Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Series Volume 1 Basic Structure of The

Volume 1 Basic Structure of the Language

Editor : Medhā Michika, AVG, Anaikatti

E-Published by:

Arsha Avinash Foundation 104 Third Street, Tatabad, Coimbatore 641012, India Phone: + 91 9487373635 E mail: [email protected] www.arshaavinash.in

Volume 1 Basic Struct ure of the Language

Medhā Michika AVG Anaikkatti, 201 6

The contents of this work may not in any shape or form be reproduced without permission from Medhā Michika.

All profit from the sales of this book goes towards the activities initiated by Śrī Pūjya Svamī Dayānanda Sarasvatī.

Electronic version of this book is available at: Arsha Avinash Foundation www.arshaavinash.in

Printed version of this book is available at: Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, Coimbatore, TN, India www.arshavidya.in Swami Dayananda Ashram, Rishikesh, UK, India www.dayananda.org Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, Saylorsburg, PA, USA www.arshavidya.org Amazon of your country www.amazon.com etc. (Search by “medha michika”)

Tutorial videos to accompany this series of books will soon be available online. Search YouTube under "Medha Sanskrit".

Books on Sanskrit Grammar

By Medhā Michika

1. The Script

Devanāgarī (Sanskrit alphabet) Volume 1 Single letters

Study Book Volume 2 Conjunct consonants & Exercises on mantras and ślokas 2. Basic Sanskrit G rammar (Sufficient to allow the student to read ślokas and commentaries on Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā) Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 1 Basic Structure of the Language

Volume 1 Basic Structure of the Language - Workbook

Volume 2 Phonetics & Sandhi

Volume 3 Derivatives (Pañcavttaya)

3. Reference Books

Dhātukośa (A Dictionary of Verbal Roots)

Aādhyāyī-sūtrapāha (List of Pāini-Sūtra) 4. Grammatical Analysis Rāmodantam (A story of Śrī Rāma)

Grammatical Analysis of Volume 1 Tvampada-vicāra (Chapter 1 – 6)

Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā Volume 2 Tatpada-vicāra (Chapter 7 – 12)

Volume 3 Aikya-vicāra (Chapter 13 – 18)

5. Advanced Study in Pāini-Sūtra

Study Guide to Pāini-Sūtra Volume 1 - 10 through Laghusiddhāntakaumudī

Grammatical Analysis Steps, and the Corresponding Books

The primary objective of studying Sanskrit Grammar is to understand the basic unit of the language, the sentence. The basic steps required to do this, and the relevant books in this series, are;

Step 1: • Remove sandhi (phonetic change) between words of the sentence. • Relevant books – Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 2 Phonetics & Sandhi Optionally accompanied by – Aādhyāyī-sūtrapāha (List of Pāini-Sūtra) Step 2: • Identify the verb, and ascertain the verbal root, suffix, and meaning. • Relevant books – Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 1 Basic Structure of the Language For meaning of root, or root with prefix – Dhātukośa (A Dictionary of Verbal Roots) For derived roots – Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 3 Derivatives (Pañcavttaya) Step 3: • Determine the relationship of each noun to the verb. Ascertain the nominal bases and suffixes, and the corresponding meanings. • Relevant books – Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 1 Basic Structure of the Language For derived nominal bases – Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar Volume 3 Derivatives (Pañcavttaya)

These steps are demonstrated in the Grammatical Analysis series.

Once the student has become comfortable with reading Sanskrit sentences, one may wish to commence the study of Pāini-Sūtra. This sets the mind in alignment with the minds of the iis for deeper understanding of the scriptures. • Relevant books - Aādhyāyī-sūtrapāha (List of Pāini-Sūtra) - Study Guide to Pāini-Sūtra through Laghusiddhānta-kaumudī- Volume 1 - 10

Preface

[śrīgurubhyo nama] (Salutations to my teachers)

This book is the revision of the book “Sanskrit Grammar for Vedanta Students”. I changed the title to “Enjoyable Sanskrit Grammar” because the more I teach the more I find that the impediment in learning Sanskrit is not intellectual, but psychological. As repeatedly emphasized by my respected guru, Śrī Pūjya Svamī Dayānanda Sarasvatī, it is important to be relaxed and make the study enjoyable. In this book the presentation of the topics is based purely on the tradition, but at the same time I have tried to make it easily understandable by the student in the modern scheme. Throughout this series of grammar books, the knowledge of Sanskrit grammar is presented for understanding, rather than just memorizing. Only when the grammar and Pāini’s system to explain the grammar are understood, can one fully enjoy the language and the knowledge given through it. This series of books is therefore useful not only for students of scriptures in Sanskrit, but also for those who just want to gain an overview of the linguistics aspect of the Sanskrit language. My prayers to all the students of all the scriptures of this great culture of India. Michika September 2016, AVG Anaikkatti

Preface to “Sanskrit Grammar for Vedanta Students”

(Salutations to my teachers)

I began my study of Sanskrit in Rishikesh in 2007 while I was staying at the Swami Dayananda Ashram. As a student in a 3 year course in Vedanta and Sanskrit from 2010 to 2013 at Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, Anaikkatti, Tamil Nadu, India, I often tutored my classmates in reading and understanding the usage of Sanskrit language by s (traditional teachers of Vedanta). I learned from this experience what works and what does not work in the presentation of Sanskrit grammar. Since existing Sanskrit textbooks are not well suited to the particular needs of Vedanta students, I decided to write this book.

(Who is this book for) This book is intended primarily for those whose purpose in studying Sanskrit is to understand the usage of Sanskrit employed by traditional teachers in unfolding the vision of Vedanta. The

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approach taken in this series of textbooks is based on a clear conceptual understanding of Sanskrit grammar that can be directly applied to Vedanta teaching and its texts. Thus, it should be useful for beginners as well as more experienced students, and can serve as a resource for teachers in need of systematic, clear, and thorough materials.

(The subject matter of this textbook) This series of textbooks is an introduction to classical Sanskrit grammar, the main sourcebook of which is the work of Sage Pāini. The first volume covers mainly syntax, giving students the tools needed to analyze basic Sanskrit sentences, including the fundamentals of (verbs) and (nouns), and the formation and function of each word in a sentence as it relates to a verb in terms of its (factor of action) and (case ending). Students should be able to start reading relatively simple Vedanta scriptures within a few months. The subsequent volumes will cover (five types of derivatives, i.e., --- - ) so that the student can grasp these grammatically derived words and (explanatory sentences) heavily used by s in both oral and written teachings, including . Another volume will provide a thorough introduction to Pāini sūtra, which develops clarity in thinking and facilitates communication with traditional teachers of Vedanta. This series of textbooks offers the following useful features, which are not found in other materials: 1) Organization by grammatical topics – gives the student a good grasp on the overall structure of the language, and enables the books to be used for reference. 2) Differentiation of the concepts of and – These fundamental concepts are essentially distinct, yet have not been clearly presented in other textbooks. To establish conceptual clarity, I introduced the various relationships that are embodied in the s first in English before dealing with the mechanics of noun formation and declension in Sanskrit. 3) Clear terminology – I have seen that loose usage of grammatical terms at the beginning will create problems later. Terminology and explanations in this textbook are consistent with those in Pāini-sūtras. 4) Vocabulary selected especially for students of Vedanta – The vocabulary words taught in this book are selected from vocabulary often encountered in the teaching of Vedanta. This will facilitate students’ rapid access to original Vedanta texts, and eliminate the unnecessary exercise of memorizing lists of words unlikely to ever be actually needed. 5) Early introduction of pronouns – The declensions of - (a-ending pronouns) as well as , , , and are very similar to the declension of . Since these related words are heavily used in the language, I introduce them together with - near the beginning of the lessons. This has never been done in other textbooks. The usage of relative pronouns is thoroughly introduced with explanation and exercises for practise. 6) Clear, progressive exercises – give students the practise they need to learn and develop their skills, and give teachers a way to track students’ progress.

7) Visually clear presentation - The organization of materials makes the information accessible to those who have gone through modern education systems.

(The expected result of this textbook) In the course of completing volume 1, along with the Sandhi Handbook, the following results can be expected: 1) A clear and systematic method of parsing sentences will be acquired and practised. 2) Students will be able to start analysing simple verses and prose within a few months. 3) From the beginning of the study, students’ understanding and appreciation of Vedanta classes will be enhanced because technical terms are introduced from the beginning. 4) Later, transition to the study of grammar as it is presented by Pāini-sūtras will be seamless.

(The relationship between the study of this book and expected result s) Students and teachers can simply follow the study guide provided from page 97 to attain the expected results. 1

Successful study of Sanskrit requires cognitive capacity, consistent effort, and the grace of . Personal growth and emotional maturity are necessary in order to have a mind that is available for the study of Vedanta and Sanskrit. Prayers should be continued to earn that grace.

