Employment for Rural Africa

RURAL 21 The International Journal for Rural Development 2 | 2020 VOLUME 54

ISSN 1866-8011 D 20506 F

Employment for rural Africa

COVID-19 ZANZIBAR INDIA How to cope with Women algae farmers Urban investors finance the crisis facing ruin? rural agriculture

rural21.com 2 EDITORIAL

Dear Reader,

On the 11th March 2020, the World Health Organization zon”. Today, the FAO ar- (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic, referring to the more gues, the world food econ- than 118,000 cases confirmed at the time in over 110 countries. omy is significantly better Today, a little more than three months later, the WHO states prepared for the shocks that that world-wide, more than 8.5 million people in 216 countries characterised the global food and regions have tested positive for the virus, six million of them (price) crisis in 2007/2008 alone between mid-April and mid-June. Over 455,000 people – with positive global food have died as a result of the disease, more than half of them in the production prospects, high USA, Brazil, the UK, Italy, France and Spain, according to the stocks, low international official Johns Hopkins University statistics. food prices, a broader-based trade with more importing In reality, things are probably much grimmer. For in many coun- and exporting countries, tries, hardly anyone is even tested for the virus. For example, re- collapsed energy prices and garding Brazil, numerous scientists and representatives of various stable fertiliser and input prices. With food being the most funda- organisations assume that at least seven times as many people have mental need, global and national food systems should be regarded become infected than is officially known – which would mean as on a par with health systems, it demands. And this, it argues, over seven million people alone in this South American country. means that farmers and agricultural workers are placed on the And we are still far away from the all-clear. “The pandemic is same footing as health workers engaged in fighting COVID-19 – accelerating,” said WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom a demand also underscored by our authors. Ghebreyesus in Geneva, Switzerland, on the 19th June, reporting that on the day before, more than 150,000 new infections had There is a further – at least temporary – glimmer of hope from been recorded, more than ever before on a single day. Almost Africa. So far, both numbers of infections with Sars-CoV-2 and half of the cases recorded came from the Americas, with large fatalities have been low in comparison with other world regions. numbers also from South Asia and the Middle East. “The world This could be due to restrictions being introduced at an early is in a new and dangerous phase,” the WHO Director-General stage – based on experience in handling Ebola and other epi- warned. Even though it was understandable that countries wished demics. The majority of the population being young could be to end social isolation and open up their economies, he called for a further explanation. In connection with the rapid economic extreme vigilance as to the spread of the virus. transformation that the continent is undergoing, this was the reason for our giving it particular consideration in our “employ- As is always the case in times of crises, it is the already most ment” focus. vulnerable who feel the brunt of the pandemic: the estimated 55 per cent of the global population who have no access to social As both our author Beatrice Gakuba and some of the farmers protection; the just below 80 million forcibly displaced people, speaking out in our magazine note, for many people in the Glob- 80 per cent of whom are living in countries or territories affected al South, hunger is closer and more dangerous than COVID-19. by acute food insecurity and malnutrition anyway; the more than And for them, social distancing tends to be more of a danger 365 million children who are often missing their only daily meal than protection. Let’s hope that a response to both threats can be now that schools are closed world-wide; the millions of women found as soon as possible, and for as many people as possible. and girls whose risk of being affected by gender-based violence, being forced into early marriage or dropping out from school has On behalf of the editorial team, increased; and last but not least, the countless people living on the periphery of society because of their ethnicity – be it in the Global North or the Global South.

A small ray of hope comes from Ghebreyesus’ colleagues in Italy, where the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has You can find the latest information on COVID-19 at arrived at the conclusion in its recently published Food Outlook www.rural21.com that “a COVID-19-induced global food crisis is not on the hori-

Partner institutions of Rural 21 IN THIS ISSUE 3

Imprint Rural 21 – CONTENTS The International Journal for Rural Development

Published by: DLG-Verlag GmbH COVID-19 Frankfurt, Germany 04 Global cooperation is the only way to cope with the crisis Advisory council: Dr Reinhard Grandke, DLG 06 What African farmers and processors have to say Petra Jacobi, GIZ Martin Koppa, HELVETAS Ueli Mauderli, DEZA 08 Mitigating labour shortages – what role can mechanisation play?

Editorial committee: 10 Putting the emphasis on girls and young women Dr Michael Brüntrup, DIE Dr Manfred Denich, ZEF 12 Building our food systems back better Dorothea Hohengarten, GIZ Karl-Martin Lüth, DLG Prof Dr Matin Qaim, University of Göttingen Dr Detlef Virchow, Plan International FOCUS

Editor in chief / Berlin office: 14 Africa’s rapid economic transformation Silvia Richter, [email protected] Editorial staff / Frankfurt office: 18 Informal household enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa – Olive Bexten, [email protected] livelihoods for rural transformation Ines Lechner, [email protected] Angelika Wilcke, [email protected] 20 Leveraging the employment potential of industries without smokestacks Editorial assistance: Mike Gardner 23 Demand-driven extension and advisory services – catalysing opportunities for youth in agriculture Translated by: Christopher Hay, Tazir International Services 26 Skills development – what the dual approach can achieve Cover photo: Jörg Böthling 28 What works in rural (youth) employment? Design & Layout: An analysis of different approaches of GIZ programmes in Africa Andrea Trapani, DLG-Verlag

