of Marketing, Central State University, Wilberforce, Ohio

1970-1976 ...... Assistant Professor of Marketing and Management, Cedarville College, Cedarville, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Business Education

Minor Fields: Higher Education Administration Applied Management Theory Applied Marketing Theory TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii

VITA...... iii

LIST OF TABLES...... '...... v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...... vii'

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION...... 1

II. PROCEDURES...... 11

III. BRIEF HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OFSELECTED BIBLICAL LEADERS...... 29

IV. THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: PLANNING...... 58

V. THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: ORGANIZING...... 104

VI. THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: L E A D I N G ...... 151

VII. THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: CONTROLLING .... 206

VIII. IMPLICATIONS FORMANAGEMENT EDUCATION .... 226

IX. SUMMARY 239

APPENDIX...... 256

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 266 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1. Old Testament Leaders Considered for Study. . . 12

2. Management Textbooks Surveyed ...... 23

3. Principles of Planning Employed by Moses. . . . 66

4. Principles of Planning Employed by Joshua . . . 74'

5. Principles of Planning Employed by David. . . . 84

6. Principles of Planning Employed by Solomon. . . 93

7. Principles of Planning Employed by Nehemiah . . 99

8. Summary of Findings of Planning Principles. . . 103

9. Principles of Organizing Employed by Moses. . . Ill

10. Principles of Organizing Employed by Joshua . . 121

11. Principles of Organizing Employed by David. . . 128

12. Principles of Organizing Employed by Solomon. . 141

13. Principles of Organizing Employed by Nehemiah . 146

14. Summary of Findings ofOrganizing Principles, . 150

15. Principles of Leading Employed by Moses .... 159

16. Principles of Leading Employed by Joshua. . . . 171

17. Principles of Leading Employed by David .... 182

18. Principles of Leading Employed by Solomon . . . 194

19. Principles of Leading Employed by Nehemiah. . . 199

20. Summary of Findings of Leading Principles. . . . 205

v LIST OF TABLES (cont■d)

Table Page 21. Principles of Controlling Employed by Moses . . 210

22. Principles of Controlling Employed by Joshua. . 214

23. Principles of Controlling Employed by David . . 217

24. Principles of Controlling Employed by Solomon . 219

25. Principles of Controlling Employed by Nehemiah. 222

26. Summary of Findings of Controlling Principles . 225

27. Summary of Scriptures Recording Principles of Planning...... 257

28. Summary of Scriptures Recording Principles of Organizing...... * ...... 259

29. Summary of Scriptures Recording Principles of L e a d i n g ...... 262

30. Summary of Scriptures Recording Principles of Controlling...... 265

v i LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Chart Page A David's Formal Organization. : ...... 125

B Solomon's Formal Organization...... 139

C Nehemiah's Delegation of Responsibility. . . . 145 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In recent years modern business management methods and techniques have concentrated mainly on the technical and the behavioral aspects of management.’ The" technical phase of management emphasized a quantitative analysis of management problems, a total systems approach to management. On the other hand, the behavioral sciences play a major part in de­ veloping a human relations approach to management. Both phases are vitally important to the future of management, but most management theorists recognize that managers work with and through people to accomplish the technical aspects of management. Psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, business managers, and other behavioral scientists all are seeking a better understanding of the working man.

The basic concern of the Bible is man, and man is also the manager's basic concern. Today's managers and adminis­ trators might, therefore, gain insight into human behavior from the activities of leaders written about in the Bible in relation to managing and leading people.

The Bible continues to be the best-selling book year after year, and several new interpretations or new versions

1 of the Bible have been, published in the past several years :

in order to put the Bible into twentieth century language

for modern man to understand. Nevertheless, many American

businessmen, managers, administrators, and executives have

not read the Bible in its entiretynor do they think of it

as a resource for gaining knowledge about management.

The idea of the feasibility of using the Bible as such

a resource was initiated while the investigator in this study

was teaching a Human Relations Management course. The class

was _given the following assignment: "Find incidents from

the Bible in which human relations management principles are

practiced and try to fit them into situations you might face

as a future manager or leader." The results led the writer

to believe that the idea could be explored more fully and

could result in a worthwhile contribution to management edu­

cation. Thus the hypothesis in this study is that the Bible

can provide insights useful to modern management and manage­

ment education. Such insights will add to the field of

knowledge in business management education by providing a re­

source of illustrations for management personnel and in­

structors of management courses. The hypothesis that certain

functions and principles or activities of management em-

- ployed by Biblical leaders are the same as those employed by

managers of today is also explored. 3

The Bible in Modern Management Literature

A Datrix computer search failed to reveal any prior re­ search applicable to this study. The writer submitted the requested information in the form of dissertation title and key words to Datrix. The research constraints were for a

computer printout for Datrix issues from 1938 to 1973. The report received from Datrix revealed no references related to this topic. Key words used in the search were Bible, management, administration, and leadership.

A search of the Business Education Index and the Delta

Pi Epsilon Journal elicited several studies, the titles of which indicated probable applicability to this study. How­ ever, after reading abstracts of these studies, the writer determined that only the study by Keck (1968) seemed to have some application.

Keck’s study (1968) of money management principles within the Bible related personal finance of the twentieth century to that of Biblical times. She cited 409 verses dealing with money management. However, she did not include the management of people in her study.

Although several management writers have used specific examples from the Bible, mainly Exodus 18, the writer's search of the literature led to few reports of research re­ garding the Bible as a source of management principles. Eng- strom and Mackenzie (1967, p. 89) point out that the Bible has been quoted in numerous instances demonstrating 4 management principles. They quote passages from Exodus 18 and label each with the management principle shown. The following excerpt from their work illustrates this method­ ology:

Verse > Principle ■ 13. Next day Moses sat to judge (Observation and the people, and the people stood Personal Inspec­ around Moses from morning till tion) evening.

14. When Moses1 father-in-law (Questioning-- saw. all that he was doing for Discerning In­ the people, he said, What is this quiry) that you do for the people? Why do you sit alone, and all the people stand around you from morning till evening?

15. Moses said to his father-in- law, Because the people come to me to inquire of God.

16. When they have a dispute (Conflict Resolu­ they come to me, and I judge tion between a man and his neighbor, Correction) and I make them know the stat­ utes of God and his laws.

17. Moses' fatheT-in-law said to (Judgment) him, The thing that you are do­ ing is not good.

18. You will surely wear out (Evaluation--of both yourself and this people Effect on Leader with you, for the thing is too and People) heavy for you; you are not able to perform it all by yourself.

19. Listen now to me, I will (Coaching-Counsel­ counsel you, and God will be ing with you. You shall represent Representation the people before God, bringing Establishing Pro­ their cases to him, cedures) Verse Principle

20. Teaching them the decrees and (Teaching laws, showing them the way they Demonstration Job must walk, and the work they must Specification do. Delegation; Selec­ tion; Establish Qualifications. Assign Responsi­ bilities .)

21. Moreover you shall choose (Chain of Com­ able men from all the people, mand) God-fearing men of truth; who hate unjust gain, and place them over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, to be their rulers.

22. And let them judge the peo­ (Span of Control ple at all times; every great Judging-Evaluation matter they shall bring to you, Appraisal. Limits but every small matter they of Decision-Making shall judge. So it will be Management by Ex­ easier for you, and they will ception) bear the burden with you.

23. If you will do this, and (Explanation of God so commands you, you will Benefits) be able to endure the strain, and all this people also will go to their tents in peace.

24. So Moses listened to and (Listening Im­ heeded the voice of his father- plementation) in-law, and did all that he had said.

25. Moses chose able men out of (Choosing-Select­ all Israel, and made them heads ing; Assign Re­ over the people, rulers of sponsibility. thousands, of hundreds, of fif­ Span of Control) ties, and of tens.

26. And they judged the people (Judging-Evaluat­ at all times; the hard cases ing ; Management they brought to Moses, but by Exception) every small matter they de­ cided themselves. The passage from Exodus 18:25, 26 is shown on the coveT of Mooney's book, The Principles of Organization (1939],

However, little or no other reference is made to the Bible in the book. In the text he states:

One of the tragedies of human experience is the fre­ quency with which men, always efficient in anything that they personally do, will finally fail under the weight of accumulated duties that they do not know and cannot learn how to delegate. . . . This problem is as old as human history. It is the subject of one of the most practical and human passages in Scripture, the advice that Moses received from his father-in-law Jethro . . . contained in the 18th chapter of the book of Exodus (p. 20).

Koontz and O'Donnell (1964) and Newman, Summer, and Warren

(1972) also mention the eighteenth chapter of Exodus as an example of the use of management principles, but few writers go beyond a brief mention of this specific passage of

Scripture.

George (1972), an exception to this, points out that in

1490 B.C. Moses contributed the managerial concepts of organi­ zation, the scalar principle, and the management-by-exception principle to the field of management. George illustrates the point by further claiming that a number of so-called modern concepts and practices of management are easily traceable to ancient peoples. For instance, Solomon directed the estab­ lishment of elaborate trade agreements, managed construction projects, and molded peace agreements in the tenth century

B.C. (p. 3). Later George describes Moses as a great Hebrew with outstanding ability in government, lawmaking, and human relations. George recognizes Moses' managerial undertaking in leading the people out of Egypt as well as being a good manager in the area of personnel selection, training, and organizing (p. 11). George also mentions briefly that in

A.D. 20 Christ contributed to the concepts of management, unity of command, the golden rule, and human relations.

Thus, George goes into a little more detail than most management writers in relation to Biblical leadership; yet even George devotes no more than a paragraph or two to these leaders.

Wolff (1969) includes a chapter on the Christian con­ cept of leadership, in which he quotes Christ and the Apostle

Paul and shows the excellence of their leadership ability.

Dale (1969) explains Exodus Chapter 18 in considerable detail using a hierarchy flow chart of Moses' organizational struc­ ture, but Sanders (1967) discusses more fully than other authors the relevance of the Bible as a source of management and leadership principles. Although his work lends some im­ portant implications to the present study in reference to

Nehemiah, Sanders’ interest was in what makes a good spiri­ tual leader, and he does not have the business manager or ad­ ministrator in mind.

Statement of the Problem

Thus this study of modern principles of management used by selected Old Testament leaders in managing and leading their people will examine management activities engaged in and the principles of management displayed by those leaders

and the. degree to which they are congruent with the most

widely accepted management techniques of today.

This study will attempt to answer the following ques­

tions :

1. Which of the modern principles are evident in the

Bible and perhaps have their origin in Biblical

times?

2. To what extent do the successes of selected Biblical

leaders illustrate effective management techniques?

3. To what extent do the failures of selected Biblical

leaders illustrate violations of effective manage­

ment techniques? **

Purpose of the Study

The information contained in this study provides in­ sight into management activities used by selected Biblical leaders. From illustrations of effective and ineffective ways these leaders dealt with people, managers may reevaluate the ways in which they apply management principles to sub­ ordinates.

The purpose of the study may be summarized briefly as follows:

1. To provide insights into the management activities

of selected Biblical leaders. Each leader was

studied and critical incidents were recorded relat­

ing to principles of management. 2. To provide illustrations of effective and ineffec­

tive ways of dealing with people. The critical in­

cidents were analyzed to determine the successes

and failures of leadership behavior.

3. To provide managers a basis on which to reevaluate

their application of management principles. The

principles derived from the study of leaders' mana­

gerial techniques provide a resource for managers to

compare their leadership styles with those of the

selected Biblical leaders.

4. To provide a partial basis for establishment of

guidelines for the development of curriculum in

business management education. The educational im­

plications of the study offer illustrations of how

modern principles of management can be traced to

Old Testament times and illustrated by the behavior

of selected men.

Limitations

The writeT recognizes a limitation in using the Bible as a source for this study, since it is a compilation of sev­ eral books containing different kinds of literature, using metaphors and analogies. Also, the Bible was written over a period of many years by many writers from many different cultures. The investigator also recognizes that the Bible was not written just for historical purposes but was written 10 for varied purposes: to teach, to admonish, and to inspire, as well as to record history. Thus in using the Bible as a single source, the writer will be dealing with only those portions that can be substantiated as historically reliable.

Therefore, the historical reality of the chosen leaders in the Old Testament of the Bible will be critical to this study. CHAPTER II

PROCEDURES

In developing the comparison of modern management tech­ niques with those of Old Testament leaders, several proce­ dures were used. This chapter will show how leaders were selected, give evidence of their historical authenticity, de­ scribe the methodology, and describe the procedure for se­ lecting the management principles.

Selection of Leaders

Selection of the specific Biblical leaders whose lives and work best illustrate management techniques entailed de­ termining criteria for their selection and then applying the criteria to several prominent personages in the Old Testament.

The Old Testament was read in its entirety by the re­ searcher to identify prominent personages who were in posi­ tions of leadership over people. Several published works were also read on leadership styles of Biblical characters.

Thirteen Old Testament leaders were identified: Jo­ seph, Moses, Joshua, the thirteen judges, Ruth, Samuel, Saul,

David, Solomon, the seventeen kings following Solomon, Ezra,

Nehemiah, and Esther (Table 1). Three theologians were then interviewed to ascertain which of the thirteen persons they

11 12

TABLE 1

OLD TESTAMENT LEADERS CONSIDERED FOR STUDY

Criteria of leadership Led Number large of groups Prophet data of or Person pages people priest Comments

Joseph 22 No No Had position of leadership but did not lead large groups. The king over Jo­ seph made most of the de­ cisions .

*Moses 209 Yes No Led thousands of people for over forty years.

*Joshua 34 Yes No Was Moses' vice-president and succeeded him when Moses died.

Judges 2 to 3 Yes No Thirteen judges ruled during per this time. Little data judge available about individual judges.

Ruth 4 No No Ruth did not lead people.

Samuel 25 Yes Yes Samuel was the first prophet and judge. He did not have judicial or legal power, al­ though his influence was im­ portant .

Saul 27 No No Saul was the first King of Israel.

*David 61 Yes No David was the second King of Israel; first king to bring unity.

*Solomon 31 Yes No Solomon was the third King o Israel. Good data on lead­ ership . 13

TABLE 1. OLD TESTAMENT LEADERS CONSIDERED FOR STUDY (cont'd)

Criteria of leadership ------Eid------* Number large of groups Prophet data of or Person pages people priest Comments

Seventeen 1 to 2 Yes No Not enough data on kings kings to per follow king

Ezra 4 Yes Yes Ezra was a priest.

*Nehemiah 19 Yes No Led groups of people as governor.

Esther 8 No No lad influence but did not Lead people.

^These leaders met all of the established criteria for selec- tion for study. 14 recognized as prominent leaders in the Old Testament. The theologians were asked to judge whether leaders led groups sufficient in size to demonstrate the complexities of leader­ ship styles. Each of the thirteen leaders was analyzed by the researcher and the theologians. Two leaders tentatively considered for study were eliminated at the suggestion of one theologian because they were prophets or priests. Some leaders were considered for elimination because historical data upon which to base the study was limited. On the basis of these considerations, criteria were established for se­ lecting those leaders to be included in the study. Leaders selected for the study met all of the following criteria for selection:

1. The leaders must havehistorical reliability as a

person within the Old Testament of the Bible. As

stated previously, the leaders chosen must have

been real, living people.

2. The leaders should be neither prophets nor priests.

In Old Testament times, the prophets and priests

had religious authority but did not have judicial

or legal power. Although their influence was im­

portant, they did not have power to make decisions

relative to the organizational structure.

3. The persons must have led large groups of people

and must have had experience in dealing with the

problems of the people within the organization. IS

4. The historical data available regarding selected

individuals must be in excess of fifteen pages

using the American Standard Version of the Bible.

Eight of the Old Testament leaders were rejected as not applicable to the study because they did not meet all

four criteria. However, five leaders who met all four cri­ teria were selected for study; namely, Moses, Joshua, David,

Solomon, and Nehemiah.

Evidence of Historicity

Since the Old Testament is the primary source of data

for this study and the leaders of the Old Testament are the focus in this study, some substantiation of the historical

authenticity of the Old Testament is therefore critical.

The Old Testament

Rowley (1951) divides the books of the Old Testament into four groups: (1) the Pentateuch, (2) the historical books, (3) the prophetic literature, and (4) the Psalms and wisdom literature. The writer dealt in this study only with the historical data on Moses from the Pentateuch and with historical data on David, Solomon, Joshua, and Nehemiah from the historical books.

Albright (1960), one of the foremost American archae­ ologists of this generation, defends the historicity of the

Bible, showing how skepticism toward the Bible by important historical schools of the eighteenth and nineteenth century 16 has been discredited. He points also to recent discoveries

that establish the accuracy of details and bring recognition to the value of the Bible as a source of history. According to Albright, archaeological material discovered in the Near

East within the last twenty years has brought about a steady gain in respect for the historical significance of passages in the Old Testament (p. 81).

Wilson (1959), in defending the history of the Bible, supports the veracity and trustworthiness of Scripture back to Old Testament times, showing that in 144 cases of trans­ literation from Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Moabite into Hebrew and in 40 cases of transliteration from Hebrew into those same languages, or 184 transliterations in all, the evidence shows that for 2,300 to 3,900 years the names in the Hebrew Bible have been transmitted with the most minute accuracy. Wilson points out that the fact that the original scribes wrote with such close conformity to correct philo­ logical principles is proof of their thorough care and schol­ arship; and further, that the Hebrew text should have been transmitted by copyists through so many centuries is a phe­ nomenon unparalleled in the history of literature. Wilson points out further that about forty kings lived from

2000 B.C. to 400 B.C. and each appears in the Bible in chro­ nological order with reference to the kings of the other countries. Wilson feels that no stronger evidence could be obtained than this collection of kings. He asserts that the 17

mathematical probability is one chance in

750,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 that this degree of accuracy

is mere circumstance (PP*70-71). Because of the evidence

above, Wilson concludes: "The proof that the copies of the

original documents have been handed^ down with substantial

correctness for more than 2,000 years cannot be denied"

(p. 85).

One of the most significant finds in archaeological

history was that of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Kenyon (1941)

raised the question of whether the Massorietic Hebrew text,

shown to have descended from a text drawn up about A.D. 100,

faithfully represents the Hebrew text as originally written

by the authors of the Old Testament books (p. 47). The Dead

Sea Scrolls in essence gave the answer to the problem of ac­

curacy of the copies of the Old Testament books. Albright

(1955) does not doubt that the script is more archaic than

the Nash Papyrus and that the date is around 100 B.C. (p. 260).

Thus the Dead Sea Scrolls have filled a gap in knowledge of

the original manuscripts that has existed for centuries.

Now scholars know with more accuracy than before that the

current Hebrew text is a good representation of the original.

Morris (1956) observes that problems still exist in harmonization of archaeological material with the Bible, but none is so serious as not to bear real promise of imminent solution through further investigation in view of the great mass of corroborative evidence regarding the Biblical history 18 of these periods. Morris points out that today not one un­ questionable find of archaeology exists that proves the

Bible to be in error at any point (p. 95).

The Biblical Leaders

The leaders of the Old Testament on whom this study is focused are Moses, Joshua, David, Solomon, and Nehemiah.

Historical evidence of the authenticity of these leaders is presented here.

Moses. Albright (1949) observes that the contents of the Pentateuch are in general very much older than the date at which they were edited. He points out that new discov­ eries continue to.confirm the historical accuracy or the literary antiquity of detail after detail in it. Albright states: "It is, accordingly, sheer hypercriticism to deny the substantially Mosaic character of the Pentateuchal tra­ dition" (p. 224). Free (1969), too, provides examples of how archaeological evidence supports the existence of Moses and verifies the customs and culture of his time. Free re­ fers to Julius Wellhausen, a well-known Biblical critic of the nineteenth century, who felt that the record of the laver made of brass mirrors was not an original entry into the priestly code. Thus, Wellhausen's dating of the record of the tabernacle places it much too late for the times of

Moses. However, according to Free, no evidence exists for employing Wellhausen's late dating (500 B.C.). Archaeologi­ cal evidence supports the existence of such bronze mirrors 19

in what is known as the Empire Period of Egypt's history,

1500-1200 B.C., contemporary with Moses and the Exodus,

1500-1400 B.C. (p. 108).

Joshua. Garstang (1931) found archaeological evidence

to substantiate the existence of Joshua. During the excava­

tion of Jericho (1930-1936) , he found something he felt to be

so startling that he had two other members of his team sign

a statement to the effect that the find was authentic. In

reference to these findings, Garstang states: "As to the

main fact, then, there remains no doubt: the walls fell out­

wards so completely that the attackers would be able to clam­

ber up and over their ruins into the city." Why is this un­

usual? Because the walls of cities do not fall outwards;

they fall inwards. And yet in Joshua 6:20 we read: "The

wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city,

every man straight ahead, and they took the city."The walls

were made to fall outward (p. 146).

Israeli Kings. A great amount of evidence exists con­

cerning the existence of the kings of Israel. For example,

Wilson (1959) states that the names of persons from David to

Ezra are entirely in harmony with the names to be expected

and such as are found in the documents from Samaria, Moab,

.Assyria, and elsewhere (p. 142). The evidence indicates that

the temple was built by Solomon and that the materials for

the structure were prepared by David (p. 151). 20

According to Keller (1956), excavations have revealed

acquisitions and expansions of the kingdom under David. He

also presents clear evidence of David's advance, including

the burning of the cities of the plain of Jezreel. Also

various building projects dating from the earlier years of

David's reign, principally fortresses in Judah that had been

erected for defense against the Philistines, remain in some

state of preservation (p. 184). Nelson Glueck (1969), a

well-known Jewish archaeologist, discovered (1937-1940)

Solomon's copper mines, his horse stables, and the town of

Ezion-geber, which is on the shore of the Red Sea, where

Solomon kept his fleet of ships.

Nehemiah. Harrison (1969) substantiates the existence

of Nehemiah when he suggests that Nehemiah's memoirs were

composed shortly after 432 B.C. with relatively little re­ working, and these memoirs reveal a decided similarity be­

tween them and the memorial inscriptions commonly found in

the ancient Near East. Harrison also suggests that these memoirs comprise one of the most important and reliable his­

torical sources for the post-exilic period in Judea. Harri­

son states: "In considering Nehemiah as a whole, there seems

to be only highly subjective reasons for not regarding this work as the autobiography of the renowned civil governor of

Judea" (p. 1145). Rowley (1951) also is in agreement with

Harrison concerning the authenticity of Nehemiah's memoirs. The foregoing evidence is cited to substantiate the

Old Testament of the Bible and the authenticity of each of

the individual leaders in this study.

Methodology

Content analysis was used as the means of assessing

the similarities of the management techniques and principles

used by Old Testament leaders and the management techniques

most accepted today. Holsti (1969) defines content analysis

as any technique for making inferences by systematically and

objectively identifying specified characteristics of mes­

sages (p. 601). One of the objectives in content analysis

is to audit communication content against standards. Holsti

suggests that one answer to the difficult problem of defining

standards against which to audit sources is to make compari­

sons against other sources (p. 619). He also observes that

an important criteria for content analysis is that content

must be compared to some other data in order to arrive at

meaningful conclusions. In essence this study compares Old

Testament Biblical management and leadership as a source with

the standards or principles of modern-day management.

The four management functions were listed on cards for

each leader. As the Biblical text was read, applicable verses relating to a principle of management were categorized

on the cards according to the specific function of manage­ ment considered.* The content of the specific Biblical 22 passages was compared to modern concepts of management.

Verses applicable to more than one function were entered in each appropriate column in the grid.

Sources of Data

Scripture references pertaining to the selected leaders were sought out for analysis. The New American Standard

Bible (1963) was used as the primary source for these refer­

ences on the recommendation of theologians. Other transla­ tions were also used, such as the Goodspeed Complete Bible

(1939), The Jerusalem Bible (1966), and The Interpreters1

Bible (1952). Matthew Henryrs Commentary (1708) was also used for its explanations and observations concerning the

Scripture references.

Several management textbooks were reviewed to deter­ mine the commonality of functions and principles of manage­ ment presented by the textbook authors. These authors re­ vealed four common management functions: planning, organiz­

ing, leading, and controlling. Within these four functions,

seventeen common principles emerged (Table 2). As the work

of each author was studied, the functions of management pre­ sented were outlined and the basic principles under each

function were recorded. An analysis of these outlines re­ vealed common management functions identified by all of the

selected management writers including planning, organizing,

leading, and controlling. A grid was developed which made TABLE 2

MANAGEMENT TEXTBOOKS SURVEYED

Text 300ks Farmer Koontz Functions and and and Allen Richman Dale Flippo Terry Reeser Sisk O'Donnel Principles (1964) (1966) (1969) (1970) (1972) (1973) (1973) (1976)

PLANNING Establishing objec­ tives and goals X X . X X X X Forecasting X X X Establishing poli­ cies and proce­ dures X X XX X X Strategy develop­ ment XX X Decision-making X X . X X Budgets and rules X X , XX X Programs and scheduling X XX X

ORGANIZING Determining activities X Organizing struc­ tures X XX X X X X Span of control XX X X X Work specializa­ tion X Decentralization X X Unity of command X X TABLE 2. MANAGEMENT TEXTBOOKS SURVEYED (cont'd)

Text books Farmer Koontz Functions and and and Allen Richman Dale Flippo Terry Reeser Sisk O'Donnel Principles (1964) (1966) (1969) (1970) (1972) (1973) (1973) (1976) ORGANIZING (cont'd) Scalar chain XA Departmentation X Delegating au- . thority and re­ sponsibility X XX X X X x Organizing rela­ tionships X X X Allocating re­ sources X Relating resources X - LEADING > Decision-making X Motivating X X X X XX Communicating XX X X X X X Selecting people X X X X Developing people X X Compensating people X X X X X X Directing X X X X X Training X X X X X X Promoting X X Staffing X Recruiting X . x Ordering X Disciplining X TABLE 2. MANAGEMENT TEXTBOOKS SURVEYED (cont'd)

Textbooks Farmer Koontz Functions. and and and Allen Richman Dale Flippo Terry Reeser Sisk O'Donne1 Principles (1964) (1966) (1969) (1970) (1972) (1973) (1973) (1976)

CONTROLLING Performance standards XXX X X Performance measuring X X Performance evaluating X X X X Performance correcting X X X XXX X X Controlling standards X Management by exception X , Monitoring resources X Comparing XX Audit programs X Quality control X

to in 26 possible a comparison of various authors' treatment of the principles of management under each function. Developing and

training were combined as an activity because writers de­

scribe these activities synonymously. Decision-making and problem-solving were used synonymously by the writers, al­

though most writers viewed decision-making as a principle of

the planning function. Decision-making and problem-solving

are also seen as an integral part of each of the four manage­ ment functions by most writers. Writers classify the

decision-making process as an activity of the planning func­

tion in more instances than any of the other functions. On

this basis, decision-making was treated as an activity of the planning function in this study. The recruiting princi­ ple was eliminated as a separate principle and studied within the area of selection. Each function and principle of management will be defined in subsequent chapters.

The following functions and principles of management were selected as representative of modern-day management

functions and activities.

Planning

Establishing objectives and goals Decision-making Establishing policies and procedures Forecasting Scheduling and budgeting

Organizing

Developing organizational structures Delegating authority and responsibility Establishing relationships 27

Leading

Directing Motivating Compensating Selecting Developing Communicating

Controlling

Performance standards Performance correcting Assessing and evaluating-

Pattern of Presentation

In Chapter III of this study, the early influences in

the lives of the leaders are discussed, and the culture of the times is described to demonstrate what effect cultural

influences might have had on each leader's governing methods.

Successes and failures of each leader are also enumerated with the intention of ascertaining factors that contributed to the development of their lives and character. Thus the writer will have set forth a brief historical background of leaders that lends insight into their leadership behavior.

In each cf four subsequent chapters, each function of management is defined, and the principles under each function are defined from contemporary management literature. The definitions are followed in each chapter by a narrative de­ scription of principles illustrated by each leader and the activities they performed. Description of the principles, excerpts of Scriptural texts, and management activities il- 4 lustrated are presented in table form. A narrative 28 description of the tables summarizes activities performed by each leader and lists specific management activities not il­ lustrated in the historical record available for analysis.

This presentation is concluded by a summary of management concepts illustrated by each leader.

Chapter VIII discusses implications for management education, illustrating how these five selected leaders and their experiences can exemplify management functions and principles. Instructional strategies and methodologies are described as alternatives for curriculum development in management education. The presentation concludes with a summary of the entire study. CHAPTER III

BRIEF HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF SELECTED BIBLICAL LEADERS

This study of management principles used by selected

Biblical leaders requires that the Bible be read and ana­ lyzed as an historical record. The Bible provides a source of illustrative records of ancient history, some of which are substantiated by archaeological explorations. The pur­ pose of this chapter, thus, is to substantiate the histo­ ricity of the selected Biblical leaders, and not to prove the authenticity of the Bible. Glueck (19 59) states that no archaeological discovery has contradicted a Biblical refer­ ence. Glueck further states that scores of archaeological discoveries have been made that confirm exact historical statements in the Bible (p. 31).

The Life and Times of Moses

The chief source of information in this study regarding

Moses has been the Bible itself. Archaeological evidence and other extra-Biblical material are cited when findings are available.’ The historical Biblical data gathered about

Moses comes from the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and

Deuteronomy. 30

Moses1 Early Influences and Environment

The fact that Moses was born and reared in an Egyptian land is recorded in Biblical literature (Exodus 1 and 2).

Extra-Biblical documents lend credibility to the testimony of the Bible. Albright (1949) states that details in Hebrew tradition fit into Egyptian data; this intimated a connection between the Hebrew settlement in Egypt and the Hyksos con­ quest (p. 10). The name Moses was clearly an Egyptian name

(Unger, 1963, p. 135; Exodus 2:10).

The pharaoh was concerned that the Israeli people were becoming too numerous and would rise up against the Egyptians

(Exodus 1:7-9), and at the time of Moses' birth in Egypt, the pharaoh had commanded that all males born to the Hebrew people should be cast into the Nile River (Exodus 1:22).