August 2014, AVG Anaikkatti Michika

1 Of the edition of “Sanskrit Grammar for Vedanta Students”.

Table of Contents

Prayers 1 Topic I - Letters/Sounds 3 Topic II - Structure of the Sanskrit Language 5 Building Blocks of the Sanskrit Language 5 Topic III - Factors of action () 11 Basic concepts of [kārakam] (Factors of action) 11 1. [kartā] (Agent of action) 12 2. [karma] (Object of action) 13 3. [karaam] (Instrument of action) 14 4. [sampradānam] (Recipient of action) 15 5. [apādānam] (Origin of action) 16 6. [adhikaraam] (Locus of action) 18 Topic IV - The Concept of Verbs ( [ ti antam]) 19 1. What is verb ( [tiantam])? 19 2. Constituents of verb ( [tiantam]) 19 3. Classifications of [dhātu] (verbal root) 21 4. Ten s [lakāra]s 23 5. Verbal suffix (- [ti-pratyaya]) 26 6. Objectives of learning 28 7. Summary – the formation of 29 8. Steps in formation of 30 Topic V - Conjugation in (present tense) 31 1. in (Active Voice) with (Parasmaipadī dhātu) 32 2. Consulting [dhātukośa] 35 3. [upasargā] (Verbal prefixes) 36 4. in (Active Voice) with (Ātmanepadī dhātu) 37

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5. in (Active Voice) with common s 40 6. in (Passive Voice) 43 7. (Impersonal Voice) 44 Topic VI - Conjugation in other s 45 1. (Perfect Past Tense) 46 2. (First Future Tense) 48

3. (Second Future Tense) 50 4. (Imperative Mood) 52 5. (Simple Past Tense) 55 6. (Potential Mood) 58 7. (Benedictive Mood) 61 8. (General Past Tense) 63

9. (Conditional Mood) 65 Topic VI I - The Concept of Nouns ( [ subantam]) 67 1. What is noun ( [subantam])? 67 2. Constituents of noun ( [subantam]) 67 3. Classification of [prātipadika] 69 4. Nominal suffix ( - [sup-pratyaya]) 72 5. Objectives of learning 73 Topic VII I - Meanings of case endings ( [vibhaktyarth ā]) 74 Basic concepts of [vibhakti] (case ending) 74 1. (First Case) 76 2. (Second Case) 77 3. (Third Case) 78 4. (Fourth Case) 79 5. (Fifth Case) 80 6. (Sixth Case) 83 7. (Seventh Case) 84 8. Summary table of 86

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Topic IX - Declension of Vowel -ending Nominal bases and Pronouns 87 1. -ending in (masculine) – [rāma] 89 2. -ending Pronouns in (masculine) – [sarva] 93 3. Other Pronouns in (masculine) – , , , 95 4. -ending in (neuter) – [jāna] 99 5. -ending Pronouns in (neuter) – [sarva] 100 6. Other Pronouns in (neuter) – , , , 101 7. /-ending in (masculine) – [hari]/ [guru] 103 8. -ending in (masculine) – [kart] 106 9. -ending in (feminine) – [gagā] 109 10. -ending Pronouns in (feminine) – [sarvā] 111 11. Other Pronouns in (feminine) – , , , 112 12. -ending in (feminine) – [nadī] 114 13. -ending in (feminine) – [mati] 116 14. Pronoun – [idam] 118 15. Pronoun – [adas] 120 16. Pronouns – [yumad], [asmad] 122 17. Referring to the same object again ( [anvādeśa]) with / 124 Topic X - Declension of Consonant -ending Nominal bases 125 Common steps in declension of (consonant-ending) (nominal base) 125 1. -ending in (masculine)/ (feminine) – [suga] 128 2. / / / -ending in (masculine)/ (feminine) – [marut] 130 3. / -ending in (masculine)/ (feminine) – [c] 133 4. -ending in / – [yogin]/ [yoginī] 134 5. / -ending in / – [bhagavat]/ [bhagavatī] 136 6. -ending in / – [sat]/ [satī] 138 7. -ending in (masculine) – [ātman] 140 8. -ending in (neuter) – [brahman] 142 9. -ending in (neuter) – [manas] 144

10. / -ending in (neuter) – [jyoti]/ [caku] 146 11. -ending in (masculine) – [candramas] 148 Topic X I - Nouns in Apposition ( [ sam ānādhikara am]) 149 Topic X II – Indeclinables ( [ avyayam]) 152 s derived from 155 s derived from s 157 Appendix 159 Exercises 161 Worksheets for photocopying 186

Prayer s

śuklāmbaradhara viu śaśivara caturbhujam | prasannavadana dhyāyet sarvavighnopaśāntaye ||1||

sarasvati namastubhya varade kāmarūpii | vidyārambha kariyāmi siddhirbhavatu me sadā ||2||

yenākarasamāmnāyamadhigamya maheśvarāt | ktsna vyākaraa prokta tasmai pāinaye nama ||3||

vākyakāra vararuci bhāyakāra patañjalim | pāini sūtrakāra ca praato'smi munitrayam ||4||

vāgarthāviva sampktau vāgarthapratipattaye | jagata pitarau vande pārvatīparameśvarau ||5||

om śānti śānti śānti ||

Meaning of the prayers :

1. For the removal of all obstacles, may one meditate upon Gaeśa, who wears white garment, who is all pervasive, whose complexion is like moon, who has four arms, and who has smiling face.

2. Sarasvatī! My salutations to you. The one who gives boons! The one who has beautiful form! I will start my study. May success be with me all the time.

3. My salutations to Pāini , by whom the entire grammar system has been taught after receiving Māheśvarasūtra from Śiva .

4. I remain saluting to three sages: Vararuci , the author of Vārtika , Patañjali , the author of Mahābhāya , and Pāini , the author of Pāini-sūtra .

5. For proper understanding of the meaning of words, I salute Pārvatī and Parameśvara , the parents of jagat , who are non-separate like the word and its meaning.

May the obstacles pertaining to my body-mind-sense-complex, to other beings around me, and to the natural environments, be removed.

Assignment on Prayer : Write all the śloka s (verses) of the prayer in both Devanagarī and transliteration (i.e. using this Romanized script, as on page 1). Try to memorize all the śloka s (verses) of the prayer.

Topic I – Letters/Sounds

Topic I Letters /Sounds

Sanskrit is a sound-based language. In Sanskrit, unlike English, there is a perfect one-to-one correspondence between what is written (letter) and what is pronounced (sound). Any script can be used in Sanskrit as long as this one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound is maintained. The most commonly used script for Sanskrit is called Devanāgarī.

Chart 1: Letters used in Sanskrit Class 1st of 2nd of 3rd of 4th of th Semi the the the the 5 / Sibilants Vowels nasals vowels Category class class class class

Gutturals / ka kha ga gha a ha a / ā

Palatals / ca cha ja jha ña ya śa i / ī

Cerebrals / a ha a ha a ra a /

Dentals ta tha da dha na la sa

Labials / pa pha ba bha ma va u / ū

To facilitate pronunciation, [a] has been added after each consonant in this chart.

Diphthongs: e, ai, o, au

Special letters/sounds which come after vowel: (anusvāra), (visarga)

3 Topic I – Letters/Sounds

Letters /Sounds : 1. Vowels : There are nine vowels in Sanskrit: • 5 simple vowels – short form: , , , , (long form: , , , ) • 4 diphthongs – long , , ,

Note that short vowel is called [hrasva ] and long vowel is called [dīrgha ]. , , and are termed [gu a]. , , and are termed [vddhi ].

2. Consonants: There are thirty-three consonants in Sanskrit. • 25 consonants = 5 categories x 5 classes (from to ) • 4 semivowels (, , , ) • 4 sibilants (, , , )

3. [anusv āra ] The nasal sound which is represented by a dot above a vowel, or “”. E.g., [aśu]

4. [visarga ]/ [visarjan īya ] The aspirated guttural sound which is represented by “:” or “” after a vowel. E.g., [rāma ], [rāmā], [rāmai ], [hari ], [hare ], [guru ], etc.

Symbols in Devan āgar ī script : [halanta ] : A stroke below a consonant, indicating that the consonant stands by itself without any vowel following it. E.g., [k] [t] etc. [da a] : A vertical line which indicates the end of a sentence or one section of a verse. A double line indicates the end of a verse or paragraph. E.g.,

Assignment on Letters/Sounds : Get familiar with Devanāgarī. If needed, use Devanāgarī Studybook volume 1 and 2. Add these words to your vocabulary: [hrasva], [dīrgha], [gua], [vddhi], [anusvāra], [visarjanīya].

4 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

Topic I I Structure of t he Sanskrit Language

Building Blocks of the Sanskrit Language

A sentence ( [vākyam]) is a unit of expression to communicate an idea. E.g. “ [rāma vana gacchati] (Rāma goes to the forest.)” is a sentence ( [vākyam]).

A consists of a word ( [padam]) or words ( [padāni]). 2

[vākyam] (sentence)

[ padam ] [ padam ] [ padam ] (word ) (word ) (word )

[padāni] (words)

E.g., In the sentence above, there are three words ( [padāni]). 1. [rāma] (Rāma); 2. [vanam] (to the forest); 3. [gacchati] (goes)

2 [padam] is a form in singular, while [padāni] is a form in plural. 5 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

In the Sanskrit language, there are only two types of words:

1. Verb ( [tianta padam]; literally “word ending with ti-suffix”)

E.g. [gacchati] (goes)

2. Noun ( [subanta padam]; literally “word ending with sup-suffix”)

E.g. [rāma] (Rāma); [vanam] (to the forest)

Every word in Sanskrit is comprised of two basic constituents:

Original entity ( [prak ti ]) + Suffix ( [pratyaya ])

[ padam ] [prak ti ] [pra tyaya ] = + (word ) (original entity ) (suffix )

E.g. word = original entity + suffix 3 = (Rāma) + (agent/singular) = (forest) + (object/singular) = (to go) + (present/active/ 3rd person/singular)

This concept is used by Sage Pāini, the grammarian who established a meta- language to explain the whole Sanskrit grammar.

3 Suffix is a grammatical term for a group of letters which is attached after an original entity. Suffix modifies the meaning or form of the original entity. 6 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

With that concept, the constituents of a word ( [padam]) are explained as follows:

1. Verb ( [ti anta padam]) :

As for verb, the original entity ( [prakti]) is verbal root ( [dhātu]), which indicates action. The suffix ( [pratyaya]) is verbal suffix (- [ti- pratyaya]), which indicates tense or mood, voice, person, and number.

verb ( [tianta padam]) = root ( [dhātu]) + verbal suffix (- [ti-pratyaya])

- [tianta padam] = [dhātu] + [ti-pratyaya] (verb ) (root ) (verbal suffix )

E.g., = + (he goes) = (to go) + (present/active/3 rd person/singular) (he goes) is a verb ( [tianta padam]). (to go) is verbal root ( [dhātu]). (present/active/3 rd person/singular) is verbal suffix (- [ti-pratyaya]).

