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Craig Sanderson Bsc., Hons, Msc UHI Thesis - pdf download summary Reducing the Environmental Impact of Seacage Fish Farming Through Cultivation of Seaweed Sanderson, John Craig DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (AWARDED BY OU/ABERDEEN) Award date: 2006 Awarding institution: The Open University Link URL to thesis in UHI Research Database General rights and useage policy Copyright,IP and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the UHI Research Database are retained by the author, users must recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement, or without prior permission from the author. Users may download and print one copy of any thesis from the UHI Research Database for the not-for-profit purpose of private study or research on the condition that: 1) The full text is not changed in any way 2) If citing, a bibliographic link is made to the metadata record on the the UHI Research Database 3) You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain 4) You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the UHI Research Database Take down policy If you believe that any data within this document represents a breach of copyright, confidence or data protection please contact us at [email protected] providing details; we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 26. Sep. 2021 REDUCING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SEA- CAGE FISH FARMING THROUGH CULTIVATION OF SEAWEED Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of Open University for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by John Craig Sanderson BSc., Hons, MSc. July 2006 Sponsoring establishment; UHI Millennium Institute. Academic Partner; Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS). Upper: Loch Duart Ltd. headquarters in Badcall Bay, NW Scotland. Middle: From Loch Duart Ltd. Headquarters looking west across Badcall Bay. Lower: Looking south across the head of Badcall Bay. ii Upper: Rachel Miller and Laminaria saccharina harvest 2004. Middle: Laminaria saccharina droppers on longline 2005. Lower: Nick Joy and Laminaria saccharina harvest 2004. iii Upper: Palmaria palmata droppers on longline 2005. Middle: Palmaria palmata on Laminaria hyperborea stipe 2004. Lower: Close up of Palmaria palmata on dropper 2005. iv Upper: Palmaria palmata harvest 2004. Middle: Palmaria palmata on frame 2005. Lower: Palmaria palmata heavily fouled with bryozoans, mussels and other August 2005. v ABSTRACT Cultivation of Laminaria saccharina (Linnaeus) Lamouroux and Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) Kuntze was trialled at three fish farm sites in north-west Scotland. Results show that seasonal yields of L. saccharina were enhanced by 50 % and P. palmata by 63 % when cultured adjacent to fish farm cages compared to environmentally similar sites away from the farms. Yields of P. palmata were further enhanced under conditions of optimal water movement. Ammonium concentrations in the seawater 0 to 50m away from the fish cages were found to be 2 - 3 μM greater than ambient. Enhanced concentrations of ammonium could be detected 200 to 300 m from the cages although the distribution is heavily influenced by local hydrography. Nitrogen content of L. saccharina and P. palmata cultured adjacent to the salmon cages in summer was higher than in seaweeds cultured at reference sites away from fish cages. Stable nitrogen isotope analysis indicates that the nitrogen in seaweeds grown next to salmon cages is derived from the fish farm and farm derived nitrogen is likely to be widely dispersed in the lochs where cages are situated. A preliminary economic analysis showed that growing seaweeds commercially, in particular P. palmata, may be at worst cost neutral, with profitability increasing as a result of enhanced production through increased nutrient availability adjacent to fish farms. A one hectare seaweed farm producing 600 tonnes wet weight over two years vi (300 tonnes per year) of P. palmata could potentially absorb up to 30 % of nutrients generated from a 500 tonnes salmon production unit. As farm origin nitrogen is evident in biota at distances of up to one kilometre away from the cages, cultured macroalgae would not have to be sited close to cages to result in net nitrogen removal facilitating the siting of algal farms in areas more suited for individual species requirements while still maintaining bioremediation benefits. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to thank Dr Maeve Kelly and Professor Mathew Dring for giving me the opportunity to take on this project and for being supportive supervisors throughout. Dr Lynn Browne introduced me to the vagaries of culturing Palmaria and my trips to Northern Ireland would not have been as rewarding without her input. Liz Cook was a source of inspiration and I am very grateful for her assistance in the field. I would also like to thank others who assisted in the field including Martin Lilley, Tony Robson, Jenny Kakkonen, Richard Shucksmith, Andreas Schuenhoff, Coleen Suckling and Benedikt Franz. The two Environmental officers, Rachel and Hazel, as well as field staff, in particular, Willie and Ian at Loch Duart Ltd were good company and very helpful. The project is indebted to Loch Duart Ltd as the active industrial partner and Nick Joy for his vision. Special thanks for technical aspects of the thesis go to Tim Brand, Chris Cromey, Keith Davidson and Charlie Scrimgeour. I am appreciative also for the contributions by Jenny Kakkonen and Angela Sandilands to nutrient uptake experiments and to fellow PhD students for companionship and empathy. Adam and Susannah have been good friends. I am grateful to my parents for their support and patience with my prolonged educational journey. The project would not have been possible without my wife Fiona and is dedicated to my children, Ben and Sophie, who are still tolerant of a father who studies seaweed for a living. viii GLOSSARY ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler ANOVA Analysis of Variance CTD Conductivity-Temperature-Depth Instrument Diadromous Regularly migrating between freshwater and seawater e.g. salmon. DIN Dissolved inorganic nitrogen DIP Dissolved inorganic phosphorus ECE Equilibrium Concentration Enhancement EcoQOs Ecological Quality Objectives related to Eutrophication set by OSPAR FRS Fisheries Research Services OSPAR The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. The “OSPAR Convention” was opened for signature at the Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in Paris on 22 September 1992. PES Provosali’s Enrichment Solution RID Riverine Inputs and Direct Discharges SAMS Scottish Association for Marine Sciences SEPA Scottish Environmental Protection Agency ix CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 .....................................................................................................................1 REDUCING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SEA-CAGE FARMING THROUGH CULTIVATION OF SEAWEEDS...............................................................1 CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................................16 HYDROGRAPHIC DATA IN THE VICINITY OF THE FISH FARM CAGES .........16 2.1 Ambient Nutrient Concentrations .....................................................................25 2.2 Nutrient Enhancement around Salmon Farms ..................................................30 2.3 Extent of the nutrient plume around the cages..................................................35 2.4 Diel ammonium distributions about the salmon cages. ....................................55 CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................................63 GROWTH of PALMARIA PALMATA IN THE VICINITY OF FISH FARM CAGES. 63 CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................................92 CULTURE OF PALMARIA PALMATA AND LAMINARIA SACCHARINA IN THE VICINITY OF THE FISH FARM CAGES ....................................................................92 CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................136 YIELD OF PALMARIA PALMATA AND LAMINARIA SACCHARINA ADJACENT TO FISH FARM CAGES....................................................................................................136 CHAPTER 6 .................................................................................................................176 AMMONIUM AND NITRATE NUTRITION OF PALMARIA PALMATA................176 6.1 Is ammonium inhibitory for Palmaria palmata growth? If so what levels are inhibitory? .............................................................................................................177 6.2 Does Palmaria palmata take up ammonium before nitrate? Does ammonium uptake inhibit nitrate uptake?................................................................................185 6.3 Palmaria palmata can store nitrogen – for what periods can it do so? What internal levels of nitrogen are indicative of nitrogen depletion?...........................193 CHAPTER 7 .................................................................................................................218 VARIATION IN STABLE ISOTOPE ABUNDANCES IN MACROCALGAE GROWING IN THE VICINITY OF FISH FARMS.....................................................218
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