Moses' mother hid him for three months to keep him from be­ ing killed; however, Biblical record indicates that after three months she could not hide him any more and put him in a basket by the Nile River (Exodus 2:1-4). Moses’ sister was watching the basket, and when Pharaoh's daughter found

Moses, his sister asked Pharaoh's daughter if she wanted a nursemaid for the baby (Exodus 2:7). Thus, according to the

Biblical account, Moses was cared for in the early days of his life by his own Hebrew mother. According to Biblical record, when he was old enough, he went to Pharaoh's daughter and became her son (Exodus 2:8-10). Some historians point out that this same story had many parallels in ancient 31

Egyptian lore and that this was a common way of describing a person of humble origins. Unger (1963) points out that a cuneiform legend of the ninth century B.C. was found relating this legend:

My humble mother conceived me; she bore me in secret, placed me in an ark of bulrushes, made fast my door with pitch and gave me to the river which did not overwhelm me. The river lifted me up and carried.me to Akki the irri­ gator . . . Akki the irrigator hauled me out . . . took me to be his son and brought me up (p. 135).

As a child Moses was given the best of instruction and education in the Egyptian schools (Acts 7:22).

The Egyptian capital in Moses' time was the center of much trade and commerce, and the entire cosmopolitan world of the day centered in and around the' Egyptian capital (Al­ bright, 1949, p. 14).

While residing in the palace as a lad, Moses was in a position to observe the workings of the Egyptian government.

His concepts of government were formed through everyday ex­ posure to the people in government. When Moses grew up, rec­ ognizing his own identity as an Hebrew (Exodus 2:11), he had a concern for his Hebrew people, finding his people being used as slaves. Moses then faced the decision of whether to stay in Egypt or to identify with the Hebrew people. This dilemma was resolved abruptly one day when Moses saw an

Egyptian mistreating one of his Hebrew brothers. In a fit of rage, Moses killed the Egyptian (Exodus 2:12). The pharaoh heard of the slaying and tried to kill Moses; and, 32

thus, Moses fled to the land of Midian, leaving behind his

Egyptian heritage (Exodus 2:15).

Moses the Wandering Shepherd

In the ensuing years, Moses became a shepherd, wander­

ing about the countryside tending the sheep of the Midianite

leaders (Exodus 3:1). The Egyptian king from whom Moses

fled died, but the son who inherited the throne continued to

afflict the Hebrew people (Exodus 2:23; 3:7). According to

Biblical literature, Yahweh selected Moses to be the leader of the Hebrews, responsible for leading the Hebrew people out of their bondage (Exodus 3:10); but Moses was unwilling to accept the task. He felt that he wasn't qualified to do the job and refused the assignment (Exodus 3:11), since he was living a fairly quiet, successful life that he did not want to complicate. Moses had two excuses: "The people will not believe God sent me," (Exodus 4:1) and "My speech is slow; I will fail" (Exodus 4:10). However, Moses' brother

Aaron was selected to be Moses' spokesman and assistant

(Exodus 4:11-17), whereupon Moses reluctantly agreed to lead the Hebrew people from the land of Egypt.

Moses the Leader

Aaron met Moses in the wilderness and together they set out for Egypt to accomplish the task of leading the Hebrew people out of that land. Upon arrival in Egypt, Moses and

Aaron related to the Hebrew leaders their strategies for 33 leading the people out of Egypt. The people accepted Aaron's mediation of Moses* proposals, and Moses' leadership role began (Exodus 4:27-31).

In the early years of Moses' leadership, disappoint­ ment prevailed when negotiations failed with Pharaoh to let the Hebrew people leave Egypt (Exodus 4:14). Pharaoh not only refused to let the people go, but he increased the work load and imposed harsh punishments on the Hebrew people be­ cause of Moses' pleading (Exodus 5:18-21). After continued pleading by Moses and Aaron, Pharaoh finally agreed to let the people leave. During his confrontations with Pharaoh,

Moses was discouraged to the point that he wanted to resign to return to Midian (Exodus 5:22, 23). After the long strug­ gle, however, Moses and the people began their long journey through the wilderness in search of the Promised Land.

Moses* problems did not end as he led the people out of Egypt; his true test of leadership was that of getting the people to the Promised Land. Continually he had to solve problems, organize, feed, and provide safety for them (Exo­ dus 17:3). In their study of the Exodus, scholars have found the reconstruction of the sequence of events difficult to trace from historical documents or extra-Biblical sources, but the fact that Moses had a hard time organizing, managing, and disciplining his followers can be substantiated (Albright,

1949, p. 20). Several years of slavery had left the people 34 uneducated and unmotivated; their impulsive behavior was most difficult to direct and govern.

When Jethro, Moses* father-in-law, visited Moses, he found a disorganized mass of people, with Moses as the sole authority who had no recognized assistants except AaTon (Exo­ dus 17, 18). Jethro counseled Moses to organize the people into a decision-making structure.. This reorganization, how­ ever, did not solve all of the problems. Every problem seemed insurmountable to the people, and every trial caused them to go into a depression. They began to wish they had never left Egypt (Exodus 14:11, 12; 16:3; 17:3; Num­ bers 11:4-6; 14:1-4). The two most valuable assistants to

Moses and Aaron were Joshua and Phinehas. Phinehas, a great nephew of Moses, became the head priest under Moses (Num­ bers 31:1-6), and Joshua, Moses* closest and most trusted assistant, eventually became his successor.

Moses' Successes and Failures

Moses* most outstanding characteristic as a leader was unselfishness, his own interests or advancements never being his primary motivation (Exodus 14:11-13, Numbers 16:1-4).

Another characteristic that led to Moses* success as a leader was his meekness (Numbers 12:3). Moses was aggressive when others were the object of affliction, but he did not resent wrongdoing ad: Inst himself (Numbers 16:1-4). Moses was also a man of courage (Exodus 5:1), and he was faithful in staying 35

by his people even though they complained bitterly (Exo­

dus 14:11-13; 17:3).

Although Moses was basically a meek man, he had a

quick temper, which manifested itself in rash acts. He slew

an Egyptian (Exodus 2:12) and broke, the tables of the law

(Exodus 32:19). Moses also displayed a weakness in organi­

zational ability until Jethro counseled him and helped him

in this important aspect of leadership (Exodus 18).

Moses is recognized by Biblical scholars as one of the

greatest leaders the Hebrew people ever had. Although a

great quantity of extra-Biblical material has not been dis­

covered revealing a satisfactory biography of Moses, Al­

bright (1949) points out that we do have more evidence than

is commonly supposed. Albright cites verses throughout Exo­

dus and Numbers that show the antiquity of the tradition un­

derlying the prose narratives in ancient literature in which

they are imbedded (p. 20). Albright states:

We can therefore be sure of the essential histo­ ricity of the Mosaic tradition solely on the ground of its very old poetic content . . . the evidence of style agrees with historical analogy (p. 22).

Albright further states that the authenticity of the names of the midwives in Exodus 1:15 have emerged as names of women among the northwestern Semites of the time of Moses

(p. 22; 23). 36

The Life and Times of Joshua

Joshua succeeded Moses as leader of the people of

Israel and led Israel for many years. He, as had Moses, grew up in slavery in Egypt and had left Egypt under Moses' lead­ ership. Joshua, a good military man, advanced through the ranks to become commander in chief of Moses' army. The his­ torical data gathered about Joshua came from Exodus, Numbers,

Deuteronomy, and also from the book of the Bible named after him, Joshua. Extra-Biblical evidence supports some of the events of Joshua's time recorded in Scripture. Joshua ap­ pears in the Amarna Tablets discovered in Egypt, written about 1400 B.C., and though proof is not available that this

i is a reference to the Biblical Joshua, the name has been substantiated as contemporary in Egyptian inscriptions

(Free, 1950, p. 125).

The Promised Land Joshua sought was referred to as the

"land of the Hittites" (Joshua 1:4). This Hittite empire was discovered in central Turkey by Winckler, where an ar­ chive of clay tablets was recovered, containing a military treaty between the Hittites and the Egyptians. The gate at the Hittite capital was also uncovered (Free, p. 126).

According to the Biblical record, Joshua made a cove­ nant with his people at Shechem regarding religious obser­ vances (Joshua 24). Mendenhall has shown that this covenant has almost the same structure as the Suzerainty treaties of the Hittites (Albright, 1949, p. 37). Joshua's covenant was 37 necessary because the people had been exposed to religious beliefs and practices, both crude and depraved by Israelite

standards.

Joshua's Early Influence and Environment

Little is known of Joshua’s life except that he was

the son of an unknown slave named Nun Cl Chronicles 7:27).

He was, however, known to be a trusted, close aide to Moses,

almost like a son (Exodus 24:13; 32:17; 33:11). The Scripture

is silent regarding the whereabouts of Moses* sons and his

relationship to them during his many years of leadership.

Joshua, who was with Moses on many of his expeditions, was

one of the men that Moses trusted; he was prepared by Moses

to become the leader of Israel (Exodus 32:17; 33:11; 17:9).

Joshua, the New Leader

After years of successful leadership over the Hebrew

people, Moses was hard to replace, although he had prepared

and developed Joshua to take the leadership role. The tribes

of Israel were engaged in war at the time, so his role in­

volved administration of the people and their relationships with others. The enemy was alert and threatening but Israel

could not retreat. Joshua's task, which was to defeat the

Canaanites and to possess the land for his people, tested his leadership ability as he devised strategy to conquer the

Canaanites, who were well known for their tactics in war.

Joshua devised three military campaigns: (1) to invade the 38 center of Canaan, dividing the enemy into two factions

(Joshua 6), (2) to attack the southern sections (Joshua 10), and (3) to capture the North (Joshua 11).

Joshua's campaigns for capturing Canaan were so suc­ cessful, kings in the surroundings areas were afraid. Com­ bining their aTmies, these kings deceived Joshua, pretending to be someone other than the enemies and offered to be slaves to Joshua. Joshua believed them and signed a peace treaty with them, shortly after which the identity of these men be­ came known to Joshua. However, he could not harm them be­ cause he had signed a peace treaty with them. Joshua and his people suffered for the rest of their lives because of this incident. Nevertheless, the rest of Joshua's plan went well, and he captured all the lands he had set out to capture.

Many other towns have been discovered that were not destroyed by the Israelites, and proof exists that the Isra­ elites occupied these towns. Wright uncovered Shechem and

Gibeon (Albright, 1949, p. 30). Shechem, according to the

Biblical record, became the center of political activity un­ der Joshua's leadership (Joshua 24:1).

After Joshua captured the lands, he devised a plan to apportion the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. Joshua

.did this in an orderly, systematic way by fitting the size of the territory to the size of the population of the tribe

(Joshua 18 :4-8) . 39

By the time Joshua was an old man, he had accomplished the goals and objectives he had set out to accomplish. Near the end of his life, in giving his farewell to the people, he reviewed his years of leadership, reminded them of their accomplishments, and challenged them to continue to be faith­ ful and to maintain their standards forever (Joshua 24:22).

Joshua’s Successes and Failures

The Biblical record indicates that Joshua, like most great leaders, had many more victories than defeats. He was successful both as a soldier and statesman. He had great en­ thusiasm because he was a man fighting for a cause and could motivate his people to rally around him in the most difficult of circumstances. He also was careful and responsible in discharging duties. Joshua's military strategy was effective in conquering Canaan, and his organization skills were dem­ onstrated in the equitable and just distribution of the sec­ tions of land.

Joshua made some bad decisions; the results of one mis­ take plagued Israel for many years. The Gibeonites deceived him into signing a peace treaty, and on his deathbed he called all the leaders of Israel together to hear his dying apology for it.

Joshua's chief objective was to lead the people of

Israel into the Promised Land, and he was successful in this endeavor. * The Life and Times of David

For many years Israel was without a king and was ruled by thirteen judges. The people of Israel differed with each other in their acceptance of the judges as rulers. Some of the people complained continually to Samuel, the prophet, that they wanted a king and did not want to be ruled by judges. Pro-monarchy advocates eventually won over those ob­ jecting to a monarchy; thereupon, Samuel appointed Saul the first king of Israel (1 Samuel 15:24). Because of Saul's poor leadership abilities, Samuel replaced him with David, a countryman with recognized leadership ability (1 Samuel 15:28).

David's Early Influences and Environment

David, one of eight sons of Jesse,, a wealthy man from

Bethlehem who was very influential in his community, was em­ ployed as a shepherd in his youth. On one occasion David told Saul, "When I am taking care of my father's sheep, and a lion or a bear comes and grabs a lamb from the flock, I go after it with a club and take the lamb from its mouth. If it turns on me, I catch it by the claw and club it to death"

(1 Samuel 17:34, 35). As David cared for the sheep, he learned about survival and cultivated patience, courage, and

self-sufficiency. In these simple but important years of

David's life, he developed qualities helpful in leading the people of Israel. The Biblical text also attributes David with talent as a harpist (1 Samuel 16:17, 21, 23). 41

Davids Long Climb to the Throne

David was young when Samuel visited Jesse to look for a new king. David was annointed but was involved for the next several years in preparation for his reign (1 Samu­ el 16:12).

Some of Saul's aides suggested that they bring a good harpist to play soothing music for Saul. David was chosen for this position and brought to the palace. The Biblical text states that David was a handsome youth, physically strong, and articulate (1 Samuel 16:16). The Biblical text also states that as soon as Saul saw David, he admired him and made him his bodyguard (I Samuel 16:21, 22).

David became a brave soldier in Saul's army, killing many Philistines in battle (1 Samuel 17). Saul made him his special assistant and a commander in the army and, though

David was young, Saul used him in the affairs of government.

David eventually became more popular than Saul, and the king became very jealous of David, demoted him, and banned him from his presence. David rose from shepherd boy to soldier to public administrator but eventually was reduced to wander­ ing and running from Saul.

David's Wanderings

David's years of wandering were adventuresome but bene­ ficial to him in developing him for his future leadership position. David continued to gain fame throughout Israel and

Judah, but Saul continued to plot to kill him. David fled to 42

Naroth to live with Samuel, and when Saul found out where he was, David fled to Ramah, taking refuge with Jonathan,

Saul's son, and David's close friend. David continued to wander from city to city, and the Biblical text states that others who were in trouble or who were discontented began to join him, thus evidently expressing confidence in him

(Maly, p. 41). Soon David was the leader of about four hun­ dred men (1 Samuel 22:1). As they continued to roam the

( countryside, men continued to join them until eventually

David was the leader of about six hundred men, who became the core of a mighty fighting force (1 Samuel 23:13). Finally

Saul was killed in one of the many battles with the Philis­ tines. Thus David, for the first time in many years, was free from Saul's attempts on his life.

David the King

After Saul's death, David returned to Judah where leaders crowned him king of the Judean Confederacy at He­ bron, the religious center of a six-tribe league

(2 Samuel 2:2). During the next seven and one-half years, followers of Saul and the followers of David were engaged in a long war. David's position became stronger and Saul's dy­ nasty became weaker. After much bloodshed between the two factions, the leaders of all the tribes of Israel came to

David, made a contract with him, and he was crowned king of all Israel (2 Samuel 5:3). 43

David moved his government and all his offices from

Hebron to Jerusalem, after which David's first act was to bring back the ark that had been captured by the Philistines.

This act increased David's prestige among the people, since

it brought the people closer together again (Maly, p. 60).

At this time David was the most powerful and influential monarch of the Near East of his day (Maly, p. 78).

The administration of government in the united empire

emphasized the role of David, many people looking upon him as the charismatic leader of the tribal confederation. They believed he was conducting the holy war under God. Others, however, of Canaanite origin, sought to break down Israelite social, political, and religious ideals (Maly, p. 78).

David's Successes and Failures

David's most notable successes were in the areas of administrative and organizational abilities. Using his or­ ganizational ability, he divided the kingdom into three areas, military, civil, and political, and he developed ex­ tensive networks within each of these three areas (Maly, p.* 89). Another quality of David’s was fairness and tender­ ness with all his people. The Biblical text states repeat­ edly that David grew with the people; and fairness and jus­ tice prevailed with all the people. Because of his humble beginnings, David was not an arrogant, cruel man, but one tempered by his humble beginnings. He took criticism from 44 his subordinate, Joab, and humbled himself before his peo­ ple (2 Samuel 19).

As leader, David gave Israel the unity and security

that allowed the nation to expand and become very prosperous.

He was a shrewd politician and, in order to enlarge his in­

fluence and power among the nations and to strengthen his

authority, he made various marriages to the daughters of the kings of Persia (Maly, p. 81). He was also a man of the arts, a poet, and a musician. David was successful in de­ veloping warfare strategies. He was courageous as a soldier and was ambitious and competent as a governor. The Philis­ tines, Moabites, Edomites, Arameans, and Ammonites all suf­

fered at his hands (1 Samuel 5:8, 10). The site of David’s military victory at Gibeon, now known as El-Jib, has been verified by Pritchard in the form of inscriptions of Hebrew writing on the handles of large jars giving the exact name of the place. These were found in the pool referred to in

2 Samuel 2:12-17, where David's servants bathed with Saul's son, Ishbosheth (Thompson, p. 100).

David's leadership behavior was somewhat affected by his personal connections with various individuals (Maly, p. 105). His close, personal relationship with others in­ fluenced his decision-making. David isolated himself from the people when his son and enemy, Absalom, was killed.

Joab had to reprimand David about mourning for Absalom; he challenged David to go out and congratulate the people for 45 killing his enemy (2 Samuel 20). David's affection for

Bathsheba caused him to have her husband killed when he

found out that she was going to have David's child

(2 Samuel 2).

David found it difficult making adverse decisions con­

cerning those who were close to him. Solomon was delegated

to administer the punishment that.Joab and Shimei deserved

Cl Kings 2). David failed to specify his successor, in order to spare the feelings of those close to him. This caused problems when Adonijah declared himself king (1 Kings 1:5,

11-14). These examples illustrate how David's emotional at­ tachments to subordinates influenced his leadership and su­ pervision of the people.

The Life and Times of Solomon

The Biblical record regarding Solomon is found in the

Old Testament books of 1 Kings and its parallel book, t 1 Chronicles. In recent years new archaeological finds sub­ stantiate and give further evidence of Solomon's kingdom and many of his achievements.

Solomon's father, King David, had developed Israel from a weak country to a small empire influential over the nations around it. Solomon stabilized the government through his shrewd leadership and international diplomacy. 46

Solomon's Early Influence and Environment

Solomon was born to Bathsheba and David. The Biblical

text points out that David promised Bathsheba that their son,

Solomon, would be the next king of Israel (1 Kings 1:17).

Solomon was reared in the palace and may have observed the

day-to-day activities of his father and the palace officials.

Maly (1966) points out that David had taken great care to

commit himself to the upbringing of his son and successor.

The surroundings of Solomon were such that David helped him

discern good from evil by placing him in certain situations

where he could practice decision-making. Maly (1966) cites

other evidence from the time of Solomon's childhood that in­

dicates that Solomon had excellent preparation for his future

kingship. Maly states that the Gezer calendar supplies evi­

dence that schoolboys of the tenth century B.C. aspired

after learning (p. 114). Resources were available to give

■Solomon the best tutors of his day.

Solomon's Accession to the Throne

In the latter years of his reign, David did not par­

ticipate actively in managing the kingdom. His authority was

not as great as it once was, and the kingdom suffered depres­

sion and disorder produced by long years of war. At this

time the military chiefs, who had distinguished themselves

in David's wars, were supporting his son, Adonijah, for the

kingship. 47

Adonijah declared himself king and procured some of

the military power structure to support him. Adonijah be­

gan a celebration to prepare for his inauguration and then

sent men out to the countryside declaring him king. Nathan,

a loyal prophet, told Bathsheba about Adonijah's plan and to

remind David of the promise that Solomon would be the next

king. David, who was ill, called on Nathan, Zediah, and

Benhah, to begin preparations for Solomon's inauguration as

king as soon as possible so that all rumors about Adonijah would be stopped. David then gave Nathan the king's per­

sonal mule for Solomon to ride through the streets so people

would know that Solomon indeed would be the next king.

In David's last address, he told the people that Solo­

mon would be the next king, who would build the temple for

Israel's worship. Historians agree that Solomon probably was no more than eighteen or nineteen years of age when he

ascended to the throne. David counseled him to dispose of

those who might be a threat to the kingdom. When Adonijah

saw what was happening, he begged Solomon for mercy. Solomon

agreed to free Adonijah; however, when Adonijah later set up

another plot to usurp the kingdom, Solomon ordered his sub­ jects to kill Adonijah. Solomon continued to purge his king­

ship of those who threatened him and set about to kill

Abiathar, Joab, and Shemei. The death of these men made the kingdom free from any threat of revolution, and Solomon began to rule and reign peaceably over the nation Israel. 48

Solomon's Throne Established

Solomon continued to rule by autocratic methods em­ ployed in his father's reign. Solomon's government was an absolutism; independence on the part of his subjects was kept under control. Nevertheless, in the beginning of his reign, he was just and fair with all the people.

Solomon made a treaty with pharaoh, King of Egypt, married one of pharaoh's daughters, and brought her into the

City of Jerusalem. Solomon's marriages had political over­ tones; he married many foreign women to insure peace, this being part of his strategy for maintaining Israel's domi­ nance as a political power.

During his reign, Solomon set up new administrative structures and systems to develop his vast kingdom into an efficient organization. Because Israel was not at war, he was not concerned with planning military strategies and could spend time promoting building programs, encouraging the development of the arts and literature, and carrying on cultural exchanges with many foreign countries.

Solomon's Successes and Failures

Solomon developed the State of Israel as a great trad­ ing nation and developed profitable seaports. Horse and chariot trading were also profitable. Solomon's subordi­ nates sold goods and services for large profits. Although many historians believe that his kingdom was virtually bank­ rupt before he died, the kingdom survived as one nation until 49

his death. However, Solomon’s greatest contribution pro­ bably was his building program which produced the temple and

the king's palace as well as horse stables and military

installations.

The detailed description of the art work in the temple

reveals many resemblances to the work of the Phoenicians.

Motifs used in both the woodwork and metalwork of Solomon’s

temple were strongly influenced by Phoenician patterns.

First Kings 5 and 6 describe this work done by Phoenician

craftsmen hired by Solomon (Thompson, p. 101). Solomon also

relied in part on Phoenician architects in the actual design of the temple. The two free-standing pillars of the temple,

referred to as Jachin and Boaz, parallel temples of the East

(Thompson, p. 102).

Another venture of Solomon's involved copper mines in the area of Ezon-Geber. Nelson Glueck (1940), a noted archaeologist, rediscovered these copper mines in 1937, find­

ing evidence of copper mills and very sophisticated blast

furnaces having been used in working with the copper. Ezon

Geber has been called the Pittsburgh of old Palestine. The technology of these mills was far superior to anything ever found in this area, a phenomenal feat considering the tech­ nology of that day (Glueck, p. 50). Ezon Geber was also a seaport and a great industrial complex. Solomon developed great trade routes, and commerce flourished because of these routes. Solomon also developed a fleet of ships and started so

to build ships, a venture far beyond the capabilities of his

people, for they were not a seagoing people. Nevertheless,

his ingenuity and wisdom were used to borrow sailors from

foreign countries to operate his ships. Solomon’s ventures

were very profitable; he carried on trade throughout the

middle-eastern countries.(Glueck, p. 89).

Biblical history points out Solomon's success in horse

and chariot trading (2 Chronicles 1:16). Excavations have

uncovered many of his horse and chariot stables. Solomon is

credited with having the first scientifically planned tax

system (1 Kings 4:7). Solomon also encouraged further study

in the arts and literature. He developed Jerusalem into a

splendid city, and it was the center of attraction at this

time in history.

Solomon gained great advantage over other nations with military control over the lands and the highways leading to­ ward the great seaports and trading centers. He could charge

taxes for those passing through the land. The Queen of

Sheba had heard about Solomon's great wisdom and wealth, and

she traveled twelve hundred miles by camel to verify the re­ ports. Solomon's contributions to Israel as a state were enormous. . Guthrie (1868) stated: "Of all the kings of the earth, none during his life attracted so much notice as Solo­ mon or left behind him such a widespread and immortal memory." (p. 367) 51

One factor leading to the failure of Solomon's king­

dom was the burdensome taxes that he placed on the people.

Another factor was his great extravagance and his forced

labor. The immediate cause of his decline was probably eco­

nomic, the people becoming tired of paying the high taxes and

being treated like slaves. His successful building programs were completed at a cost far greater than financial outlay,

involving life and liberty of an exploited people.

At the end of Solomon's reign the kingdom was almost

bankrupt, although it was held together until shortly after

his death. Solomon appears at the end of his reign to have

done almost anything to raise money. He even turned over

about twenty cities to King Hiram to pay off some of his in­

debtedness. Rehoboam, Solomon's son, succeeded him at his

death, but within a very short time the kingdom was divided

into two nations. Thus ended the reign of Solomon and the nation of Israel as a united kingdom.

The Life and Times of Nehemiah

Nehemiah was an Hebrew exile who had favor with King

Artaxerxes of Persia and became his trusted cupbearer, one of the most delicate and responsible positions of leadership

and trust in the kingdom. He was responsible to deliver food

and drink to the king and to certify that it was safe for

consumption by personally tasting it. Nehemiah had the king's complete confidence, enjoying much prestige in his job, but his heart was with his own people, the Hebrews. 52

When he found that the people in Judah were having trouble,

he requested that the king release him to go to help his peo­

ple (Nehemiah 1). Nehemiah traveled to Jerusalem to help his

people rebuild the city and became governor of Judah. The

Biblical data on Nehemiah comes from the book, in the Bible

named after him, Nehemiah.

Nehemiah*s Early Influences and Environment

Nehemiah's birthplace, Susa, where he was reared, was

a large Persian city in which the palace and the courts were

located. Little is known of the circumstances of Nehemiah*s birth and early childhood, but the family originally came

from Jerusalem, for his father’s sepulchres were in that

city (Nehemiah 2:3, 5).

Nehemiah*s Ascent to Governor

Nehemiah was endowed with unusual energy and presum­ ably exceptional charm (Albright, 1949, p. 90). To become the king's cupbearer was a highly competitive goal, and the youth of Nehemiah*s day had to be ambitious to aspire to such a position. This was an especially high ambition for Nehe­ miah because he was a Jew, having been selected after much examination and evaluation. From an early age Nehemiah de­ veloped leadership potential that would help him aspire to the position of governor. Nehemiah was satisfied with his cupbearer position, but when his brother Hannani returned to

Susa from visiting Jerusalem, he informed Nehemiah that the 53

Hebrew people there were suffering and that the city itself was in ruins (Nehemiah 1:2). Nehemiah became concerned about the home of his ancestors, and four months later, asked the king for leave from his position to help his peo­ ple in Jerusalem. The king granted Nehemiah his request, granted him letters to the governors of the lands along the way to insure his safety, and also sent a letter to the manager of the forest to provide him with materials needed to rebuild the city walls. Nehemiah embarked on his journey immediately (Nehemiah 1, 2).

Nehemiah Leader and Governor

Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem without fanfare or cele­ bration, and he remained silent so that no one would inter­ fere with the accomplishment of his task. At night he studied the condition of the walls, evaluating and planning the required work, and the next day implemented his plans

(Nehemiah 2:12-16).

The Sumerians, who did not want Jerusalem to prosper, discouraged Nehemiah and his people, persuading them to give up their building projects. But Nehemiah did not allow his men to be influenced; he simply kept his men working, employ­ ing the people in building and the others watching for the enemy. The wall was eventually finished and the goals of the people were accomplished (Nehemiah 6:15). 54

The walls of Jerusalem have been discovered by archae­ ologists in recent times, making a striking picture compared with the accounts of the walls in Nehemiah, Chapters 3 and

12 (Thompson, p. 199). The Elephantine papyri refer to some of the persons mentioned by Nehemiah in his book as contem­ poraries (Free, p. 249). Sanballat and Tobiah, adversaries of Nehemiah and his builders, were confirmed in the Zeno papyri discovered at Gerza in Egypt (Free, p. 249).

Nehemiah1s Successes and Failures

Nehemiah presents an example of leadership, for he was a man who was a good listener. When his brother Hannai told him about the conditions in Jerusalem, he listened intently.

His subsequent actions in Jerusalem reveal that he asked questions about the situation and gained much knowledge about

Jerusalem before he arrived. Nehemiah also knew how to ap­ proach the king in order to accomplish his goals. He exer­ cised good long-range planning; he knew what he would need before he departed for Jerusalem. Nehemiah also had a good sense of timing (Nehemiah 2:11). After arriving in Jerusa­ lem, Nehemiah worked out his plan very carefully, and when he was ready, acted promptly with authority. He utilized or­ ganizational skills by assigning workers to the part of the wall near their home, and when the wall was finished, creat­ ing an organizational structure for the continual defense of the wall. Nehemiah motivated the people to give their ser­ vices willingly (Nehemiah 2:18). 55

Nehemiah was a man of great enthusiasm, activity, and energy. When he had formulated a goal, he allowed nothing to hinder its accomplishment. In the twelve years that Ne­ hemiah served as governor, he never asked his people to bear burdens that he was not willing to bear himself, and he never took any money for his work; projects were financed from his personal resources.

Nehemiah possessed a strong, emotional personality.

He expelled Tobiah and his goods from the temple chamber in a fit of rage (Nehemiah 13:8). He also lost his temper and struck some of his men who had married foreign wives (Nehe­ miah 13:23-25). His ego caused.him problems from time to time (Nehemiah 5:5; 5:19; 5:13, 14).

Nehemiah, nevertheless, accomplished his twofold pur­ pose; to rebuild Jerusalem and to reestablish the Jews as a nation.

The history and background of selected Biblical lead­ ers has been reviewed here for the purpose of establishing the setting under which illustrations of management princi­ ples occurred. Biblical texts have been substantiated and complemented by extra-Biblical evidence discovered by archaeologists.

Moses rose to a position of leadership over Israel from humble origins through his association with the Egyptian pharaoh's daughter. Moses* background as a shepherd and his association with Aaron prepared him for the task of leading 56

the people through the wilderness. Moses has been charac­

terized as unselfish, yet strong-willed, and given to out­

bursts of temper. He has been described as meek, yet ag­

gressive in defending his people.

Joshua, who succeeded Moses, was known to be a trusted

aide to his predecessor. His primary objective was the

military capture of Canaan, and he was feared by kings of

the surrounding nations. Joshua devised successful strate­

gies for warfare and for apportioning the land among the

twelve tribes. He was successful in motivating people to

support the claiming of the Promised Land.

David’s early background of wealth placed him in a

position to be identified and selected as an assistant to

King Saul. His bravery as a shepherd, talent as a musician

before Saul, and his leadership in exile prepared him for

his rule over Israel. David was also able to produce unity

in Israel that gave way to prosperity and expansion.