7 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

2. Noun ( [subanta padam]):

As for noun, the original entity ( [prakti]) is nominal base ( [prātipadikam]), which indicates a thing or person. The suffix ( [pratyaya]) is nominal suffix ( - [sup-pratyaya]), which indicates case and number. 4

noun ( [subanta padam]) = nominal base ( [prātipadikam]) + nominal suffix ( - [sup- pratyaya])

- [subanta padam] = [prātipadikam ] + [sup-pratyaya] (noun ) (nominal base ) (nominal suffix )

E.g., = + (Rāma) is a noun ( [subanta padam]). (Rāma) is nominal base ( [prātipadikam]) (agent/singular) is nominal suffix ( - [sup-pratyaya]) E.g., = + (to the forest) is a noun ( [subanta padam]). (forest) is nominal base ( [prātipadikam]) (object/singular) is nominal suffix ( - [sup-pratyaya])

4 The [p] of [sup] becomes [b] in the word “ ” [subantam] because of a sandhi rule, which is studied in Volume 2 in this series. (Ref. Pāini-sūtra 8.2.39) 8 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

There are two types of suffix ( [pratyaya]) to make a word ( [padam]).

1. Verbal suffix ( [ti pratyaya]) There are eighteen verbal suffixes by three persons and three numbers in two types. They are called [ti] because they start with [ti] and end with [].

Type P Type A

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person [ ti p] [tas] [jhi] [ta] [ātām] [jha]

2nd person [sip] [thas] [tha] [thās] [āthām] [dhvam]

1st person [mip] [vas] [mas] [i] [vahi] [mahi ]

2. Nominal suffix ( [sup pratyaya]) There are twenty-one nominal suffixes by seven cases and three numbers. They are called [sup] because they start with [su] and end with [p].

Singular Dual Plural

1st case [su ] [au] [jas]

2nd case [am] [au] [śas]

3rd case [ā] [bhyām] [bhis]

4th case [e] [bhyām] [bhyas]

5th case [asi] [bhyām] [bhyas]

6th case [as] [os] [ām]

7th case [i] [os] [su p] (The symbol on top of and indicates nasal vowel for technical purposes.)

To be used in the language, a word should be technically qualified as . Thus every word in Sanskrit language must end with either - or -. (By Pāini-sūtra 1.4.14 )

9 Topic II – Structure of Sanskrit Language

In every sentence there is one verb ( [tianta padam]), written or implied.

[vākyam] : sentence

[subanta padam] [subanta padam] [tianta padam]

(noun ) (noun ) (verb)

o In understanding a sentence ( [vākyam]), the verb ( [tianta padam]) should be identified first. o All other words should be nouns ( [subanta padam]). They are all connected to the verb, either directly or indirectly. o By relating each noun to the verb, the meaning of the sentence is understood.

Note: In this book the word "verb" refers to a , or a "finite verb". A finite verb makes a sentence complete. Even if a word () is indicating an action, if it does not end with - , thus ending with -, that word is considered to be a noun, not a verb. This is according to the Pāinian Sanskrit grammar.

Assignment on Structure of Sanskrit Language: Add these words to your vocabulary: 1) [vākyam] 7) [pratyaya] 2) [padam] 8) [dhātu] 3) [padāni] 9) - [ti-pratyaya] 4) [tianta padam] 10) [prātipadikam] 5) [subanta padam] 11) - [sup-pratyaya] 6) [prakti]

10 Topic III – Factors of action ()

Topic III Factors of action

Basic concepts of [ kārakam ] (Factors of action )

With reference to an action, there are many factors which are related to the action. Sage Pāini defined some factors directly related to the action as s.

s are six in number.

1. [kartā] (agent of action)

2. [karma] (object of action)

3. [karaam] (instrument of action)

4. [sampradānam] (recipient of action)

5. [apādānam] (origin of action)

6. [adhikaraam] (locus of action)

Based on how a thing or person is related to a given action, the status of one of the s can be given to it.

and [vibhakti] (case endings) are independent concepts. They are not intrinsically connected. o s are factors involved in the accomplishment of action. s are independent from any language. Thus can be understood without Sanskrit language. o s are nominal suffixes in Sanskrit grammar. s can express s as well as things other than .

11 Topic III – Factors of action ()

1. [kart ā] (Agent of action)

With reference to a given action, the agent, the one who does the action gets a technical name “”.

is the primary factor related to the action.

e.g., 1) He sees the elephant.

- With reference to the action of seeing, • He is .

e.g., 2) They see the elephant.

- With reference to the action of seeing, • They are .

e.g., 3) Devadatta falls.

- With reference to the action of falling, • Devadatta is .

e.g., 4) There are scriptures .

- With reference to the action of being, • Scriptures are .

e.g., 5) Devadatta sees Somadatta , who is cooking.

- With reference to the action of seeing, • Devadatta is .

- With reference to the action of cooking, • Somadatta is .

12 Topic III – Factors of action ()

2. [karma ] (Object of action)

With reference to a given action, the object gets a technical name “”.

e.g., 1) He sees the elephants .

- With reference to the action of seeing, • He is . • The elephants are .

e.g., 2) The elephants are seen by him.

- With reference to the action of seeing, • He is . • The elephants are .

e.g., 3) Devadatta goes to the village .

- With reference to the action of going, • Devadatta is . • The village is .

A destination of a going or moving action is also considered to be a (object).

e.g., 4) Devadatta sees Somadatta who is cooking the rice .

- With reference to the action of seeing, • Devadatta is . • Somadatta is .

- With reference to the action of cooking, • Somadatta is . • The rice is .

13 Topic III – Factors of action ()

3. [ kara am ] (Instrument of action)

With reference to a given action, an instrument/means to accomplish the action gets a technical name “”.

e.g., 1) Devadatta eats rice by hand .

- With reference to the action of eating, • Devadatta is . • Rice is . • The hand is .

e.g., 2) He goes to the village by bus .

- With reference to the action of going, • He is . • The village is . • Bus is .

e.g., 3) The bird is seen by him through binoculars.

- With reference to the action of seeing, • He is . • The bird is . • The binoculars are .

14 Topic III – Factors of action ()

4. [ samprad ānam ] (Recipient of action)

That recipient which the agent wants to connect with the object of the action of giving gets a technical name “”.

e.g., 1) Devadatta gives money to the priest .

- With reference to the action of giving, • Devadatta is . • Money is . • The priest is .

The recipient of other actions, such as teaching, telling, showing, etc., is also .

e.g., 2) The teacher teaches the scripture to the student .

- With reference to the action of teaching, • The teacher is . • The scripture is . • The student is .

e.g., 3) He tells a story to the people .

- With reference to the action of telling, • He is . • A story is . • The people are .

e.g., 4) Devadatta gets ready for the journey .

- With reference to the action of getting ready, • Devadatta is . • The journey is .

15 Topic III – Factors of action ()

5. [ ap ādānam ] (Origin of action)

With reference to a given action which involves separation, the point from which the separation takes place gets a technical name “”.

e.g., 1) An apple falls from the tree .

- With reference to the action of falling, • An apple is . • The tree is .

e.g., 2) He goes to the village from a house .

- With reference to the action of going, • He is . • The village is . • A house is .

e.g., 3) Devadatta falls from a running horse .

- With reference to the action of falling, • Devadatta is . • A running horse is .

- With reference to the action of running, • A horse is .

16 Topic III – Factors of action ()

Something one fears, and something from which one has to protect oneself are also .

e.g., 1) He is afraid of the snake .

- With reference to the action of being afraid, • He is . • The snake is . e.g., 2) Bhagavān protects people from .

- With reference to the action of protecting, • Bhagavān is . • People are . • is .

Cause of birth is also . e.g., 1) Anger is born of desire .

- With reference to the action of being born, • Anger is . • Desire is .

Teacher in formal learning is also . e.g., 1) Students study the Vedas from the teacher .

- With reference to the action of studying, • Students are . • The Vedas are . • The teacher is .

17 Topic III – Factors of action ()

6. [ adhikara am ] (Locus of action)

With reference to a given action, a locus of or in terms of place (), time (), subject () gets a technical name “”.

e.g., 1) He cooks in the kitchen .

- With reference to the action of cooking, • He is . • The kitchen is .

e.g., 2) He cooks rice in the pan .

- With reference to the action of cooking, • He is . • Rice is . • The pan is .

e.g., 3) He swims in the swimming pool in front of the library.

- With reference to the action of swimming, • He is . • The swimming pool is . • The library is a referential point for the word “in front of”. Thus it is not qualified to be called . e.g., 4) He sleeps at night .

- With reference to the action of sleeping, • He is . • Night is .

e.g., 5) In/with reference to , he has desire.

- With reference to the action of having, • He is . • Desire is . • is .

18 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

Topic I V

The Concept of Verbs ( [ ti antam ])

It is essential to know the concept of verbs. However, this topic can initially be deferred by beginners. Topic V – Conjugation in can be studied first, and Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs can be studied later.

1. What is verb ( [ ti antam ]) ?

In Sanskrit language, there are only two types of words, verb ( [tianta padam]) and noun ( [subanta padam]). Here, verb ( [tiantam]) is a word ( [padam]) which is the primary element in the sentence, in a sense that all nouns are connected to the verb. For example, in a sentence “He sees an elephant in the forest with his friend.”, the verb “sees” is the primary element of the sentence and all the nouns are connected to the verb, either directly or indirectly. To be exact, [tiantam] is a finite verb, which completes a sentence. For example, in the sentence “He offers melted ghee into burning fire.”, “offers” is the finite verb, ( [tiantam]). “Melted” and “burning” are considered to be participles. Participle is a type of noun which qualifies other nouns in terms of action.

2. Constituents of verb ( [ ti antam ])

The literal meaning of [tiantam] is that which ends ( [anta]) with [ti]. [ti] is a type of suffix ( [pratyaya]), which can be called verbal suffix. [tiantam] consists of two elements: Verb ( [tiantam]) = Root ( [dhātu]) + Verbal suffix ( [ti-pratyaya])

19 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

A [dhātu] is the basic element of . A indicates only an action. For example, “ [bhū]” is a and its meaning is “to be”. “ [dś]” is another and its meaning is “to see”. By suffixing different verbal suffixes (-s) to a according to person and number, different forms of verbs (s) are produced. This is what we call “conjugation of verb ”.