Editorial office, distribution, advertising: 30 Africa’s face of agriculture is female DLG-Verlag GmbH How AWAN Afrika empowers women and youth in agribusiness Eschborner Landstraße 122 60489 Frankfurt, Germany 32 Livelihoods beyond survival – the living income concept

Printed by: 34 Why East Africa chose to develop a regional bioeconomy strategy Brühlsche Universitätsdruckerei GmbH & Co KG 35396 Gießen, Germany 36 Green urban development creates rural employment perspectives Rural 21 is published four times a year. The subscription rate is EUR 33.– (Germany), EUR 39 Creating livelihoods through clean energy and agriculture 37.– (EU countries), EUR 51.– (non-EU countries) and EUR 8.30 per issue, plus postage. All rights reserved. The contents may not be translated, reproduced in whole or in part, nor may INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM information be passed on to third parties without permission of the publisher. Please direct all 42 A win-win model – urban investors finance rural agriculture correspondence to the editor-in-chief. An example from South India

The opinions expressed by the authors are not necessarily those of the publisher or the editor. The 44 Will Zanzibar’s algae farmers soon be ruined? editor retains the right to make editorial changes. SCIENTIFIC WORLD

47 ‘Cellphilms’ and ‘Photovoice’ – how visual tools can help understand farmers’ adaptation to climate change

50 Sharing knowledge – to the benefit of all Scientific training and education in Thünen Institute’s cooperation with Africa 4 COVID-19

Global cooperation is the only way to cope with the crisis

In a large number of countries, the impacts of the Corona pandemic are not only going to dramatically worsen the health and food supply situation but will also result in severe income and job losses. In particular, the huge amount of people working in informal or precarious employment relationships will be affected. In addition to swift support in containing and mitigating the crisis, it is all the more important to make the agriculture and food sector more resilient in the long run. And this requires a joint effort, our author maintains.

By Gunther Beger

Life has undergone fundamental changes since Such price hikes hit the poor groups of the areas, the planting season started in May. Now the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed population especially hard. Already before the it is acutely threatened – and without sowing, in the Chinese city of Wuhan in December pandemic, they had to spend most of their in- there will be no harvest. At the same time, 2019. This applies to all of us, throughout the come on food. The large numbers of people curfews are causing severe income losses, with world, although the pandemic is going to have working in the informal sector in Africa, Asia whole families struggling for their livelihoods. the most severe impact on those countries and and Latin America are particularly severely af- The economic crisis has also raised the threat people that are already faced with poverty, fected. Alone in the first month after the crisis of casual and unprotected employment be- hunger and poor governance. had started, more than 80 per cent of income coming established on a long-term basis. A was often lost. There are fears that owing to major share of people in Africa are still work- In the densely populated neighbourhoods of the limited availability of healthy and nutri- ing in informal and precarious employment our partner countries, it is hardly possible to tious food such as fruit and vegetables on the relationships, without contracts and social se- enforce social distancing regulations, and es- one hand and a lack of purchasing power on curity. pecially in rural regions, even in normal times, the other, under-nutrition and malnutrition millions of people have no access to clean will increase markedly, especially among chil- The pandemic has caused disruptions in sup- drinking water, not to mention disinfectants. dren. ply chains of inputs such as seed, fertiliser and Health systems are fragile, while protective animal feed because of borders being closed clothing, respiratory equipment and skilled From our partners across the world, we get and travel restrictions within individual coun- staff are lacking. reports giving accounts of the negative im- tries. Further processing, transportation to lo- pacts that the pandemic is having on agricul- cal markets and access to export markets are However, focusing solely on the health sector tural production and food security as well as severely restricted, too. Smallholder farms means ignoring other crucial aspects. In most of huge income and job losses. In many coun- depending on functioning supply and value African countries, COVID-19 is not merely tries, the considerable restrictions on freedom chains to secure their livelihood threaten to going to trigger a health crisis, which would of movement are leading to labour shortag- slide into the subsistence economy, with dras- be dramatic enough, but it will lead to a comes and problems with logistics and transpor- tic income losses. bined health and food crisis that will be sig- tation. The lack of rural workers is going to nificantly aggravated by losses of income and result in severe harvest losses, especially where In Kenya, for example, owing to the lockdown employment. In some African countries, fruit labour-intensive products such as fruit and prescribed by the government, only the most and vegetable prices have already risen sharply. vegetables are concerned. Normally, in many important markets continue to operate. Supply RURAL 21 02/20 5