Solomon inherited a small but influential empire from

his father, David. He reigned as an absolute monarch and was

successful in building the nation industrially and economi­

cally. Evidence of progress during his reign was the com­ pletion of the palace and temple.

Nehemiah used his influence with the king of Persia to

accumulate goods and services for his project of rebuilding

the Jerusalem wall. He accomplished the task through careful planning, good management practices, and careful timing. His enthusiasm and dedication toward the goal inspired his sub ordinates to help achieve the rebuilding. CHAPTER IV

THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: PLANNING

Management is often defined as working with and

through people to accomplish a task or objective (Newman,

Summer, and Warren, 1972; Allen, 1964; Reeser, 1973; Dale,

1969; Farmer, Richman, 1966). Allen (1964) described a man­ ager as being a particularly competent, knowing, and effec­ tive leader. According to Allen, a successful manager must be a wise, responsible, and results-oriented person who can motivate people to do what he wants them to do. However, to accomplish this, the manager must establish some type of system.

Analysis of the management process has identified cer­ tain functions, which are made up of specialized activities, constituting the principles or elements of management. Col­ lectively, management writers identify four main functions of management performed by a person in a leadership position to attain identified ends; namely, planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. A management function is a group of re­ lated management tasks with characteristics in common derived from the essential nature of the work done. A management activity is the basic category of management work. This

58 59

chapter presents the planning function in today's business

operations, along with an analysis of the planning activities

exhibited by the five leaders selected from the Bible for

study.

The Principles of Planning

Planning in management is the act of predetermining a

course of action (Allen, 1964). A manager who has planned

well is likely to be able to put the other functions and

activities of management to work with relative ease, and the

organization as a whole will be effective and efficient.

Five management activities that constitute the management

function of planning were extracted from current management

textbooks; namely, establishing objectives and goals,

decision-making, establishing policies and procedures, fore­

casting, and scheduling and budgeting. These formed the

basis of the comparison of the management techniques of

Biblical leaders with modern-day management practices.

Establishing Objectives and Goals

An essential activity in planning is that of establish­

ing goals and objectives and determining the results to be

accomplished. The management-by-objective philosophy forces

- one to set goals and objectives before beginning any task,

and this idea of goal-setting permeates the entire organiza­

tion. The manager setting his objectives or goals should ask

several questions: What tasks must be performed in order to 60 achieve the goal? When does the organization want to ac­ complish these tasks? To whom will the task be assigned?

A good manager will have a systematic and logical plan with detailed objectives and goals.

Decision-making

The decision-making process filters through all the management functions to some extent. Some management writers include the decision-making process in the planning function, others in the leading function (Farmer-Richman, 1966; Allen,

1964). However, in this study the decision-making process is included as part of the planning function. Management decision-making leads to conclusions and judgments. The decision-making process in modern-day management consists of three basic activities: (1) identifying the major problems that hinder accomplishment, (2) developing and analyzing the alternative courses of action, and (3) making a judgment, based on sound information, that will be in the best interest of the overall organization.

Identifying the major problems in an organization in­ volves specifying the causes of problems and obstacles that hinder the organization. Intensive research must often be done to find these causes and obstacles, while at other times intuition and past experience may be all that is necessary to identify the problem. Newman, Summer, and Warren {1912') 61

are sometimes called, are a timesaving device for the man­

ager in that they can predict the pattern of behavior that

subordinates will take. By establishing well-defined poli­

cies and procedures, the time and the talents of an organi­

zation's executives and administrators can be used more ef­

ficiently and effectively.

Forecasting

In order to be successful, today's manager must have

some insight into the future trends of our economic society

and its possible effect on the firm. Thus one of the man­

ager's most important activities is that of forecasting or

predicting the future. The essence of management, according

to Fayol (1949, p. 43), is prevoyance, or looking ahead, in­

volving assessing the future and making provision for it.

Forecasting plays a key role in planning, compelling man­

agers to think ahead, to unify and coordinate plans. Fore­

casts may be supported by facts and reasonable estimates.

Scheduling and Budgeting

The scheduling activity in management is the work a

manager performs to establish a time sequence for program

steps. It involves a consideration of the wise use of time

- in carrying out each program step and setting priorities,

listing actions to be taken in order of importance. The tim­

ing of these actions results in a schedule of expectations

against which to measure progress. 62

Budgeting is the work a manager performs to allocate

the resources necessary to accomplish objectives. Budgeting

is dependent upon development of goals, a program plan, and

a schedule of time necessary to accomplish the goal. The

budgeting activity insures that adequate resources are avail­

able to meet the goal.

Principles of Planning Employed by Moses

Several of the planning activities were performed by

Moses; establishing objectives and goals, forecasting, and

establishing policies and procedures are clearly illustrated

in excerpts from the books of Exodus and Numbers. The ac­

tivity of decision-making is involved in many of these il­

lustrations; however, no clear example of decision-making in

itself was identified in the study. Examples of scheduling

and budgeting were not found in the account of Moses’ man­

agerial activities. Each activity illustrated by Moses is

described in this section.

Establishing Objectives and Goals

A noteworthy example of formulating objectives and

goals is recorded in the history of Israel under the leader­

ship of Moses. Israel's goal of constructing a tabernacle

.was met through achieving specific objectives related to

human and material resources. A specific objective formu­

lated by Moses was to identify those Israelites possessing

special skills whose expertise could be utilized. Another of 63

Moses' specific objectives was to procure material resources from the people. Plans called for volunteer contributions of time and resources according to the ability of the people.

Moses' detailed plans for building the tabernacle and obtain­ ing furnishings for it promoted efficiency in the completion of this task because he specified how the task was to be ac­ complished. The patterns for the furnishings specified di­ mensions, materials, and design, and the location and use of the furnishings were specified in the plan (Exodus 39:43).

Moses' strategy for the attainment of the goal was de­ pendent upon cooperation from the people. He communicated to the people what resources were needed, the use to be made of the materials, and the benefits they would derive from their contributions. Because the plans were explicitly com­ municated, the people were able to envision the desired re­ sults, and they contributed time and materials willingly.

They actually had to be restrained from bringing materials, since they had built up a surplus.

Forecasting

Before Moses finalized his plans for capturing Canaan, he asked the spies to obtain specific information on the land itself, the population, agricultural setting, and fortifica­ tion of the cities. The people were reported to be strong giants; the cities were described as walled and great. Caleb, one of the spies, forecast that the army would be able to overcome these obstacles, and he urged that they go in at 64 once and take the land. However, other spies in Caleb's

group felt the adversaries were stronger than Caleb had fore­

cast and predicted that the task was beyond their ability to

accomplish. This conflict of opinions caused the people to

quarrel among themselves and to become discouraged. The

forecast in this instance caused anxiety and dissension

among the people, and the widespread communication of the negative forecast led to failure of the original strategy.

Establishing Policies and Procedures

In establishing policies and procedures, Moses assumed leadership over the people with regard to ordinances. He recorded all the words of the Lord and all the ordinances of the Israelites regarding religious observances, restrictions of diet, and duties of the Levites. Standard policies and procedures were explicitly stated in writing for the Israel­ ites to follow, and those who did not measure up to the standard were told how they could comply. Moses established policies and procedures in relation to the position, work, and timing of the Levites; he assigned their responsibilities 1 according to ability and aptitude, giving younger men oppor­ tunity to gain insight from the older men. At the age of fifty, the Levites were to semi-retire, after which time they were to be responsible for the training and development of the new and younger men coming into the priesthood. Moses further delegated the more physical, stress-laden tasks to the younger men. 65

Policies and procedures regarding the Passover were recorded by Moses. In the first month of the Jewish calendar on the fourteenth day, each Israelite family was to roast a year-old male lamb and eat all of it, and to burn any left­ overs; they also were to eat unleavened bread. The blood of the lamb was to be placed above the door to signify that they were Israelites and not Egyptians. Another policy stated that on the first and seventh day of the celebration, special religious services were to be held, and anyone who refused to observe these regulations was to be excommunicated from the congregation, including slaves or foreigners who were present in their homes. When Moses gave instructions regarding the

Passover observance, he was accomplishing management func­ tions of developing and interpreting standing decisions that were to be applied to a specified observance.

The activities of planning illustrated by Moses have been organized and presented in Table 3, showing excerpts from Scripture passages and an explanation of the management activities illustrated. This study describes Moses* ac­ tivities of establishing objectives and goals, forecasting, establishing policies and procedures, and scheduling. No clear examples were found in the record of Moses' decision­ making. TABLE 3

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY MOSES

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

EXODCS 12:21-28

Then Moses called for all the elders of Israel, and said to them, "Go and (3a) 3. Establishing policies and procedures take for yourselves lambs according to 3a. Interpret standing decisions: your families, and slay the Passover Passover observances lamb. And you shall take a bunch of hyssop and dip it in the blood which is in the basin, and apply some of the blood that is in the basin to the lintel and the two doorposts; and none of you shall go outside the door of his house until morning. For the Lord will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and when He sees the blood on the lintel and on the two doorposts, the Lord will pass over the door and will not allow the de­ stroyer to come in to your houses to smite you. And you shall observe this event as an ordinance for you and yo~ur children forever. And it will come about when you enter the land which the Lord will give you, as He has promised, that you shall observe this rite. And it will come about when your children will say to you, 'What does this rite TABLE 3. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities mean to you?' that you shall say, 'It is a Passover sacrifice to the Lord who passed over the houses of the sons of Israel in Egypt when He smote the Egyp­ tians, but spared our homes."' And the people bowed low and worshiped. Then the sons of Israel went and did so; just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did.

EXODUS 25:8-27

(1) "And let them construct a sanctuary ■ 1. Establishing 'objectives and goals: for Me, that I may dwell among them. • Construction of a sanctuary (5b) According to all that I am going to 3. Establishing policies and procedures show you, as the pattern of the taber- 5b. P1anning p rocedurel Pattern of nacle and the pattern of all its furni­ tabernacle and furniture speci­ ture , just so you shall construct it. . . fied

EXODUS 35:4-19

And Moses spoke to all the congregation 3. Establishing policies and procedures of the sons of Israel, saying, (3a) "This 3a. Interpret standing decisions: is the thing which the Lord has commanded, Communicated goals of construct- saying, 'Take from among you a contribu­ ing sanctuary tion to the Lord; whoever is of a will­ 1. Design specification ing heart, let him bring it as the 2. Procurement of raw materials Lord's contribution: gold, silver, and 3. Furnishings bronze, and blue, purple and scarlet 4. Labor TABLE 3. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY MOSES Ccont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities material, fine linen, goats* hair, and rams' skins dyed red, and porpoise skins, and acacia wood, and oil for lighting, and spices for the anointing oil, and for the fragrant incense, and onyx stones and setting stones, for the ephod and for the breastpiece. 'And let every skillful man among you come, and make all that the Lord has commanded: the tabernacle, its tent and its covering, its hooks and its boards, its bars, its pillars, and its sockets; the ark and its poles, the mercy seat, and the cur­ tain of the screen; the table and its poles, and all its utensils, and its lamps and the oil for the light; and the altar of incense and its poles, and the anointing oil and the fragrant incense, and the screen for the doorway at the entrance of the tabernacle; the altar of burnt offering with its bronze grat­ ing, its poles and all the utensils, the basin and its stand; the hangings of the court; its pillars and its sockets, and the screen for the gate of the court; the pegs of the tabernacle and the pegs of the court and their cords; the woven garments for ministering in the holy TABLE 3. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities place, the holy garments for Aaron the priest, and the garments of his sons, to minister as priests.1"

NUMBERS 8:23-26

Now the Lord spoke to Moses saying, (3a) "This is what applies to the Le- 3. Establishing policies and procedures vites; from twenty-five years of age and 5a. Interpret standing decisions: upward they shall enter to perform ser­ Interpreted policies and pro- vice in the work of the tent of meeting. cedures regarding But at the age of fifty years they shall 1. Age spans for work retire from service in the work and not 2. Retirement age work any more. They may, however, assist 3. Training and development of their brothers in the tent of meeting, to subordinates keep an obligation but they themselves shall do no work. Thus you shall deal with the Levites concerning their obli- gations."

NUMBERS 13:17-19, 25-29

When Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan, he said to them, "Go up there into the Negev; then go up into the hill 2. Decision-making country. (2a) And see what the land is 2a. Define major problems, gather like, and whether the people who live in data: Collected data on which it are strong or weak, whether they are to^ base forecasts TABLE 3. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities few or many. . . . And how are the cities in which tney live,~are they like open camps, or with fortification? . ! . When they returned from spying out the land, at the end of forty days, . . . they brought back word to them and to all the congregation and showed them the fruit of the land. Thus they told him, and said, "We went in to the land where you sent us; and it certainly does flow with milk and honey, and this is the fruit. Nevertheless, the people who live in the land are strong, and the cities are for­ tified and very large; and moreover, we saw the descendants of Anak there. Amalek is living in the land of the Negev and the Hittites and the Jebusites and the Amorites are living in the hill coun­ try, and the Canaanites are living by by sea and by the side of the Jordan."

NUMBERS 13:30, 31

Then Caleb quieted the people before Moses, and said, (4) "We should by all 4. Forecasting: Moses received recom­ means go up and take possession of itT mendation for action and recommenda­ for we shall surely overcome it. But tion of not taking action the men who had gone up with him said, "We are not able to go up against the people for they are too strong formas." 71

Principles of Planning Employed by Joshua

Joshua's life provides examples of several planning ac­

tivities; he performed the planning function by establishing

objectives and goals for battle, forecasting the possibility

of overtaking the enemy, and making decisions regarding stra-

tegy in battle and in relation to apportionment of the real

estate of Canaan. This study did not identify examples re­

corded in the Bible of Joshua's establishing policies and procedures or scheduling and budgeting.

Establishing Objectives and Goals

The goal of Joshua's organization was the capture of

Ai, a section of Canaan, was ultimately successfully accom­ plished. The strategy for capturing Ai, a portion of Canaan,

is recorded in detail. Joshua took time to develop creative plans and strategies, feigning defeat, and thereby ambushing his opponents. His plan was to have the main army attack and then to take flight when the men of Ai retaliated. After they had allowed the army of Ai to chase the main army out of the city, a select group of 30,000 emerged from the ambush, entered the city, and set it afire. The attainment of

Joshua's goal was accomplished through meeting the objective of adequate manpower, describing the details of the plan, and giving explicit directions for action and timing. Joshua addressed himself in this instance to the basic requirements essential to establishing objectives and goals. The 72 scheduling was planned well and the delegation of tasks was divided between the main army and the ambush.

Joshua and his people set objectives for the division of the land. The people, who had become content where they were, made no effort to occupy the land. Three men from each tribe, under Joshua's authority, were to survey the land and divide it into seven portions. After he described the task, he commissioned them to go out and complete the divi­ sion before returning to him with a written description of their work. In this instance he again delegated accomplish­ ment of specific portions of the objective; Judah was to stay in the southern territory: the house of Joseph was assigned to the north.

Forecasting

Spies sent by Joshua from Jericho to Ai to gather data for developing strategies against them, reported that Ai was a small city; they forecast that an army of three thousand men would be sufficient. This forecast, however, was even­ tually proven erroneous and thirty-six lives were lost as a result. The spies should have been more thorough in their data gathering and in their analysis of the strength and numbers of the enemy.

Decision-making

Joshua relied upon the spies' forecast regarding Ai when he made a decision to send a small army. The forecast, 73 however, led to the wrong decision since the spies failed to gather sufficient data to support their hypothesis that the people of Ai were few. Efficient decision-making in this in­ stance was dependent on a reliable forecast.

The countries on the other side of the Jordan from

Canaan were to be distributed evenly among the people of

Israel. A decision had to be reached regarding the orderly and equitable apportionment of the land. Moses told Joshua how to distribute the land in an orderly fashion. Eleazar, the prophet, assisted Joshua in this task. Each tribe had a representative to insure fair and just treatment for all re­ garding inheritance of the land.

Table 4 presents principles of planning employed by

Joshua, including excerpts from Scripture and accompanying explanations of the management activities illustrated. TABLE 4

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

JOSHUA 1:10-15

Then Joshua commanded the officers of the people, "Pass through the camp, and command the people, 'Prepare your pro­ visions; for within three days you are to pass over this Jordan, (1) to go in 1. Establishing objectives: Conquer to take possession of the land which the Jericho— ------Lord your God gTves you to possess.1"

And to the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh Joshua said, (3) "Remember the word which Moses the 3. Establishing policies and procedures servant of the Lord commanded you say­ 3a. Interpret standing decisions: In­ ing (3a) 'The Lord your God is provid­ terpreted God1s commands ing you a place of rest, and will give you this land."*

(3b) Your wives, your little ones, and 3b. Planning procedure: Assigned lo­ your cattle shall remain in the land cations for the men and the which Moses gave you beyond ^the Jordan; women and outlined their re­ but all the men of valor among you shall spective reponsibilities pass over armed before your brethrerT and shall help them, .. T71 TABLE 4. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

JOSHUA 2:23, 24; 3:1-4

Then the two men (spies sent by Joshua to Shittim) came down again from the hills, . . . and they told him all that had befallen them. And they said to Joshua, "Truly the Lord has given all the land into our hand; and more­ over all the inhabitants of the land are fainthearted because of us."

(2) Early in the morning Joshua rose 2. Decision-making: Decided to go to and set out from Shittim, with all the Jericho based op data supplied by people of Israel; . . . At the end of the spies three days the officers went through the camp and commanded the people, (2a) "When you see the ark of the cove­ 2a. Planning procedures: Provided nant of the Lord your God being car^ for the people to make their way ried by the Levitical priests, then under the guidance of the priests you shall go, for you have not passed this way before. Yet there shall be~~a space between you and it, a distance of about two thousand cubits; do not come near it . . ." TABLE 4. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

JOSHUA 7:2-5

Now Joshua (2a) sent men from Jericho to 2. Decision-making Ai; "Go up and spy out the land,11 So the 2a. Defining problem: Gathering data men went up and spied out Ai. And they (which, in this event, was in­ returned to Joshua and said to him, "Do adequate for making a sound de­ not let all the people go up; only about cision) two or three thousand men need to go up to Ai; do not make all the people toil up there, for they are few." (2c) (4) So 2c. Making judgments: Evaluated the about three thousand men from the people information supplied by the went up there, but they fled from the men spies of Ai. And the men of Ai struck down 4. Forecasting: Felt the invasion and about thirty-six of their men, and pur­ and taking of Ai would* not be diffi­ sued them from the gate as far as Sheb- cult arim, and struck them down on the descent, so the hearts of the people melted and became as water.

JOSHUA 8:3-7

So Joshua rose with all the people of war (1) to go to Ai; and Joshua chose 1. Establishing objectives and goals: 30,000 men, valiant warriors and (5) Conquer Ai sent them out at night. . . . (3b) "See 5. Scheduling: Act at night you are going to ambush the city from 3. Establishing policies and procedures oehind it. Do not go very far from 3b. Planning strategy: Ambush the the city, but all of you be ready. city from behind TABLE 4. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

(5) Then I and all the people who are 5. Scheduling: After the ambush was set with me will approach the city\ And (4) it will come about when they come 4. Forecasting out to meet us at the first, that we will flee before them. And they will come out after us until we have drawn them away from the city, for they will say, 'They are fleeing before us at the first.f So (3b) we will flee be­ 3. Establishing policies and procedures fore them. And (4) you shall rise"From 5b. Planning strategy: Set up a mock your ambush and take possession of the flight from Ai city; . . . 4. Forecasting: Predicted victory

JOSHUA 14:1-5

Now these are the territories which the sons of Israel inherited in the land of Canaan, which Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun (2c) and the heads 2. Decision-making of the households of the tribes of the 2c. Making judgments: Apportioned land sons of Israel apportioned to them for an inheritance. Thus the sons of Is­ rael divided the land.

JOSHUA 18:4-6

"Provide for yourselves three men from each tribe that I may send them, and TABLE 4. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

that they may arise and walk through the land and write a description of it ac­ cording to their inheritance; then they shall return to me. (2) And they shall 2. De c'is i on -making divide it into seven portions; Juda~K shall stay in its territory on the south, and the house of Joseph shall stay in their territory on the north. And you shall describe the land in seven divi­ sions, and bring the description here to me. (3b) And I will cast lots for you. 3. Establishing policies and procedures If 3b. Planning procedures: Division of land 79

Principles of Planning Employed by David

The planning function carried out by David has been il­ lustrated in the Biblical record through the activities of establishing objectives and goals, establishing policies and procedures, scheduling and budgeting, and decision-making.

This study has not identified from the record clear examples of David's participation in forecasting.

Establishing Objectives and Goals

In his old age King David gave Solomon instructions for the building plans of the temple. The goal was to produce a permanent home for the ark. The place of worship for Israel had for years been a temporary tent, and the important goal of construction had been laid aside for *the immediate necessity of maintaining wars. The goal was now to be met by following a model of the building, since it was to be a unique construction.

Establishing Policies and Procedures

Near the end of his reign, David established special policies and procedures for the human resources Solomon needed to construct the temple; for instance, the workers were not to be men of war or those who had shed blood. David and his officers had been preoccupied with wars; the absence of war gave opportunity for construction. Solomon was to be diligent in studying the law concerning his duty, he was to be advised by the priests and Levites, the workers were to be 80 willing and skillful, and the princes and the people were to be wholly at the command of Solomon.

Standing decisions were also specified for material re­ sources in this endeavor. Because the goal was to be a house of worship, the details of its structure and furnishings were to symbolize meaning. David gave the pattern to Solomon so that he could direct the workers to use material resources to represent spiritual concepts.

Scheduling and Budgeting

David's instructions to Solomon regarding the building of the temple involved three scheduling and budgeting consid­ erations. Workers were to be chosen from the willing and skillful; they were delegated for services so that they would not oppose or retard the progress of the work. Material re­ sources were itemized and provided for the temple, including silver and gold, brass, iron, wood, and precious stones. Fi­ nancial support was provided, as the great men of Israel were engaged by David to give willingly.

Decision-making

Because of his concern for the safety of the ark, David developed a strategy to thwart Absalom's conspiracy to over­ throw him as king. He consulted Zadok, known for his ability to obtain intelligence regarding the enemy's motions and reso­ lutions, and charged him with the responsibility of returning to Jerusalem with the ark while David waited in hiding for an 81

intelligence report from him. Following Zadok's advice,

David moved camp from the fords to the other side of the

Jordan, thus preserving his life. David's decision-making

process was effective because he availed himself of sound

data in a systematic fashion.

The contest between David and Absalom was a long and

involved one of strategy and counter strategy. Both made use

of spies and advisors. Absalom called his planning council

together at a critical point in the contest, resulting in

Ahithophel's advice to attack King David immediately in the

night. However, Hushai persuaded them to delay for further

deliberation and to build up their numbers for the attack.

This was done in the interest of King David, who subsequently

received secret intelligence from Hushai. David’s decision­

making in this instance was based on developing and analyzing

alternative courses of action and obtaining sound information

by waiting for an intelligence report.

David prepared to engage Absalom's army and planned his

organization structure to include three major commanders,

Jacob, Abishai, and Ittai, who were each charged with one-

third of the regiment. Although David had planned to go him­

self, his people insisted that he stay behind, feeling that his staying was in the best interest of the organization by not risking loss of their leader. David listened to his sub­

ordinates and was willing to be overruled by them; he re­

spected the judgment of his friends and subordinates. His 82

decision-making was affected by subordinates as well as by

trusted counsellors.

For taking a poll contrary to God's commandments, David

faced a choice of three disciplinary measures for his hasty

actions. His people were to suffer one of three adversities.

He found the decision hard to make since his people had to

suffer because of his mistake. Analyzing the alternatives,

he perceived that pestilence would have a lesser adverse ef­

fect on the total organization than either famine or war.

The decisions of leaders always affect the people; in this

case David was forced to make a choice that would affect his people adversely, although he felt the pestilence would be

of the shortest duration of the alternatives from which he

chose.

When King David's death became imminent, his fourth son,

Adonijah, made preparations to succeed him as king since Solo­ mon was young. He assembled horses and chariots and engaged the support of Joab, general of the army, and Abiathar, the high priest. Adonijah prepared a great celebration at En- rogel, hosting David's sons and servants, with the exception of Solomon. In loyalty to David, Nathan made these activities known to Bathsheba, Solomon's mother, who subsequently in­ formed David of the scheme. Consequently, David proclaimed that the decision to make Solomon his successor was reaf­ firmed, and Solomon was on that day proclaimed king, 83 according to plans that had been made before his birth

(1 Chronicles 22:10).

The foregoing principles of planning employed by David are presented in Table 5, with excerpts from Scripture and comments regarding the activities illustrated. TABLE 5.

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

2 SAMUEL 15:25-28

And the king said to Zadok, "Return the ark of God to the city. (2b) If I find 2. Decision-making favor in the sight of the Lord, then He 2b. Develop and analyze alternative will bring me back again, and show me both courses of action: Examine pos­ it and His habitation. But if He should sibilities of seeing ark again say thus, 'I have no delight in you,1 be­ hold, here I am, let Him do to me as seems good to Him." The king said also to Za­ dok the priest,(2a) "Are you not a seer? 2a. Define major problems, gather Return to the city in peace and your two major data: Utilized adviser to sons with you, your son Ahimaaz and Jona­ gain information before making a than the son of Abiathar. See, I am judgment going to wait at the fords of the wilder­ ness until word comes from you to inform me."

2 SAMUEL 18:2-4

. . . And the king said to the people, "I myself will surely go out with you also." But the people said, "You should not go out; for if we indeed flee they will not care about us, even if half of us die, they will not care about us. TABLE 5. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

But you are worth ten thousand of us; therefore now it is better that you be ready to help us from the city." Then the king said to them, "Whatever seems best to you I will doT11 (2 c) So the king Decision-making stood beside the gate and all the people 2c. Making judgments: Made decision went out by the hundreds and thousands. in accordance with subordinates' wishes

2 SAMUEL 24:12-15

"Go and speak to David, 'Thus the Lord says, "I am offering three things; (2b) 2b. Develop and analyze alternative choose for yourself one of them, which I ^course of action-: Choose pesti­ may do to you."01 So Gad came to David lence over famine and war, since and told him and said to him, "Shall pestilence would have the least seven years of famine come to you in your effect on people land? Or will you flee three months be­ fore your foes pursue you? Or shall there be^three days' pestilence in your land? Now consider and see what answer I shall return to Him who sent me." Then David said to Gad, "I am in great distress. Let us now fall into the hand of the Lord for his mercies are great, but do not let me fall into the hand of man." So the Lord sent a pestilence upon Israel from the morning until the appointed time; and TABLE 5. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities seventy thousand men of the people from Dan to Beersheba died.

1 KINGS 1:15, 17-19, 20, 29, 30, 35

So Bathsheba . . . said to him, "My Lord, you swore to your maidservant by the Lord your God, saying, 'Surely your son Solo­ mon shall be King after me and he shall sit on my throne.' And now behold, Adoni­ jah is king; and now, my lord the king, you do not know it. And he has sacri­ ficed oxen and fatlings and sheep in abundance, and has invited all the sons of the king and Abiathar the priest and Joab the commander of the army but he has not invited Solomon your servant. And as for you now, my lord the king, the eyes of all Israel are on you, to tell them who shall sit on the throne of my lord the king after him." (Tcj And tne king 2. Decision-making vowed and said, . . . "surely as I 2c. Making judgments: Reaffirmed his vowed to you by the Lord God of Israel, earlier promise saying, 'Your son Solomon shall be king after me, and he shall sit on my throne in my place'; . . . . ' Then you shall come up after him, and he shall come and sit on my throne and be king in my place; for TABLE 5. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

I have appointed him to be ruler over Israel and Judah."

1 CHRONICLES 15:2

Then David said, (3) "No one is to carry 3. Establishing policies and procedures: the ark of God but the Levites; for the Only Levites were to carry the ark Lord chose them to carry the ark of God, and to minister to Him forever."

1 CHRONICLES 28:2, 3

Then King David rose to his feet and said, "Listen to me, my brethren and my people; (1) I had intended to build a . 1. Establishing goals and objectives: permanent home for the ark of the cove­ Plans to build a place for the ark nant of the Lord and for the footstool of our God. So I had made preparations to build it. But God said to me, 'You shall not build a house for my name be­ cause you are a man of war and have shed blood.*" 1 CHRONICLES 28:11-13, 21

Then David gave to his son Solomon (5c) 5. Scheduling and budgeting the plan of the porch of the temple, its 5c. Provision for adequate supplies upper rooms, its inner rooms, and the and labor: design plans, labor, room for the mercy seat; and the plan of plans, and furnishings TABLE 5. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities all that he had in mind, for the courts of the house of the Lord, and for all the surrounding rooms, for the store­ houses of the dedicated things; also for the divisions of the priests and the Le­ vites and for all the work of the service of the house of the Lord and for all the utensils of service in the house of the Lord; . . . "Now behold there are the divisions of the priests and the Levites for all the service of the house of God, (Sc) and every willing man of any skill 5. Scheduling and budgeting will EcT with you in all the work for all 5c. Provisions for adequate supplies kinds of service. The officials also and and labor all the people will be entirely at your commandT"

1 CHRONICLES 29:2-4

"Now with all my ability (5c) I have pro­ 5c. Provisions for adequate supplies vided for the house of my God the gold and labor for the things of gold^ and the silver for the things of silver, and the bronze for the things of bronze, the iron for the things of iron, and wood for the things of wood, onyx stones and inlaid stones, stones ojr antimony, and stones of various colors, and all kinds of precious stones, and alabaster in abundance. And TABLE S. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities moreover, in my delight in the house of my God, the treasure I have of gold and silver, I give to the house of my God, over and above all that I have already provided for the holy temple, namely, 3,000 talents of gold, of the gold of Ophir, and V,000 talents of refined silver, to overlay the walls of the building." 90

Principles of Planning Employed by Solomon

Solomon engaged in many activities that are part of

the planning function of management. He established objec­

tives and goals, established policies and procedures, de­

veloped schedules and budgets, and made decisions. Examples

of forecasting by Solomon were not identified in this study.

Establishing Objectives and Goals ‘

King Solomon knew how to formulate a goal: "I intend

to build a house . . ." (1 Kings 5:5). He stated that goal

explicitly and designated himself as the agent responsible

for accomplishing the goal. Solomon involved King Hiram of

Tyre in a meaningful contribution toward the building of the

temple by relating his need of materfals directly to the goal.