Observe how a verb is conjugated from a single into nine different forms by suffixing nine different suffixes according to three types of person and three numbers.

(root) (verbal suffixes) (verbs) Singular Dual Plural Number Sing- Plu- Dual rd Person ular ral 3

3rd person He is Those two are They are 2nd + 2nd person = (to be) You are You two are You are 1st person 1st I am We two are We are

Formation of That which immediately precedes the suffix is called [aga] (stem). So, when a - [ti-pratyaya] is suffixed to a [dhātu], the is given the status of [aga]. It is the which then undergoes any necessary modifications based on the type of , tense, etc. s also undergo some changes based on the tense, mood, etc.

This is the original by itself. () + A - is suffixed. Then gains the status of . () () + There are regulations to modify - according to tense, etc. + There are regulations to modify according to certain factors which are discussed next.

20 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

3. Classifications of [dh ātu ] (Verbal root )

is the basic element in Sanskrit language and it indicates action itself. There are about two thousand s defined by Pāini in a book called [dhātupāha]. In the , these s are classified in two ways according to the way they conjugate. They are: i. Ten groups of conjugations (1 st to 10 th ) ii. Three types (P, A, and U) i. Ten s [ga a]s (groups ) of conjugation

When a is suffixed with a -, thus gaining the status of [aga], it can undergo one of ten different modification processes. 5 According to which of these ten modification processes it intrinsically undergoes, a is classified into one of ten groups. In Sanskrit, the word for group is . Thus there are ten s of s called 1 st to 10 th . More than a half of s belong to the 1 st (also called 1 st conjugation). The following chart is presented here just to illustrate that there are ten s of s according to the ten different modification processes on .

Modification process In Sanskrit on Added Special change 1st - Yes -

2nd - Yes & No - -

3rd - Yes & No - Reduplication

4th - No -

5th - No / -

6th - No -

7th - No -

8th - Yes / -

9th - No / -

10 th - Yes This becomes a new

5 Difference in modification process on is seen only when conjugating in active voice ( ), and , , , , and /. 21 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam]) ii. Three types (P, A, and U)

As seen in the chart below, -s [ti-pratyaya]s are eighteen in number and they are divided into two pada s. The first set of nine suffixes is called Parasmai-pada (-). The second set of nine suffixes is called Ātmane-pada (-).

-s

- [parasmai-pada] - [ātmane-pada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person [ ti p] [tas] [jhi] [ta] [ātām] [jha]

2nd person [sip] [thas] [tha] [thās] [āthām] [dhvam]

1st person [mip] [vas] [mas] [i] [vahi] [mahi ]

The Parasmai-pada (-) are suffixed to some s, while Ātmane-pada (- ) are suffixed to some other s. 6 In this book, those s which take only Parasmai-pada (-) are classified as type P. Such type of is called - [parasmai-padī], that which takes -. Those s which take only Ātmane-pada (-) are classified as type A. Such type of is called - [ātmane-padī], that which takes -. Those s which take both Parasmai-pada (-) and Ātmane-pada (-) are classified as type U. Such type of is called - [ubhaya-padī], that which takes both . For example, [bhū] is a [dhātu] indicating the action “to be”, listed in [dhātupāha] under the 1 st group ( [gaa]), and it is classified as P, - [parasmai- padī] because it takes only Parasmai-pada (-) suffixes. So, in a Sanskrit dictionary, it is listed as “ (1P) to be”. [dīp] is another indicating the action “to shine”, listed under 4 th , and it is classified as A, - [ātmane-padī], because it takes only Ātmane-pada (-) suffixes. In a dictionary, it is listed as “ (4A) to shine”. Similary [rudh] is listed as “ (7U) to obstruct” as it is under 7 th and takes both sets of suffixes.

6 This difference in type is seen only in active voice. 22 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

4. Ten s [lak āra ]s

There are ten suffixes called s [lakāra]s. They are: 1. [la] 2. [li] 3. [lu]

4. [l] 5. [lo] 6. [la] 7. [vidhili] 8. [āśīrli] 9 [lu]

10. [l] Since they all have [l] in their names, they are conventionally called s [lakāra]s. s [lakāra]s are suffixed to a [dhātu]. E.g., () + (one of the s) is to be substituted by - [ti-pratyaya]. E.g., () + ( is substituted by one of the -s) Since - s are substitutes for , all verbs ( s) are originally made by suffixing to .

[lakāra] represents two things. i. Voice ( [prayoga]) ii. Tense and mood These voice and tense/mood are inherited by - and become a part of the meaning of the verb. In other words, voice and tense/mood of a verb originate from .

23 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam]) i. Voice ( [prayoga ])

There are three voices for verb. They are: a) Active voice ( [kartari prayoga]) b) Passive voice ( [karmai prayoga]) c) Impersonal voice ( [bhāve prayoga]) denotes /indicates/corresponds to the agent ( [kartā]) or object ( [karma]) of the action indicated by , to which is suffixed. Occasionally, also denotes the action of the itself. a) Active voice ( [kartari prayoga]) When a denotes the agent ( [kartā]) of the action, the voice of verb is called “active voice”, [kartari prayoga] in Sanskrit. For example, to a “ (to see)”, is suffixed. When this denotes the agent of action of seeing, the verb created by this combination of and will be “ (sees)” and this verb is said to be in active voice, or . This verb corresponds to the agent. Just as “He sees a bird.”, “They see a bird.”, etc., and “I am .”, “You are ”, “He is ”, etc., in English. b) Passive voice ( [karmai prayoga]) When a denotes the object ( [karma]) of the action, the voice of verb is called “passive voice”, [karmai prayoga] in Sanskrit. For example, to a “ (to see)”, is suffixed. When this denotes the object of action of seeing, the verb created by this combination of and will be “ (is seen)”, and this verb is said to be in passive voice, or . This verb corresponds to the object. Just as “The bird is seen by him.”, “These birds are seen by him”, “The bird is seen by them.”, etc., in English. c) Impersonal voice ( [bhāve prayoga]) Since this voice is not seen very often in Sanskrit, and does not exist in English, explanation of this is deferred for now.

24 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam]) ii. Tense and mood

s also express the tense (time) of the action taking place, or mood of the action (how the action takes place). The following list shows general usage of ten s in six tenses and four moods. Note that these usages of tenses and moods are not always strictly observed in the language.

1. can be used in present tense to express that the action is started and not finished yet. 2. can be used in perfect past tense to express that the action is in the past which is not witnessed by speaker. 3. can be used in first future tense to express that the action will be in the future but not today.

4. can be used in second future tense to express that the action is in the future in general. 5. can be used in imperative mood to express that the action is command, invitation, prayer, etc. 6. can be used in simple past tense to express that the action is in the past but not today. 7. can be used in potential mood to express that the action is command, invitation, prayer, hypothetical, etc. 8. can be used in benedictive mood to express that the action is wished. 9. can be used in general past tense to express that the action is in the past in general.

10. can be used in conditional mood to express that the action could happen, conditionally.

25 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

5. Verbal suffix ( - [ti -pratyaya ])

-s [ti-pratyaya]s are substitutes for . Thus, -s inherit voice as well as tense/mood from the original . Because of this, -s also denote voice as well as tense/mood. -s further denote two more things. i. Person ( [purua]) ii. Number ( [vacanam]) i. Person ( [puru a])

There are three persons, as described in the chart below.

Person In Sanskrit Who? Examples

3rd person - [prathama-purua] Others he, she, it, they, tree, etc.

2nd person - [madhyama-purua] Listener you, you all

1st person - [uttama-purua] Speaker I, we

In the traditional Sanskrit grammar, the 3 rd person is called - (first person) and listed first because the topic should come first. The speaker comes last () and the listener comes in between (). ii. Number ( [vacanam])

There are three numbers, as described in the matrix with persons in the chart below.

Number Singular Dual Plural - - - Person [eka -vacanam ] [dvi -vacanam ] [bahu -vacanam ] 3rd person he, she, it, tree they (two), two trees they (all), trees

2nd person you you (two) you (all)

1st person I we (two) we (all)

26 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

Two s [pada]s

There are eighteen -s. As seen in the chart below, they are divided into two sets of nine. They are: ° - [parasmai-pada] ° - [ātmane-pada] -s

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person [ ti p] [tas] [jhi] [ta] [ātām] [jha]

2nd person [sip] [thas] [tha] [thās] [āthām] [dhvam]

1st person [mip] [vas] [mas] [i] [vahi] [mahi ]

In active voice, either or both of the s are used according to the type of the . For example, the “ (1P) to be”, being type P, , takes one of the suffixes in active voice. “ (4A) to shine”, being type A, , takes one of the suffixes in active voice. “ (7U) to obstacle”, being type U, , takes both and suffixes in active voice. In passive voice and impersonal voice, only suffixes are used regardless of the type of the . For example, all s such as “ (1P) to be”, “ (4A) to shine”, and “ (7U) to obstruct” take suffixes in passive voice and impersonal voice.

27 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

6. Objectives of learning

Many different s can be produced from one . Ten different s can be suffixed to a in ten tenses and moods. Each has three voices. Then, each is multiplied into three persons and three numbers. If the is type U, in active voice the whole thing has to be multiplied by two.

1 X 10 s (tenses and moods): present, past, future, imperative, etc. X 2 s (voices): active, passive X 3 s (persons): 3 rd person, 2 nd person, 1 st person X 3 s (numbers): singular, dual, plural + 10 forms in impersonal voice = 190 forms of for a (280 forms for type U , by adding 90 =[10 s X 1 , active voice, X 3 s X 3 s]) See the chart on the next page for the breakdown and explanation.