chains to and from remote regions are disrupt- 1. Strengthening health and combating However, to me, consistently orienting our ed. Milk now seldom arrives at the collecting pandemics. policy on the Sustainable Development Goals points. Most micro-farms are starting to con- 2. Food security, ensuring staple food (SDGs) and coherent, cross-sector intermesh- sume their own milk again or are selling it in supplies to avoid famine. ing is also important. These global objectives small quantities, e.g. to neighbours. However, 3. Stabilising refugee and crisis regions. are reflected in many instances, from the Par- without storage, transportation or cooling fa- 4. Social security, safeguarding jobs in is Climate Agreement through the European cilities, this is only possible to a very limited global supply chains. Green Deal to our efforts to achieve more so- extent. Most of the milk goes bad, meaning 5. Safeguarding enterprises in key sectors cial and ecological sustainability in global sup- that the prime source of income is lost. At the such as textiles and tourism. ply chains. We must not question these politi- same time, supplies for the urban population 6. Securing the liquidity of governments. cal goals, as is already happening among those are also lacking. 7. Strengthening international coopera- pursuing certain interests, but instead have to tion. work towards them with even more determi- Like in past times of crisis, one can see coun- nation. tries beginning to resort to protectionist mea- Furthermore, in order to contain and mitigate sures. For example, in late March, the govern- the effects of the pandemic in the developing Then there is the aspect that, despite its dra- ment of Kazakhstan imposed an export ban on countries, we will provide immediate support, matic proportions, the crisis is also offering a selection of food products, including wheat precisely because we are also partners in the long opportunities to change the world in a pos- flour, sunflower oil, sugar, potatoes and var- run. This applies in particular to the food and itive way. Not only is digitisation being ac- ious types of vegetables. The government of agriculture sector. The networks created by the celerated in an unprecedented way. This also Vietnam, which is normally an important rice initiative “One World – no hunger” launched includes a timely discussing of how we can exporter to Africa, initially entered no new by the BMZ are of particular value in this con- make agriculture more resilient towards future contracts for rice exports, concentrating on text. We are making use of the Green Innova- crises. How can we reshape value adding at first building up local rice stocks in order to tion Centres operating in 14 African countries local level, e.g. through more local process- secure supplies for its own population. and in India and now reaching deep into ru- ing of goods? How can we create broad access ral areas with a network of tens of thousands to training and further training measures by Past experience has shown us that such trade of smallholders, small enterprises, farmers’ or- developing information and communications restriction measures have a negative impact ganisations and federations as a basis for support technologies in rural areas, in particular for on all sides involved. Overnight, they threat- tailored to each country and its current needs. young entrepreneurs? How can we counter en supply chains which it has taken a long the economic impact of the crisis and gener- time and a considerable effort to establish, and In Ethiopia and Benin, we are providing our ate employment? What role can agroecology whose actors depend on one another, and thus partners with seed and small-scale machinery play? How can we improve the focusing of they upset the market’s balance. So it is all the to ward off threats to planting, and we are agricultural research e.g. in order to gain a more important to maintain global trade in also covering higher delivery costs. In Burki- better understanding of zoonoses? food and get rid of the recently introduced ex- na Faso, we are helping to sensitise people port restrictions. This can prevent food short- towards COVID-19 via a radio programme. This may be difficult to imagine today, for we ages in various places and help achieve price There, as well as in Malawi and Ghana, we are still at the very beginning of coping with stability on the world market. are financing hygiene protection articles for this epochal crisis. Nevertheless, the clouds our partners in production. In India, we are could have a silver lining in that we will be So also, and particularly, for the trade sector, it providing animal feed. In Tunisia, we are see- stronger and more united when we emerge is true that we will only be able to cope with ing to hygiene measures in the milk marketing from the crisis in a globalised world. That has this crisis through global cooperation, and not sector and have supplied protective clothing to to stay our goal. through isolation. The pandemic has shown us 1,500 harvest hands. how closely everything is linked. No country is going to win the battle against the virus on All these examples are a response to the highly its own. This is now the time of international individual needs of our partners in the respec- solidarity with developing countries! tive countries. Direct support goes without Gunther Beger is Director-General of the saying when you have been working together Department “Policy issues of development Germany’s Federal Ministry for Econom- closely with people and institutions for years. cooperation; civil society, churches and private ic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) is At the same time, it helps to make Europe- sector; rural development“ at the Federal Ministry therefore financing a global corona emergency an solidarity with Africa more than just empty for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) programme with seven focal areas: words, for a friend in need is a friend indeed. in Berlin, Germany. 6 COVID-19

What African farmers and processors have to say

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) estimates that COVID-19 pandemic risks food insecurity and nutrition of 50 million people between June and August 2020. The pandemic adds to other threats including climate change and recurrent drought as well as Fall armyworm (FAW) and locust infestations in West Africa. Agathe Diama, Head of Regional Information at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in West and Central Africa, spoke to farmers and other agricultural stakeholders in Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Mali and Senegal about the impact that the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has had and their concerns regarding the 2020-2021 cropping season.

Salamatu Garba, Executive Director, Stella Thomas, Managing Women Farmers Advancement Director, Techni Seeds Limited, Network (WOFAN), Nigeria Nigeria “About 80 to 85 per cent of smallholder farm- “At Techni Seeds we perceive ers whom we work with are at risk of los- COVID-19 as a setback for agricul- ing all their dry season investments as a result tural business. The pandemic is already of the lockdown due to COVID-19. More affecting business because costs of

worryingly, there are almost no extension private Photo: haulage and inputs have doubled, with services, except for the skeletal visit-and-train no availability of labour. So, we are trying to create an online system. Farmers and processors are left with- presence for sales and increase machines to reduce human la-