Establishing Policies and Procedures

The territories of Solomon's kingdom were large, ex­

tending beyond Israel to those neighboring kingdoms that had

been conquered by David. From these territories Solomon de­

rived everyday needs by using a systematic, planned tax

structure. His vast court was managed according to standing

decisions which were applied to recurring needs. Throughout

most of Solomon's reign, policies were carried out according

to an equitable procedure; no man or territory was overbur­

dened; no individual could grow rich with profits. Solomon

reigned over neighboring kingdoms, who were obliged to serve him and bring gifts, sustaining peace by rewarding their 91 subjection with security and safety, not invading their terri­ tory, and providing protection of their property and posses­ sions .

Scheduling and Budgeting

Solomon’s well-developed plan provided food and shelter for the people of his court and for the animals, providing quantities sufficient to meet needs. His well-defined sched­ ule appropriately allocated resources, each worker being given a specific assignment in relation to work and place and time.

Officers charged with monthly provision of food were also re­ sponsible for maintaining the stables. Solomon's military forces were sufficient for maintaining security in peace.

Decision-making

Solomon is perhaps best known for his wisdom in decision-making. Because of his keen discernment, he was both feared and loved. He was called upon to make decisions regarding differences among his subjects. Perhaps the most widely used example of his sagacity is the incident of the two women who each claimed a particular baby as hers. Listen­ ing to the details of the conflict, Solomon weighed the evi­ dence and then allowed the women to reveal their true thoughts and feelings regarding the child by proposing that the baby be cut in two, with each woman being given half. Identity of the natural mother was revealed when she willingly offered to give up the child in order to spare its life. Solomon in 92 this example relied upon his own intuition and experience in arriving at a creative solution to the problem. His judgment resulted in preservation of the child's life and in awarding

it to the natural mother.

Table 6 presents principles of planning employed by

Solomon together with a description of the incidents in which those principles are performed. TABLE 6

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

1 KINGS 3:23-28

(2a) Then the king said, “The one says, 2. Decision-making: 'This is my son who is living and your 2a. Define problem, gather data: son is the dead one'; and the other Listened to the claims ofthe says, 'No! for your son is the dead one, women and my son is the living one.111 And the king said, (2b) "Divide the living child 2b, Develop alternative courses of in two, and give half to the one and half action: Divide the baby to the other.'1 Then the woman whose child was the living one spoke to the king, for she was deeply stirred over her son and said, (2c) "Oh my Lord, give her 2c. Make judgment: Decided which was the living child and~~by no means kilT natural mother on basis of her him." But the other said, "He shall~~be willingness to give up the neither mine nor yours; divide himI" child to save its life (2c) Then the king answered and said, "Give the first woman the living child, and by no means kill him. She is the mother." When all Israel heard of tEe judgment which the king had handed down, they feared the king; for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him to adminis­ ter justice.

ID 0 4 TABLE 6. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

1 KINGS 4:7, 27

And Solomon had twelve deputies over all Israel, who provided for the king and his household; (3b) each man had to provide 3. Establishing policies and procedures: for a month in the year. I ! 3b. Planning procedures: Developed a plan for adequate provisions And those deputies provided for King Solo­ mon and all who came to King Solomon's table, each in his month; they left nothing lacking.

1 KINGS 4:22, 23, 26, 28

• (5c) And Solomon's provision for one day • 5. Scheduling and budgeting: was thirty kors of fine flour and sixty 5c. Provision for adequate supplies kors of meal, ten fat oxen, twenty and labor: Detailed daily re­ pasture-fed oxen, a hundred sheep be­ quirements of food and other sides deer, gazelles, roebucks, and supplies fattened fowl. . . .

And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. . . . They also brought barley and straw for the horses and swift steeds to the place where it should be, each according to his charge. TABLE 6. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

1 KINGS 5:2, 5

Then Solomon sent word to Hiram saying, . . . "And behold (1) I intend (plan)' to 1. Establishing objectives and goals: build a house for the name of the Lord my Build a temple God, as the Lord spoke to David my father, saying, 'Your son whom I will set on your throne in your place, he will build a house for my name."

1 KINGS 8:1

Then Solomon assembled the elders of Israel and all the heads of the tribes, the leaders of the fathers' households of the sons of Israel, to King Solomon in Jerusalem, (1) to bring up the ark of the To house the ark in the temple covenant of the Lord from the city oT David, which is Zion.

<0 cri 96

Principles of Planning Employed by Nehemiah

Nehemiah*s planning is best illustrated in the record o£ his reconstruction of the wall at Jerusalem. To accomplish this task, he employed the activities of forecasting, estab­ lishing objectives and goals, and decision-making. No clear illustrations have been identified from the record regarding

Nehemiah*s performance of establishing policies and procedures or scheduling and budgeting.

Forecasting

Nehemiah was cupbearer to King Artaxerxes, who noticed that Nehemiah was concerned about the reconstruction of Jeru­ salem and about the people who had returned there from exile in Persia. Thus when Nehemiah requested leave, and the king released him from service, Nehemiah, anticipating difficulties in accomplishing his task of rebuilding Jerusalem, asked the king for letters of approval for travel through foreign ter­ ritories and for letters of recommendation. Nehemiah was able to expedite his travels and his acquisition of raw materials because he had foreseen difficulties. He forecast a need for lumber and anticipated a need for passports, thus preventing wasted time and effort. When he arrived at Jerusalem, he ex­ amined the ruins at night to determine their condition and to forecast materials and repairs needed. His firsthand evalua­ tion helped him plan how the task could be accomplished. 97

Establishing Objectives and Goals

Nehemiah, charged with the responsibility of rebuilding the wall around Jerusalem, enlisted the peoples1 participation in setting the goal of reconstruction by describing the con­ ditions to them. He sensed that, though the people were aware of the problems, they needed to review together their common problem. This communication and identification with the people mobilized them to say, "Let us build" (Nehe­ miah 2:18). The wall was completed in fifty-two days, de­ spite many obstacles. The people had realized great accom­ plishments through concentration of effort.

Decision-making

Nehemiah's people were disillusioned because some of the rich Jews were charging the people usury, forcing them to borrow to buy corn and to pay their taxes. The people saw

Nehemiah as a competent, fair leader who would help them, and they went to him for advice concerning their problem.

Nehemiah, though busy with building, took time to listen to the peoples' complaints, and decided to bring the money lenders to court where he reasoned with them, offering sev­ eral alternatives for their consideration. He appealed to their sense of pride and fairness, urging them not only to stop charging usury, but also to restore what they had al­ ready taken. By persuasion, rather than by dictating, he was able to get them to agree to more reasonable terms, and the problem was solved. Nehemiah's performance of the planning function has been presented in Table 7, including an explanation of

Scriptural references to those activities. TABLE 7

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH

Scripture Passages Planning Activities

NEHEMIAH 2:7, 8

(4) And I said to the king, "If it 4. Forecasting: Predicted need for pass- please the king, let letters be given me ports and for building supplies for the governors of the provinces be- yond the River, that they may allow me to pass through until I come to Judah, and a letter to Asaph the keeper of the king's forest, that he may give me tim­ ber to make beams for the gates of the fortress which is by the temple, for the wall of the city, and for the house to which I will go." And the king granted them to me.

NEHEMIAH 2:11-15

So I came to Jerusalem and was there three days. And I arose in the night, I and a few men with me . . . by the Valley Gate in the direction of the Dragon's Well and on to the Refuse Gate, (2a) inspecting the walls of Jeru­ 2. Decision-making: salem which were broken down and its 2a. Defining major problems and gath­ gates which were consumed by fire. ering data: Inspected the Then I passed on to the Fountain Gate ruins in order to prepare esti­ and the King's Pool, but there was no mates for materials and labor TABLE 7. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities place for my mount to pass. So I went up at night by the ravine and inspected the wall.. . .

NEHEMIAH 5:1-12

Now there was a great outcry of the peo­ ple and of their wives against their Jewish brothers. For there were those (2a) who said, "We, our sons, and our 2. Decision-making: daughters are many; therefore, let us 2a. Defining major problems and gath get grain that we may eat and live." ering data: Listened to all And there were others who said, "We are sides of the story mortgaging our fields, our vineyards, and our houses that we might get grain because of the famine." Also there were those who said, "We have borrowed money for the king's tax on our fields and our vineyards. And now our flesh is like the flesh of our brothers, our children like their children. Yet be­ hold, we are forcing our sons and our daughters to be slaves, and some of our daughters are forced into bondage al­ ready, and we are helpless because our fields and vineyards belong to others." Then I was angry when I had heard their TABLE 7. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Planning Activities outcry and these words. (2b) And I con­ 2. Decis ion-making: sulted with myself and contended with 2b. Developing and analyzing alterna­ the nobles and the rulers (2c) and said tive courses of action: Con- to them, "You are exacting usury each sidered each perspective and from his brother, therefore I held a weighed evidence great assembly against them. And I said to them, "We according to our ability 2c. Making judgments: Implicated have redeemed our Jewish brothers who the guilty party were sold to the nations; now would you even sell your brothers that they may be sold to us?" Then they were silent and could not find a word to say. Again I said, "The thing which you are doing is not good . . ikI likewise I, my broth­ ers and my servants are lending them money and grain. Please give back to them this very day their fields, their vineyards, their olive groves, and their houses, also the hundredth part of the money and of the grain, the new wine, and the oil that you are exacting from them." Then they said, "We will give it back and will require nothing from them; we will do exactly as you say ..." 102

Summary

This study has identified planning activities per­ formed by Biblical leaders. The record indicates that Moses communicated policies and procedures to the people in a num­

ber of instances. No instances were■ found where Moses en- gaged in scheduling and budgeting although an example is given for his employment of forecasting, decision-making, and establishing objectives and goals.

The Bible shows evidence of Joshua’s outstanding plan­ ning ability. Joshua, like Moses, established policies and procedures for the people of Israel to follow. He also established objectives and goals, forecast and made decisions.

Two examples were found in the record of scheduling and budgeting performed by Joshua.

David's record reveals the planning function of decision-making being performed most frequently. Although the record does not indicate clear examples of forecasting by

David, he engaged in establishing objectives and goals, es­ tablishing policies and procedures, and in scheduling and budgeting.

Solomon carried out many of the plans made by his father,

David, but there is evidence that he established objectives and goals, made decisions, and established policies and pro­ cedures. No clear example is given in the record of his ability to forecast, but at least one example of scheduling has been isolated. 103

Nehemiah’s planning activities are limited, as far as

Biblical evidence records, to decision-making and forecasting.

Table 8 gives a summary of findings of planning prin­ ciples utilized by the Biblical leaders.

TABLE 8

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF PLANNING PRINCIPLES

Moses Joshua David Solomon Nehemiah

Establishing Objec­ tives and Goals 1 2 1 2 0

Decision-making 1 3 4 1 2

Establishing Poli­ cies and Proce­ dures 4 5 1 1 0

Forecasting 1 3 0 0 1

Scheduling and Budgeting 0 . 2 2 1 0 CHAPTER V THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: ORGANIZING

Organizing is the work a manager performs to arrange and relate the work to be done so that it may be performed most effectively by the people under his direction. Several activities make up the organizing function.

Developing Organizational Structures

Managers recognize the importance of a good organiza­ tional structure to the smooth operation of_ the firm. If the enterprise is to be successful, the people in it must know what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. To facilitate the communication of these objectives, managers develop a formal organizational structure so that maximum cooperation will be possible. The development of a formal organizational structure is the work a manager does to identify the work to be performed and group the people to do the work in the most efficient way.

With a formal organizational structure, important prin­ ciples or activities of the management process are practiced.

A manager groups activities into departments and in doing so considers an adequately based span of control, that is, the number of subordinates a superior can manage effectively. As

104 105 the result of his empirical research, Urwick (1956) found the ideal number for high-level management to be four to six and at lower levels of management, eight to twelve.

Along with span of control, the manager also must in­

sure authority relationships. This is accomplished through utilizing the scalar chain principle. This refers to the

chain of direct authority relationships from superior to sub­ ordinates throughout the organization. A clear line from the ultimate authority source to every position in the organiza­ tion will provide an indication of the points where supporting authority rests. Finally, in a well-developed organization, unity of command will be working. Unity of command refers to the condition whereby each subordinate reports to one superior.

Delegating Authority and Responsibility

Delegating, another important activity in management organizing, is the work a manager does to entrust responsi­ bility and authority to others and to create accountability for results. Through delegation a manager achieves a greater quantity and higher quality of work than he could accomplish by himself, and by decentralizing the necessary authority, he places responsibility at the level of the particular work being performed. Responsibility, authority, and account­ ability are interrelated. The individual charged with respon­ sibility to perfdrm a task must be given certain authority to act; and, consequently, he may be held accountable for his actions. 106

Establishing Relationships

In establishing relationships a manager creates condi­

tions necessary for mutually cooperative efforts of people.

Throughout a total organizational structure line relation­

ships exist which define accountability of persons and or­

ganizational components toward specific objectives. Au­

thority is thus delegated to make decisions regarding objec­

tives through the line relationship. Staff relationships,

on the other hand, denote the relationship of those persons

and organizational components which provide advice and ser­

vice to accomplish objectives.

Principles of Organizing Employed by Moses

Moses was effective in arranging and relating work to

be done by his people in many instances. Examples have been

identified in the Scripture in which Moses performed the

activities of developing organizational structures, delegating

authority and responsibility, and utilizing work specializa­

tion and chain of command.

Developing Organizational Structures

Under Egyptian captivity the Israelites became slaves

of King Pharaoh, and an organizational structure was developed

.for control and administration of the slaves. The hierarchy

included taskmasters and officers who supervised Israeli fore­

men; the chain of direct authority ran from slaves to Israeli

foremen to Egyptian officers and taskmasters to Pharaoh 107 himself. The tasks assigned to the slaves ranged from build­

ing cities to working in the fields. Various foremen were assigned the work to be performed under unbearable condi­ tions. Moses appeared before Pharaoh to plead for the re­

lease of the slaves, but orders were given through the su­ periors to increase the work load and to make the punishment more severe than it had been previous to Moses1 request.

Moses provides a model for organizational planning in a systematic form. He organized an early form of draft board to solve problems related to handling equitably a census taken of all men at least twenty years of age eligible for warfare by registering them by family name. This provided a systema­ tic way of locating human resources necessary for warfare.

Moses learned from his father-in-law how to develop an organizational structure for settling minor disputes of the people, since he had been consuming too much time in listen­ ing to peoples1 complaints and making dispositions of them.

He trained subordinates, reported to be learned, truthful,

God-fearing, and unselfish men, to handle this task by teach­ ing them the commandments and the laws. Moses was instructed by his father-in-law to assign people to various judges in groups of tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands; and the judges, in turn, were given the authority to rule over minor complaints and disputes of the people. Only major disputes were considered hy Moses, who was more experienced and better versed in the law than the judges. 108

His organizational pattern is evidenced by the fact

that only Joshua, the chosen successor of Moses, was allowed

to accompany Moses when he went to the mountain to obtain

the law written on tablets of stone. At this point, Joshua

was clearly above Aaron and Hur in Moses’ organizational

structure. Moses left AaTon and Hur behind with authority

over the seventy elders.

The principle of work specialization recognizes parti­

cular skills of key personnel and delegates to them the work

in which they can excel. Bezalel, specialized in craftsman­

ship, was appointed with Oholiab over all those who were

skillful for carrying out the detailed specifications for the

tabernacle. All of these specialists were responsible to

Moses for their work.

Delegating Authority and Responsibility

Moses recorded the Ten Commandments and other judicial

laws for the people. When he had delivered these to the peo­ ple and they accepted them, he returned to the mountain,

leaving Aaron and Hur with the people to act as judges. In

this instance, Moses clearly exemplifies the principle that

authority and responsibility can be delegated to subordinates

in the absence of the leader.

Moses appointed Bezalel general superintendent of the

organization charged with the responsibility of constructing

the tabernacle. *Bezalel was qualified both as a craftsman

and as a communicator in the technical skills necessary to 109

complete the tabernacle according to the plan. Moses here

lends support to the theory that those who are well-qualified

and skilled in many types of work should be placed in posi­

tions of leadership to direct and instruct others. Work

specialization is also exemplified by Bezalel under Moses'

leadership. According to the record, specialists trained by

Bezalel included engravers, designers, embroiderers, weavers,

and performers of other crafts.

The tribe of Levi was designated by Moses to be specially

set apart for service under the direction of Aaron, the

priest. They were to minister to the priest, kill the sacri­

fices, and prepare incense; and they also were charged with

representation of the whole congregation. The Levites were

an addition to the original organizational structure in which

Aaron's three sons had been assigned the responsibility of

assisting in the priestly functions.

Specific assignments were given to each group within

the Levites. They were delegated to minister in specific

geographical locations, and the exact nature of their respon­

sibility was clearly defined. Elizaphan, leader of the

8,600 Kohathite families, was to camp on the southward side

of the tabernacle, and the 6,200 families of Merari, on the

.north side. Aaron's son Ithamar, who supervised the family of

Merari, had the responsibility of assigning items to each

man in his organization to carry. 110

Eleazar, another of Aaron's sons, had authority over all the tabernacle and its furnishings and functioned as a general superintendent over all the work of his brothers and the Levites.

Joshua was designated to become Moses' successor;

Moses had clearly communicated this appointment to his sub­ ordinates before he died, and no question arose regarding the locus of authority in Moses1 absence. Moses took Joshua be­ fore Eleazar the priest and commissioned him in the presence of the entire congregation. Moses further delegated au­ thority to Eleazar and Joshua for administration of division of the land among the tribes. He gave them specific direc­ tions for selecting a leader from every tribe to represent their interest.

Table 9 presents Scripture passages illustrating or­ ganizing principles employed by Moses. The organizing prin­ ciples of developing organizational structures, delegating authority and responsibility, work specialization, and chain of command are included. TABLE 9 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

EXODUS 18:14-22

Moses1 father-in-law. . . . said, "What is this thing that you are doing for the people? Why do you alone sit as judge and all the people stand about you from morning until evening?" And Moses said to his father-in-law, "Because the peo­ ple come to me to inquire of God. When they have a dispute, it comes to me, and I judge between a man and his neighbor, and make known the statutes of God and His laws." And Moses1 father-in-law said to him, "The thing that you are do­ ing is not good. You will surely wear out, both yourself and these people who are with you, for the task is too heavy for you; you cannot do it alone. Now listen to me: I shall give you counsel and God be with you. (lb) You be the 1. Developing Organizational Structures people's representative before God a~nd lb. Work specialization": identify you bring the disputes to God. JY) Then and group work to be performed teach them the statutes and the laws, 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility and make known to them the way in which Delegating to teach TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities they are to walk, and the work they are to do. Furthermore, you shall select out of all the people able men who fear God, men of truth, those who hate dishonest gain; and you shall place these over them, as leaders of thousands, of hun­ dreds, of fifties and of tens. (2) And 2* Delegating Authority and Responsibility let them judge the people at all times; and let it be that every major dispute they will bring to you, but every minor dispute they themselves will judge. So" it will be easier for you, and they will bear the burden with you.

EXODUS 18:24-26

So Moses listened to his father-in-law, and did all that he had said. And Moses chose able men out of all Israel, and made them heads over the people, leaders of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties and of tens. And they judged the people at all times; the difficult dispute they would bring to Moses, but every minor dispute they themselves would judge. TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

EXODUS 24:13, 14

So (la) Moses arose with Joshua his ser­ 1. Developing Organizational Structures vant, and Moses went up to the mountain la. Chain of command: Joshua is re­ of God. But to the elders he said, "Wait ferred to as a servant or assis­ here for us until we return to you. And tant to Moses. behold (2) Aaron and Hur are with you; 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility whoever has a legal matter, let him ap­ proach them."

EXODUS 28:3

"And you shall speak to (lb) all the 1. D eve!oping 0rg an i z at i onal St ructure s skillful persons whom I have endowed lb. Work_specialization: Special with the spirit of wisdom, that they . skills should be delegated for make Aaron's garments to consecrate him, tailoring that he may minister as priest of me."

EXODUS 35:30-35; 36:1

Then Moses said to the sons of Israel, "See, the Lord has called by name (2) 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility: Bezalel. . . . in wisdom, in under­ General superintendent of building and standing, in knowledge, and in all furnishing the tabernacle craftsmanship; to make designs for working in gold and in silverand in bronze, and in the cutting of stones for settings and in the carving of TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities wood, so as to perform in every inventive work. He also has put in his neart to (lb)*teach, both he and Oholiab, the son 1. Developing Organizational Structures of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan. He lb. Work specialization: Bezalel and has filled them with skill to perforin Oholiab skilled in craftsmanship every work of an engraver and of a de- signer and of an embroiderer, in blue and in purple and in scarlet material, and in fine linen, and of a weaver, as per­ formers of every work and makers of de­ signs. Now Bezalel and Oholiab, (lb) and Other skilled people work under every skillful person in whom the Lord supervision of Bezalel and has put skill and understanding to know Oholiab how to perform all the work in the con­ struction of the sanctuary, shall per­ form in accordance with all that the Lord has commanded."

NUMBERS 1:4, 17, 18

"With you, moreover, (2) there shall be 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility: a man of each tribe, each one head of Responsibility divided among households his father's household^ ^ 1 7* So Moses within tribe and Aaron took these men who had been designated by name, and they assembled all the congregation together on the TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities first of the second month. (lb) Then 1. Developing Organizational Structures they registered by ancestry in their lb. Work specialization: Identifyand families, by their fathers' households, group work to be performed (A according to the number of names, from prototype of draft board) twenty years old and upward, head by head.

NUMBERS 3:5-10

Then the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, "Bring the (2) tribe of Levi near and 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility set them before Aaron the priest, that Responsibility of temple duties dele- they may serve him. And they shall 'per­ gated to Levites- form the duties for him and for the whole congregation before the tent of the meeting, to do the service of the tabernacle. . . . they shall also keep the furnishings of the tent of meeting, along with the duties of the sons of Israel, to do the service of the taber­ nacle. (2) You shall thus give the Le­ Sons assigned certain clans vites to Aaron and to his sons; they are wholly given to him from among the sons of Israel. So you shall appoint Aaron and his sons that they may keep their priesthood. . . ." TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NUMBERS 3:25-27

(2) Now the duties of the sons of Ger- 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility shon in the tent of meeting involvecf~the Groups had unique assignments under tabernacle and the tent, its covering, specified leadership and were assigned and the screen for the doorway of the to specific geographical locations. tent of meeting, and the hangings of the court, and the screen for the doorway of the court, which is around the taber­ nacle and the altar, and its cords, ac­ cording to all the service concerning . them. And of Kohath was the family of the Amramites and the family of the Izharites and the family of the Hebron- ites and the family of the Uzzielites; these were the families of the Kohath- ites.

NUMBERS 3:31, 32

(2) Now their duties involved the ark, 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility the table, the lampstand, the altars, and the utensils of the sanctuary with which they minister, and the screen, and all the service concerning them; and (la) Eleazar the son of Aaron the 1. Developing Organizational Structures priest was the chief of the leaders of la. Chain of command: Eleazar chief Levi, and had the oversight of those who over leaders in sanctuary perform the duties of the sanctuary. TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NUMBERS 3:36, 37, 38

(2) Now the appointed duties of the sons 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility of Merari involved the frames of the tabernacle, its bars, its pillars, its sockets, all its equipment, and the ser­ vice concerning them, and the pillars around the court with their sockets and their pegs and their cords. Now those who were to camp before the tabernacle eastward, before the tent of meeting toward the sunrise, are Moses and Aaron and his sons, performing the duties of the sanctuary for the obligation of the sons of Israel; but the layman coming near was to be put to death.

NUMBERS 4:16

"And the (2) responsibility of Eleazar 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility the son of Aaron the priest is the oil General superintendent of the entire for the light and the fragrant incense tabernacle and the continual grain offering and the anointing oil--the responsibility of all the tabernacle* and of all that is in it, with the sanctuary and its fur- nishings. TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NUMBERS 4:35

(2) 'from thirty years and upward even 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility to fifty years old, everyone who en­ Work in the tent of the meeting tered the service for work in the tent ■ of meeting.

NUMBERS 4:39

(2) From thirty years and upward even Work in the tent of the meeting to fifty years old, everyone who en­ tered the service for work in the tent of meeting.

NUMBERS 4:42

(2) And the numbered men of the families Work in the tent of the meeting of the sons of Merari by their families, by their fathers’ households.

NUMBERS 4:47

(2) From thirty years and upward even to Do the work of service and the work of fifty years old, everyone who could enter bearing burdens in the tent to do the work of service and the work of carrying in the tent of meeting. TABLE 9. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NUMBERS 4:49

(2) According to the commandment of the 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility Lord through Moses, they were numbered, Do the work of service and the work of everyone by his serving or carrying; bearing burdens in the tent thus these were his numbered men just as the Lord had commanded Moses.

NUMBERS 27:22, 23

And Moses did just as the Lord com­ manded him; and (2) he took Joshua and Officially commissioned with full au set him before Eleazar the priest, and thority before all the congregation. Then he laid his hands on him and commissioned him, just as the Lord had spoken through Moses.

DEUTERONOMY 1:15, 16

(2) "So I took the heads of your tribes, 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility wise and experienced men, and appointed them heads over you, leaders of thou­ sands, and of hundreds, of fifties and of tens, and officers for your tribes. Then I charged your judges at that time, saying, 'Hear the cases between your fellow-countrymen, and judge righteously between a man and his fellow-countryman, or the alien who is with him.1" 120

Principles of Organizing Employed by Joshua

Two instances were found of Joshua's delegating au­ thority and responsibility within the organizing function:

Joshua allowed the people to select twelve men as their representatives to carry stone from the Jordan for the pur­ pose of constructing a monument. Joshua then delegated the authority and responsibility to these men and carefully out­ lined the purpose and the procedure to be followed.

On another occasion, Joshua allowed the people to se­ lect a mediator from each tribe, to whom he then delegated the authority and responsibility for communicating with the other tribes who had offended them. This instance illustrates the effectiveness of delegation in dealing with problems of communication between large groups of people. The delegates were able to resolve differences and to avert an impending war.

Principles of organizing employed by Joshua are pre­ sented in Table 10. Scripture passages which illustrate activities are quoted,and the principles employed are out­ lined. The record of Joshua's activities provides two ex­ amples of delegating authority and responsibility. TABLE 10 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA

.1. 1 .. . —

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

JOSHUA 4:4, 5

(2) So Joshua called the twelve men whom 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility he had appointed from the sons of Israel, Identify and group work to be per- one man from each tribe; and Joshua said formed, entrust responsibility to to them, "Cross again to the ark of the others Lord your God into the middle of the Jordan, and each of you take up a stone on his shoulder, according to the num­ ber of the tribes of the sons of Israel."

JOSHUA 22:11-15, 16

And the sons of Israel heard it said, "Behold, the sons of Reuben and the sons of Gad and the half-tribe of Ma- nasseh have built an altar at the frontier of the land of Canaan, in the region of the Jordan, on the side be­ longing to the sons of Israel. . . ." the whole congregation. . . . gathered themselves at Shiloh, to go up against them in war. Then (2) the sons of Israel Entrust authority to others. Joshua sent to the sons of Reuben and to the allowed mediators to settle dispute sons of Gad and to the half-tribe of Manasseh, into the land of Gilead, TABLE 10. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA Ccont'd}

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, and with him ten chiefs, one chief for each*fathers1 household from each of the tribes of Israel; and each one of them was the head of his father's house­ hold among the thousands of Israel. 123

Principles of Organizing Employed by David

The principles of organizing employed by David include developing organizational structures, establishing relation­ ships, and delegating authority and responsibility.

Developing Organizational Structures

David reigned over Judah in Hebron seven years and six months, years characterized by wars. When David*s kingdom was restored to include all of the tribes of Israel, he in­ troduced changes in his organizational structure. He re­ tained some subordinates who had been effective during the wars; Zadok and Ahimelech continued to be priests; and Joab, general of the army, was retained as military chief. This first organizational structure is chaTacterized by simplicity; staff relationships existed with his recorder and secretary, line relationships were established with the ecclesiastical, military, security, and other ministers.

Shortly after David became king over all Israel, an­ other rebellion arose, led by Sheba. After the war with

Sheba, David established a new position in government, when

Adoram became tax collector. At this time Sheva replaced

Seraiah as secretary and Ira was appointed a personal priest to the king.

Later in his reign, David reorganized his organizational structure to provide for better order in government. This model, observed t3y him in his latter years, also provided a pattern for his announced successor, Solomon, to follow. The

r 124 priesthood and prophesiers were organized for spiritual ser­ vice to the people, the temple guards provided safety and as­ sured compliance with the regulations regarding worship and sacrifice, and the civil officers were organized to provide for justice over the people. The military organizational branch secured the country with a manpower of 288,000 men.

Political needs of the kingdom were cared for under a structure of officers representing each tribe. Personal at­ tendants of the king and his sons were appointed, and the maintenance of the economy was under the jurisdiction of dele­ gated officers. The names and rank of all those involved in

David's core organizational structure are listed in Chart A.

The most able men were utilized in the most responsible positions of leadership. Zadok was priest over sixteen sub­ ordinates because more leadership ability was available in the clans that he represented than in the other clans. David considered the men's previous experience and loyalty in as­ signing those positions. The span of control, as illustrated by Chart A, shows eight men reported directly to David, and those eight men had a reasonable number of subordinates re­ porting to them; they could adequately control those under them.