Since there are so many forms of for each , one must be clear about the objectives of learning . The objectives are to be able to: 1) Locate the (verb) in a sentence. 2) Identify the of the , and look it up in a dictionary. 3) Identify , if possible. 4) Identify . This is very important. 5) Identify and . After identifying these, the will be marked in the format of: = + (/// ) E.g., = (1P) to be + /Active voice ()/3 rd person/Singular

To achieve these objectives, the student can firstly focus only on forms of the verb in: ° (present tense)/Active voice ( )/3rd person/Singular ° (present tense)/Passive voice ( )/3rd person/Singular 28 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

7. Summary – the formation of

Every single form of falls into one of the squares in this chart.

(voice)

(P) (A) P A A A

1. (Present Tense) 9 9 9 1

2. (Perfect Past Tense) 9 9 9 1

3. (First Future Tense) 9 9 9 1

4. (Second Future Tense) 9 9 9 1

5. (Imperative Mood) 9 9 9 1

6. (Simple Past Tense) 9 9 9 1

7. (Potential Mood) 9 9 9 1

8. (Benedictive Mood) 9 9 9 1

9. (General Past Tense) 9 9 9 1

10. (Conditional Mood) 9 9 9 1

9 = 9 forms (3 persons x 3 numbers); 1 = only one form (3 rd person singular) in impersonal voice.

In all ten s: • s (P) are used for s in . • s (A) are used for s in . • s (A) are used for all s in and . • The forms in and are identical.

In four s in the shaded area, namely , , , and : • There are ten different manners of forming according to ten groups of the in . • There is addition of for all s in and .

In the other six s: • The ten groups of conjugations do not matter in the process of forming . • There is no addition of in and . 29 Topic IV – The Concept of Verbs ( [tiantam])

8. Steps in formation of

To form a , there should first be a [vivakā], intention, or desire to convey something on the part of the speaker. According to the , the elements of verb, namely , , , , and , are decided. For example, if the speaker wants to convey “they are” in Sanskrit, elements of the verb will be: • : (1P) to be • : (Present tense) The action is happening at present. • : (Active voice) The agent of the action is denoted by the verb. • : (3rd person) The agent is neither the speaker nor listener. • : (Plural) The number of the agent is three or more.

Step 1) - is suffixed to a according to the details of . (1P) to be + (/ /3rd person/Plural) Since the voice is active voice and the is type “P”, the 3rd person plural of s, which is “” is used. Step 2) - is modified according to . + Step 3) is modified according to (group) and . + + , an additional for 1st is suffixed . + + takes place . + + Sandhi (phonetic change) takes place . Step 4) and - are combined with sandhi rules, if applicable.

Assignment on the concept of verbs: Add these words to your vocabulary: , , , , , , , -, -, -, , -, -, -

30 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

Topic V

Conjugation in (present tense)

At the beginning stage of studying verbs, it is essential to cover the conjugation in (present tense) in (active voice) and (passive voice) with both -s and - s. In this book, the ready-made forms of are provided because the forming of at the very beginning of Sanskrit study is not an efficient use of time. Actual formation of not only verbs but also any word forms can be studied well through Pāini- sūtras. Until then, the objectives of the study of verb should be clearly limited to these points: • Being able to identify (verb) in a sentence • Understanding of the structures of (verb) • Being able to identify and consult the dictionary • Being able to identify (voice) To achieve these goals, covering in this section is enough because the same knowledge can be applied to other s. After this section, it is recommended to defer studying the other s and start studying nouns.

In this book, the abbreviations used for 3 rd , 2 nd , and 1 st person are “III”, “II”, and “I”, respectively.

31 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

1. (Present Tense) in (Active Voice) with (Parasmaipad ī dh ātu )

Type P s (s) in the 1st (group)

When conjugating s in the 1 st in and , the takes 7, if applicable. Because an additional suffix “” is suffixed to s in the 1st , all the s end with “ ”. The ready-made final forms of the s are shown in the last column of the table below.

Original as in dictionary Meaning in English (stem) after listed in form modification

(1P) to draw, to plough

(1P) to go

(1P) to move, to walk

(1P) to live

(1P) to see

(1P) to salute

(1U) to lead, to carry

(1P) to study

(1P) to fall

(1P) to know

(1P) to be

(1P) to dwell

(1P) to stay

(1P) to remember

7 is a name for letters , and . A change of a vowel into takes place according to similarity in . E.g., / becomes , / becomes , / becomes , etc. See page 30 and 35. 32 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

of -s modified for (present tense) In -, the original -s are modified as seen in the following chart.

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 (3rd person ) II/1 II/2 II/3 (2nd person ) I/1 I/2 I/3 (1st person )

Conjugation table for - • (root) : (1P) to be • (tense/mood) : (present tense) • (voice) : - (active voice) • (stem) :

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 * rd (3 person) He is Those two are They are

II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You are You two are You all are

I/1 ** I/2 ** I/3 ** st (1 person) I am We two are We are

* Within a word, when a short is followed by a letter (, , or ), the latter one (the letter) is the substitute for both. In other words, short + = . ** The last of the is elongated () when followed by or .

Assignment on Conjugation of in 1st in / By observing rules described under the table, make conjugation table for each on the previous page. If needed, use the Workbook.

33 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

Assignment on Conjugation of in / For these s in 4 th and 6 th , make conjugation tables. Do Exercise #1 in the last part of this book.

Type P s (s) in the 4th (group) does not take . An additional suffix “” is suffixed for s in the 4th .

Original as in dictionary Meaning in (stem) after listed in form English modification (4P) to throw

(4P) to perish

(4P) to be pleased

(4P) to dance

(4P) to nourish

(4P) to be confused

(4P) to dry

Type P s (s) in the 6th (group) does not take . An additional suffix “” is suffixed for s in the 6th . Original as in dictionary Meaning in (stem) after listed in form English modification (6P) to wish

(6U) to show

(6P) to ask

(6U) to set free

(6U) to find

(6P) to touch

(6P) to write

(6P) to enter

(6P) to create

34 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

2. Consulting [dh ātuko śa]

s are defined by Pāini in his original book called [dhātupāha]. [dhātukośa] is a book in which these s are arranged in Sanskrit alphabetical order. One of the objectives of studying is to be able to identify the of a by tracking back to the original form of the . Only then can be utilized.

The manners of modification of simple vowels (//)

While tracking back to the original form of the from the modified form in , the understanding of the types of modification of simple vowels helps.

Manners of modification of simple vowels

Original Modification

[d īrgha ] (Long vowel )

[gu a] (, , ) +

[vddhi ] (, , ) +

[ ya ] (, , , )

(, , , ) / / -

For example, by looking at , the first guess of the would be “”, which is not found in . In that case, one can try to find “ (je)”, “ (ji)”, or “ (jī)” because the “ay” of “ (jay)” is most probably a modification of “e”, “i” or “ī”. “ay” is the result of - from “e”. And “e” is a form of “i” or “ī”. In the same logic, is tracked back from . Similarly, from , when “” is not found as a , one can infer that the would be “ (t)” or “ (t)” because “ar” of “” could be a modification of “” or “”. Exactly the same thing can be said to “” to find “ (h)” . In the case of , when “” is not found as , “ (śuc)” can be guessed because a penultimate // of a can take in the 1 st conjugation.

Assignment on Do Exercise #2 in the last part of this book. 35 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

3. [upasarg ā] (Verbal prefixes)

There is a group of twenty-two particles called “- [prādi-gaa]”, a group () whose first member () is [pra], as follows:

1. [pra] 2. [parā] 3. [apa] 4. [sam] 5. [anu] 6. [ava] 7. [nis] 8. [nir] 9. [dus] 10. [dur] 11. [vi] 12. [ā] 8 13. [ni] 14. [adhi] 15. [api] 16. [ati] 17. [su] 18. [ud] 19. [abhi] 20. [prati] 21. [pari] 22. [upa]

When a particle in the - is used together with a , it is called an [upasarga]. An may change the meaning, may not change the meaning, or may enhance the meaning of a to which it is added.

E.g., 1: (1P) to be + = to experience; + = to overwhelm; + = to appear; + = to be possible

E.g., 2: (1U) to take away + = to eat; + + = to illustrate; + = to avoid; + = to attack; + = to sport; + + = to deal with; + = to withdraw; + + = to summarize

Assignment on Try to memorize the 22 members of the -. Do Exercise #3 in the last part of this book.

8 The final of is an indicatory letter and is removed. Thus only “” is seen in use. 36 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

4. (Present Tense) in (Active Voice) with (Ātmanepadī root)

Type A s ( s) in the 1st (group)

The formation of is the same as for type P. The takes , if applicable. Because an additional suffix “” is suffixed to s in the 1st , all the s end with “ ”.

Original as in dictionary Meaning in (stem) after listed in form English modification

(1A) to see

(1A) to shine

(1A) to negate (1A) to speak

(1A) to rejoice

(1A) to strive

(1A) to play, to rejoice

(1A) to obtain

(1A) to be

(1A) to doubt

(1A) to shine

(1A) to suffer (1A) to serve

37 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

of -s modified for (present tense) In -, the original -s are modified as seen in the following chart.

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 (3rd person )

II/1 II/2 II/3 (2nd person )

I/1 I/2 I/3 (1st person )

Conjugation table for - • (root) : (1A) to gain • (tense/mood) : (present tense) • (voice) : - (active voice) • (stem) :

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 *** * rd (3 person) He gains Those two gain They gain

II/1 II/2 II/3 *** nd (2 person) You gain You two gain You all gain

I/1 I/2 I/3 * ** ** st (1 person) I gain We two gain We gain

* and ** - The manners of modifications are the same as s. *** - The last of the , and the beginning of the , are substituted by (a letter of the two). (Ref. -Sandhi in Volume 2.)

38 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

Type A s ( s) in the 4th (group)

The formation of is the same as for type P. does not take . An additional suffix “” is suffixed for s in the 4th .