Photo: Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: out field demonstrations. Farmers use old, bour. It takes almost two weeks to move goods from Kano to traditional and obsolete farming methods that have further slowed Ibadan due to interstate issues and bad vehicles. It is a trying down production. They’re disappointed that they cannot apply the time for everyone, but it will pass. Let's keep safe and keep second-phase urea fertilisers and appropriate pesticides, which are looking out for new ways in seed agribusiness.” quite critical. Our fear is that the farmers will be able to feed neither their families nor the nation. The food security is dependent on their performance. Ibrahima Diouf, “Although the shutdown approach is a global strategy to break the President of the deadly cycle of the disease, the impact on economies is devastating. Groupe d’Interet In order to mitigate the shock of the pandemic and its related effects Economique (GIE) on smallholder farmers and processors, building capacities and pro- Jambar, Meouane, viding financial and marketing support for the first six months of the Senegal closedown would be essential. Photo: private Photo: “In Meouane, we are “E-extension becomes very important as an innovative way of well aware that this is a global phenomenon and we are working with extension workers and farmers. Farming needs to trying our best to keep ourselves safe with preventive be led by information and communications technology (ICT), and measures such as lockdown and social distancing. We should turn into a demand-driven vocation. After the pandemic is also perform prayers to ask for divine grace. Due to the over, the impact on the nation and the need for Nigeria to diversify geographic location of our village (about 150 km from from an oil-dependent country to one with an agriculture-led and Dakar) and the scattered distribution of the houses in technology-driven agribusiness systems will require a re-shaping and the village, we strongly believe we will keep safe from re-thinking of our agricultural models.” the pandemic. “The GIE usually receives pre-basic seeds of millet and peanuts from ISRA, the Senegalese agricultural research Fanta Diamoutene, institution. Due to the COVID-19 outbreak in Senegal President of women farmers in early March, we have not yet received the seeds. Also, group in Farakala, Mali the seeds we produced last year still need to be certified, “Most farmers like me do not have packaged and distributed to farmers. All the processes these smartphones and other virtual have been stopped due to the pandemic, while the rainy platforms that those in the cities are season is about to start. Although the number of peo- using to connect, and we do not have ple tested positive has unprecedentedly increased – 100 the knowledge to hold such virtual people per day, on average, since the 1st of May – the

Photo: Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: meetings. Therefore, we are very con- government of Senegal has recently decided to unlock cerned about missing the season’s activities. We hope that partners containment, allowing the seasonal workers to travel to will help us get some protection kits in the near future, pending a rural areas. We are worried that this decision may favour solution to this pandemic.” the propagation of COVID-19 in rural areas.” RURAL 21 02/20 7

Nasser Aichatou Salifou, Yalaly Traore, member of ULPC General Manager, Ainoma (Local Union of Cereal Producers), Seed Farm, Niger Dioila, Mali “From the start, we initiated aware- “Farmers do not have the same perceptions ness campaigns on preventive about the pandemic. While some believe it

Photo: Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: measures because we noticed that does exist, others think it is a government our producers were not informed policy to make money. However, they all enough about the pandemic. Cur- agree on one thing: this pandemic is affecting rently, their concern is whether us, because all activities – planning, meetings, they can go to the field when the rains come. In my opinion, training – have slowed down. awareness campaigns should be increased through community ra- “There has been an increase in the prices of dios and posters / flyers to better inform farmers. There is still a agricultural inputs – fertilisers and herbicides lot of prejudice because producers are not informed enough about – and a shortage of certain products on the the disease, while those who have access to social media have Photo: Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: market. Due to the closing of the borders, wrong information or fake news. members of our cooperatives have not been able to sell their stocks, “As for the pandemic, we are feeling the effects on marketing of while these cooperatives have taken out loans to build up their stocks.” our produce, and this could have an impact on our turnover. We have put some kits at our administration office and at our production site. However, our financial means do not allow us to reach Abdul Razak, producers or distributors with the kits. Although, right now, the Director General, Heritage marketing of food products is not too impacted by the pandemic, Seeds Company, Ghana our worry is that the isolation of the city of Niamey prevents us “We cannot go to market to sell from setting up inputs shops at our points of sales. our seeds and it is difficult to reach “Also, the training sessions that we generally offer our produc- our farmers. Also, because of so- ers, agro dealers and technicians are being affected in particular cial distancing, we cannot engage because of the social distancing restrictions. We must continue many workers for weeding and/or to collaborate in order to adapt our solutions for meetings and applying fertilisers, etc. If this con- training with farmers while respecting preventive measures. And, tinues, we may have to decrease our acreage in production. finally, we need our donors’ support to help raise more awareness Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: about the pandemic.” “Planning for the future is very difficult because we don’t know what will happen the next moment. We had clients coming from Accra city in the previous years but not this time, because of the lockdown in Accra. Everything else can Coulibaly Maimouna Sidibe, wait, but production cannot. We need enough seed in the CEO of Faso Kaba Seed system. Even if there is only one man on Earth, he will still Company, Mali have to eat. Seed is food security. We need to maintain that.” “COVID-19 has slowed down our activities and reduced our revenues enormously this year. With no flights, Bougouna Sogoba, Director we have missed many orders of inputs, General, Malian Awakening including seeds, sprayers, pesticides, Association for Sustainable

Photo: Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: etc. that we import from overseas, and Development (AMEDD), Mali due to restrictions in transport, it’s difficult to go into the field to “This pandemic is a major health buy inputs. and economic crisis that can have a

