Cover Page i Key Events in African History Page ii This page intentionally left blank. Page iii Key Events in African History A Reference Guide Toyin Falola An Oryx Book Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London Page iv Library of Congress Cataloging­in­Publication Data Falola, Toyin. Key events in African history : a reference guide / Toyin Falola. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–313–31323–7 (alk. paper) 1. Africa—History. I. Title DT20.F34 2002 960—dc21 2001058644 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2002 by Toyin Falola All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2001058644 ISBN: 0­313­31323­7 First published in 2002 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Page v To three creative interpreters of Africa: Akinwunmi Isola, poet and playwright Dele Jegede, artist Oyekan Owomoyela, folklorist Page vi This page intentionally left blank. Page vii Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Timeline of Historical Events xiii Part I. The Ancient and Precolonial Period Africa: An Overview 3 1. The Prehistoric Past: The Evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens, 40,000 B.C. 18 2. The Agricultural Revolution, 5000 B.C.+ 26 3. The Civilization of Ancient Egypt, 3100 B.C.+ 34 4. The Iron Age and the Spread of Bantu Speakers, 730 B.C.+ 43 5. The Rise of Kush and Aksum, 730 B.C.+ 54 6. The Greeks and Romans in North Africa, 332 B.C.+ 62 7. Ethiopia: The Emergence of a Christian Kingdom, A.D. 1250+ 69 8. The Spread of Islam, A.D. 622 Onward 79 9. Kingdoms of West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, A.D. 1000–1600 90 10. The Rise of the Swahili City–States of East Africa, Tenth–Fourteenth Century A.D. 102 11. The Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 110 12. The Organization of Societies, Fifteenth Century A.D. Onward 119 Page viii Part II. The Nineteenth­Century Period 13. The Outbreak of Islamic Jihad, 1804 131 14. Wars and Revolution among the Yoruba, 1817–93 140 15. The Spread of Christianity, 1804 Onward 149 16. The Rise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 1811–47 159 17. The Mfecane: Shaka and the Zulu Kingdom, 1816–40 167 18. European Conquest and African Response, 1885–1900 175 Part III. The Twentieth­Century Period 19. The Colonial Experience, 1900–1939 187 20. The Entrenchment of Apartheid in South Africa, 1948 197 21. Africa Drawn into the Second World War, 1940–45 205 22. The End of European Rule, 1951–90 212 23. Violence to Gain National Liberation, 1952–62 221 24. Confrontation with the Gains and Pains of Independence, 1958–70 231 25. The Formation of the Organization of African Unity, 1963 239 26. Coups, Counter Coups, and Military Regimes, 1963 Onward 246 27. Ujamaa and Policy Choices, 1967 Onward 254 28. The Creation of the Economic Community of West African States, 1975 262 29. Portuguese Colonies Attain Freedom, 1975 270 30. Cultural Revival and Cultural Inventory: The Second World Black Festival of Arts and Culture, 1977 281 31. The Women’s Decade, 1975–85 289 32. A Continent in Deep Crisis, 1980 Onward 297 33. Environmental Challenges, 1980s Onward 305 34. African Refugees, 1980 Onward 312 35. Africa in World Politics in Transition, 1980s Onward 320 36. The Fall of Apartheid and the Advent of Nelson Mandela’s Government, 1994–99 328 Index 337 Page ix Preface This is a reference work containing chapters on thirty­six significant events in African history, from the earliest historic times to the present. It is directed toward high school and college libraries as a research tool for students who are taking survey courses in African history. This work should be used alongside a reader in African history. The presentations recognize that the majority of readers and students have little or no knowledge of African history. It is not a textbook—the idea is not to present extensive discussions of economics, political development, and contemporary history but to present an analysis of singular events that shaped the history of the continent. A timeline of key events in African history opens the book, with entries chosen for overall relevancy to the text matter. Some of the initial dates (B.C.) are approximations. The timeline of the premodern era is more detailed because this represents the longest period in African history, a period that is often ignored in the literature. Then comes an overview of the history of Africa that puts all of the events in their proper historical context. Thirty­six chapters follow, arranged in chronological order. Each chapter discusses a watershed event and consists of a