A unity of command may be ascertained within David's organizational structure; also, three prophesiers were ap­ pointed, and each of the three had men responsible to them alone. Chart A shows four men directly responsible to Asaph, 125

CH DAVID’S FORM Kin Azmaueth Chief Financial Officer of Palace Treasuries

i Priesthood Ahimelech 1 Zadok Prophesiers Temple Guardi Civil Of 8 tribes 16 tribes I I I Meshelemiah Chenan Asaph Heman Jeduthun Jehoiarib Jedalah Harlm Sergeants Hashabiah Seorim Zacuur. Bukklah Gedaltah Zechariah (West) Malchijah Joseph Mattaniah Zeri Jedia-el Mijamin Nethaniah Uzziel Jeshaih Jathni-et Hakkoz Asharelah Shebuel Shlmei Elam Jesuha Jeremoth Hashabiah Jeho-hanan Shecaniah Hannaniah Mattithiah Elie-ho-enai Eliashib Hannani I Jakim Eliathah 1 Huppah Geddalti Gatekeepers Jeshebe-ab Romanti-ezer 4000 Biigah Joshdekashah 1 Immer Mallothi Hexir Hothlr 1 1 — Happizzez Mahaz-loth Shelemiah Zechariah 0 Pethahia East Gate North Gate S Jehezkel Jachin Master Musicians Gamul 288 Deliah Maariah Ahijah CHART A >RMAL ORGANIZATION King David Jonathon - Scribe I Jeniel - Tutor Hushai - Advisor Ahithophel - Counselor Jehoiada & Abathar - Asst. Counselors

Military il Officers Treasury Maintenance Politica! I___ ! 1 12 Tribes of Israel Joab enaniah Jonathon (Month) Chief Financial Officer Regional Eliezer Ezri — ----- iiah Jerijah Treasuries Jashobeam Shephatiah __ (other tribes) Shime-i-Wlne Yards_ T------1------r Pnrlai Hashabiah __ Cities Villages Fortresses Zabdi-W ine ____ Benaniah Production & Storage Zadok . . Son of High Priest

Baal-hanan Olive & _ Flihll Asahel Sycamore Trees Omri Shamuth .

Joash-Olive O il___ Ishmaiah ___ Ira

Shitrai ------Jeremoth___ Helez _. Cattle on Plains ! , 1------Hnshea Rihhpnaj i Obed-Edom Shuppim Hosah Shaphat ___ te South Gate West Gate Shallecheth Cattle in Valleys Joel Ahi-e?er Gate Idrio Waharal Obil-Camels__ Ja-asiel Benaniah Jehdeiah-Donkeys___ From Pirathon A re I Jaziz - Shuep___ Heirlai 126 fourteen to Heman, and six to Jeduthun. In the temple guard structure, a unity of command is evident, with six sergeants reporting to Meshelemiah. However, 4,000 gatekeepers re­ ported to the six sergeants; thus, the Scriptural account does not reveal a clear picture of unity of command on that level.

Civil officers reported directly to Chenaniah and the military commanders reported to Joab. Ezri was in charge of all those responsible for caretaking, and Jonathan was chief of the regional treasurers of the villages, cities, and fortresses. The priesthood, too, observed unity of command; eight priests were subordinate to Ahimelek; sixteen, to Zadok.

Another apparent exception to the principle of unity of command may have existed in David's organizational structure.

The political representatives may have reported directly to the king because no record is given of a leader over their group.

Delegating Authority and Responsibility

Before David ascended to the throne over Hebron, sev­ eral men from the tribe of Gad came to assist him at Ziklag.

They were disciplined men, trained in military exercises for both offense and defense, officers of the militia of Gad who had at their command thousands of men. They were daring men who helped David ascend to the throne of Judah. David dele- * • gated authority and responsibility to them. 127

In his preparation to defeat Absalom's rebellion, David divided the army, delegating one third of it each to Joab,

Abishai, and Ittai. This division provided for a better span of control and resulted in the total defeat of Absalom's party and the total dispersion of his party.

David's use of principles of organizing is shown in

Table 11. Scripture passages are quoted and specific prin­ ciples are identified in which developing organizational structures and delegating authority and responsibility are evident.

\ TABLE 11 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

2 SAMUEL 8:15-18

So David reigned over all Israel; and David administered righteousness and justice for all his people. (1) And 1. Developing Organizational Structures: Joab the son of Zeruiah was over the David's earliest organizational struc army, and Jehoshaphat the son of ture may be diagrammed as follows: Ahilud was recorder. And Zadok the son of Ahitub and Ahimelech the son of David Abiathar were priests, and Seraiah was secretary" And Benaiah the son of Jehoshaphat, Jehoiada was over the Cherethites and recorder the Pelethites; and David's sons~~were r chief ministers. Seraiah, secretary

Priesthood Military Palace Chief Zadok Joab guards ministers Ahimelech Benaiah David's sons TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

2 SAMUEL 18:1, 2

(la) Then David numbered the people who 1. Developing Organizational Structures were with him and set over them com­ la. Chain of command: Numbered and manders of thousands and commanders of organized for ¥etter span of con­ hundreds. And David sent the people trol out, one third under the command of Joab,"one third under the command of Abishai" ! I . and one third under The command of Ittai the Gittite. And the king said to the people, "I myself will surely go out with you also."

2 SAMUEL 20:23-26 New appointments made: (1) Now Joab was over the whole army of David Israel and Benaiah the son of Jehoida was over the Cherethites and the Peleth- Jehoshaphat. recorder ites; and Adoram was over the forced labor, and Jehoshaphat the son of Sheva. secretary Ahilud was the recorder; and Sheva was scribe, and Zadok and~Abiathar were Ira, personal priest priests; and Ira the Jarite was also a priest to David. “I Priests Military Palace Treasurer Zadok Joab guards Adoram Abiathar Benaiah 129 3 mighty men TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 11:11, 12, 20

And these constitute the list of the mighty men whom David had: (1) Ja- 1. Developing Organizational Structures shobeam, the son of a Hachmonite, the chief of the thirty; he lifted up his spear against three hundred whom he killed at one time. And after him was Eleazar the son of Dodo, the Ahohite, who was one of the three mighty men. As for Abshai the brother of Joab, he was chief of the thirty, and he swung his spear against three hundred and killed them; and he had a name as well as the thirty.

1 CHRONICLES 12:8-13

And from the Gadites there came over to David in the stronghold in the wilderness (lb) mighty men of valor, men trained lb. Work specialization: Eleven for war, wno could handle shield and highly trained and experienced spear. . . . Ezer was the first, Obadiah men charged with responsibility the second, Eliab the third, Mishmannah in a hierarchy of importance the fourth, Jeremiah the fifth, Attai the sixth, Elie! the seventh, Johannan the eighth. Elzabad the ninth, Jeremiah 130 the tenth, Machbannai the eleventh. TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 15:16-24

(lb) Then David spoke to the chiefs of 1. Developing' Organizational Structures the Levites to appoint their relatives lb. Work specialization: Communicated the singers, with instruments of music, an order to the officers to ap­ harps, sounds of joy. So the Levites ap­ point relatives for specific pointed Heraan the son of Joel, and his positions of singers and other relatives, Asaph the son of Berechiah; musicians and of gatekeepers and from the sons of Merari their rela­ tives , Ethan the son of Kushaiah, and with them their relatives of the second rank, Zechariah, Ben, Jazziel, Shemi- ramoth, Jehiel, Unni, Eliab, Benaiah, Maaseiah, Mattihiah, Eliphelehu, Mik- neiah, Obededom, and Jeiel, the gate­ keepers. So the singers, Heman, Asaph, and Ethan were appointed to sound aloud cymbals of bronze; and Zechariah, Aziel, Shemiramoth, Jehiel, Unni, Eliab, Maa­ seiah, and Benaiah, with harps tuned to alamoth; and Mattithiah, Eliphelehu, Mikneiah, Obededom, Jeiel, and Azaziah, to lead with lyres tuned to the shemin- ith. And Chenaniah, chief of the Levites, was in charge of the singing; he gave instruction in singing because he was skillful. And Berechiah and Elkanah were gatekeepers for the ark. And TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

Shebaniah, Joshaphat, Nethanel, Amasai, Zechariah, Benaiah, and Eliezer, the priests, blew the trumpets before the ark of God. Obededom and Jehiah also were gatekeepers for the ark.

1 CHRONICLES 15:22

(lb) And Chenaniah, chief of the Levites, 1. Developing Organizational Structures was in charge of the singing; he gave lb. Work specialization: Special instruction in singing because he was qualifications for position skillful.

1 CHRONICLES 23:3-6

(lb) And the Levites were numbered from Divided Levites into groups for thirty years old and upward, and their overseeing the work number by census of men was 38,000. Of these, 24,000 were to oversee the worIT~ of the house of the Lord; and 6,000 were officers and judges, and 4,000 were gate­ keepers, and 4,600 were praising the Lord with the~instruments which David made for giving praise. And David di­ vided them into divisions according to the sons of Levi: Gershom, Kohath, and

Merari. 132 TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 25:1

(lb) Moreover David and the Commanders 1. Developing Organizational Structures of the army set apart for the service lb. Work specialization: Appointments some of~the sons of Asaph and of Heman for spiritual needs and of Jeduthun who were to prophesy with lyres, harps and cymbals.

1 CHRONICLES 25:9

(lc) Now the first lot came out for Asaph lc. Span of control: Duties of musi to Joseph, the second for Gedaliah, he cians were supervised in groups with his relatives and sons were twelve. of 12, 288 in all

1 CHRONICLES 26:1, 6, 12

• (lb) For the divisions of the gatekeepers lb. Work specialization: Supportive there were of the Korahites. 7^ . they ~~function of gatekeepers were mighty men of valor. T . . To these divisions of the gatekeepers, the chief men, were given duties like their rela­ tives to minister in the house of the Lord. TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture.Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 26:20, 23, 28, 30, 31

(lb) And the Levites had charge of the 1. Developing Organizational Structures treasures of the house of God and of the • lb. Work specialization! Under David's treasurers of dedicated gifts. For their authority were the priests who office is to assist the sonsof Aaron performed spiritual services with the service of the house of the Lord, in the courts and in the chambers, and in the purifying of all holy things, even the work of the service of the house of God. . . . to praise the Lord. . . . and to offer all burnt offerings to the Lord. . . .

1 CHRONICLES 26:29

(lb) As for the Izharites, Chananiah and Judicial matters assigned to civil his sons were assigned to outside duties^ authorities for Israel, as officers and judges.

1 CHRONICLES 27:1

(1) Now this is the enumeration of the la. Chain of command sons of Israel, the heads of fathers' households, the commanders of thousands and of hundreds, and their officers who served the king in all the affairs of the divisions which came in and went out TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

month by month throughout all the months of the year, each division num­ bering 24,000.

1 CHRONICLES 27:16-22

(1) Now in charge of the tribes of 1. Developing Organizational Structures: Israel: chief officer for the Reuben- Political officers in charge of each ites, Eliezer. ! I ~for the Simeonites, of the tribes represented the people Shephatiah. T . . for Levi, Hashabiah. equally. ~ . . for Aaron, Zadok; for Judali, Elihu. . . . for Issachar, Omri, for Zebulun, Ishmaiah. . . . for Naphtali, Jeremoth.~ i . for the sons of Ephraim, Hoshea. . . . for the half­ tribe of Manasseh, Joel. . . . for the half-tribe of Manasseh in Gilead, Iddo. . . . for Benjamin, Jaasiel. . . . for Dan, Azarel. . . . These were the princes- of the tribes of Israel. TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 27:25-31a

(lb) Now Azmaveth the son of Adiel had 1. Developing Organizational Structures charge of the king’s storehouses. And lb, Work specialization: Jonathan the son of Uzziah had charge of Azmaveth King's treasuries the storehouses in the country, in the Jonathan treasuries in countTy, cities, in the villages, and in the cities, villages, towers. And Ezri the son of Chelub had towers charge of the agricultural workers who Ezri agriculture tilled the soil. And Shimei the Ra- Shimei vineyards mathite had charge of the vineyards; Zabdi wine (production man­ and Zabdi the Shiphmite had charge of ager) the produce of the vineyards stored in Baal-hanan forest the winecellars. And Baal-hanan the Joash oil Gederite had charge of the olive and Shitrai herds in Sharon sycamore trees in the shephelah; and Shaphat herds in the valleys Joash had charge of the stores of oil. Obil camels And Shitrai the Sharonite had charge of Jehdeiah donkeys the cattle which were grazing in Sharon; Jaziz flocks and Shaphat the son of Adlai had charge of the cattle in the valleys. And Obil the Ishmaelite had charge of the camels; and Jehdeiah the Meronothite had charge of the donkeys. And Jaziz the Hagrite had charge of the flocks. All these were overseers of the property which belonged to King David. 136 TABLE 11. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 CHRONICLES 27:31b-33

(1) All these were overseers of the prop­ 1. Developing Organizational Structures erty which belong to King David. Also Jonathan, David's uncle, was a counselor, a man of understanding, and a scribe; and Jehiel the son of Hachmoni tutored the king1s sons. And Ahithophel was counselor to the king; and Hushai the the Archite was the king's friend. 138

Principles of Organizing Employed by Solomon

According to the Biblical record, examples of Solo­ mon's implementation of the function of organizing are his developing an organizational structure and his delegating au­ thority and responsibility.

Developing Organizational Structures

Solomon's vast kingdom was organized for effective and efficient supply of the needs of the people. The offices in­ stituted by his father, David, were administered by Solomon's subordinates, and the appointment of personnel in other posi­ tions became necessary as the population grew. The construc­ tion of the palace and temple also necessitated further ex­ pansion in the organizational structure. Chart B represents

Solomon's formal organizational structure, showing both line and staff positions. Staff relationships in Solomon's formal organization included Zabud, the king's personal priest;

Jehoshaphat, historian; Elihoreph, secretary; Ahijah, secre­ tary; and Ahishar, manager of palace affairs.

Four subordinates were responsible for carrying out the affairs of the kingdom: Azariah was prime minister and man­ ager of the twelve officials; Adoniram was superintendent of public works; Benaiah was commander in chief of the army; and

Azariah, son of Zadok, was High Priest. Each of these offi­ cials had subordinates to help accomplish the objectives of the kingdom. C H A R T B SOLOMON’S FORMAL ORGANIZATION King Solomon Zabud Elihoreph Personal Priest Secretary

Jehoshaphat Ahijah Historian Secretary

Ahishar Manager of Palace Affairs

I Adoniram Benaiah Azariah Azariah Superintendent of Commander in High Priest (Son of Nathan) Public Works Chief of Army Prime Minister & Manager of Officials I I— i Hu ram Zadok Abrathar Superintendent of Priest Priest Construction Calvarymen

Ben-Hur___ 3,600 overseers Soldiers _

Ben-Deker — Charioters. 80,000 70,000 Ben-Hesed — Lumber Men Laborers Ben-abinadab_

Baana____

Jehosophat__

Ahimaaz__

Shimei.

Baana.

ahenadab_

Ben-Geber__ 139

Geber — 140

Delegating Authority and Responsibility T

Solomon delegated authority to subordinates to perform those tasks for which they were specially qualified. In this way he assured the greatest organizational efficiency and maintained a high quality of performance and products. Pur­ chasing agents were given the responsibility of obtaining horses and chariots. Craftsmen were imported from Sidonia to work with Israelites on fabrics and metals for the tabernacle.

Sidonians were also used to direct the work of lumbermen in the construction project.

Table 12 presents the Scriptural record of the princi­ ples of organizing employed by Solomon, including developing organizational structures, and delegating authority and responsibility. TABLE 12

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 KINGS 4:1-4, 19

Now King Solomon was Ring over all Israel. 1. Developing Organizational Structures: And (1) these were his officials; Azariah Well-defined line of authority a n d r e ­ the son of Zadok was the priest; Eli- sponsibility from Solomon to his phoreph and Ahijah, the sons of Shisha subordinates. The organizational were secretaries; Jehoshaphat the son of structure is shown in Chart B. Ahilud was the recorder; antf~Benaiah the the son of Jehoida was over the army; and Zadok and Abiathar were priests; . . . Geber the son of Uri in the land of Gilead, the country of Sihon king of the Amorites and of Og king of Bashan; and he was the only deputy who was in the land.

1 KINGS 5:6

Now therefore command that they cut for me cedars from Lebanon, and (2) my ser­ 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility vants will be with your servants: and I Skilled men to train and supervise will give you wages for your servants laborers according to all that you say, for you know that there is no one among us who knows how to cut timber like the Si- donians. TABLE 12. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

1 KINGS 5:13-16

Now King Solomon levied forced laborers from all Israel; and the Clb) forced 1. Developing Organizational Structures laborers numbered 30,000 men. And he lb. Work specialization sent them to Lebanon, 10,000 a month in relays; they were in Lebanon a month and two months at home. (lc) And lc. Span of control Adoniram was over the forced laborers. Now Solomon had (lb) 70,000 transporters, lb. Work specialization and 80,000 hewers of stone in the moun­ tains, besides Solomon's (lc) 3,300 lc. Span of control chief deputies who were over the project and who ruled ~over the people who were doing the work"

2 CHRONICLES 1:16, 17

And Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt and from Kue; (2) the king's 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility: traders procured them from- Kue for a Delegated authority to purchasing price. And they imported chariots from agents Egypt for 600- sheke 1s of si1ver apiece , and horses for 150 apiece, and by the same means they exported them to all kings of the Hittites and the kings of Aram. TABLE 12. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

2 CHRONICLES 2:7

And now (lb) send me a skilled man to 1. Developing Organizational Structures work in gold, silver, brass and iron, lb. Work specialization: Delegated and in purple, crimson and violet fab­ responsibility based on skill rics, and who knows how to make engrav­ ings, to work with the skilled men whom 1 have in Judah and Jerusalem, whom David my father provided.

2 CHRONICLES 2:17, 18

And Solomon numbered all the aliens who were in the land of Israel, following the census which his father David had taken; and 153,600 were found. And he appointed 70,000 of them to carry loads, and 80,000 to quarry stones in the moun­ tains, and (lc) 3,600 supervisors to lc. Span of control: Laborers super make the people work. vised by overseers 144 Principles of Organizing Employed by Nehemiah

Illustrations in the book of Nehemiah show Nehemiah delegating authority and responsibility to his people.

Delegating Authority and Responsibility

Nehemiah delegated specific tasks and territories to each of his subordinates in order to rebuild the wall of

Jerusalem. The reconstruction was- accomplished in sections by designated individuals or groups, for which, in most in­ stances, a supervisor is named in the record when more than two were involved on one section of the project. Chart C indicates the assignments given and the laborers delegated to accomplish the task.

Hanani and Hananiah were appointed by Nehemiah as governors to provide for public peace and safety in his ab­ sence. Hanani had proved himself in integrity and loyalty, and Hananiah was selected because he had been a faithful ruler of the palace. Nehemiah left orders with them concerning security procedures.

Table 13 presents examples of Nehemiah's- activities in delegating authority and responsibility, including Scripture passages and an outline of organizing tasks performed by

Nehemiah. CHART C NEHEMIAH*S DELEGATION OF REPONSIBILITY

Sheep Gate Eliashib Priests

Adjacent wall Zaccur Men of Jericho

Fish Gate Sons of Hassinaah

Adjacent walls Meremoth, Meshullam, Zadok, Tekoites

Old Gate Jehoida, Meshullam

Adjacent wall Meletiah

Adjacent wall Jadon Men of Gibeon, Men of Mizpah

Adjacent wall Uzziel, Hananiah, Rephaiah, Jedaiah Hattush, Malchijah, Hanun

Refuse Gate Malchij ah

Fountain Gate Shallum

Adjacent wall Nehemiah, son of Azbuk Re hum Levites

Adjacent walls Hashabiah, Bavai, Ezer, Baruch Mememoth, priests, Benjamin, Hashub Azariah, Binnui, Palal, Pedaiah, Nethinims

Water Gate Tekoites

Horse Gate Priests

Adjacent walls Zadok, Shemaiah, Hananiah, Hanun, Meshullum, Malchiah

Inspection Gate Goldsmiths and merchants

Adjacent wall Goldsmiths and merchants TABLE 13

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NEHEMIAH 3:1-31

(2) Then Eliashib the high priest arose 2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility: with his brothers the priests and built. Chart C lists assignments and laborers . . . After him Malchijah one of the organized by Nehemiah goldsmiths, carried out repairs as far as the house of the temple servants and of the merchants, in front of the Inspec­ tion Gate and as far as the upper room of the corner.

NEHEMIAH 7:1-3

Now it came about when the wall was rebuilt and I had set up the doors, and the gate­ keepers and the singers and the Levites were appointed, that I put (2) Hanani my Appointed Hanani and Hanaiah to Tule brother, and Hanaiah the commander of tne over Jerusalem fortress, in charge of Jerusalem, for he was a faithful man and feared God more than many. Then I said to them, "Do not let the gates of Jerusalem be opened until the sun is hot, and while they are stand­ ing guard, let them shut and bolt the dooTS. Also appoint guards from the in­ habitants of Jerusalem, each at his post, and each in front of his own house." TABLE 13. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities

NEHEMIAH 11:9

(1) Ahd Joel the son of Zichri was their 1. Developing Organizational Structures: overseer, and Judah the son of Hasseriuah , Joel was overseer of Jerusalem; Judah was second in command of the city. was second in command.

NEHEMIAH 11:12-14

(lb) And their kinsmen who performed the lb. Work specialization work of the temple, 822; and Adaiah. ! T ., and his kinsmen. ^ ! I 242; and Ama^hsai. . . . and their brothers, valiant war­ riors ,1 2 8 . (lc) And their overseer^was lc. Span of control: Overseer of 128 Zabdiel, the son of Haggedolim. warriors

NEHEMIAH 11:16-19

And Shabbethai and Jozabad, from the leaders of the Levites, (lb) who were in lb. Work specialization charge of the outside work of the house of God; (la) and Mattaniah the son of la. Chain of command: Asaph leader and Mica, the son of Zabdi, the son of Asaph, Bakbukiah was second in command who was the leader in beginning the thanks­ giving at prayer, and Bakbukiah, the second among his brethren; and Abda the son of Shammura, the son of Galal, the

son of Jeduthun. All the Levites in the 147 TABLE 13. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Organizing Activities holy city were 284. Also the gate­ keepers, Akkub, Talmon, and their breth­ ren. . . . 172.

NEHEMIAH 11:21

But the temple servants were living in Ophel, (la] and Ziha and Gishpa were in 1. Developing Organizational Structures charge of the temple servants. la. ChaTin ofcommandl Ziha and Gishpa oversee templeservants Summary

This study identified a number of organizational activities performed by Biblical leaders. No formal or­ ganizational plan is recorded for Moses’ organization, but evidence was found of his establishing a chain of command, directing work specialization, and delegating authority and responsibility.

Little is found in the Biblical record regarding

Joshua’s organizational structure, although two instances are recorded in which he delegated authority and responsibility.

The Bible shows evidence of David's organizational ability through the organizational structures described and through the work specialization utilized. His organizational span of control and chain of command are each recorded in two instances.

This study has further identified organizational struc­ tures under Solomon’s reign, his use of chain of command, ex­ amples of work specialization and span of control, and some instances of delegating authority and responsibility.

Although Nehemiah's organizational structure is unde­ veloped as far as the record gives evidence, there are some examples given of delegating authority and responsibility, span of control, work specialization, and chain of command.

Table 14 shows the number of examples of organizing activities found in this study for each of the Biblical leaders. 150 TABLE 14 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES

Moses Joshua David Solomon Nehemiah

Developing Organiza­ tional Structures 3 0 5 1 1

Chain of Command 2 0 * 2 1 2

Work Specialization 5 0 10 3 2

Span of Control 0 0 1 3 1

Delegating Au­ thority and Responsibility 10 2 : 0 5 2

i CHAPTER VI

THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: LEADING

Leading as part of management is the work a manager performs to cause people to take effective action, whereas planning and organizing involve preparation for the action.

In the leadership role, managers frequently deal face to face with people, communicating with them as well as di­ recting, motivating, developing, selecting, and compensating employees.

Directing People

In the process of directing people, a manager is re­ sponsible for issuing orders, giving advice, leading groups and individuals to accomplish certain objectives, and as­ suring just treatment for all members of the organization.

Newman, Summer, and Warren (1972) state that directing peo­ ple probably is most difficult for many good managers be­ cause: "It calls for a great deal of self-control and genuine respect for others, and even when you can control yourself, your interaction with each subordinate is distinct, changing, and somewhat unpredictable." (p. 553)

151 152

Motivating People

Motivating people is the work a manager performs to

inspire, encourage, or impel people to take required action.

To inspire his people, a manager must infuse a spirit of willingness into people to perform most effectively, accord­

ing to Allen (1964). Encouragement involves stimulation to

do what has to be done through praise, approval, and help.

The manager's function to impel requires him to force or in­

cite action through compulsion, coercion, or fear if

necessary.

Two central principles relating to successful motiva­

tion are concerned with participation and communication.

Motivation to accomplish results tends to increase as people

are given opportunity to participate in the decisions af­

fecting those results. Motivation to accomplish results

tends to increase as people are informed about matters af­

fecting those results (Allen, 1964). Motivation can be im­ proved, according to Allen (1964), by practicing four im­ portant activities: (1) know your people, (2) develop a

feeling of proprietorship, (3) encourage teamwork, and

(4) develop friendly competition.

Compensating People

Compensating people is awarding remuneration in the

form of wages or promotion in exchange for work performed.

Managers have found that by compensating people liberally 153

through wages or promotion and other benefits as a reward

for services, people have been motivated to do a better job

for the organization.

Developing People

Developing people is the work a manager performs to help people improve their knowledge, attitudes, and skills and to prepare them to handle more responsibility. Allen

(1964) lists three basic activities necessary in the de­ velopmental process of improving the knowledge, attitudes, and skills of people: (p. 305)

1. Performance appraisal, the work a manager performs

to evaluate the performance and capabilities of

himself and his people.

2. Performance counseling, the discussing of his per­

formance with a person whose work has been ap­

praised.

3. Developmental activities, which consist of coach­

ing, job rotation, courses and seminars, and com­

mittee participation.

Selecting People

Selecting people is the work a manager performs to choose people for positions in the organization. In the se­ lection of the right people, the activities of compensating, motivation, developing, directing, and communicating will become less difficult. If the right person is selected for 154

the job, managing the subordinate generally is easier. An­

other reason for selecting the right person is the expense

involved in hiring and training people. Also important to

the selection process is matching qualifications of prospec­

tive employees with organizational needs. Hiring workers

for certain positions that require expertise or knowledge

in specific areas is called work specialization. Thus,

knowledgeable selection can help the manager throughout the

total organization. i

Communicating

Communicating is the work a manager performs to create understanding, and to transmit and clarify messages and in­

structions. An adequate two-way communications structure operates to provide for harmony of objectives between su­ periors and subordinates. An important part of the communi­ cations process is that of asking superiors, colleagues, and subordinates for advice or counsel.

Another important aspect of the communications process is that of understanding through listening. By understand­ ing, the manager will not only hear ideas and interpret them correctly, but will be able to interpret the meanings behind the words through nonverbal cues associated with dialogue.

Principles of Leading Employed by Moses

The Bible provides evidence that Moses demonstrated his leadership in several ways. He carefully and firmly directed 155 his people, communicating his ideas and listening to his subordinates, selecting, developing, and compensating them.

Directing People

Moses, recognized by the people as having divine au­ thority, gave orders regarding the Passover that were fol­ lowed by the people in every detail. They respected his direction and were willing to follow orders given by Moses.

In the war against Midian, Moses directed the people to arm a thousand men from each of the tribes. Moses* orders defined the purpose of the war, gave the reason for the war, and defined the selection of warriors. The most able men were selected from each tribe, and an officer was appointed to direct each of the twelve regiment's under the direction of

Phinehas.

Communicating

During the difficult years of wandering in the wilder­ ness, the people of Israel sometimes questioned Moses* lead­ ership. In the face of suffering and despair, the people became quarrelsome and complained against Moses, who used these opportunities to listen to the peoples' complaints and to reassure them. He offered comfort to them in the form of reminders of God's promises that they would reach Canaan and expressed confidence in God. Moses retained his composure in many of these instances and answered their charges 156

calmly. Moses reproved them mildly by showing them that

their complaints were a lack of faith in God.

Moses and Aaron became spokesmen for the people of

Israel to Pharaoh, who was holding them as slaves in Egypt.

When they approached Pharaoh with a petition, they claimed * divine authority and explained the reasons for their request

to be released for religious observances. Pharaoh, however, unsympathetic with their convictions, refused to grant a

leave to perform sacrifices. As a result of their petition,

Pharaoh increased the quota of work required and imposed greater physical punishment on the slaves, an action that

caused Israeli foremen to complain to Moses and Aaron about their condition. Moses did not become defensive but, rather, responded positively, promising deliverance in the future.

The people were not satisfied with long-term promises but continued to be preoccupied with their immediate suffering.

After the Ten Commandments and other laws had been recorded, Moses communicated them to the people. His de­ livery was effective, for all of the people agreed to keep the laws.

Moses encouraged his people to come to him for clarifi­ cation concerning the law, which they did; delegates from the subclan of Machir sought his advice regarding inter­ marriage. Moses commended them for coming to him and ex­ plained the law to them regarding intermarriage. 157

Developing People

Moses made provision for succeeding generations to un­

derstand the law. Part of the priests' duties were to in­

struct people, and they were responsible to remain sober so

that their instruction would be effective in helping people

to discern right from wrong.

Moses also developed his administrative assistants

through instructions and in-service training. He advised

them to judge fairly, conduct themselves fearlessly, and to

speak with authority. He also established a referral system

for more difficult decisions.

Compensating People

Moses compensated his soldiers by allowing them to

gather booty including jewels, precious metals, and other

goods for themselves. They also shared half of those cap­

tured and half of the cattle confiscated in the war while the

other half was divided among those who remained at home.

Joshua, a faithful workman under Moses’ leadership,

was compensated by his promotion to leader over all Israel.

Selecting People

Moses was not ambitious in monopolizing the governance

of the people. When the fact became apparent that more rulers were needed because of the population growth in Israel, he

asked the people to become involved in the selection of ad­

ministrative assistants. He set up criteria for their 158 selection; for instance, the judges were to be wise men with understanding. The people agreed to select from among them­ selves those men of integrity who were recognized for their wisdom.

Table 15 presents evidence of principles of leadership exhibited by Moses, as recorded in the Bible. Scripture passages are quoted and the activities of directing, com­ municating, developing, compensating, and selecting people , are indicated. TABLE 15 PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

EXODUS 5:1, 3

And afterward (6) Moses and Aaron came 6. Communicating: Communicated their de- and said to Pharaoh, "Thus says the sire, claimed divine authority, ex­ Lord, the God of Israel, 'Let My people plained their reasons for the request go that they may celebrate a feast to and specified the time needed to Me in the wilderness."' . . . Then they reach their destination said, "The God of the Hebrews has met with us. Please, let us go a~three days1 journey into the wilderness that we may sacrifice to the Lord our God, lest He fall upon us with pestilence or with the sword."