“We’ve had to cancel our annual meetings with farmers as they do Agathe Diama/ ICRISAT Photo: negative impact on the rural econ- not have the means to hold virtual meetings and make online pur- omy, create a lack in manpower for cropping season activities and chases. The process of certification and provision of seeds to be dis- also cause difficulty in getting services to inputs by the private sector tributed to producers of certified seeds will be delayed this year. and extension services. The donor countries of most NGOs and This will lead to a lack of availability of seed for the production of foundations are being strongly impacted, and this could have reper- certified seeds by individual farmers, associations and cooperatives. cussions on financing. “While normally our seed shops are equipped at this time of the year, “For our NGO, the main challenge has been to carry out our activ- we are still in the process of collecting samples. We ask our donors ities while putting in place preventive measures against contamina- to please facilitate access to basic inputs even at subsidised prices. We tion. We hope that, in Mali, the cropping season and the produc- need support for paying salaries to our staff. We will also need more tion will not be much affected. However, this pandemic is also an preventive kits for the farmers’ field demonstrations and trainings this opportunity to explore new ideas such as the use of digital solutions. year. Virtual meetings have become essential, and our farmers need We must use this crisis as an opportunity to refresh our approaches to be there.” and technologies.” 8 COVID-19

Mitigating labour shortages

Ongoing restrictions on transport and freedom of movement are causing disruptions across the agricultural value chain – with a potentially devastating impact on already fragile food systems in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. With this in mind, systems agronomists and mechanisation specialists at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) discuss the impact of restrictions on agricultural labour and production, and the role that farm mechanisation can play in addressing new challenges.

What are the implications of the agricultural ment of agricultural labourers – for example in India, labour shortages that are emerging in Africa where millions of migrant labourers have not been Frédéric Baudron and Latin America as a result of COVID-19 able to travel home during lockdown – or an influx restrictions? of people from urban areas who fled to their villages when lockdown began. In the latter case, one might Frédéric Baudron: The pandemic has demonstrated expect this to increase labour availability for farming, that food production systems around the world – even but we tended to observe the reverse. People remain in countries where agriculture is thought to be highly largely frightened of coming out of their homes, so mechanised – are highly dependent on farm labour. even in rural areas which saw an influx of people, Africa is often presented as being dominated by farms labour availability has not necessarily increased. which rely mainly on the labour of family members. Therefore, one could expect that Africa would be Where labourers are willing to work, our initial scan spared from the consequences of unavailability and/ of the evidence indicates that daily wage labour costs or unaffordability of hired labour. However, a recent have also increased considerably due to risks of infec- CIMMYT study shows that farming systems in Africa tion spreading. In either situation, smallholder farm- are far more dependent on hired labour than commonly ers who need to hire labour to assure crucial crop thought, and that the quasi total dependence of small- management activities like planting or harvesting ML Jat holder farming on family labour is a myth. Depending are suffering. Reports are also emerging of increased on the farming system, a complete loss of hired labour child labour in the region, as schools are closed and could lead to a productivity decrease of up to 20 per resource-poor farmers are allocating family members cent in Eastern and Southern Africa. Hired labour is and children to work where they can’t afford to hire also likely to be replaced by child labour. Because most labour. production on the continent is rainfed during a single season, most farmers only plant and harvest once per ML Jat: I would like to cite the specific example of year, making the timing of each task critical. A delay intensive rice-wheat rotation in India’s breadbasket in planting because of labour shortages – as will soon and the Green Revolution corridors in the western occur in Ethiopia – could lead to dramatically reduced Indo-Gangetic plains, which provide the bulk of ce- yields. A delay in harvesting – as is currently experi- reals to the national food basket. An ex-ante analysis enced in Zimbabwe – means that a large fraction of the on the consequences of the reverse migration of the crop is likely to be spoilt in the field. agricultural workforce and social distancing due to COVID-19 revealed that a delay in the transplant- Jelle Van Loon: The situation is similar for Mexico ing of rice seedlings by two weeks is likely, which Timothy Krupnik and the general Central American corridor, although will delay rice harvesting and consequently delay the the main production cycle is only just starting. Proper planting of wheat. This will potentially lead to rice land preparation and timely sowing are critical, not and wheat production losses of 10–25 per cent, worth only in terms of food production and achieving prop- up to 1.5 billion US dollars. er yields, but also to ensure that farmers have a stable income at the end of the year. This is especially im- In addition, the shorter turnaround between har- portant now, as financial and food reserves are shrink- vesting rice and planting wheat may further increase ing at a faster pace due to COVID-19 restrictions, the incidence of rice residue burning. This is a major which heavily affect demand on informal markets. problem which creates significant health issues and may exacerbate the threat of COVID-19 by increasing both infection rates and disease severity. Are you seeing a similar situation in South Asia? Timothy Krupnik: The situation has increased interest and policy to support use of scale-appropriate Timothy Krupnik: Depending on the country, machinery for operations like harvesting. In Bangla- Jelle Van Loon we’ve seen either abrupt interruptions in the move- desh, for example, there was a recent and very serious RURAL 21 02/20 9