Original as in dictionary Meaning in (stem) after listed in form English modification (4A) to be born (4A) to shine

(4A) to gain

(4A) to know

(4A) to consider

(4A) to fight

(4A) to be

(4A) to create

Assignment on Conjugation of in / For each - in 4 th , make conjugation tables. Do Exercises #4 and #5 in the last part of this book.

39 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

5. (Present Tense) in (A ctive Voice) with common s

The following s are frequently seen in scriptures, but their conjugation is not analyzed in this book due to the complication in the process of conjugation. It is recommended to become familiar with these forms, especially the forms in 3 rd person singular.

– to be (2P) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person ) He is Those two are They are

II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person ) You are You two are You all are

I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person ) I am We two are We are

– to do (8U) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice) Since is type U, , two sets of forms are seen; one with suffixes and the other with suffixes.

III/1 III/2 III/3 III/1 III/2 III/3

(3 rd person ) He does Those two do They do He does Those two do They do

II/1 II/2 II/3 II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person ) You do You two do You all do You do You two do You all do

I/1 I/2 I/3 I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person ) I do We two do We do I do We two do We do

40 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

– to know (9P) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person) He knows Those two know They know

II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person) You know You two know You all know

I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person) I know We two know We know

– to pervade (5P) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person) He gains Those two gain They gain

II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person) You gain You two gain You all gain

I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person) I gain We two gain We gain

– to know (2P) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice) There are two forms for each person and number.

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

/ III/1 / III/2 / III/3 (3 rd person) He knows Those two know They know

/ II/1 / II/2 / II/3 (2 nd person) You know You two know You all know

/ I/1 / I/2 / I/3 (1 st person) I know We two know We know

41 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

– to say (2U) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice) When the first five suffixes follow, there are two forms.

/ / / III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person) III/1 III/2 III/3 He says Those two They say

He says Those two say They say say / / II/3 II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person) II/1 II/2 You all You say You two say You all say You say You two say say

I/1 I/2 I/3 I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person ) I say We two say We say I say We two say We say

– to give (3U) in (Present Tense) – - (Active Voice)

III/1 III/2 III/3 III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person) He gives Those two They give He gives Those two They give give give II/1 II/2 II/3 II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person) You give You two You all give You give You two give You all give give

I/1 I/2 I/3 I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person) I give We two We give I give We two give We give give

Assignment on Conjugation of common s in / Try to find the forms in this section of in Bhagavadgītā.

42 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

6. (Present Tense) – (Passive Voice)

(Passive Voice) is used to denote the (object) of action. E.g., (The elephant is seen.) Because (object) is required in the construction, the has to be a - [sakarmaka-dhātu], that which indicates an action which takes an object. In some dictionaries, - is indicated as “v.t. ”, transitive verb.

Formation of in “” is added to the , and there is no modification on the . The formation is the same as the formation used for the s in 4 th . - in suffixes are used, regardless of the type of the (P, A, and U). Original -s are modified according to the . Combining the and - The modifications are the same as those seen in s.

• (root) : (1P) to see • (tense/mood) : (present tense) • (voice) : (passive voice) • (stem) :

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) He is seen Those two are seen They are seen II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You are seen You two are seen You all are seen I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) I am seen We two are seen We are seen

43 Topic V – Conjugation in (Present tense)

Assignment on Conjugation of common s in / Make conjugation table for each one of the s listed below. Do Exercise #6 in the last part of this book.

(1P) to reach (It is reached), , ... (1P) to study (It is studied), , ... (4P) to throw (It is thrown), , ... (6P) to wish (It is wished), , ...

(6U) to set free (It is freed), , ... (6P) to write (It is written), , ... (9P) to know (It is known), , ... (5P) to be able (It is possible to be done), , ...

(1A) to see (It is seen), , ...

(1A) to negate (It is negated), , ...

7. (Impersonal Voice)

(Impersonal Voice) is used to denote the action of the itself. The in should be an - [akarmaka-dhātu], that which indicates an action which does not take an object. E.g., to be, to become, to stand, to sit, to sleep, etc. In some dictionaries, - is indicated as “v.i. ”, intransitive verb. E.g., III/1 3/1 (Burning is done by fire.)9 E.g., 5/1 0 III/1 (Leaving from own house quickly has to be done.) Also, when (object) is not intended to be told, - can be used in The steps of formation of are the same as the steps used in . Action itself is denoted in . Since action is neither the speaker nor the listener, and does not have any number, only 3rd person singular forms are seen in . E.g., III/1 3/1 (Seeing is done by Devadatta.)

9 As , the action itself, is denoted by -, the undenoted should be told in the 3rd case. (Pāini-sūtra 2.3.18) 44 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

Topic V I

Conjugation in other s

Since the main objectives so far have been covered by studying -, beginner students should defer studying this section and move onto the next section, s and -. They should come back to this section after completing the section on declension of vowel-ending s. It is recommended to study the Vowel Sandhi (-) section of Volume 2 of this series before studying this section.

The basic concept of forming is the same throughout all the s: 1) Modification of - o -s are modified according to . o There is similarity in modification among the s which have at the end. i.e.

, , , , and . They are also known as -s. o There is similarity in modification among the s which have at the end. i.e.

, , , , and . They are also known as -s. o Note that the last becomes “:”, . 2) Modification of o For , , , and , the modified forms of are common. ° In active voice, the modification is done according to ten s of the . ° In passive voice, regardless of the , “” is added to the without causing .

o For other s (, , , , , and ), the classification of ten s does not make any difference. ° In passive voice, “” is not added to the . 3) Combination of and - o The rules observed in combining and - are applied for all s.

45 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

1. (Perfect Past Tense)

(Perfect Past Tense) is used to express an action in the past which the speaker did not see directly ().

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person

1st person

° In , the s are changed completely. Only some are modified in . ° If the ends with , III/1 and I/1 of are changed to . Thus - takes place between and , resulting in together. E.g., .

Modification of in (Duplication) of the takes place when applicable. When takes place, an extra syllable similar to the is observed before the .

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (Perfect Past Tense) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural )

III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) He was Those two were They were

II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You were You two were You all were

I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) I was We two were We were

46 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(1P) to go (he went), , ... (2P) to speak (he spoke), , ... (6P) to ask (he asked), , ... (2P) to go (he went), , ... (1P) to give (he gave), , ...

(3U) to put, to grant (he granted), , ... (1P) to blow (he blew), , ... (1A) to shine (he shone), , , , , , , , (1A) to obtain (he gained), , …

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the forms in 3 rd person singular. Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

47 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

2. (First Future Tense)

(First Future Tense) is used to express an action in the remote future, i.e., not of today. s in are rarely seen.

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person

1st person

° “”, an additional suffix to the , is attached to -s in this chart. ° -s modified for are used as a basis. ° The forms in are further modified, and they are the same for both s.

Modification of in If the is marked “S” in , is added before the additional suffix . takes place if applicable.

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (First Future Tense) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person ) He will be Those two will be They will be II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person ) You will be You two will be You all will be I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person ) I will be We two will be We will be

48 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(1PS) to study (he will study), , , , ...

(1AS) to rejoice (he will rejoice), , , , , , , , (4AS) to be born (he will be born), , , , , …

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the elements in the forms. E.g., + + + , + + + , etc. Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

49 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

3. (Second Future Tense)

(Second Future Tense) is used to express an action in the future in general.

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person

1st person

° “”, an additional suffix to the is attached to -s in this chart. ° -s modified for are used as a basis.

Modification of in If the is marked “S” in , is added before the additional suffix . In this case, becomes , together resulting in . takes place if applicable.

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (Second Future Tense) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) He will be Those two will be They will be II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You will be You two will be You all will be I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) I will be We two will be We will be

50 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(1P) to go (he will go), , ... (1P) to say, to tell (he will say), , ... (1P) to give (he will give), , ...

(8U) to do (he will do), , ... /, , , , , , , ,

(1A) to rejoice (he will rejoice), , … (1A) to obtain (he will obtain), , … (4A) to be born (he will be born), , …

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the elements in the forms and try to conjugate the above s for yourself. E.g., + + (For combining and -, the same rules are for are applied.)

Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

51 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

4. (Imperative Mood)

(Imperative Mood) is used to express a command, wish, etc.

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person / /

2nd person -/ /

1st person

In , ° of III/1 and III/3 becomes . ° There will be no suffix for II/1 if the ends with . Otherwise, is the suffix. ° Others are like . ° For , is added before suffix. In , ° The modified forms for are used as the basis for further modifications. ° at the end becomes . ° In , at the end becomes . ° For II/1 and II/3, the suffixes are and , respectively.

Modification of in The formation of is the same as for (present tense) in both and s.

52 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

– to be (1P) in (Imperative Mood) – (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) May he be May those two be May they be II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) May you be May you two be May you all be I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) May I be May we two be May we be

(2P) to be , , , , , , , ,

(1P) to go (May he go), , ... (1P) to say, to tell , , ... (1P) to study , , ... (1P) to see , , ... (1P) to stay , , ...

(1P) to remember , , ... (4P) to perish , , ...

(6P) to create , , ... (8U) to do , , , , , , , , /, , , , , , ,

(1A) to rejoice , , , , , , , ,

(1A) to play, to rejoice , , …

(1A) to obtain , , … (4A) to be born , , … (4A) to consider , , ...

53 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(Imperative Mood) – (Passive Voice)

(1P) to go (May it be reached), , , , , , , , (1P) to study , , ... (6P) to wish , , ...

(6U) to set free , , ... (9P) to know , , ... (5P) to be able , , ...

(1A) to see , , ... (1A) to obtain , , …

(1A) to pardon , , ...

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the elements in the forms and try to conjugate the above s for yourself. Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

54 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

5. (Simple Past Tense)

(Simple Past Tense) is used to express an action in the past, but not of today.

Modification of -s in -s modified for This is the standard for s with at the end ( - ).

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person :

1st person

In , ° III/2, II/2, II/3, I/1 becomes , , , , respectively. ° For others, and at the end disappear. For III/3, also disappears. In , ° III/3 becomes . ° Others remain in the original forms.