■EXODUS 5:19-21

And the foremen of the sons of Israel saw that they were in trouble because they were told, "You must not reduce your daily amount of bricks." When they left Pharaoh's presence, they met Moses and Aaron as they were waiting for them. ((5) And they said to them, "May Foremen of Israel filed a complaint the Lord look upon you and judge you, against Moses.

for you have made us odious in Pha­ 159 raoh' s sight and in the sight of his TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities servants to put a sword in their hand to kill us."

EXODUS 12:21, 28

Then Moses called for all the elders of Israel and said to them, (la) Go and take 1. Directing People for yourselves lambs according to your la. Issued orders: Regarding ob families and slay the Passover lamb. . . servance ofPassover Then the sons of Israel went and did so; just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did.

EXODUS 14:ll-13a

(6) Then they said to Moses, "Is it be- 6. Communicating: Comforted them in com- cause there were no graves in Egypt that posure and communicated to them his you have taken us away to die in the confidence wilderness? Why have you dealt with us in this way, bringing us out of Egypt? Is this not the word that we spoke to you in Egypt saying, 'Leave us alone that we may serve the Egyptians'? For it would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness." But Moses said to the TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities people, "Do not fear! Stand by and see the salvation of the Lord which He will accomplish for you today. ..."

EXODUS 15:22-24

Then Moses led Israel from the Red Sea, and they went out into the wilderness of Shur; and they went three days in the wilderness and found no water. And when they came to Marah, they could not drink the waters of Marah, for they were bit­ ter; therefore it was named Marah. So (6a) the people grumbled at Moses say­ 6. Communicating ing, "What shall we drink?" 6a. Listened to complaints

EXODUS 16:16-20

"Gather of it every man as much as he should eat; you shall take an omer apiece according to the number of per­ sons each of you has in his tent.1" And the sons of Israel did so. . . . (la) And Moses said to them, "Let no 1. Directing People man leave any of it until morning.,r~ ~Ta. Issuing orders: Moses gave spe­ But they did not listen to Moses7 and cific directions regarding the some left part of it until morning, and food supply, specified the amount TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

ScriptUTe Passages Leading Activities it bred worms and became foul; and Moses was angry with them. to be gathered, and gave in­ structions that they were not to have any leftovers.

EXODUS 17:2

(6) The people quarreled with Moses and 6. Communicating: Listened to complaints, said, "Give us water that we' may drink.11 gave soft answer and assurance And Moses said to them, "Why do you quar- rel with me? Why do you test the Lord?"

EXODUS 17:9

So Moses said to Joshua, (lc) "Choose *. 1. Directing People men for us, and go out, fight against lc. Leading groups and individuals: Amalek." Moses directed Joshua to be com- mander in chief of the war against Amalek. EXODUS 24:3

(6) Then Moses came and recounted to the 6. Communicating: Delivering ordinances people" all the words of the Lord and all to the people the ordinances; and all the people an­ swered with one voice, and said, (2a) 2. Motivating People "All the words which the Lord has spoken 2a. Inspire: The people were moti­ we will do!" . ! vated to obey. TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

LEVITICUS 10:8-11

The Lord then spoke to Aaron, saying, "Do not drink wine or strong drink neither you nor your sons with you, when you come into the tent of meeting, so that you may not die--it is a perpetual statute throughout your generations-- and so as to make a distinction between the holy and the profane, and between the unclean and the clean, and so as (4) to teach the sons of Israel all the 4. Developing People: Teach people right statutes which the Lord has spoken to according to the law; succeeding gen­ them through Moses." erations were to pass on the standards to their sons.

NUMBERS 31:3-5

And Moses spoke to the people saying, (la) "Arm men from among you for the 1. Directing People war, that they may go against Midian, to la. Issued orders: Gave orders in- execute the Lord's vengeance on Midian. cluding definition of purpose, A thousand from each tribe of all the the reason for the war, the se tribes of Israel you shall send to the lection process, and the pre­ war." So there were furnished from the paration needed thousands of Israel, a thousand from each tribe, twelve thousand armed for war. TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

NUMBERS 31:25-27, 31

Then the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, "You ‘and Eleazar the priest and the heads of the fathers' households of the congregation, take a count of the booty that was captured, both of man and of animal; and (3a) divide the 3. Comperis at ing Peop1e booty between the warriors who went 3a. Wages: Wages in form of booty out to battle andTall the congrega­ tion." ~ ! . And Moses and Eleazar the priest did just as the Lord had commanded Mosesl

NUMBERS 36:1, 5, 9

And the heads of the fathers' house­ holds of the family of the sons~of Gilead, the son of Machir the son of Manasseh, of the families of the sons of Joseph, came near and (6a) spoke before 6. Communicating: Moses reiterated the Moses and before the leaders, the heads law of the fathers' households of the sons 6a. Listened of Israel, . . . Then Moses commandied the sons of Israel according to thel word ofHthe Lord, saying, "The tribe of the sons of Joseph are right in thefir statements. ! . . Thus no inheritance shall be ti'ansferred from one tribe to TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

another tribe, for the tribes of the sons of Israel shall each hold to his own inheritance."

DEUTERONOMY 1:15-18

(5) "So I took the heads of your tribes, 5. Selecting People: Selection of admin­ wise and experienced men, and appointed istrative assistants over each tribe them heads over you, leaders of thou- sands, and of hundreds, of fifties and of tens, and officers for your tribes. Then I charged your judges at that time, (4) saying, 'Hear the cases between your 4. Developing People: Instructions to the fellow-countrymen,~and judge righteously administrative assistants; a referral between a man and his fellow-countryman, system for more difficult decisions or the alien who is with him. (Id) 1 You 1. Directing People shall not show partiality in judgment; Id. Assuring just treatment you shall hear the small and the great alike. You shall not fear man, for the judgment is God's. (4) And the case that 4. Developing People: A referral system is too hard for you, you"shall bring to for more difficult decisions me, and I will hear it.1 (la) And _I ’ 1. Directing People commanded you at that time all the things la. Issuing orders that you should do." TABLE 15. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

DEUTERONOMY 31:3, 7

(3b) "... Joshua is the one who will 3. Compensating People cross ahead of you, just as the Lord has 3b. Promotion: From apprentice and spoken." . . . Then Moses called to assistant to successor Joshua and said to him in the sight of all Israel, (2b) "Be strong and coura­ 2, Mo tiva t ing People geous , for you shall go with this people 2b. Encourage into the land which the Lord had sworn to their fathers to give them, and you shall give it to them as an inheritance." 167

Principles of Leading Employed by Joshua

The principles of leading found in the Old Testament employed by Joshua were the activities of directing, motivat­ ing, selecting, compensating, developing, and communicating with people.

Directing People

Joshua began his leadership over Israel by reminding them of their purpose, the promises they had received, and the commandments they were to keep. He secured the support of each subordinate and anyone who rebelled against his au­ thority was to be put to death.

Joshua had officers who carried his instructions to the people. They went throughout the camp and directed people to follow the priests who were carrying the ark, thus pre­ venting confusion in a situation that was new to the people.

Joshua's orders, given explicitly and precisely for the siege of Jericho, were carried out by the people im­ mediately. The people were to march in silence around the city for six days, but the seventh day they marched around the city seven times. The priests preceded the people with the ark, and armed men preceded the priests. Each individual was given a precise role in the siege and was part of a master plan of careful timing.

That Joshua was clearly in command of the army is il­ lustrated by the fact that when he was informed that five kings were hidden in a cave at Mekkedah, he immediately 168

directed his soldiers to trap the kings there by rolling a

stone over the cave. He further directed his army to pursue

the enemy and prevent their escape to the cities where they

could garrison their forces.

Motivating People

Near the end of his life, after reviewing the history

of Israel's sufferings and its deliverance from slavery,

Joshua charged the people to decide whether they would serve

God. They made a covenant with him that it was their inten­

tion to keep all the ordinances. Joshua recorded their de­

cision, setting up a stone memorial to remind them of their

covenant. Joshua was successful in inspiring his people to

make this commitment by reminding them of their religious

heritage and of their history of suffering.

Selecting People

Joshua directed his people to prepare twelve men, one

from each tribe, for the special task of preparing a monument.

This provided for representative participation from each

tribe and also made possible the transmission of the signifi­

cance of the monument to each tribe.

Joshua also involved the people in the selection pro­

cess for surveyors of the land of Shiloh, when a survey of

the land was needed in order to divide it into seven equal parts. The surveyors, three men from each of the seven 169 tribes involved, divided themselves into three companies, one from each tribe in each company. This provided for equal representation and fair distribution of all the lots.

Compensating People

Canaan was conquered by Israei under Joshua's leader­ ship. When Caleb was to receive his reward for his part in this success, Caleb chose Hebron for his inheritance because

it was the most difficult to conquer, having been garrisoned by giants. Joshua thus rewarded Caleb for his heroism and faithful service by giving him Hebron as his inheritance.

Joshua gave him this award with his blessing; approval was displayed in tangible form and accompanied with a verbal commendation.

Communicating

In their strict observation of regulations regarding the place and form of worship under Joshua's leadership, the twelve tribes offended citizens of Israel by building a me­ morial altar between the two countries. The offended tribes were prepared to go to war to defend the regulations but first chose delegates to go to the offending tribes to inquire why the altar had been built. Through the effective com­ munication skills of Phinehas and the representatives of each tribe, the war was averted and a peaceful settlement was reached. 170

The Biblical account shows, then, that leadership ac­ tivities carried out by Joshua included directing, selecting, developing, communicating, compensating, and motivating

(Table 16). TABLE 16 PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

JOSHUA 1:10-13

(la) Then Joshua commanded the offi~ 1. Directing People cers 1 I ! /'Pass through the midst of la. Issuing orders: For capturing the camp and command the people, saying Canaan (lbJ '"Prepare provisions for yourselves, lb. Giving advice: Reminding them of for within three days you are to cross promises and advantages in this Jordan, to go in to possess the obeying land which the Lord your God is giving you, to possess it.!" And to the Reubenites and to the Gadites and to the half-tribe of Manasseh, Joshua said, "Remember the word which Moses the ser­ vant of the Lord commanded you, saying, 'The Lord your God gives you rest, (2) and will give you this land.1" 2. Motivating People: Promise of reward

JOSHUA 3:2-4

And it came about at the end of three days that the officers went through the midst of the camp; and (lb) they com­ 1. Directing People manded the people, saying, "When you see la. Giving advice: Procedures to be the ark of the covenant of the Lord your followed God with the Levitical priests carrying it, then you shall set out from your TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities place and go after it. However, there shall be between you and it a distance of about 2,000 cubits by measure. Do not come near it, that you may know the way by which you shall go, for you have not passed this way before."

JOSHUA 3:5

Then Joshua said to the people, "Conse­ crate yourselves, for tomorrow (2) the 2. Motivating People: Promise of divine Lord will do wonders among you." assistance

JOSHUA 4:21a

And he said to the sons of Israel, "When your children ask their fathers in time to come, saying, 'What are these stones?' then (la) you shall inform your 1. Directing People children, saying, 'Israel crossed this la. Issuing oTcTers : To inform. Jordan on dry ground."1 children

JOSHUA 6:6-10

So Joshua the son of Nun called the priests and said to them, (la) "Take Joshua gave precise orders so up the ark of the covenant and let seven that the men knew exactly what priests carry seven trumpets of rams' to do and when to do it. TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities horns before the ark of the Lord." Then he said to the people, (la) 'Go forward, 1. Directing People and nrarch around the city, and let the la. Issuing orders: To march around armed men go on before the ark of the the city Lord. . . . (la) But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "You shall not shout nor let your voice be heard, nor let a word proceed out of your mouth until the day I tell you, 'ShoutI' Then you shall shout!"

JOSHUA 8:3-8

So Joshua rose with all the people of war to go up to Ai; and (5) Joshua chose ,5, Selecting People: Well-qualified 50,000 men, valiant warriors, and sent personnel them out at night. (la) And he com­ 1. Directing People manded them, saying, "See, you are going la. Issuing orders: The procedure to ambush the city from behind it. Do for ambush is given in the form not go very far from the city, but all of a command. of you be ready. Then I and all the peo­ ple who are with me will approach the city. And it will come about when they come out to meet us as at the first, that we will flee before them. And they will come out after us until we have drawn them away from the city, for they will say, 'They are fleeing before us TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

as at the first.1 So we will flee be­ fore them. And you shall rise from your ambush and take possession of the city, for the Lord your God will deliver it into your hand. Then it will be when you have seized the city, that you shall set the city on fire. You shall do it according to the word of the Lord. See, I have commanded you."

JOSHUA 10:17-19

And it was told Joshua, saying, "The five kings have been found hidden in the cave at Makkedah." (la) And 1. Directing People Joshua said, "Roll large stones against la. Issuing prefers: Specific plans the mouth of the cave, and assign men to capture the enemy by it to guard them, but do not stay there yourselves; pursue your enemies and attack them in the rear. Do not allow them to enter their cities, for the Lord your God has delivered them into your hand."

JOSHUA 14:12-14

"Now then, give me this hill country about which the Lord spoke on that day, TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities for you heard on that day that Anakim were there, with great fortified ci­ ties; perhaps the Lord will be with me, and I shall drive them out as the Lord has spoken." So (3) Joshua blessed him, 3. Compensating People: Rewarded-with and gave Hebron to Caleb the son of the real estate of Hebron Jephunneh for an inheritance. There­ fore, Hebron became the inheritance of Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite until this day, because he followed the Lord God of Israel fully.

JOSHUA 18:3, 4

So Joshua said to the sons of Israel, (2) "How long will you put off entering 2. Motivating People: Promise of divine to take possession of the land which the assistance Lord, the God of your fathers. has given you? (5) Provide for yourselves 5. Selecting People: Involved the people three men from each tribe that I may m selection send them, and that they may arise and walk through the land and write a description of it (Id) according to 1. Directing People their inheritance; then they shall return Id. Assuring fust treatment: By fair to me." representation TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

JOSHUA 18:8, 10

Then the men arose and went, and (la) 1. Directing People Joshua commanded those who went to de­ la. Issuing specific orders scribe the lanJ, saying, 11 Go and walk through the land and describe it, and return to me; then I will cast lots for you here before the Lord in Shiloh." . . . And (3) Joshua cast lots for them 3. Compensation: Division of land in Shiloh before the Lord, and there Joshua divided the land to the sons of Israel according to their divisions"!

JOSHUA 21:1-3

Then the heads of households of the Le- vites approached Eleazar the priest and . Joshua the son of Nun and the heads of households of the tribes of the sons of Israel. And they spoke to them at Shiloh in the land of Canaan, saying, "The Lord commanded through Moses to give us cities to live in, with their pasture lands for our cattle." (6) So 6. Communicating: Request for cities the sons of Israel gave the Levites was met from their inheritance these cities with their pasture lands, according to the command of the Lord. TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

JOSHUA 22:13, 14

Then the (6) sons of Israel sent to the 6. Communicating: Tribes sent delegates sons of Reuben and to the sons of Gad to other tribes to inquire about an and to the half-tribe of Manasseh, into apparent rebellion against religious the land of Gilead, Phinehas the son of observances, the meeting resulting in Eleazar the priest, and with him ten no war. chiefs, one chief for each fathers’ household from each of the tribes of Israel; and each one of them was the head of his father's household among the thousands of Israel.

JOSHUA 24:1-15

(2) Then Joshua gathered all the tribes 2. Motivating People: Called leaders to- of Israel to Shechem, and called for gether to review their history, to the elders of Israel and for their charge them to continue to serve God, heads and their judges and their of­ to make a treaty with them to observe ficers; and they presented themselves religious principles by choice before God. And Joshua said to all the people, "Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, 'From ancient times your fathers lived beyond the River, namely, Terah, the father of Abraham and the father of Nahor, and they served other gods.’ . . Now, therefore, fear the Lord and serve Him in sincerity and truth; and put TABLE 16. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

away the gods which your fathers served beyond the River and in Egypt, and serve the Lord. And if it is disagreeable in your sight to serve the Lord, choose for yourselves today whom you will serve: whether the gods which your fathers served which were beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are living; but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord." 179

Principles of Leading Employed by David

Several leadership activities were carried out by

David according to the Biblical record. He compensated the people, motivated the people, communicated with the people, and directed them.

Compensating People

David, standing out among the men in Saul's army be­ cause of his bravery, was promoted to captain, although he was the youngest of the men. He also was employed by Saul in the affairs of government as compensation for his great services. In turn, great warriors faithfully serving David in battle were rewarded by promotion to -higher rank in the army.

Abishai, who was brother of the general, was made chief over the top three; Jashobeam, chief of the captains, was re­ ported to have slain three hundred men in one battle; and

Eleazar also made one of the top three. Eleazar slew the

Philistines at Pas-dammim with David. These three mighties were over thirty captains named in 1 Chronicles 11.

Motivating People

David offered the office of general of the army to the person who would lead the attack and kill the first man in

Zion. This challenge was accepted by Joab, who subsequently became general of the army. 180

In time of peace David consulted with his subordinates on the advisability of returning the ark to the people so that they could have a place of worship. By consulting with them, he showed confidence in their judgment and was able to motivate them to support him willingly in the return of the ark. David also challenged the Levites to set a good ex­ ample in motivating the rest of the people in this endeavor.

When the temple was proposed, David gave liberally of his own substance for the construction, which motivated the people to follow his example. Subsequently, no tax was necessary to support the construction.

Communicating

Joab, commander in chief of David's army, reproved

David when he mourned the death of Absalom because the peo­ ple felt that David had abandoned his friends who had saved his life to mourn for the enemy. Joab was able to communi­ cate to David how the people felt and was able to convince the king to sit at the gate and thank the soldiers for their loyalty. The king was willing to listen to reproof and counsel from his subordinates. This made it possible for him to view their differences from the people's perspective.

Directing People

After the battle at Ziklag, David passed an ordinance ordering that all the spoils be distributed equally between 181

the soldiers and those who had served at home. David felt

that those who remained at home deserved a portion of the

spoils for their previous military service and for their part in guarding homes while the soldiers were away.

David gave orders in a direct, authoritative manner.

He directed that the Levites alone were to perform the

function of carrying the ark and that they were to set them­

selves apart from the people as examples. David also com­ manded the people to help Solomon in the building of the

temple.

King David left some final instructions for his suc­

cessor, Solomon. Those who had served David well were to be honored for their faithfulness. The enemies of David and

those who had violated treaties were not to be pardoned in

their.old age. David charged Solomon to deal with them in justice and wisdom.

Table 17 presents principles of leading employed by

David as identified from selected passages of Scripture. TABLE 17 PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID

Scripture Passages Leading Activity

1 SAflUEL 30:22-25

Then all the wicked and worthless men among those who went with David an­ swered and said, "Because they did not go with us, we will not give them any of the spoil that we have recovered, except to every man and his wife and his chil­ dren, that they may lead them away and depart." Then David said, (la) "You 1. Directing People must not do so, my brothers, with what la. Issuing orders the Lord has^iven us, who has kept us and delivered into our hand the band that came against us. And who will lis­ ten to you in this matter? For (Id) as Id, Assuring just treatment: David his share is who goes down to the bat­ ordered that those who stayed be­ tle, so shall his share be who stays~Vy hind should have equal share in the baggage; they shall share alike." booty. And so it has been from that day for- ward that he made it a statute and an ordinance for Israel to this day.

2 SAMUEL 19:5-8

(6a) Then Joab came into the house to 6. Communicating the king and said, "Today you have 6a. Taking advice, Counsel, and even covered with shame the faces of all your reproof from his subordinates TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activity servants, . . . by loving those who hate you, and by hating those who love you. . . . Now therefore arise, go out and speak kindly to your servants, for I swear by the Lord, if you do not go out, surely not a man will pass the night with you, and this will be worse for you than all evil that has come upon you from your mouth until now." So the king arose and sat in the gate. When they told all the people, saying, "Behold, the king is sitting in the gate," then all the people came before the king. . . .

1 KINGS 1:33-35

And the king said to them, "Take with you the servants of your lord, and (lc) have my son Solomon ride on my 1. Dire cting Peop1e mule, and bring him down to Gihon. lc. Leading groups and individuals And let Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet anoint him there as king over Israel, and blow the trumpet and say, 'Long live King Solomon!1 Then you shall come up after him, and he shall come and sit on my throne and be king in my place; for I have appointed him to be 183 ruler over Israel and Judah." TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID Ccont»d)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

1 KINGS 2:2

(2b)."I am going the way of all the 2. Motivating People earth. Be strong, therefore, and show 2b. Encourage: Preparing and en­ yourself a man." couraging a successor

1 KINGS 2:5-7

"Now you also know what Joab the son of Zeruiah did to me, what he did to the two commanders of the armies of Israel, to Abner the son of Ner, and to Amasa the son of Jether whom he killed; he also shed the blood of war in peace. And he put the blood of war on his belt about his waist, and on his sandals on his feet, (la) So act according to your 1. Directing People wisdom, and do not let his gray hair go la. Issuing orders: Instructions to down to Sheol in peace. But show kihd— honor those who had been faith­ ness to the sons of Barzillai the ful and to use wisdom in dealing Gileadite, and let them be among those with enemies who eat at your table; for they assisted me when I fled from Absalom your brother." TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

1 CHRONICLES 11:5, 6

And the inhabitants of Jebus said to David, "You shall not enter here." Nevertheless David captured the strong­ hold of Zion (that is, the city of David). Now David had said (2a) "Whoever 2. Motivating People strikes down a Jebusite first shall be 2a. Inspired by offering reward chief and commander." (3b) And Joab the 3. Compens at ing Pe'op1 e son of Zeruiah went up first, so he be­ 3b. Promotion: Appointing general came chief.

1 CHRONICLES 11:20

As for Abishai the brother of Joab, (3) he was chief of the thirty, and he By promotion to higher rank in the swung his spear against three hundred army and killed them; and he had a name as well as the thirty.

1 CHRONICLES 13:1-4

Then David (6) consulted with the cap­ 6. Communicating tains of the thousands and the hundreds even with every leader. And David said to all the assembly of Israel, (6a) "If 6a. Counseled with leaders: Con-

it seems good to you, and if it is from sulted with the leaders, showing 185 the Lord our God, let us send everywhere respect and confidence in them TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities to our kinsmen who remain in all the land of Israel, also to the priests and Levites who are with them in their cities with pasture lands, that they may meet with us; and let us bring back tne ark of~our God to us, for we did not seek it in the days of Saul." Then all the assembly said that they would do so, for the thing was right in the eyes of all the people.

1 CHRONICLES 15:1, 2

Now David built houses for himself in the city of David; and he prepared a place for the ark of God, and pitched a tent for it. Then David said, (la) "No 1. Directing People one is to carry the ark of God but the la. Issuing orders Levites for the Lord (5) chose them To 5. Selecting People: Selected Levites to carry the ark of God, and to ministerto carry the ark (At the command of God) Him forever."

1 CHRONICLES 15:12, 13 and said unto them, "You are the heads of the fathers’ households of the 186 TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

Levites; (2c) consecrate yourselves both 2. Motivating People you and your relatives, that you may 2c. Inspire: Challenged to set a good bring up the ark of the Lord God of Is­ example before the people rael, to the place that I have prepared for it. Because you did not carry it at the first, the Lord our God made an out­ burst on us, for we did not seek Him ac­ cording to the ordinance.*1

1 CHRONICLES 22:17, 18a

David also (la) commanded all the leaders 1. Directing 'People of Israel to help his son Solomon, say- la. Issuing orders: To assist in the ing, hIs not the Lord your God with you?" building and maintaining of the temple 1 CHRONICLES 22:19

"Now set your heart and your soul to seek the Lord your God; arise, there­ fore, and build the sanctuary of the Lord God, (2a) so that you may bring 2. Motivating People the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and 2a. Inspire: Inspired people to the holy vessels of God into the house build sanctuary for an honored that is to be built for the name of the purpose Lord." TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED.BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

1 CHRONICLES 24:3-5

And David, with Zadok of the sons of Eleazar, and Ahimelech of the sons of Ithamar, (5) divided them according to 5. Selecting People: Selected twice their offices for their ministry. as many men from Zadok*s group be­ Since more chief men were found from cause it was composed of more knowl­ the descendants of Eleazar than the edgeable men with leadership descendants of Ithamar, they divided ability; provided for the discharge them thus: there were sixteen heads of of priestly duties in an orderly fathers * households of the descendants fashion. of Eleazar, and eight of the descen- dants of Ithamar according to their fathers’ households. Thus they were divided by lot, the one as the other; for they were officers of the s a n c ~ tuary and officers of God, both from the descendants of Eleazar and the descendants of Ithamaf!

1 CHRONICLES 28:2-10

Then King David rose to his feet and said, (2) "Listen to me, my brethren 2. Motivating People: Preparing people and my people! I had intended to build a to build the sanctuary permanent home for the ark of the cove­ nant of the Lord and for the footstool of our God. So I had made preparations TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities to build it. But God said to me, 'You shal\ not build a house for My name be­ cause you are a man of war and have shed blood.' Yet, the Lord, the God of Israel, chose me from all the house of my father to be king over Israel forever. For He has chosen Judah to be a leader; and in the house of Judah, my father's house, and among the sons of my father He took pleasure in me to make me king over all Israel. And of all my sons (for the Lord has given me many sons), He has chosen my son Solomon to sit on the throne of the kingdom of the Lord over Israel. And He said to me, 'Your son Solomon is the one who shall build My house and My courts; for I have chosen him to be a son to Me, and I will be a father to him. And I will establish his kingdom forever, if he resolutely per­ forms My commandments and My ordinances, as is done now.' So now, in the sight of all Israel, the assembly of the Lord, and in the hearing of our God, observe and seek after all the commandments of the Lord your God in order that you may possess the good land and bequeath it to your sons after you forever. As for you, TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities my son Solomon, know the God of your father, and serve Him with a whole heart and a willing mind; for the Lord searches all hearts, and understands every intent of the thoughts.. If you seek Him, He will let you find Him; but if you for­ sake Him, He will reject you forever. Consider now, for the Lord has chosen you to build a house for the sanctuary; be courageous and act."

1 CHRONICLES 29:1-3, 6-8

Then King David said to the entire as­ sembly, "My son Solomon, whom alone God has chosen, is still young and inex­ perienced and the work is great; for the temple is not for man, but for the Lord God. Now with all my ability I have provided for the house of my God. . . . And moreover, in my delight in the house of my God, (2) the treasure 2. Motivating People: David set an ex- I have of gold and silver, I give to ample, and the people gave liberally the house of my God, over and above and willingly. all that I have already provided for the holy temple." . ^ .Then the rulers of the fathers' households, and the princes TABLE 17. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY DAVID (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities of the tribes of Israel, and the com­ manders of thousands and of hundreds, with the overseers over the king's work, offered willingly; and for the service for the house of God they gave 5,000 talents and 10,000 talents of silver, and 18,000 talents of brass, and 100,000 talents of iron. And whoever possessed precious stones gave them to the treasury of the house of the Lord, in care of Jehiel the Gershonite. 192

Principles of Leading Employed by Solomon

Solomon demonstrated good leadership techniques by per­

forming activities o.f motivating, compensating, and selecting

people. The construction of the temple was administered by

Solomon in an efficient manner by employing these principles

of leadership.

Motivating People

Solomon demonstrated great concern and careful consid­

eration for the welfare of his people. He employed thirty

thousand laborers to secure building materials for the tem­

ple. This task required the workers to be away from home,

so he established shifts of assignments whereby laborers

could serve one month away from home .followed by two months

at home. Solomon made provision for the needs of the la­ borers by employing only ten thousand at a time away from home.

Selecting People

Solomon selected his own people as overseers of the more desirable tasks; he employed foreign workers for more menial tasks. Skilled laborers were selected from among those of high reputation; for instance, Sidonians were se­ lected because of their expertise in timber cutting and stone cutting. Solomon's own men were selected to be commanders,

charioteers, cavalrymen, soldeirs, or government officials. 193

Compensating People

Solomon rewarded laborers with a fair wage. He was willing to compensate the Sidonians whatever they asked for their expertise in timber cutting. Jeroboam was compensated for work well done by promotion to }ead labor battalions from the tribe of Judah, while Hiram's men were compensated generously with wheat, barley, wine, and oil.

Table 18 presents excerpts of Scripture illustrating principles of leading employed by Solomon. TABLE 18 PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

1 KINGS 5:13, 14

Now King Solomon levied forced laborers from all Israel: and the forced la­ borers numbered 30,000 men. (2b) And 2. Motivating People he sent them to Lebanon 10,000 a month 2b. Encourage: Set a rotation sched­ in relays; they were in Lebanon a month ule so workers could be home and two months at home. And Adroniram two-thirds of the time was over the forced laborers.

1 KINGS 5:6, 15-17

"Now therefore command that they cut for me cedars from Lebanon, and my servants will be with your servants; and (3a) _I 3. Compensating People will give you wages for your servants 3a. Wages: Agreeing to pay craftsmen according to all that you say, for you whatever they asked because of know that (5) there is no one among us theiT expertise who knows how to cut timber like the 5. Selecting People: Selected the best Sidonians." . ! . Now Solomon had reputed men for specialized skills 70,000 transporters, and 80,000 hewers of stone in the mountains, besides Solo­ mon's 3,300 chief deputies who were over the project and who ruled over the people who were doing the work, (la) Then the 1. Directing People king commanded, and they quarried great la. Impel TABLE 18. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities stones, costly stones, to lay foundation of the house with cut stones.

1 KINGS 11:28

Now the man Jeroboam was a valiant war­ rior, and (3b) when Solomon saw that the 3. Compensating People young man was industrious, he appointed 3b. Promotion: Compensated by ad­ him over all the forced labor of the vancing to a position in charge house of Joseph" of labor battalions

2 CHRONICLES 2:7

(5) And now send me a skilled man to 5. Selecting Peop1e : Selepted skilled work in gold, silver, brass and iron, men for craftsmanship and in purple, crimson and violet fab­ rics, and who knows how to make en­ gravings to work with the skilled men whom I have in Judah and Jerusalem, whom David my father provided.