risk of losing much of the rice harvest as the a small double-cob sheller that costs about 300 Has the current pandemic brought monsoon has started early and flash flooding US dollars. up any new perspectives in terms has been a concern. Without manual labour- of how you consider labour and ers to harvest the crop, CIMMYT-led projects ML Jat: Rapid policy decisions by sub-na- mechanisation? like the Cereal Systems Initiative for South tional and national governments on facilitating Asia – Mechanisation and Extension Activity more mechanised operations in labour inten- Frédéric Baudron: We often look at yield (CSISA-MEA) have played a key role in assist- sive rice-wheat production regions will address and area planted in staple crops to assess the ing the movement of combine harvesters and labour availability issues while contributing food security situation of a country during a crop reapers to areas at risk of crop losses and to productivity enhancement of succeeding particular year. This pandemic has shown us helping to assure that the rice crop is harvested wheat crop in rotation, as well as overall sys- that we need to pay more attention to labour on time. tem sustainability. productivity. In many countries, policy-makers and development agents fear that mechani- Our ex-ante analysis on the implications sation will displace labour, but the dependency It sounds as if these machines were of labour shortages in rice-wheat rotation of staple crops on labour is a threat to food se- instrumental in avoiding crop losses. in the western Indo-Gangetic plains due curity, as we currently see in Africa and South Does this mean that mechanisation to COVID-19 indicates that adoption of Asia. If the production of fruit, vegetables, cash has a key role to play in lessening the scale-appropriate farm mechanisation has the crops and so on will continue to depend on impact of these labour shortages? potential to stabilise food production, as well manual labour, it is essential in my view for as reducing the income losses and air pollution critical tasks in the production of staples to be Timothy Krupnik: During the COVID-19 surges in northwest India. mechanised – particularly planting and harvest- crisis, scale-appropriate machinery has become ing. This will ensure the resilience of national even more important for mitigating labour food systems in the event of a future disruption shortages. We work to facilitate the availabil- The situation in the regions each similar to the COVID-19 pandemic. ity of scale-appropriate machinery not only of you have mentioned is unique, so that farmers can buy and use equipment, but are there any global trends that but also by encouraging those who own ma- you’ve noticed? And if so, can other chineries to become entrepreneurial service regions learn from these localised Jelle Van Loon is based in CIMMYT, Mexico. He providers who offer efficient and mechanised experiences? leads the machinery and mechanisation unit land preparation, planting, irrigation, harvest- focusing on agro-technical analysis of farm ing and post-harvesting to other farmers on an Timothy Krupnik: A huge part of what we machinery and tools. It involves the production of affordable fee-for-service basis. do as a research and training institute is facil- ‘easy to follow’ machinery construction guides and itating exchanges of information across conti- the design of modular, multifunctional equipment This is a win-win situation for farmers who nents and countries. Different types and de- adapted to various farmers’ needs. can’t access or afford the escalating costs of la- signs of machinery that can be used in similar Frédéric Baudron is working for CIMMYT in bour. In the COVID-19 crisis, these arrange- circumstances can be shared, as can business Eastern and Southern Africa, based in Ethiopia. He ments assist in responding to the labour crunch models supporting service providers. got into mechanisation R&D from a farming system in locations where resource-poor farmers are angle, realising that farm power was a major most in need, and also allow farmers to get Importantly, part of the concept of ‘scale-ap- limiting factor to the productivity of many farms in crucial work done while maintaining and en- propriate mechanisation’ is also learning when Africa, as much as good seeds and fertilisers. couraging social distancing. and where machinery makes sense – where Timothy Krupnik facilitates CIMMYT’s research labour is not scarce and rural communities on appropriate mechanisation in Bangladesh and Frédéric Baudron: Over the past seven years, are highly dependent on income from labour contributes to mechanisation research and scaling CIMMYT and its partners have fine-tuned to sustain their communities, some forms of work in India and Nepal. He works on a portfolio of technologies and developed delivery models – mechanisation may not be appropriate. We projects focused on the principles of sustainable based on rural service providers supported by work to understand these dynamics and target and ecological intensification in smallholder private sector companies – to scale the use of the right machines in the right time and right farming systems in South and South East Asia. small machines in East and Southern Africa. places. ML Jat is a Principal Scientist/Systems Agronomist These are profitable for both farmers and ser- and Sustainable Intensification Strategy lead at vice providers and reduce labour requirements Jelle Van Loon: In addition to reducing pres- CIMMYT, based in New Delhi, India. He devoted tremendously. sure on available labour and alleviating drudg- more than two decades to intensive work on basic ery, modern farm equipment tailored to the and applied science in sustainable intensification In Zimbabwe, we found that labour require- needs of smallholders can also increase com- of smallholder systems of Asia. His research on ments were 15 times lower when establishing petitiveness, as it allows for higher precision Conservation Agriculture has provided scientifically a maize field with a direct seeder pulled by a and efficiency. sound basis and directions for promoting two-wheel tractor, and 23 times lower using sustainable intensification through policy changes a similar technology for establishing wheat in In this sense, scale-appropriate mechanisation and led to impact at scale in South Asia. Rwanda, compared to the conventional meth- can stimulate rural transformation incentivising Contact: [email protected] od based on labour and draft power. A ton of short and efficient value chains while ensuring maize that would take 12 people a full day to stable food provision – aspects that have be- This article was originally published by CIMMYT. shell manually can be shelled in one hour using come essential to navigating the present crisis. Emma Orchardson moderated the talk. 10 COVID-19

Putting the emphasis on girls and young women

The COVID-19 pandemic also represents a considerable challenge for the NGO sector. While the spread of the disease has to be checked, existing programmes need to be continued as far as possible. In this respect, Plan International is concentrating on those affected worst by the crisis: women and girls.