comprehensive essay on the event; its historical, social, and geographic context; and its long­term significance. Suggestions for further reading are presented at the end of each chapter, drawing mainly on books that are accessible to students and teachers, that are easily understood, and that can serve as reference material for detailed research. Many of the illustrations are from my personal collections and photographs of replicas of ancient pieces. This book explores many of the research findings of the last eight decades. The major events are analyzed in all their wide ramifications, and they reveal just how ancient and diverse the history of the continent. Thus, some events deal with ancient times, showing the high points in a long history. Others deal with the periods of the Arab and Western incursions, showing those powerful moments when Africa became drawn into the global world. It was from Africa that blacks in the Page x United States, Europe, the Caribbean, and Central and South America came. The definition of the Americas, as well as their history and that of the politics of race relations, can never be given without including Africa. The remainder of the book explores modern history. All the periods are related: The march of African history unfolds while the connection between the past and present is clear to see. The modern period does not stand in isolation from the past. If some of the events of the early periods show how Africans struggled to master their environments, later events reveal the history of conquest by others. The impact of the outside world is multifold and profound, as Africans were connected with others and their world was transformed in the others’ image. Old Africa has never disappeared, and indigenous traditions shape responses to imported cultures. Page xi Acknowledgments This book benefited from suggestions from various people, from my children to colleagues in various American universities. My eagerness to consult others reminded me of the sayings by the Maasai of East Africa: ‘‘One head does not consume all knowledge” and “It is the eye which has traveled that is clever.” In developing a comprehensive timeline and arriving at the events to include, I received valuable advice from the following professors: George Ndege, Funso Afolayan, Akanmu Adebayo, Kwabena Parry, Femi Kolapo, Steven Salm, Jonathan Reynolds, Saheed Adejumobi, Jackie Woodfork, Femi Vaughan, Andrew Barnes, Ehiedu Iweriebor, and Ugo Nwokeji. Dr. Barbara Rader, the Executive Editor at Greenwood, added suggestions as well. Comments on the initial drafts were received from a host of scholars: George Ndege, Joel Tishken, Kirsten Walles, Ann O’Hear, Edmund Abaka, Jonathan Reynolds, Wilson Ogbomo, and Funso Afolayan. All the maps were prepared by Sam Saverance, a student in my seminar on Nigeria who took a keen interest in the manuscript. Sam is a mature student, dedicated and brilliant. Words are inadequate to express my gratitude to Sam, but I can at least pray for him: May he fulfill all his life’s ambitions and become an elder. I must thank three staff members in my department. Lisa Vera was generous in her assistance, adding a number of editorial changes to the master copy. She embodies the spirit that the Swahili celebrate in their proverb “Haraka haraka haina baraka”—which means to work with devotion and to do things properly at a steady pace. Laura Flack is always kind and efficient in meeting my needs, always requested when they are urgent—“The stomach does not wait for a pot that is cooking!” Sister Laura, as I call her, is able to understand the language of my stomach. Last but not least, Michael Montaque helped with the illustrations, in addition to feeding me occasionally. I can only pray that Michael does not leave me to rejoin his ancestors in France. Page xii I cannot but also thank the members of my family and a number of friends, as well as note some key events during the writing moment. My wife lost her father, Pa Peter Olusola, an event that showed the continuity of modern Africa with its past in the respect for elders, the role of children, and the importance of funeral rites. Condolences and gifts were received from all over the world, and we will forever remain grateful. My wife’s brother, Dr. Bola Olusola, joined us in Texas to take up a medical practice, thus adding to the size of the kinship group. My daughter, Bisola Falola, entered college to begin the initiation to adulthood. The children have grown so quickly that I blame myself for having just a few! Two of my students, Jackie Woodfork and Saheed Adejumobi, completed their Ph.D.