2 CHRONICLES 2:10

"Now behold, (3a) I will give to your 3/. Compensating People servants, the woodsmen who cut the tim­ 3a. Wages: Compensated Hiram*s men ber, 20,000 kors of crushed wheat, ami for their skills as craftsmen 2ci,o0Q kors o? barley, and 20,000 baths with a generous allotment of wine, and 20,000 baths of oil." TABLE 18. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

2 CHRONICLES 8:9, 10

(5) T&ut Solomon did not make slaves for 5. Selecting People: Solomon selected his work from the sons of Israel; they Israelites to be chief officers and were men of war, his chief captains, and his chief rulers commanders of his chariots and, his horse­ men. And these were the chief officers of King Solomon, two hundred and fifty who ruled over the people. 196 197

Principles of Leading Employed by Nehemiah

Nehemiah exhibited leadership in different ways; by

good direction, and by motivating and developing people.

Motivating People

Nehemiah was successful in gaining the people’s sup­

port for the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem. He ap­

pealed to their sense of pride in the city and encouraged

them by claiming a divine commission to rebuild the wall.

Nehemiah further motivated the people by telling them of the

help the king had given to him in preparing for the task of

rebuilding the wall.

Nehemiah encouraged his workers by disregarding the

skeptics and scoffers who laughed at "them. Nehemiah spoke

positively, reassuring the people that God would help them in

the building of the wall; thus their thoughts were focused on

the goal in sight rather than on obstacles to the goal.

When the scoffers began to attack and intimidate the builders,

Nehemiah assured the people of his confidence in their

ability to protect themselves and their families. He com­

municated directly with the people as well as with their

leaders, reminding them of God’s protection. He appointed

half of the builders to stand guard while others worked.

Directing People

Nehemiah successfully led the people in rebuilding the

wall of Jerusalem against great odds. The task was great and 198 the people were tired; progress was impeded by enemies who heckled and attacked the men as they built. Nehemiah sta­ tioned men in strategic points to ward off this attempt to stop the reconstruction.

At the close of Nehemiah's leadership, Hanani and

Hananiah were given instructions on how to protect the city.

The doors were to be bolted until morning, and guards were to be posted at the gates and in front of every house.

These directions enabled the people to continue to enjoy the fortress they had worked so long in building. Nehemiah gave orders to carry on the work he had begun.

Developing People

Nehemiah appointed Ezra as a tehcher to whom the lead­ ers could come for a training session in interpreting the laws to the people. The functions of the priests included instruction, and Ezra was chosen to develop other priests in matters of the law.

Table 19 presents Scripture passages and principles of leading employed by Nehemiah. TABLE 19 PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH

ScTipture Passages Leading Activities

NEHEMIAH 2:17, 18

Then I said to them, "You see the bad situation we are in, that Jerusalem is desolate and its gates burned by fire. (2) Come, let us rebuild the wall of 2. Motivating People: Appealed to pride, Jerusalem that we may no longer be^a telling them of God's favor and the reproach." And I told them how the king’s encouragement hand of my God had been favorable to me, and also about the king's words which he had spoken to me. Then they said, "Let us arise and build.” So they put their hands to the good work.

NEHEMIAH 2:19, 20

But when Sanballat the Horonite, and Tobiah the Ammonite official, and Geshem the Arab heard it, they mocked us and despised us and said, "What is this thing you are doing? Are you re­ belling against the king?" So I answered them and said to them, (2a) "The 2a. Inspire: Expressed confidence God of heaven will give us success; 199 TABLE 19. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities therefore we His servants will arise and build, but you have no portion, right^ or memorial in Jerusalem."

NEHEMIAH 4:10-16, 21

Thus in Judah it was said, "The strength of the burden bearers is failing, yet there is much rubbish; and we ourselves are unable to rebuild the wall." And our enemies said, "They will not know or see until we come among them, kill them, and put a stop to the work." And it came about when the Jews who lived near them came and told us ten times, "They will come up against us from every place where you may turn," (lc) then I 1. Directing People: Leading group stationed men in the lowest parts of lc. Leading groups and individuals: the space behind the wall, the exposed Regroup the people at strategic places, and I stationed the people in~ points, encouraged them by com­ families with their swords, spears and municating with their leaders bows. When I saw their fear, I rose and directly with them,inspired and spoke to the nobles, the officials, confidence in their ability to and the rest of the people: "Do not be protect their families afraid of them; remember the Lord who is great and awesome, and fight for your brothers, your sons, your daughters, 200 TABLE 19, PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities your wives, and your houses." And it happened when our enemies heard that it was known to us, and that God had frustrated their plan, then all of us re­ turned to the wall, each one to his work. . . . So we carried on the work with half of them holding spears from dawn until the stars appeared.

NEHEMIAH 7:3

Then I said to them, (la.) "Do not let 1. Directing People the gates of Jerusalem be opened until la. Issuing orcTers: Gave instructions the sun is hot, and while tiiey are to protect the city standing guard, let them shut and bolt the doors. Also appoint guards from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, each at his post, and each in front of his own house."

NEHEMIAH 8:13

Then on the second day the heads of fathers' households of all the people, the priests, and the Levites were gath­ ered to Ezra the scribe (4) that they 4. Developing People: Leaders came to might gain insight into the Words of the Ezra for a training session in inter­ law. preting the law to others. TABLE 19. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont’d)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

NEHEMIAH 10:1

(2) Now on the sealed document were the 2. Motivating People: The people signed names of: Nehemiah the governor, the the covenant. son of Hacaliah, and Zedekiah.

NEHEMIAH 13:13

And in charge of the storehouses (5) 1^ 5. Selecting People: Nehemiah selected appointed Shelemiah the priest, Zadok reliable people to manage the store­ the scribe, and Pedaiah of the Levites, houses . and in addition to them was Hanan the son of Zaccur, the son of Mattaniah; for they were considered reliable, and it was their task to distribute to their kinsmen.

NEHEMIAH 13:19, 22

And it came about that just as it grew dark at the gates of Jerusalem before the sabbath,(la) I commanded that the 1. DirectTrig Peop1e doors should be shut and that they la. Issuing orders should not open them until after the sabbath^ Then I stationed some of my servants at the gates that no load

should enter on the sabbath day. . . . 202 TABLE 19. PRINCIPLES OF LEADING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Leading Activities

(la) And I commanded the Levites that 1. Directing People they should purity themselves and come la. Issuing ofders as gatekeepers to sanctify the sabbath day7 For this also rememoer me, 0 my Goa, and have compassion on me accord­ ing to the greatness of Thy lovingkind­ ness . 203 204

Summary

This study identified principles of leadership exem­

plified by Biblical leaders. The record indicates several

examples of Moses* directing and communicating activities

with his people. In at least one instance he is seen se­

lecting and developing people. Although no evidence is

given for his motivating people, in at least two instances

he is seen compensating his people.

Joshua also gives many examples of directing people.

Other evidence is found in which he communicated, compen­

sated, and selected people. In three instances the record

indicates Joshua performed the activity of motivating people.

The study of David's leadership also gives examples of

the principles of motivation. He is seen directing, compen­

sating, and communicating with people. No clear examples

were identified of David's selecting or developing people.

Little is found in the Biblical record regarding Solo­

mon's leadership activities, except in selecting, compensat­

ing, and motivating people. No examples have been identified

in which Solomon directed, communicated, or developed people.

The Bible gives evidence of Nehemiah's ability to lead

in his successful direction of people in the construction of

.the wall. Examples have been found in which Nehemiah se­

lected, developed, and motivated people.

Table 20 presents a summary of findings of principles

of leading performed by the selected Biblical leaders. 205 TABLE 20 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF LEADING PRINCIPLES

Moses Joshua David Solomon Nehemiah

Directing 5 6 4 0 3

Communicating 6 2 1 0 0

Developing 1 0 0 0 1

Compensating 2 1 2 3 0

Selecting 1 1 0 3 1

Motivating 0 3 6 1 2 CHAPTER VII

THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: CONTROLLING

The manager's task of working‘with and through people

to accomplish an objective includes the controlling func­

tion. Management controlling is the work a manager performs

to assess and regulate work in progress and work completed.

The controlling function allows a manager to evaluate pro­

gress toward attainment of an objective. This function en­

tails the establishment of performance standards, comparison

of performance with those standards, and initiation of ac­

tions to correct deviations from the -standard. By using the

controlling function, a manager will regularly assess and

evaluate his organization and personnel in order to keep his

'goals in sight and to accomplish the objectives of the or­

ganization.

Establishing Performance Standards

Establishing performance standards is the work a man­

ager performs to establish criteria by which methods and re­

sults will be evaluated (Allen, p. 315). These standards

make it possible to differentiate between good and poor per­

formance by providing a test or yardstick by which performance

can be measured.

206 207

Assessing and Evaluating

Assessing and evaluating is the work a manager does to

appraise work in progress and results secured. Although per­

formance standards indicate what should be, the manager must

compare the level of performance existing with those stan­

dards to determine whether goals are being met. This re­

quires a careful appraisal of resu.lts achieved, weighing

them against the standards. The manager identifies variances

from the standard and determines causes of the variances.

Performance Correcting

Performance correcting is the work performed by man­

agers to regulate and improve methods of work so that tasks

can be accomplished. Deficiencies identified through assess­ ment and evaluation processes are rectified. The final step

in control is the manager's correctional action to bring

variances up to the level of the standard.

Principles of Controlling Employed by Moses

the Biblical record gives examples of the controlling

function performed by Moses through assessing and evaluating

and through performance correcting.

Assessing and Evaluating

Moses was the established authority for appraisal of

the tabernacle construction, its furnishings, and the cloth­ ing for the priests. Although individual craftsmen were 208

responsible for the intricacies of construction, Moses held

the original plans and models. The detail of specifications

for the plans is recorded in Exodus. The record indicates

that the citizens of Israel followed these specifications

and submitted the finished products for Moses' review in a

systematic fashion. Over forty units of products are speci­

fied in the order in which Moses reviewed them. Moses,

after examining the workmanship and finding it to be true to

the specifications he had delivered, gave his approval,

signifying that the finished product measured up to the es­

tablished standards.

Performance Correcting

Moses, when he was to go up to ‘the mountain to communi­

cate with God, delegated authority to Aaron to manage the

people. When upon his return he heard the clamor of a wild

feast with singing, dancing, and worshipping of idols, he

broke the tables of the law to symbolize their departure

from the standards of worship. He then melted the calf,

filed it to dust, and cast it into their drinking water.

This action demonstrated to the people that they had wor­

shipped a false god who could be destroyed rather than one who could help them.

Moses placed the burden of responsibility for deviation

from the standard upon Aaron, the leader whom he had dele­

gated. He chided Aaron for allowing this behavior to de­ velop unchecked. 209

Table 21 presents the Scriptural account and an out­ line of principles of controlling employed by Moses. TABLE 21 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY MOSES

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

EXODUS 32:19, 20

And it came about, as soon as Moses came near the camp, that he saw the calf and the dancing; and Moses1 anger burned, and he threw the tablets from his hands and shattered them at the foot of the mountain. (2) And he took the calf 2. Performance Correcting: Destroyed which they made and burned it with "fire, the object of the peoples' worship, and ground it to powder, and scattered- broke the tables of the law, sym­ it over the surface of the water, and" bolizing their violation of the made the sons of Israel drink it. standards of worship

EXODUS 32:21

Then Moses said to Aaron, (2) "What did Responsibility for variance from the this people do to you, that you have standard was placed upon the leader. brought such great sin upon them?'* Moses chided him for allowing this behavior to develop.

EXODUS 39:32, 33, 43

Thus all the work of the tabernacle of the tent of meeting was completed; and the sons of Israel did according to all that the Lord had commanded Moses; so TABLE 21. PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY MOSES (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities they did. And they brought the taber­ nacle to Moses, (1) . . . And Moses ex­ 1. Assessing and Evaluating: Submitted amined all the work and behold, they the tabernacle and itsfurnishings had done it, just as the Lord had com­ and the clothes of service for the manded, this they had done. So Moses priests to Moses for assessment and blessed them. evaluation 212

Principles of Controlling Employed by Joshua

Joshua performed the controlling function through the * use of performance correction.

Performance Correcting

Joshua successfully led an army in the siege on Jericho.

Joshua gave explicit orders regarding the attack; the peo­ ple were to remain silent, be consistent in marching at the

appointed times, and observe strict rules in taking posses­

sion of the city. The city was to be burned and people were

to be killed with the exception of Rahab's family. The sil­

ver, gold, brass, and iron were to be reserved for the

treasury of the Lord. The men were instructed not to ap­ propriate any of the goods for their-own use. Achan dis­ obeyed the regulations concerning gathering of the spoils,

taking some of the treasures for himself. When this act be­

came known to Joshua, he reviewed the entire organization to

identify the guilty one. Achan's execution was an example to the rest of the men that performance had to measure up to the standards declared by Joshua.

The members of the tribe of Reuben, Gad, and the half­ tribe of Manasseh built an altar near the Jordan River. The citizens of Israel were offended by this apparent violation of this ordinance regarding the place of worship. They pre­ pared to go to war to defend the standard but were able, through the mediation of their representatives, to settle the dispute peaceably. Phineas, spokesman of the offended tribe, 213

called upon the offenders to explain their actions. Since they were able to convince Phineas that the altar had not been built in a spirit of defiance but rather as a memorial,

Phineas exacted a compromise between the tribes and averted the impending war. Performance correction in this case could have developed into extreme measures.

Table 22 presents examples of the controlling function employed by Joshua, together with quotations from selected

Scripture passages. TABLE 22 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

JOSHUA 7:18

And he brought his household near man by man; and (2) Achan, son of Carmi, son of 2. Performance Correcting: Zabdi, son of Zerah., from the tribe of (.Control in the Organization) : Judah, was taken . . . There was stealing going on in Joshua’s organization, and he re­ viewed the entire organization to identify the guilty one. Joshua brought each man before him to question him about the theft. Achan was found to be guilty and was exe­ cuted for stealing.

JOSHUA 22:9-14

And the sons of Reuben and the sons of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh re­ turned home . . . And when they came to the region of the Jordan which is in the land of Canaan . . . they built an altar there by the Jordan, a large altar in ap­ pearance . . . And when the sons of Israel heard of it, (2) the whole congre­ Offended tribes sought to correct gation of the sons of Israel gathered others. themselves at Shiloh, to go up against TABLE 22. PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY JOSHUA (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities them in war. Then the sons of Israel sent, to the sons of Reuben and to the sons of Gad and to the half-tribe of Manasseh, into the land of Gilead, Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, and with him ten chiefs, one chief for each fathers' household from each of the tribes of Israel; and each one of them was the head of his fathers' household among the thousands of Israel. 216

Principles of 'Controlling Employed by David

David performed the controlling function through the use of evaluating and assessing performance.

Evaluating and Assessing

When David was king over Hebron, Isbosheth had assumed leadership over the rest of Israel. Abner had deserted

Isbosheth's cause and entered into a treaty with David.

David commissioned Abner to talk with the people of Israel and Benjamin to convince them to accept David as king over all Israel. AbneT mediated between Isbosheth and David, using his interest with the elders of Israel to bring them to support David. He particularly influenced the tribe of

Benjamin, his own people. Abner then*gave David a progress report on his success in convincing the people in David's favor so David could continue in planning his strategies.

This progress report provided David with the information needed to assess and evaluate Abner's work.

Table 23 presents principles of controlling employed by David. TABLE 23 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY DAVID

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

2 SAMUEL 3:19

And when Abner also spoke in the hearing of Benjamin; and in addition Abner (1) 1. Assessing and Evaluating: Progress went to speak in the hearing of David report on the support of the people in Hebron all that seemed good to Israel and the success of his communication and to the whole house of Benjamin. 218 'Principle's' of Controlling Employed by Solomon

Solomon performed the controlling function through the use of performance correcting.

Performance Correcting

Abiathar, a priest under King David, had plotted against SolomonTs accession to the throne and supported

Adonijah for the kingship. AbiatKar was unsuccessful in this attempt, and David immediately declared Solomon king, as he had promised. When Solomon became king, Solomon chastised Abiathar for his role in the plot against Solomon.

Because of Abiathar*s high position, he had influence on many people; thus his punishment was severe. Although Solo­ mon felt he deserved execution, he exercised mercy instead in demoting Abiathar from his priestly office. Because

Abiathar had been faithful to David, Solomon*s father, he spared Abiathar*s life. Abiathar was confined to Anathoth and was forbidden to enter into the court, the city, or the tabernacle. By applying the controlling function in this instance, Solomon determined that Abiathar in no way had con­ tributed to the realization of his reign. In the process of removing Abiathar from his position, Solomon demonstrated performance controlling by demotion.

Table 24 presents principles of controlling employed by

Solomon. TABLE 24 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY SOLOMON

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

1 KINGS 2:26, 27

Then to Abiathar the priest, the king said, "Go to Anathoth to your own field, for you deserve to die; but I will not put you to death at this time, because you carried the ark of the Lord God be­ fore my father David, and because you were afflicted." (2) So Solomon dis­ 2. Performance Correcting: Demoted missed Abiathar from being priest to Abiathar (although he felt he was the Lord in order to fulfill the word worthy of death), took away all of the Lord, which He had spoken con­ Abiathar1s authority and offices and cerning the house of Eli in Shiloh. confined him to his home. He forbade him to come into the city, the taber­ nacle, or to have anything to do with public business. 220

Principles of Controlling Employed by Nehemiah

Nehemiah performed the controlling function by assess­ ing and evaluating and by performance correcting.

Performance Correcting

The priests of Nehemiah’s time were bound by the stan­ dards of the priesthood to marry Jewish wives. Some of the priests married wives who were not Israelites, and the child­ ren of these marriages could not speak the Jewish language.

Nehemiah discerned this to be a gross violation of the stan­ dards and proceeded to correct this infraction of the law.

He reiterated the standard to the priests, quoting from the commandment. He cited a precedent set by Solomon and re­ minded them that Solomon's wisdom was. brought to folly by this same error; ten of the twelve tribes were lost through intermarriage. When one of the priests, a son of Joiada, re­ fused to renounce his wife, Nehemiah was forced to discharge him from his duties. This controlling function served to reestablish in the minds of the priests the necessity of ad­ hering to the standard regarding intermarriage.

Evaluating and Assessing

The Levites had been wronged by having their livelihood withheld from them. Nehemiah perceived that they were unable to perform their ministries because they were preoccupied with working in the fields to provide for themselves and their families. The rulers were called to account for their failure to insure that the Levites were cared for so that they could perform their duties. Then the Levites were re­ called to their posts of service, and the people were charged to bring in their tithes. Just and prompt payments were provided for through the administration of commissioners ap­ pointed to make an honest distribution, and to maintain con­ trol over the organization.

Table 25 presents principles of controlling employed by

Nehemiah. TABLE 25 PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

NEHEMIAH 13:10-13

(1) I also discovered that the portions 1. Evaluating and Assessing: Nehemiah of the Levites had not been given them, perceived that work was not being so that the Levites and the singers who performed. performed the service had gone away, each to his own field. (2) So I reprimanded 2. Performance Correcting: (Firing) the officials and said, "Why is the house Eliashib, custodian of the temple, of God forsaken?" Then I gathered them fired, appointed a commission of together and restored them to their posts. three with one assistant to adminis­ All Judah then brought the tithe of the ter the storehouses, and to perform grain, wine, and oil into the storehouses. checks and balance functions. And in charge of the storehouses I ap­ pointed Shelemiah the priest, Zadok,the scribe, and PedaXah of the Levites, and in addition to them was Hanan the son of Zaccur, the son of Mattaniah; for they were considered reliable, and it was their task to distribute to their kins­ men.

NEHEMIAH 13:25, 28

So (2) I contended with them and cursed Relieved of service in the temple them and struck some of them and pulled ts J out their hair and made them swear by God, N TABLE 25. PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING EMPLOYED BY NEHEMIAH (cont'd)

Scripture Passages Controlling Activities

"You shall not give your daughters to their sons, nor take of their daughters for your sons or yourselves.

Even one of the sons of Joiada, the son of Eliashib the high priest, was a son- in-law of Sanballat the Horonite, so I drove him away from me. 223 224

' 'Summary

This study identified some controlling activities per­ formed by Biblical leaders. The record indicates that Moses used performance correcting in two instances in controlling the people, and assessing and evaluating the people in one instance. No clear examples were identified of the activity of establishing performance standards by Moses or any of the other four leaders.

The Bible shows evidence of Joshua using the activity of performance correcting in two instances.

David's record reveals the controlling function of per­ formance correcting in one instance and assessing and evaluat­ ing in one instance.

Solomon's Biblical record reveals that he used only the activity of performance correcting in one instance. No clear example is given in the record of his abilities in assessing and evaluating the people.

Nehemiah's controlling activities are also limited, as far as Biblical evidence records, to performance correcting in two instances.

Table 26 gives a summary of findings of planning prin­ ciples utilized by the Biblical leaders. 225

TABLE 26 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF CONTROLLING PRINCIPLES

Moses Joshua David Solomon Nehemiah

Performance • Standards 0 0 0 0 0

Performance Correcting 2 2 1 1 2

Assessing and Evaluating 1 0 1 0 0 CHAPTER VIII

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT EDUCATION

Each principle illustrated by Biblical leaders pro­ vides a foundation for development of activities which will promote understanding and application of business management functions. Examples of how these illustrations can supple­ ment management curricula are given in this chapter and in­ structional strategies are designed to show how the lives and behavior of selected leaders can add to the understand­ ing of modern management principles. The management princi­ ples recorded in the Bible can thus be used in business courses as supplemental resource material as the behavior of selected leaders is analyzed.

After students have had opportunities to study manage­ ment functions and principles, instructional strategies will focus upon activities which promote application of managing people effectively in the modern business world. These strategies include using a basic management text and current management literature, studying a Biblical example, and making application of the principles through simulation, gaming, case problem solving, projects, and other experiences.

226 Ill

Planning

The planning function of predetermining a course of action was performed by all of the selected leaders in the

Bible by their engaging in at least some of the activities of setting objectives and goals, decision-making, establish­ ing policies and procedures, forecasting, and scheduling and budgeting. Examples are given of how the planning func­ tion was performed by specific leaders and how this illustra­ tive material can be used in the classroom to facilitate un­ derstanding of the basic concepts related to planning.

Establishing Objectives and Goals. Moses had specific objectives for building the tabernacle. He made detailed plans in advance of the construction and communicated his objectives to his subordinates. The people were involved in contributing toward the goal. Moses’ activity of preparing for the tabernacle construction involved a predetermination of course of action with regard to acquiring human resources, material resources, and financial support. Analysis of these three activities engaged in by Moses would serve to illus­ trate the role of planning in achieving a goal. A chart could be developed by the class to indicate how Moses per­ formed the activity of establishing objectives and goals.

This specific example could be followed by instructional strategies which would encourage formulation of goals and de­ velop values for, effective planning through establishing ob­ jectives and goals. Students could be asked to list their 228

personal goals for the next five years and to evaluate these

goals to ascertain whether they are reasonable or attainable.

Discussion of the goals with peers may help students to

crystalize their plans or to alter them, and evaluation of

goals by peers may help to clarify them. An assignment

could be given for students to contact a small business to

interview managers with regard to .long-range and short-range

goals and objectives. The findings could be compared to see

whether managers who have written plans tend to be more ex­

plicit about the future of their company and its growth

than managers who do not formulate written plans.

Nehemiah set goals for rebuilding the wall of Jerusa­

lem and spent concentrated time and effort in order to re­

build the wall in the shortest possible time. Students

could select a project for development and draw a diagram or

network of contributing factors and objectives necessary to

accomplish these goals. One model that could be utilized in

this strategy is Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT).

Decision-making. David relied upon sound data and the

counsel of others to reach decisions, and he sometimes con­

sulted subordinates before reaching final decisions. Stu­

dents can be asked to solve case problems requiring analysis

of alternative courses of actions concerning decisions which

affect subordinates, or role-playing could be utilized by having some students assume the role of manager, and others

the role of subordinate. Reactions to management decisions 229

can be given by subordinates in the role-playing situation.

Problem-solving situations utilizing decision trees can be

used to project consequences of alternatives proposed. Stu­

dents can become involved in analyzing probable outcomes of

decisions through discussion. Nehemiah offered his sub­

ordinates alternatives to solve the problem of usury. A

decision tree could be developed by the class of alterna­

tives available to solve this problem.

Establishing Policies and Procedures. Moses assumed

the leadership of the people of Israel and established

policies and procedures for the people in relation to their

position, work, and timing; and he communicated policies and

procedures for the Israelites to follow concerning the Pass-

over. Solomon established policies and procedures for making provisions for his vast kingdom in a systematic order.

Those standing policies can be identified in management

class, and the persons responsible for carrying them out may be named. The efficiency of the system as it operated illus­

trates the function of planning by establishing standing de­

cisions for recurring needs.

Case problems of fictional companies can be used by

students to develop policies and procedures for a specific organization. Interviews could be held with executives of corporations to determine what standing policies and proce­ dures are in effect in their firms. Guest speakers in the 230 classroom could relate major policies and procedures govern­ ing the organization they represent.

Forecasting. Before going to Jerusalem, Nehemiah assessed his future and anticipated his needs; and upon ar­ riving there, he made a survey of the situation before set­ ting his organizational goals and objectives into action.

The narrative record of Nehemiah's preparation provides ample illustrations of his ability to forecast needs in re­ building the wall.

Joshua's men sent out to forecast the situation at Ai before battle brought back incorrect information on the situation, and lives were lost as a result.

Students can identify major factors or variables af­ fecting the forecasting of economic trends in relation to a particular industry. Discussions can be held to analyze the effect these variables will have on the future of this par­ ticular industry. Students can be presented with a problem involving three sets of data. Only one set of data will be sufficient to accomplish the goal; the remaining sets will omit significant factors necessary to make a reliable fore­ cast. By identifying the adequate set of data, students will be able to demonstrate an understanding of the elements of adequate forecasting.

Scheduling and Budgeting. David did most of the plan­ ning for the temple and the scheduling and budgeting for the 231 required human, material, and financial resources. Solomon also scheduled the work of his subordinates as to time and place of work and allocated financial resources to each functional area in need.

A case problem or management game can be selected which requires a systematic way of scheduling for an organi­ zation. PERT or PERT-COST could be used as a model for scheduling, or a field trip might be scheduled to a produc­ tion assembly line. A production expediter or foreman can explain scheduling and budgeting procedures to students.

Discussion can be conducted to assess the effectiveness of the process of scheduling and budgeting in the organization.

Alternative ways of scheduling and budgeting can be analyzed by the students.

Organizing

David's organizational charts reveal that he was a very highly organized manager of his kingdom, continually updating his organization structure to achieve maximum efficiency.

David used the sub-principle of organizing to his advantage by having a good span of control, a direct chain of command, unity of command, and work specialization. David also dele­ gated authority and responsibility effectively. Solomon, too, had an effective organizational structure, although it was less elaborate than his predecessor's.

The organizational charts of David's and Solomon's reigns developed in this study will be useful in classroom 232

instruction to illustrate how these kings identified and

grouped work to be performed. Span of control formulae de­

veloped by modern management writers can be used to evaluate

the effectiveness of their organization. The scalar chain

principle can be studied through use of the charts to demon­

strate that direct authority relationships existed. The

unity of command principle can be .applied to the charts, and

students can evaluate the degree to which David and Solomon

observed this principle.

A project could be assigned to construct an organiza­

tional chart or diagram depicting a formal organization

structure of a selected enterprise or organization with which

students are familiar. Students should explain all the prin­

ciples and sub-principles of the function of organizing and

generate creative concepts of organizational structures, show­

ing line and staff relationships and line of authority and

responsibility. Students could interview a blue-collar em­ ployee to determine his concept of his company's organiza­ tional structure. A white-collar employee could also be in­ terviewed and a comparison could be drawn regarding the perspective of personnel in these positions.

Leading

The function of leading is demonstrated by individuals in this study through their participation in the activities of directing, motivating, compensating, developing, selecting, 233 and communicating. In situations where people were caused to take effective action, the sample of selected leaders from the Bible illustrates the concept of leadership as it is defined by management writers.

Directing. David was a strong leader who avoided many conflicts by directing his people with authority when neces­ sary. Moses was thorough in his direction of people, giving reasons'for orders, and explaining ways to accomplish orders.

A narrative account of the major events in the lives of these two men will give students an opportunity to identify many instances of directing people through issuing orders, giving advice, and assuring justice for subordinates.

Leadership potential can be observed when students are divided into groups of four or five to work with miniature construction materials. Groups are assigned to build the tallest free-standing structure possible with the materials.

During twenty-five minutes of verbal interaction and planning, students have one minute to erect the structure in silence.

When the project is completed, each group may analyze and criticize its work; and the instructor may make comments re­ garding styles of leadership observed. Standardized instru­ ments and techniques are also available to identify styles of directing and leading people, and insights gained from these tests help students determine their dominant leadership style.

Self-evaluation and development of leadership potential can 234 be encouraged through using current professional literature and use of psychological leadership games.

Motivating. David motivated his people by being an example, by including his people in the decision-making pro­ cess, by providing a challenge, and by rewards in the form of promotions. Nehemiah motivated people by appealing to pride, by having a positive mental attitude, and by express­ ing confidence in their abilities. Charts could be developed as a class project, listing motivational activities per­ formed by these men and the results obtained through their actions. The successful techniques of these men can be sup­ plemented by using Herzberg’s industrial motivational films, collateral reading, and by interviewing managers to collect data on successful motivational techniques employed by mod­ ern managers.

Compensating. Compensating activities in Biblical times can be illustrated by a narrative account of how Moses and Joshua rewarded their subordinates. Moses used an incen­ tive system of compensating soldiers by allowing them to keep a percentage of the goods captured in battle, and he also used promotion as an effective means of compensation. Joshua used tangible rewards-to compensate, for instance, giving the city of Hebron to Caleb for his heroism and faithful service.

Caleb was also rewarded intangibly in the form of praise.

Instructors can have students set up a total compensa­ tion plan for a company’s personnel, including wages and 235 fringe benefits. Students should consider factors contribut­ ing to decisions regarding compensation and the roles unions and management play in formulating compensation plans. Stu­ dies could be conducted of several companies' wage and salary programs, comparing policies regarding compensation and the processes by which these are formulated.

Developing Training. Moses developed people for two major purposes: to train others and to lighten his own work load. He provided a training program for the people to under­ stand the law, using the priests to instruct the people. He trained his administrative assistants to judge the people fairly and administer the people wisely. Joshua used a monu­ ment as a visual reminder to help the people transmit their heritage to successive generations.