By Anabela Brandao

As a global crisis, the COVID-19 pandem- The use of social networks, if ic has an impact on the lives of all people available, and radios operated throughout the world. However, girls and by means of cranks or solar women are most severely affected – especially energy ensures that commu- those living in crisis areas. Not only because nities and project beneficiaries more women have an occupation which ex- have access to information and poses them to higher risks of getting infected awareness-raising messages. with COVID-19, e.g. in the field of health and Pedal-operated, non-contact nursing, but also because existing problems, hand-washing stations includ- inequalities and power relations are aggravat- ing soap are being installed ed in crisis situations. Girls and young wom- for essential institutions and en are particularly affected by the long-term, public facilities, such as health secondary effects of the pandemic, which are centres, schools, distribution however decisive as regards their opportunities points or child-friendly spac- to participate. es. By providing materials and soap, individual households The experience gained during the Ebola epi- and facilities are able to con- Fifteen-year-old Kaligueta lives in Boussouma department in the Centre-North region of Burkina Faso. She has just taken part in demic in West Africa in the years 2014 – 2016 struct low-cost “tippy taps” to an awareness-raising session on COVID-19. Given the high risk of and during the COVID-19 pandemic suggests protect themselves against the transmission in a region that hosts tens of thousands of internally that the current crisis will have a considerable virus through hand-washing. displaced people, Plan International is focusing its attention on social and economic impact on the lives of ensuring that the communities are aware of the disease and know how to stay safe. women and girls. In times of crisis, girls and Health workers in the project young women generally face higher risks of areas receive protective equip- Photo: Plan International being affected by gender-based violence, be- ment including soap, disinfec- ing forced into early marriage, getting children tants, masks and gloves, among other things. have been reduced. This makes it difficult to early or dropping out from school. This lowers Furthermore, members of community com- raise awareness of the hidden effects of the co- their prospects of leading a self-determined life mittees and local partner NGOs are trained rona pandemic for girls and women. – even more so than before the pandemic. That on how to prevent infection and how to deal is why Plan International always pays special at- with COVID-19. In order to help girls and tention to the gender-specific needs of girls and young women exert their sexual and repro- Protection against gender-based women when implementing its protection and ductive health rights and their right of self-de- violence relief measures to respond to COVID-19. termination, relevant health services are being strengthened and equipped. This means that In times of crisis, all forms of gender-based they can better respond to the needs of adoles- violence increase, especially domestic vio- Hygiene activities: dignity kits and cent girls and young women. lence. As a result of protective measures such hand-washing stations as social isolation, girls and women are more Social contact restrictions have rendered aid frequently affected by violent assaults within In its transnational programmes, Plan Inter- tools which usually help girls and women the family. The COVID-19 pandemic makes national focuses on gender-sensitive and gen- claim their rights, empower one another or it more difficult – or even impossible – to end der-specific activities to cover these needs. A get support in emergencies hardly available. such violent situations. An exit is only possible key emphasis is put on hygiene and infection For example, they are not able to attend girls’ when affected girls and women can make out- control. By providing and distributing so- clubs, mother meetings, saving groups or sim- siders aware of their situation – e.g. at school, called “dignity kits” (containing soap, gloves ilar social gatherings. Furthermore, it is now during home visits of trained social workers or or toothbrushes, but also menstrual hygiene hardly possible to address claims to political during organised leisure time activities, such as articles), Plan International does not only help decision-makers. Events, rallies and demon- girls’ and youth clubs. However, the contact people in low-income countries keep mini- strations do not take place. At the same time, restrictions have extremely reduced these op- mum hygiene standards and reduce the risk of society as a whole, politicians and authorities portunities. As a result of the lockdown, we infection in case of a strict curfew or interrup- pay less attention to topics which are not di- hear alarming facts, e.g. an increase in appeals tion of supply chains, but also responds to the rectly related to the corona crisis – as a result, for help via hotlines, from Latin America and issues which adolescent girls and women face willingness and capacities of the responsible the Caribbean region where domestic violence during their menstruation. bodies to commit themselves to other issues was a severe problem even before the crisis. RURAL 21 02/20 11