Modification of in The formation of is the same as for (present tense) in both and s. An augment “” is added before the . E.g., = (1P) + / /III/1 E.g., + = (4P) + / /III/1 Note that the augment comes before the , not the . If the begins with vowel, “” is added and takes place with the beginning letter of the . E.g., = (1A) + / /III/1 = + +

55 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

– to be (1P) in (Simple Past Tense) – (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) He was Those two were They all were II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You were You two were You all were I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) I was We two were We all were

– to be (2P) in (Simple Past Tense) – (Active Voice)

(1P) to go (he went), , ... (1P) to say (he said), , ... (1P) to see (he saw), , ... (1P) to stay , , ... (4P) to perish , , ...

(6P) to create , , ... (8U) to do , , , , , , , , /, , , , , , ,

(1A) to see , , , , , , , , 56 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(1A) to rejoice , , … (4A) to be born , , …

(Simple past tense ) – (Passive Voice)

(1P) to go (It has been reached), , ... (1P) to study (It has been studied), , ... (1P) to see , , ...

(1A) to see , , ... (4A) to consider , , ...

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the elements in the forms and try to conjugate the above s for yourself. Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

57 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

6. (Potential Mood)

(Potential Mood) is used to express a command, wish, etc., and also is used in making a conditional or hypothetical sentence. E.g., (If one remembers Ī śvara, there will be happiness for him.)

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person / / /

2nd person / / /

1st person / / /

° The standard s for are used as a basis. In , ° is attached before the s. ° III/3 becomes . ° If the is ending with , the is replaced by . The is elided when starts with consonant. The at the end of and of together becomes by -. In , ° III/3 and I/1 are replaced by and , respectively. ° is attached. The at the end is elided when starts with consonant.

Modification of in The formation of is the same as for (present tense) in both and s.

58 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

– to be (1P) in (Potential Mood) – (Active Voice)

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 (3 rd person) May he be May those two be May they be

II/1 II/2 II/3 (2 nd person) May you be May you two be May you all be

I/1 I/2 I/3 (1 st person) May I be May we two be May we be

(1P) to go (May one go), , ... (1P) to study (May one study), , ... (1P) to see , , ...

(1P) to remember , , ... (1P) to contemplate , , ... (4P) to perish , , ...

(6P) to create , , ...

– to be (2P) in (Potential Mood) – (Active Voice)

59 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(5P) to pervade , , .. (9P) to know , , ,

(8U) to do , , , , , , , , /, , , , , , ,

(1A) to be , , , , , , , , (1A) to obtain , , , , , , , ,

(1A) to rejoice , , ... (1A) to rejoice , , … (4A) to be born , , … (4A) to consider , , ...

(Potential mood ) – (Passive Voice)

(1P) to go (May it be reached), , , , , , , , (1P) to see , , ...

(1A) to obtain , , …

Assignment on Conjugation in Observe the elements in the forms and try to conjugate the above s for yourself. Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

60 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

7. (Benedictive Mood)

(Benedictive Mood) is used to express a wish or blessing.

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person

1st person

° The standard s for are used as a basis. In , ° III/3 becomes . ° is attached before the s. ° The of is elided before III/1 and II/1. In , ° III/3 and I/1 are replaced by and , respectively. ° is attached before and of s ° is attached. The at the end is elided when the starts with a consonant.

Modification of in does not take place in . In , takes place if applicable.

61 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (Benedictive Mood) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

(1P) to go (May one reach), , ... (1A) to grow , , , , , , , ,

Assignment on Conjugation in Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

62 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

8. (General Past Tense)

(General Past Tense) is used to express an action in the general past.

Modification of -s in -s modified for The standard s for are used.

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person /

2nd person :

1st person

° The standard s for are used as a basis. ° To these standard forms, there are many changes according to . This is well explained through Pāini-sūtras.

Modification of in According to , extra suffix , , or is added. Like for , an augment “/” is added before the .

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (General Past Tense) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

63 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(1P) to say, to tell (He said), , , , , , , , (4A) to shine /, , , , , , , ,

Note: when used with , a word indidicating prohibition, a verb in does not convey the sense of past. It simply conveys “Do not do … ”. In this case, the augment / is not attached. E.g., Do not be.

Assignment on Conjugation in Do the portion of Exercise #7 in the last part of this book.

64 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

9. (Conditional Mood)

(Conditional Mood) is used to express a condition. s in are rarely seen.

Modification of -s in -s modified for

[parasmaipada] [ātmanepada]

Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural

3rd person

2nd person

1st person

° The standard s for are used as a basis. ° “”, an additional suffix to the , is attached to -s in this chart.

Modification of in If the is marked “S” in , is added before , the additional suffix. In this case, becomes , together resulting in . takes place if applicable. Like for , an augment “/” is added before the .

to be (1P) and to be (2P) in (Conditional Mood) – (Active Voice) * declines in the same manner as in .

(Singular ) (Dual ) (Plural ) III/1 III/2 III/3 rd (3 person) He could be Those two could be They all could be II/1 II/2 II/3 nd (2 person) You could be You two could be You all could be I/1 I/2 I/3 st (1 person) I could be We two could be We all could be

65 Topic VI – Conjugation in other s

(8U) to do (He could have done), , … /, , , , , , , ,

Examples: 1/1 0 III/1 0 1/1 III/1 If there were a good rain, then it could have been plenty of food. , If this was intended, he would have said that.

66 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

Topic VI I

The Concept of Nouns ( [ sub antam ])

1. What is noun ( [ sub antam ]) ?

As seen so far, there are only two types of words in Sanskrit language: verb ( ), that which ends () with verbal suffix (), and noun ( ), that which ends with nominal suffix ( ). In a sentence in Sanskrit, there has to be one verb, either written or implied. All other words are nouns. All these nouns are connected to the verb, either directly or indirectly. A noun conveys a thing or person and how it is connected to the verb in the sentence.

2. Constituents of noun ( [ sub antam ])

The literal meaning of is that which ends with [sup]. is a type of (suffix), which can be called nominal suffix . consists of two elements:

Noun ( [subantam]) = Nominal base ( [prātipadikam]) + Nominal suffix ( - [sup-pratyaya])

A [prātipadikam] indicates a thing or a person. - [sup-pratyaya] indicates how that thing or person is connected to the verb in a sentence.

67 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

By suffixing different nominal suffixes ( -s) to a , according to the relationship to the verb and the number, different forms of nouns (s) are produced. This is what we call “ declension of noun ”. Observe how a noun is declined from a single into twenty-one different forms by suffixing twenty-one different suffixes according to seven types of cases and three numbers.

(nominal suffixes) (nouns)

(nominal base) Num. Sing Plu- Num. Sing- Dual Dual Plural Case -ular ral Case ular 1st case 1st case + 2nd case 2nd case [rāma] = 3rd case 3rd case

4th case 4th case

5th case 5th case

th th 6 case 6 case

th th 7 case 7 case

That which immediately precedes the suffix is called [aga]. So, when a - [sup-pratyaya] is suffixed to a , the is given the status of . It is the which then undergoes any necessary modifications based on the -. -s also undergo some changes based on gender and ending-letter of the .

This is original by itself. () + A - is suffixed. Then gains the status of . () () + - is modified according to gender and ending of . + is modified according to -.

68 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

3. Classification of [pr ātipadika ]

s are classified in two ways: i. Gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter) ii. Ending letter of

This two-fold classification is the factor which makes the difference in declension among different s. i. Genders

In Sanskrit language, there are three genders for nouns. 1. Masculine (- [pu-liga]) 2. Feminine (- [strī-liga]) 3. Neuter (- [napusaka-liga])

Every has one of the genders in two ways: A. Some s intrinsically have their own gender. B. Some s are adjective/qualifier. Then the gender of the qualified is given to the .

A. s which have genders intrinsically. Gender is just given to a in the language. E.g., (tree) is a masculine . E.g., (garland) is a feminine . E.g., (fruit) is a neuter . E.g., (body) is a masculine . E.g., (body) is a feminine . E.g., (body) is a neuter . The gender of and the actual gender of the meaning of the do not have to match. E.g., (wife) is a masculine .

69 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

E.g., (deity) is a feminine . Gender can be decided by how the was derived. E.g., , , , are neuter s. E.g., , , , are neuter s. E.g., , , , are feminine s. One can have more than one gender. E.g., (arrow) is a masculine and feminine . One can have more than one meaning, and according to the meaning, the gender may differ. E.g., in the sense of friend is a neuter . E.g., in the sense of the Sun God is a masculine .

B. s which do not have gender of their own Gender is given to a by another word which is qualified by the . E.g., When (tall) is qualifying (tree, masculine), it is used as masculine. (a tall tree) E.g., When (white) is qualifying (garland, feminine), it is used as feminine. 10 (a white garland) E.g., When (fallen) is qualifying (fruit, neuter), it is used as neuter. (a fruit is fallen.) ii. Ending letters

Ending letter is as important as gender in terms of how declines. For some s, the manner of declension is not only influenced by the last letter, but also by the last two letters, or how the word was derived.

10 If applicable, a feminine suffix () such as or is suffixed.

70 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

Distinguishing by gender and ending letter

Conventionally, letters in Sanskrit are named by adding “” at the end. E.g., is called . is called . E.g., is called . is called . ( is added after the consonant, before “”, for the purpose of pronunciation.) s are given conventional names according to the two ways of classification (gender and ending letter). E.g., is -ending masculine (--- ). E.g., is -ending feminine (---). E.g., is -ending feminine (---). E.g., is -ending neuter (--- ). Some s have to be identified by the last few letters because of differences in declension. E.g., is -ending masculine (-- - ). E.g., is -ending masculine (-- - ). Some s have to be identified by how the s are derived because of differences in declension. E.g., is -suffix-ending masculine (-- - ). E.g., is -suffix-ending masculine (--- ).