Instructors can utilize cooperative education programs or internships for on-the-job experience, or students can visit training facilities of large corporations to meet with the training manager for a question and answer session. Stu­ dents could also develop a training program for a real or simulated company.

Selecting. Joshua used subordinates to help him in the selection of their representatives. This example illustrated the principle of fair representation. Moses set up rigid criteria for possible leaders to meet before they could be considered qualified candidates of the people. In a case 236 problem, students could be asked to identify five out of ten possible candidates who would best meet criteria established by Moses.

Case problems can be used, describing three people seeking a position and their qualifications. Students select the best candidate, discuss their selection, and compare ideas with peers. In another case problem, instructors can have students develop a job description, including qualifica­ tions necessary for personnel for a given managerial posi­ tion.

A selection process of a given organization can be studied to find ways to improve the selection process, and the personnel manager can be interviewed to determine what selection criteria he uses for particular positions.

Communicating. Moses listened to his subordinates patiently and responded wisely. He gave orders clearly and precisely. Selected references in Scripture could be used to analyze dialog between Moses and his subordinates and to evaluate the clarity of his orders.

The class could play a commercial communication game, view films on organizational communications, or role play on video tape to develop their communication skills. As a class project, a communication system could be developed or a com­ munication system of a given organization could be analyzed.

A communication specialist from industry could provide 237 valuable insight into the process of developing an effective communications systems.

Controlling

The controlling activities of Biblical times provide opportunities for sharp contrast with those employed by to­ day's managers. Performance correcting procedures in many

instances were severe by today's standards; only primitive assessment and evaluation methods were employed.

Performance Correcting. Joshua expected his soldiers to follow his orders, but Achan gathered material possessions for himself after the siege of Jericho against Joshua's in­ structions, thus incurring execution upon himself. Solomon also corrected Abiathar severely by demoting him from his priestly office. These examples can best be studied by using comparison and contrast with modern methods of performance correcting.

Assessing and Evaluating. Moses appraised and evaluated all the construction, furnishings, and clothing for the priests in the tabernacle to affirm that all the specifica­ tions were accurately met. Moses performed this function alone and without standards or criteria beyond the original criteria in the planning stage.

The class could select a local, state, or federal government agency to study and make suggestions on how over­ all performance can best be measured. As a project, students 238

could interview managers of firms to collect data on methods

of performance, controlling and assessing, and evaluating methods currently being used.

Thus the Bible can provide illustrations of modern management principles through the study of the lives and be­ havior of selected leaders. CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY

This study has attempted to identify incidents from the Bible in which management principles were practiced to provide insights from the Bible useful to modern management and management education. Certain functions and principles or activities of management were identified that were em­ ployed by Biblical leaders and are employed by managers today. This chapter provides a summary of insights into the management activities of selected Biblical leaders, illustra­ tions of effective and ineffective ways of dealing with peo­ ple, and principles for managers and management educators to use in business and business education.

Procedures

Selection of the leaders for this study was accomplished by reading the Old Testament in its entirety, reviewing sev­ eral published works on leadership styles of Biblical char­ acters, consulting with theologians, establishing criteria of leadership, and identifying those individuals who met the criteria.

Content analysis was used as the means of assessing similarities of management principles employed by Old *

239 240

Testament leaders and those principles employed by modern management leaders. Old Testament illustrations of manage­ ment were compared with today's principles of management.

The New American Standard Bible was the primary source for this study, examining only those portions substantiated as historically authentic. Other translations studied in­ clude the Goodspeed Complete Bible, The Jerusalem Bible, and

The Interpreter's Bible. Matthew Henry's Commentary was consulted for explanation of the text. Management texts were reviewed to determine the common functions and princi­ ples of modern management.

The findings, recorded in Chapters III through VIII, include a brief historical background of selected Biblical leaders, descriptions of the management functions of plan­ ning, organizing, leading, controlling, and present educa­ tional implications of the principles of management illus­ trated in the Old Testament.

Historical Background of Leaders

Moses led the people of Israel out of Egyptian cap­ tivity toward the Promised Land. He was responsible for the organization, feeding, and safety of an entire nation. Moses was characterized by unselfishness, meekness, courage, and aggressiveness. His quick temper and lack of organizational ability manifested themselves in some of his dealings with people. 241

Joshua, Moses' successor, was a military man whose task was to defeat the Canaanites so that Israel could cap- i ture the Promised Land. He also devised a plan to apportion the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. Despite these successes, Joshua was deceived into signing a peace treaty with the Gibeonites, and the nation felt the results of this mistake for many years.

David became king of Israel after several years of its rule by judges. He brought back the ark, which had been captured by the Philistines, and was recognized as the most powerful and influential monarch of the Near East of his day.

His administrative and organizational abilities are evident from the military, civil, and political networks he devel­ oped. Even with his fame and major accomplishments, he was known as a humble and fair ruler who restored unity and se­ curity to a nation after civil war. David's personal re­ lationships with others, however, caused him some difficulty during his reign.

Solomon, David's son, ruled by autocratic methods em­ ployed by his father. He set up new administrative struc­ tures and systems to develop the kingdom into an efficient organization, establishing Israel as a great trading nation.

His building program produced the temple, palace, horse stables, and military installations. However, near the end of his reign, Solomon's kingdom was plagued by financial difficulty. He levied heavy taxes on the people, and his 242 successful building programs were completed at a cost far greater than financial outlay, involving the life and liberty of an exploited people.

Nehemiah led Israel in the restoration of the walls at

Jerusalem. His communication skill was useful in obtaining resources for the task and in motivating the people to work.

He was characterized by enthusiasm, activity, and energy.

Although his strong emotional personality caused him some problem, he nevertheless accomplished the tasks of rebuilding

Jerusalem and reestablishing the Jews as a nation.

The Management Function: Planning

Management has been defined as working with and through people to accomplish a task or objective. The management function of planning is the act of predetermining a course of action. The management function of planning involves establishing objectives and goals, decision-making, estab­ lishing policies and procedures, forecasting, and scheduling and budgeting.

The management philosophy, as it related to planning by each of the Bible leaders, has been portrayed by Scriptural accounts of their management principles or activities. The excerpts from the Scriptures and the interpretation of them illustrate the following concepts in relation to the planning 243 function as they were employed by one or more of the se­ lected leaders:

Establishing Objectives and Goals

1. Goals are met through achieving specific objectives

related to human and material resources.

2. Planning in detail promotes efficiency.

3. Communication of objectives and goals promotes co­

operation and meaningful input from subordinates.

4. Developing creative plans and strategies is vital to

combating competition.

5. Elements of good planning include establishing ob­

jectives of: adequate manpower, explicit descrip­

tions of the plan, motivation, and explicit direc­

tions as to action and timing.

6. Goals and objectives are expedited by allowing peo­

ple to participate in their selection, overtly

stating authority, and explicitly describing tasks

to accomplish.

7. Goals need to be communicated to those who will be

instrumental in accomplishing them.

8. Activities become meaningful as they are related to

the goal.

9. Concentration of effort can result in great accom­

plishments in short periods of time.

10. Verbalizing a need will help people to identify with

formulation of a goal to meet that need. 244

Establishing Policies and Procedures

1. Managers should set up a system within an organiza­

tion to deal with standard decisions, communicate

these standards, and establish guidelines to fol­

low in similar situations.

2. The organization becomes efficient through policies

and procedures that identify the position, work,

and timing of its members.

3. A systematic planned tax structure can provide for

recurring needs.

4. Standard policies can establish an equitable divi­

sion of labor and profits.

5. Policies and procedures establish criteria by which

potential resources can be measured.

6. Sources of authority regarding policy and procedure

can be designated.

7. Standards of performance can be formulated for

workers.

8. Standards of quality and dimension can be set for

products.

Forecasting

1. By forecasting anticipated needs, leaders can formu­

late strategies for action.

2. Forecasting reports should be well-documented to in­

sure their usefulness. 245

3. When conflicts of opinion arise in forecasting,

the report needs to be reevaluated before making

a decision.

4. A reliable forecast is based on accurate data.

5. Assessing the future and anticipating difficulties

can prevent wasted time and effort in obtaining

materials to accomplish a goal if accurate data

are gathered.

6. Forecasting will be most accurate when firsthand

assessments are made.

Scheduling and Budgeting

1. A well-defined schedule appropriately allocates re­

sources .

2. Work schedules can include defined tasks in relation

to work, place, and time.

3. Human resources can be scheduled so work can pro­

ceed according to a time line.

4. Material resources can be itemized for products.

5. Sources of financial resources can be identified.

Decision-making

1. Decisions should be reached through careful ap­

praisal of the situation.

2. Decisions should be made in an orderly fashion,

based on accurate data. 246

3. Gather all available information regarding a de­

cision.

4. Deliberate on all available evidence.

5. Decision-making involves analyzing alternatives and

their consequences.

6. Experienced counselors can provide valuable insight

for decision-making.

7. A planning council can be valuable for developing

and analyzing alternative courses of action before

making a decision.

8. Before making a decision, representation of all prin­

cipals should be considered.

The Management Function: Organizing ‘

Management organizing has been defined as the work a

manager performs to arrange andrelate work so that it may

be done effectively. Organizing involves developing organi­

zational structures, delegating authority and responsibility,

and establishing relationships. The development of a formal

organizational structure is the work a manager does to iden­

tify and group work to be performed. Delegation of authority

and responsibility entrusts others with work to be performed

and creates accountability for results. A manager estab­

lishes relationships as he creates conditions necessary for mutually cooperative efforts of people. The passages quoted 247 \ in prior chapters serve to illustrate how Biblical leaders exemplify the following organizing principles or activities:

Developing Organizational Structures

1. An organizational structure can be helpful for con­

trol of an organization.

2. A chain of direct authority from the leader to sub­

ordinates clarifies roles and responsibility.

3. Orders are given to subordinates through the chain

of command.

4. Organizing makes it possible to plan systematically.

5. Organizational structures utilize staff and line

relationships.

6. Events sometimes create needs for restructuring the

organization. New organization structures are

designed to meet organizational change.

7. Leaders should be assigned a reasonable number of

subordinates to assure an adequate span of control.

8. Unity of command exists when subordinates have one

immediate superior to whom they are responsible.

9. Organizational structures that are well developed

provide for effective and efficient administration.

10. Growth in an organization necessitates expansion of

the organization structure; new line and staff posi-

i tions become necessary.

11. Line relationships provide a systematic method of

accomplishing objectives in the organization. 248

Delegating Authority and Responsibility

1. Authority and responsibility can be delegated to

those subordinates who have special qualifications.

2. Work specialization helps to maintain high quality

and quantity in performance and products.

3. Authority and responsibility can be delegated for

special tasks.

4. Delegation of responsibility and authority can be

used as a reward for those who have been loyal to the

organization.

5. Authority and responsibility can be delegated to

subordinates in the absence of the leader.

6. Those who are well qualified and skilled should be

placed in positions of leadership to direct and

instruct others.

7. Subordinates can participate in the selection of

those who will be delegated to be their representa­

tives .

8. Responsibility can be clarified through explanation

of purpose and definition of procedure.

9. Subordinates can be delegated the authority for

solving differences between groups.

The Management Function: Leading

Management leading has been defined as the work a man­ ager performs to tause people to take effective action. Func­ tions of leadership include directing, motivating, developing, 249 selecting, compensating, and communicating with people. The accounts of selected Biblical leaders illustrate the follow­ ing leadership principles:

Directing People

1. Subordinates receive orders from superiors.

2. Subordinates will demonstrate their.recognition of

the leaders1 authority by following their orders.

3. The fulfillment of orders can be expedited when

superiors give reasons for the orders and share the

objectives with subordinates.

4. Orders can be enhanced by explicit descriptions of

methods to be used in accomplishing them.

5. The support of subordinates is important for effec­

tive leadership.

6. Support from subordinates can be promoted by estab­

lishing unity of purpose, offering rewards, or by

threat.

7. In new situations, subordinates can be assisted by

instructions or by creating a model to follow.

8. A master plan of tasks and timing can be helpful in

accomplishing a difficult task.

9. The leader issues orders based on intelligent facts

received from his subordinates.

10. Orders can be given in a direct, authoritative man­

ner. 250

11. Leaders should make provision for the time when

their authority is replaced by another.

12. Leaders should seek wisdom beyond their own.

13. The effective leader finds ways to overcome ob­

stacles toward a goal.

14. Leaders make provision for the maintenance of their

projects after their influence has been removed.

Motivating People

People' can be motivated several ways:

1. By appealing to their pride

2. By maintaining a positive approach

3. By making them aware of the sympathy orthe sup­

port of others for their interests

4. By communicating with them and expressing confi­

dence in their ability

5. By promise of rewards in the form of promotion

6. By challenge of a difficult task

7. By including them in the decision-making process

8. By example of the leader

9. By reminding them of their previoussuccesses and

victory over difficult obstacles

10. Subordinates can be motivated to work more effec­

tively when employers demonstrate concern for their

welfare.

11. A tangible representation of victory and resolution

can be helpful in maintaining peoples' motivation. 251

Compensating People

1. Compensation can be made in the form of wages, pro­

motion, or material goods.

2. Faithful discharge of duties can result in assign­

ment to tasks of greater responsibility. # 3. Verbal commendation can be effective in compensat­

ing people.

Developing People

1. An.organized instructional program can be provided

for the development of people.

2. Instructions can be given verbally.

3. Instruction can be provided in the form of visual

representations.

4. Apprenticeship is an agency for developing people.

Selecting People

1. Selection of people is done to meet needs of the

organization.

2. Selection of leaders is improved by establishing

criteria.

3. Subordinates can participate in the selection of re­

presentatives .

4. Participation in the selection process can provide

for fair representation.

Communicating

1. An effective leader will listen to subordinates and

respond to them with composure. 252

2. Spokesmen can be appointed to represent interests

of groups of people.

3. When spokesmen fail to accomplish the desires of

the group, they often will be rejected by the group.

4. Effective communication will result in responses

from people.

5. Clarification of orders can be sought from the origi­

nal authority source.

6. Representatives can be appointed to resolve differ­

ences between groups of people.

7. A mediator can be effective in helping a leader un­

derstand situations from the peoples* perspective.

The Management Function: Controllings

Management controlling is the work a manager performs to assess and regulate work in progress and work completed.

This function entails establishing performance standards, comparison of performance with those standards, and initia­ tion of actions to correct deviations from the standard.

Assessing and evaluating is the work a manager does to ap­ praise work in progress and results secured. Performance cor­ recting is the work performed by managers to regulate and im­ prove methods of work. General principles of controlling de­ rived from the study of Old Testament books selected are listed here. 253

Assessing and Evaluating

1. An authority figure within an organization can as­

sess and evaluate work and products by measuring

their adherence to a standard.

2. A system of checks and balances can be formulated

to assure fair distribution of resources.

3. Evaluating and assessing can take place through a

review of a progress report.

Performance Correcting

1. A delegated authority is responsible to check vari­

ances from established standards and to correct

those who do not conform to the standard.

2. The individual responsible for a performance standard

must be held accountable.

3. Control can be achieved by reassignment of subordi­

nates .

4. Performance correcting can be achieved through demo­

tion of subordinates.

5. Subordinates who refuse to submit to a standard can

be discharged from duties.

Implications for Management Education

The study of principles and functions in management courses can be enriched by analyzing the behavior of selected

Biblical leaders and comparing their actions with modern man­ agement principles.- Some illustrations may be given or de­ rived by the class of how this can be accomplished for each 254 principle. After application of management principles are given, various instructional strategies may be used to pro­ mote application of management activities in the classroom.

Each principle illustrated by Biblical leaders provides a foundation for development of activities which will pro­ mote understanding and application of business management functions.

Conclusions

The following principles of modern management were identified in the behavior of Old Testament leaders:

1. Planning

a. Setting objectives and goals

b. Decision-making

c. Establishing policies and procedures

d. Forecasting

e. Scheduling and budgeting

2. Organizing

a. Developing organizational structures

b. Delegating authority and responsibility

c. Establishing relationships

3. Leading

a. Directing

b. Motivating

c. Compensating « d. Selecting 255

e. Developing

£. Communicating

4. Controlling

a. Correcting performance

b. Assessing and evaluating

No clear examples were identified of the activity of estab­ lishing performance standards.

The successes of selected Biblical leaders illustrate effective management techniques. The references given in the several tables in this study give clear evidence that the selected leaders employed the principles of management successfully in many instances. The failures of selected

Biblical leaders usually illustrates violations of manage­ ment principles. Although each leader gives evidence of performing all of the four management functions and princi­ ples successfully, some violations of accepted management principles are indicated in the tables and narratives.

/ APPENDIX TABLE 27 SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

Planning Moses Joshua David

1. Establishing Objectives and Goals Ex. 25:8-27 Josh. 1:10-15 1 Chron. 28:2,3 8:3-7

2. Decision-making Num. 13:17-19, Josh. 2:23,24 .25-29 7:2-5 2a. Defining major problems and Josh. 18:4-6 2 Sam. 15:25-28 gathering data 24:12-15 2b. Developing and analyzing 2 Sam. 15:25-28 alternative courses of action 2c. Making judgments Josh. 7:2-5 2 Sam. 18:2-4 14:1-5 1 Ki. 1:15,17- 19,20, 29,30 35 3. Establishing Policies and Procedures 1 Chron. 15:2 3a. Interpreting standing de­ Ex. 12:21-28 cisions ' 35:4-19 Num. 8:23-26 3b. Planning procedures Ex. 25:9 Josh. 3:1-4 8:3-7 18:4-6

4. Forecasting Num. 13:30,31 Josh. 7:2-5 8:3-7

5. Scheduling and Budgeting Josh. 8:3-7 5a. Provision for adequate sup­ Chron. 28:11- plies and labor 13, 21 257 29:2-4 TABLE 27. SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING (cont'd)

Planning Solomon Nehemiah

1. Establishing Objectives and Goals 1 Ki. 5:2,5 8:1

2. Decision-making 2a. Defining major problemsand 1 Ki. 3:23-28 Neh. 5:1^12 gathering data 2b. Developing and analyzing 1 Ki. 3:23-28 Neh. 5:1-12 alternative courses of action 2c. Making judgments 1 Ki. 3:23-28 Neh. 5:1-12

3. Establishing Policies and Procedures 3a. Interpreting standing decisions 3b. Planning procedures 1 Ki. 4:7,27,28

4. Forecasting Neh. 2:7,8

5. Scheduling and Budgeting 5a. Provision for adequate supplies t 1 Ki. 4:22,23, and labor 26,28 258 TABLE 28 SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING

Organizing Moses Joshua David

1. Developing Organizational 2 Sam. 8:1, 2 Structures 8:15 -18 20:23 -26 1 Chron. 11: 11,12, 20 27: 16-22 27: 31b-33 la. Chain of command Ex. 24:13,14 1 Sam. 18:1, 2 Num. 3:31,32 1 Chron. 27: 1 lb. Work specialization Ex. 18:14-26 1 Chron. 12: 8-13 28:3 15: 16-24 35:30-35 15: 22 36:1 23: 3-6 Num. 1:17-18 25: 1 26: 1 ,6,12 26: 20,23, 28,29, 30,31 27: 25-31a lc. Span of control 1 Chron. 25: 9 259 TABLE 28. SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING (cont'd)

Organizing Solomon Nehemiah 1. Developing Organizational Structures 1 Ki. 4:1-4,19 Neh. 11 9 la. Chain of command Neh. 11 16-19 11 21 lb. Work specialization 1 Ki. 5:13-16 Neh. 11 12-14 2 Chron. 2:7 11 16-18 a lc. Span of control 1 Ki. 5:13-16 Neh. 11 14 2 Chron. 2:17,18

2. Delegating Authority and Responsibility 1 Ki. 5:6 Neh. 3:1-31 2 Chron. 1:16,17 7:1-3 260 TABLE 28. SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZING (cont'd)

Organizing Moses Joshua David

Delegating Authority and Ex. 18:14-26 Josh. 4:4,5 Responsibility 24:13,14 22:11-16 35:30-35 Num. 1:4 3:5-10 3:25-27 3:31,32 3:36-38 4:16 4:35 4:39 4:42 4:47 4:49 27:22,23 Deut. 1:15,16 TABLE 29 SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF LEADING

Leading Moses Joshua David

1. Directing People Josh. 18:8-10 la. Issuing orders Ex. 6:6,9 Josh. 1:10-13 1 Ki. 2:5-7 12:21,28 4:21 1 Chron. 15:1,2 16:16-20 6 :6-10 22:17,18 Num.31:3-5 8:3-8 Deut. 1:15-18 10:17-19 lb. Giving advice Josh. 1:10-13 1 Ki. 1:33-35 3:2-4 lc. Leading groups and Ex. 17:9 individuals Id. Assuring just treat- Deut. 1:15-18 Josh. 18:4 1 Sam. 30:22-25 ment 2. Motivating People Ex. 24:3 Josh. 1:10-13 1 Chron. 11:5,6 24:1-15 2a. Inspire Josh. 3:5 1 Chron. 22:19 18:3 28:2-10 29:1-3, 6-8 2b. Encourage 1 Ki. 2:2 2c. Impel 1 Chron. 15:12,13

3. Compensating People Num. 31:25-27, 31 3a. Wages Josh. 14:12,14 3b. Promotion Deut. 31:3,7 Josh. 18:8-10 1 Chron. 11:5,6 11:20

4. Developing People Lev. 10:8-11 262 Deut. 1:15-18 TABLE 29. SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF LEADING (cont'd)

Leading Solomon Nehemiah

1. Directing People 1 Ki. 5:17 la. Issuing orders Neh. 7:3 13:19,22 lb. Giving advice lc. Leading groups and individuals Neh. 4:10-16,20,21 Id. Assuring just treatment

2. Motivating People Neh. 10:1 2a. Inspire Neh. 2:17,18 2:19,20 2b. Encourage 1 Ki. 5:13,14 2c. Impel

3. Compensating People 1 Ki. 5:6 3a. Wages 3b. Promotion 1 Ki. 11:28

4. Developing People Neh. 8:13

' 5. Selecting People 1 Ki. 5:6,15-17 Neh. 13:13 9:23 2 Chron. 2:7 8:9,10

6. Communicating 6a. Taking advice or counsel 263 TABLE 29. SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF LEADING (cont'd)

Leading Moses Joshua David

5. Selecting People Deut. 1:15-18 Josh. 8:3-8 1 Chron. 15:2 18:4 24:3-5

6. Communicating Ex. 14 :ll-13a Josh. 22:13,14 2 Sam. 19:5-8 6a. Taking advice or Ex. 5:1,3 Josh. 21:1-3 1 Chron. 13:1-4 counsel 5:19-21 15:22-24 17:2 24:3 Num. 36:1,5,9 264 TABLE 30

SUMMARY OF SCRIPTURES RECORDING PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING

Controlling Moses Joshua David Solomon Nehemiah

1. Assessing Ex. 39:32,33, 2 Sam. 3:19 Neh. 13:10-13 and 43 Evaluating

2. Performance Ex. 32:19-21 Josh. 7:18 1 Ki. 2:26,27 Neh. 13:25,28 Correcting 22:9-14 13:11-13 265 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Dale, Ernest. Management--Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1969.

Davis, John J. Moses and the Gods of Egypt. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1971.

Deane, William J. Men of the Bible: Their Lives and Times. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Co., (No Date).

Duff, Mildred, Hope, Noel, and Morgan, Marshall. Where Moses Went to School. London: Scott Limited, (No Date).

Edersheim, Alfred. The Bible History--Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdman's Publishing Co., 1947.

Engstrom, Ted W., and Mackenzie, Alex R. Managing Your Time. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.

Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. The Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. New York: The New American Library Co., 1962.

Farmer, R. N., and Richman, B. M. Comparative Management and Economic Progress. Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1966.

Fayol, H. General and Industrial Administration. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968.

Finegan, Jack. Light from the Ancient Past. Vol. I § II. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946 § 1959.

Flippo, Edwin B. Management: A Behavioral Approach. Second Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970.

Free, Joseph P. Archaeology and Bible History.Wheaton, 111.: Van Kampen Press, 1950.

Gangel, Kenneth 0. Competent to Lead. Chicago: Moody Press, 1974.

Garstang, John. The Heritage of Solomon. London: Williams § Norgate Limited, 19347 268

Garstang, John. Joshua Judges. London: Constable, 1931.

George, Clyde S. , Jr. The History of Management Thought. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 19687

Glueck, Nelson. Rivers in the Desert. New York: Farrar, Straus 6 Cudahy, 1959.

Glueck, Nelson. The Other Side of the Jordan. New Haven, Conn.: American School of Oriental Research, 1940.

Goodspeed, Edgar J. The Complete Bible. Chicago: Univer­ sity of Chicago Press, 1939.

Guthrie, Thomas. Studies of Character. New York: E. B. Treat 6 Co., (No Date).

Hailey, Henry H. Hailey's Bible Handbook. Twenty-fourth Edition. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1965.

Harrison, Kenneth Rowland. Introduction to the Old Testa­ ment. Grand Rapids: Eerdman's Publishing Co., 1969.

Head, Louis R. David the Poet and King. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Co., lyui.

Heaton, E. W. Everyday Life in Old Testament Times. New York: Charles Scribner’s § Sons, 1956.

Henry, Matthew. Matthew Henry's Commentary. Vols. I-VI. Old Tappan, N.J.: Fleming Revell Co., 1708.

Hercus, John. David. Chicago: Inter Varsity Press, 1967.

Holsti, Ole R. , "Content Analysis." The Handbook of Social Psychology. Second Edition. Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1968.

Jensen, Kenneth L. Wisdom the Principal Thing. Seattle: Pacific Meridiam Publishing Co., 1971.

Keck, P. D. Analysis of the Areas of Money Management Dealt with in The Holy Bible. University of Oklahoma: Un- published doctoral dissertation, 1968.

Keller, Werner. The Bible as History. New York: William Marrow and Co., 1956.

Kelly, William. . Ezra and Nehemiah. London: C. A. Hammond, 1947. 269

Koontz, Harold and O ’Donnell, Cyril. Management: A Systems and Contingency Analysis of Managerial Functions. Sixth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1976.

Kuntz, J. Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel. New York: Harper § Row Publishing Company, 1974.

Kyle, Melvin Grove. The Deceding Voice of the Monuments in Biblical Criticising OberlinT Ohio: Bibliotheca Sacra Co., 1924.

Machintosh, C. H. Life and Times of David. New York: Lor- zeaux Brothers, 1898.

Maly, Eugene H. The World of David and Solomon. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1966.

Massie, Joseph L. and Douglas, John. Managing: A Contem­ porary Introduction. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall,

McDowell, Josh. Evidence That Demands a Verdict. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1954.

Merrill, Eugene H. An Historical Survey of the Old Testa­ ment. Nutley, N.J.: The Graig Press, 1966.

Meyer, F. B. David: Shepherd, Psalmist, King. Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1895.

Moody, Dwight L., Talmage, Dewitt T., and Parker, Joseph. Bible Characters. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, (No Date).

Mooney, James D. The Principles of Organization. New York: Harper 6 Row Publishing Co., 1947.

Morgan, G. Campbell. The Great Physician. London: Fleming H. Revell Co., (No Date).

Newman, William H., Summer, Charles E., and Warren, Kirby E. The Process of Management. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1972.

Owen, G. Frederick. Archaeology and the Bible. Westwood, N.J.: Fleming H. Revell CoT, ,1961.

Pfeiffer, Charles F. The Biblical World. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1966.

Pfeiffer, Charles F. The United Kingdom. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1970. 270

Phelps, Lyon William. Human Nature in the Bible. New York: Charles Scribner’s § Sons,' 1923.

Price, Ira Maurice. The Monuments and the Old Testament. Chicago: The Judson Press, 1925.

Pritchard, James B. Archaeology and the Old Testament. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958.

Rawlinson, George. Men of the Bible--Ezra and Nehemiah. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1890.

Rawlinson, George. Men of the Bible--Moses. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1887.

Reeser, Clayton. Management: Functions and Modern Concepts. Glenview, 111.! Scott Foresman fi Co., 1973.

Robinson, George L. Leaders of Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1955.

Rowley, H. H. The Old Testament and Modern Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1951.

Sanders, J. Oswald. Spiritual Leadership. Chicago: Moody Press, 1967.

Sell, Henry T. Studies of Great Bible Characters. London: Fleming H. Revell Co.7 1923.

Sisk, Henry L. Management and Organization. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Co., 1973.

Smith, William. The Old Testament History. New York: Harper § Brothers, 1890!

Staack, Hagen. Living Personalities of the Old Testament. New York: Harper Row Publishing Co., 1952.

Stevens, Charles H. The Wilderness Journey. Chicago: Moody Press, 1971.

Terry, George R. Principles of Management. Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1965.

The Bible, Douay Version. London: Catholic Truth Society, 1609.

The Bible, The Interpreters Bible. New York: Abingdon Cokesbury Press, 1951-57. 271

The Bible, The Jerusalem Bible. Garden City, N.Y.: Double­ day § C o ., 1966. \

The Bible, The Living Bible. Wheaton, 111.: Tyndale House Publishing Co., 1971.

The Bible, New American Standard Bible. Carol Stream, 111.: Creation House, 1963.

The Bible, New Scofield King James Version. London: Oxford University Press, 1967 Edition.

Thompson, J. A. Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdman's Publishing Co., 1959.

Thompson, J. A. The Bible and Archaeology. Grand Rapids: Eerdman’s Publishing Co., 1962.

Unger, Merrill F. Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1954.

Urwick, Lyndall F. "The Manager’s Span of Control." Harvard Business Review. Vol. XXXV. May-June 1956.

Wellhausen, Julius. Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel. Cleveland, Ohio: The World Publishing Co., T957.

Whitcomb, John C. Solomon to the Exile. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1971.

Whyte, Alexander. Bible Characters: Adam to Achan. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., (No Date)^

Whyte, Alexander. Bible Characters: Ahithophel to Nehemiah. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., (No Date).

Wight, Fred H. Highlights of Archaeology in Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody Press, 1955.

Wilson, Robert Dick. A Scientific Investigation of the Old Testament. Chicago! Moody Press, 1959.

Wolff, Richard. Man at the Top. Wheaton, 111.: Tyndale House Publishers, 1969.

Wright, Ernest, ed. The Bible and the Ancient Near East. Garden City, N.Y.! Doubleday 6 Co., 1961.