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Dissertation.Pdf ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: THE EYES OF THE WORLD WERE WATCHING: GHANA, GREAT BRITAIN, AND THE UNITED STATES, 1957-1966 Mary E. Montgomery, Doctor of Philosophy, 2004 Dissertation directed by: Professor Keith W. Olson Department of History This study explores the relationship that developed amongst Ghana, Great Britain, and the United States from Ghana’s independence in 1957 to the coup d'état that ended the regime of Ghana's first post-colonial leader, Kwame Nkrumah in 1966. Ghana's position as the first self-governing nation in sub- Saharan Africa captured the attention of the world. Aspiring nationalists, colonial rulers, and Cold Warriors anticipated the impact of Ghana's experience on colonial Africa, and the global balance of power. For Ghana, the transition to independence brought tremendous possibility and complex challenges. While possessing the economic, political, and administrative resources for success, the management of those resources posed rigorous obstacles for Kwame Nkrumah. Nkrumah attempted to unify and strengthen Ghana, making it a leader in African affairs and the world community. For Great Britain, the transfer of power in Ghana began the dismantling of its African empire. The peaceful transition to self-government across British Africa depended upon the results of the Ghanaian experiment. Britain intended to prepare Ghana for success and stability by providing training and governmental models before independence, and securing Ghana’s introduction to Western society during its transition. To provide longer- term support for Ghana, Britain enlisted the assistance of the United States. This coincided with an increased US interest in Africa, especially Ghana, as the newest vulnerable front in the Cold War. The United States hoped that positive relations with Ghana would prevent a Soviet foothold in Africa. Despite a rhetoric of support for democracy and self-determination, the United States favored stability above all else in Ghana, even when this came at the price of decreasing freedoms for Ghanaians and the growing authoritarianism of Kwame Nkrumah. The relationship amongst the three nations continued to develop across the 1960s, bringing periods of prolonged mutual interest and success as well as intervals of heightened tension, culminating in the CIA-aided overthrow of Nkrumah’s regime. By exploring the goals and strategies of each country, this narrative contributes to an understanding of the transition from colonial rule to independence; the international context of American foreign relations; and the impact of the Cold War in Africa. THE EYES OF THE WORLD WERE WATCHING: GHANA, GREAT BRITAIN, AND THE UNITED STATES, 1957-1966 by Mary E. Montgomery Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2004 Advisory Committee: Professor Keith W. Olson, Chair/Advisor Professor Wayne S. Cole Professor Arthur Eckstein Professor David Gordon Professor George Quester ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following organizations provided generous support for this project: The Bentley Historical Library, The University of Michigan The Committee on Africa and the Americas, The University of Maryland The Department of History, The University of Maryland The George C. Marshall Foundation The Graduate School, The University of Maryland The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library The Lyndon Baines Johnson Foundation The Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: Ghana, Great Britain, and the United States: ............................... 14 Approaching Decolonization .................................................................... 14 US Interest in Africa in the 1950s............................................................. 19 "U.S. - For Or Against ’Colonialism’?" ..................................................... 25 Britain’s Own Colonial Dilemma.............................................................. 30 The Bermuda Conference.......................................................................... 35 Gold Coast Independence and the Invitation List ..................................... 37 China or Taiwan? ...................................................................................... 40 Colonial Dilemmas and the Invitation List ............................................... 47 Chapter 2: Challenges In Foreign Relations, 1957-1958................................ 50 Independence Arrives................................................................................ 50 Increased US Interest ................................................................................ 57 Race and the US Embassy......................................................................... 61 Combating Soviet Penetration................................................................... 65 The British Leadership Role ..................................................................... 69 Early Discussions of the VRP ................................................................... 74 Ghana’s Own Dilemma ............................................................................. 79 The Conference of Independent African States ........................................ 85 Nkrumah Visits Washington ..................................................................... 87 Chapter 3: Ghana’s Domestic Politics Drive US Policy Adjustment, 1957-1960...................................................................................... 96 Domestic Politics in Ghana, 1957............................................................. 96 US Policy Reviews, 1957-58 .................................................................. 103 Continuing Repression in Ghana, 1958................................................... 108 Accepting Authoritarianism as Policy, 1959-60 ..................................... 115 Accepting Non-Alignment ...................................................................... 119 Flexible Policy in Practice....................................................................... 123 Public Disagreement: The Congo and the United Nations ..................... 126 Chapter 4: The Volta River Project and the Boundaries of the New Frontier, 1960-1962..................................................................... 135 Continuing VRP Negotiations, 1958-1960 ............................................. 136 A New Administration Arrives, 1961 ..................................................... 147 Renewed Volta Negotiations: January-June, 1961 ................................. 153 Rethinking Commitments: July - December, 1961................................. 162 A New Frontier for Africa?..................................................................... 176 Chapter 5: Fears, Accusations, Cycles, and Disengagement, iii 1962-66........................................................................................ 180 From Cooperation to Tension: Battles with the Ghana Press, 1962......................................................................................................... 180 Keeping Nkrumah in Check: The Diplomacy of Edgar Kaiser, February 1963......................................................................................... 191 From Improved Relations to Renewed Tensions, October 1963 - February 1964 ................................................................ 197 Responding to Ghana: Renewed Diplomacy or Subversion, 1964......................................................................................................... 205 From Disengagement to Covert Action, 1965-66 ................................... 216 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 227 Bibliography........................................................................................................ 237 iv INTRODUCTION This project seeks to fill a gap in the historiography of American foreign relations with Africa by focusing on the relationship among the newly independent nation, Ghana; its former colonial leader, Great Britain; and the United States, in the first period of Ghanaian independence, 1957-1966. It would be difficult to overstate the importance of Ghana, the first sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence, in the development of US policy toward Africa. Ghana’s impending decolonization and subsequent independence resulted in the first National Intelligence Estimate for Africa, the first National Security Council paper on sub-Saharan Africa, and the first Bureau for African Affairs.1 US policies created for Ghana became the backbone for policy across Africa as the "wind of change" swept the continent in the 1960s.2 As existing literature suggests, strategic and economic concerns played a minor role for the United States in Africa, with ideas of international prestige and symbolic victories over 1 Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), 1952-1954, Volume XI, pp. 71-89, "Conditions and Trends in Tropical Africa," 22 December 1953. FRUS, 1955-1957, Volume XVIII, pp. 75-87, "U.S. Policy toward Africa South of the Sahara Prior to Calendar Year 1960," 23 August 1957. President Eisenhower created the Bureau of African Affairs in 1958. Prior to that time any African policy fell under the rubric of the Bureau of Near
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