More basic categorization of s is: • Vowel-ending ( [ajanta]) 11 , that which ends () with vowel () • Consonant-ending ( [halanta]), that which ends () with consonant ()

11 Refer in Volume 2 for , abbreviation of vowels. Also, refer Pāini-sūtra 8.2.39 in - in Volume 2 for how of changes into in .

71 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

4. Nominal suffix ( - [sup -pratyaya ])

-s indicate two things. i. Case ( [vibhakti ]) There are seven cases (s) from 1 st to 7 th , whose meanings (-) will be studied in the next topic. ii. Number ( [ vacanam ]) There are three numbers (s): singular (-), dual (-), and plural (-).

By these two factors (case and number), every suffix of twenty-one -s is unique, as seen in the chart below.

Number Singular Dual Plural Case 1st case [su] [au] [jas]

2nd case [am] [au] [śas]

3rd case [ā] [bhyām] [bhis]

4th case [e] [bhyām] [bhyas]

5th case [asi] [bhyām] [bhyas]

6th case [as] [os] [ām]

7th case [i] [os] [sup]

-s are suffixed to to convey: i. The role which the plays in the sentence by case () ii. The number of by number ()

72 Topic VII – The Concept of Nouns ( [subantam])

5. Objectives of learning

The objectives are to be able to: 1) Identify , and The will be marked in the format of: = + (/ ) E.g., = (Rāma) + 4 th case/Singular = + 4/1 2) Determine the meaning of (-) and connect in the sentence.

This can be done by fulfilling in the form of asking and answering questions. This method is explained by the example below.

For example, in the sentence “ ”

1) Locate the first and mark it. (1P) to see + / /III/1

2) Mark all the s - “ 1/1 3/1 0 2/3 III/1 ”

3) Ask questions to find out and non- by asking questions and finding -

of the s.

Q : Who sees? ( 1/1 ?) – Look for 1 st case since the is in . A: 1/1 – Of the word , is , which is - in to , in singular (1/1).

Q : What does he see? ( 2/3 ?) – Look for 2 nd case since in undenoted is told in 2 nd case. A: 2/3 – Of the word , is , which is -, in to , in plural (2/3)

Q : With whom does he see? ( 3/1 ?) – Look for 3 rd case since a word connected to (together) is told in 3 rd case. A: 3/1 0 – Of the word , is , which is -, in in singular (3/1); is (0).

73 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

Topic V III Meanings of case endings ( [vibhaktyarth ā])

This section will be well comprehended when studied along with the next topics on declension.

Basic concepts of [vibhakti ] (case ending)

In Sanskrit language, every noun ends with a nominal suffix ( - [sup- pratyaya]). Nominal suffixes ( -s) are twenty-one in number and they are divided into seven cases (s [vibhakti]s) and three numbers, as seen in the chart below. literally means “division”. The -s are divided into seven, and each division is called “ (1st division)”, “ (2nd division)”, and so on.

(Division) of -s (nominal suffixes)

Number Singular Dual Plural (division) [prathamā] (1 st )

[dvitīyā] (2 nd )

[ttīyā] (3 rd )

[caturthī] (4 th )

[pañcamī] (5 th )

[ahī] (6th )

[saptamī] (7 th )

74 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

Each conveys different meanings. The meaning ( [artha]) of is called [vibhaktyartha]. A expresses the role of played in the sentence.

The seven s are employed to convey two things: A. (factor s of action)

When a is conveying [kāraka], it is called -.

Refer back to the topic of , if necessary.

B. Things other than (non - )

When a is conveying things other than , it is called non--.

s are called by different names as seen in the chart below. To avoid the possible confusion caused by mixing up and , in this book we refer to the by the numerical names (1, , or 1st case) rather than the other names (nominative, etc.), which are also associated with .

Different names for s

Case English term

st 1 case Nominative

2nd case Accusative

3rd case Instrumental

4th case Dative

5th case Ablative

6th case Genitive

7th case Locative

75 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

1. (First Case)

1st case is employed to express:

A. -

(agent) of a (verb) in (active voice) The 1 st case which is in the sense of is called [kartari pratham ā]

E.g., 1/1 III/1 (Devadatta sees.)

• The verb is in (active voice). • With reference to the action of the verb, is . • Thus is in the 1 st case.

(object) in (passive voice) The 1 st case which is in the sense of is called [kar ma i pratham ā]

E.g., 1/3 III/3 (The elephants are seen.)

• The verb is in (passive voice). • With reference to the action of the verb, is . • Thus is in the 1 st case.

B. Non--

Address to get the attention of the listener ( [sambodhanam])

E.g., 0 S/1 2/1 II/1 (Oh Rāma! protect me.) E.g., 0 S/3 2/1 II/3 (Oh Devas! protect me.) • Even though there are only seven s and is a type of 1st case, the letter S is utilized for indicating in this book. This is because for some words the singular form of is different from the general 1 st case singular form. E.g., 1/1 , S/1 .

76 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

2. (Second Case)

2nd case is employed to express:

A. -

(object) in (active voice)

The 2 nd case which is in the sense of is called [karma i dvit īyā]

E.g., 1/1 2/3 III/1 (Devadatta sees elephants .)

• The verb is in (active voice). • With reference to the action of the verb, is . • Thus is in the 2nd case.

A destination of a going or moving action is also considered to be a (object).

4th case is also taken optionally.

E.g., 1/1 2/1 / or 4/1 III/1 (Devadatta goes to village .)

• is of the , therefore it is in the 2 nd or 4 th case.

B. Non--

A word connected to the following words: (These words “govern” the 2nd case.)

o (indeclinable, towards)

E.g., 2/1 0 1/1 III/1 (There is a desire towards liberation .)

o (indeclinable, in keeping with, following)

E.g., 2/1 0 1/1 2/3 III/1

(He understands the Vedas in keeping with the teaching .)

o (indeclinable, without)

E.g., 2/1 0 1/1 0 III/1 (Without the son , Devadatta is not happy.)

77 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

3. (Third Case)

3rd case is employed to convey:

A. - (instrument)

The 3 rd case which is in the sense of is called [kara e ttīyā]

E.g., 1) 1/1 3/1 2/1 III/1 (Devadatta eats the rice by hand .)

E.g., 2) 1/1 3/1 III/1 (The rice is eaten by hand .) • , a means to accomplish the action, is , therefore it is in the 3 rd case.

(agent) in (passive voice)

The 3 rd case which is in the sense of is called [kartari ttīyā]

E.g., 3) 1/1 3/1 3/1 III/1 (The rice is eaten by Devadatta by hand.)

• is of the , therefore it is in the 3 rd case.

B. Non-- (cause) of an action The 3 rd case which is in the sense of is called [hetau ttīyā]

E.g., 1) 3/1 2/1 III/1 (One gains human birth because of puya .) • is , therefore it is in the 3 rd case.

An indication through which a given thing is known The 3 rd case in the sense of the indication is called [ittha bh ūte ttīyā]

E.g., 1) 1/1 3/3 3/3 III/1 (Ī śvara is understood in the form of everything .) E.g., 2) 1/1 3/1 III/1 (This remains in its own form .)

A word connected to “” ( indeclinable, with) which governs 3rd case The 3 rd case used for a word connected to “” is called - [saha -ttīyā]

E.g., 3/1 0 1/1 III/1 (Rāma goes with Lakmaa.)

78 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

4. (Fourth Case)

4th case is employed to convey:

A. -

(recipient of action of giving, etc.)

The 4 th case which is in the sense of is called [samprad āne caturth ī]

E.g., 1) 1/1 4/1 2/1 III/1 (Devadatta gives money to a priest .)

• , the recipient of action, is , therefore it is in the 4th case.

E.g., 2) 1/1 4/3 2/1 III/1

(Teacher teaches the scripture to the disciples .)

• , to whom the agent wants to connect by the action, is , thus it is in the 4th case.

B. Non--

Purpose of action.

E.g., 1) 4/1 2/3 III/1 (One worships devas to gain pu ṇya .)

A word connected to the following words which govern 4 th case.

o (indeclinable, salutation) E.g., 4/1 0 (Salutation to Śiva .) o (indeclinable, welfare) E.g., 0 4/3 (May there be welfare for the people .) o (indeclinable, an exclamation used in making oblations to the gods) E.g., 4/1 0 (This oblation is to Indra.) o Etc.

79 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

5. (Fifth Case)

5th case is employed to convey:

A. -

(origin, etc.)

The 5 th case which is in the sense of is called [ap ādāne pa ñcam ī]

E.g., 1) 1/1 5/1 III/1 (The fruit falls from the tree .)

• , origin of action, is , therefore it is in the 5 th case.

E.g., 2) 1/1 5/1 III/1 (Devadatta is afraid of the tiger .)

• , source of fear, is , therefore it is in the 5 th case.

E.g., 3) 1/1 5/1 2/3 III/1 (Ī śvara protects people from sorrow .)

• , from which one is protected, is , therefore it is in the 5 th case.

E.g., 4) 5/1 1/1 III/1 (Lotus is born of water .)

• , cause of birth, is , therefore it is in the 5 th case.

E.g., 5) 5/1 2/1 III/1 (He studies grammar from the teacher .)

• , a teacher of formal learning, is , therefore it is in the 5th case.

80 Topic VIII – Meanings of Case Endings ( [vibhaktyarthā])

B. Non--

(cause) of an action [ ]

The 5 th case which is in the sense of is called [hetau pa ñcam ī] E.g., 1) 1/1 1/1 0 5/1 III/1 (“The mountain has fire.” is known beucase of smoke.)

A thing or person from which another thing or person is distinguished. The 5 th case used for such word is called [vibhakte pa ñcam ī]

E.g., 1) 5/1 1/1 III/1 (Speaking truth is greater than silence .)

A referential point for words of direction in time and space. ( s) The 5 th case used for a word connected to is called [digyoge pa ñcam ī] o (before, east) E.g., 5/1 1/1 1/1 (Before the knowledge , there is .) o (after, superior) E.g., 5/1 1/1 1/1 (After the knowledge , there is .) o (after, above, no