By means of informative messages transport- women and adolescent ed by staff members, partners and volunteers, girls – e.g. by their if possible, but also through the media, such starting to produce as Facebook, radio programmes and posters, sanitary pads or face Plan International makes people in the proj- masks. Not only can ect communities aware of the risks of sexual this improve their fi- and gender-based violence for children, girls nancial situation, it also and women. The organisation sensitises mem- helps them overcome bers of community committees, especially supply shortages and those responsible for child protection, as well problems in accessing as community representatives, to the risks in hygiene articles which connection with COVID-19. Furthermore, have become very counselling services to address domestic or scarce or expensive as a sexual violence as well as child protection are result of the pandemic. being established or expanded. These services include hotlines or mentors in the communi- If families have a se- ties who can refer such cases. cure income, it will In Nigeria's Borno State, 1,400 adolescent school girls were provided with dignity kits to help them manage their periods during the lockdown to prevent be possible to prevent the spread of COVID-19. The girls also received training on how to use the early marriage. Expe- kits, which included six pairs of pants, a reusable sanitary pad kit and four Creating income security and rience has shown that bars of soap. preventing economic distress parents often use early Photo: Nubwa Ibrahim / Plan International marriage as a coping In times of economic crisis, the risk of ex- mechanism due to economic distress. During with victims of gender-based violence by the ploitation and abuse increases, including pros- the Ebola crisis, the number of child marriages terrorist group Boko Haram is expanded to in- titution and forced labour. Unconditional increased by 65 per cent in the severely affect- clude domestic violence, a problem that has relief services in the form of cash transfer or ed areas of Sierra Leone. In the planning stage been massively intensified by the COVID-19 vouchers for girls and women as well as people of all activities, girls and women are consulted pandemic and the associated curfews. To pre- from high-risk groups such as women-head- to be able to consider their perspective when vent people from becoming infected, trainings ed households help ensure provision with implementing the measures. In doing so, we and advice that used to take place in larger foodstuffs and non-food items. Furthermore, make sure that problems and barriers are re- groups are now replaced by door-to-door ac- the distribution of food rations, especially for duced and the activities respond to the actual tivities. households with children under five years of needs. age, contributes to food security. As Plan International has been a stakeholder in the international NGO sector for many years, Many women working in the catering or ser- Coordinated approach the organisation is able to use a large network vice sector are losing their income as a result of of existing structures in the programme coun- the protection measures against COVID-19. As an international non-governmental or- tries when implementing the COVID-19 Creative solutions and the development of ganisation, we not only face the challenge measures. Trust within the population and short-term income opportunities shall pro- of how to prevent the spread of the virus in many years – or even decades – of experience vide alternative sources of income for affected the programme countries and to take care of in the communities help us plan the activities the affected people, but we also in accordance with the needs and carry them need to carry on with existing out effectively. In addition, Plan Internation- programmes. In order to ensure al has been publishing reports on the situation that ongoing projects can con- of girls and young women in crisis situations tinue and existing structures can (“Girls in Crisis”) for many years to give af- be used to implement protection fected girls a voice and to consider gender-spe- measures against COVID-19, all cific needs in the programmes. the COVID-19-based activities are coordinated with the ongoing The situation through COVID-19 is a glob- projects. They are orientated to- al challenge – also for the NGO sector. Even wards existing standard activities though the long-term impacts on the pro- which are adapted to the context, grammatic work cannot yet be fully assessed, if necessary, and coordinated with it is now important to react proactively and other stakeholders such as local flexibly to the new situations and circumstanc- authorities, local organisations like es. Cohesion, exchange and transparency are By creating new income opportunities like producing sanitary women’s or youth clubs or com- the most important basis for this. pads or masks, Plan tries to help women and adolescent girls to munity committees. This includes secure their livelihood. With all the schools in Bangladesh closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, 14-year-old Raziya decided to use programmatic additions in coun- her free time to make masks and help people protect themselves tries where we are already active Anabela Brandao is Press Officer at Plan against the disease. in humanitarian aid. In the Lake International in Hamburg/Germany. Photo: Biploby Rani Dey Roy / Plan International Chad Region, for example, work Contact: [email protected] 12 COVID-19

Building our food systems back better

What is required to make food systems provide sufficient, healthy food while not harming the planet? How should food security be maintained given the threat posed by climate change? Our authors look at some aspects of tomorrow’s food systems against the backdrop of the corona crisis.

Jes Alexander Weigelt Müller By Jes Weigelt and Alexander Müller

Writing about a crisis that is still unfolding, can ter also means preparing the food system for of the food insecure and the vulnerable. They only be premature. Uncertainty abounds. Re- the next crisis on the horizon, the impact of must also be done in a way that they increase flections on both the impacts of and responses the climate crisis. At the same time, building the adaptive capacity of those suffering from to the COVID-19 pandemic therefore benefit back better must not mean to continue busi- food insecurity and enhance the resilience of from modesty. At the same time, significant ness as usual with more resources being made the food system as a whole. The responses to investment volumes are being made avail- available by governments! curb the further spread of the pandemic have able to soften the impact of the COVID-19 highlighted some elements of particular im- pandemic and the responses to it. Actions are portance to achieve urban and rural food secu- necessary now and are being taken. So, in the Our skewed food systems rity in the future: below, we would like to offer our reading of how to make food systems more resilient A cursory look at the food systems shows both One Health. As an immediate conclusion while building back better. Trying to strike a internal shortcomings and massive external from the COVID-19 pandemic, the concept balance between modesty and clarity, we wish threats: of One Health is receiving renewed attention. to ask our readers to please understand these One Health denotes efforts to achieve public considerations as the beginning and not the The way agriculture is being conducted health by paying attention to the transmission end of the story. We would like to extend an is leading to a loss of biodiversity and of diseases from animals to humans and the im- invitation to contribute to a discussion on how resource degradation. pact of environmental factors on human health. to make the food system work for both people More than 800 million people are food In short, human health is to be achieved by and the planet. Today, it is failing to provide insecure, a figure that has kept rising making sure that animals and the broader en- healthy food for all while at the same time de- since 2015. Obesity and malnutrition vironment are healthy as well. In the further grading the planet. are omnipresent in so called developing development of One Health, it will be im- and developed countries. portant to live up to the integrative nature of This brief article focuses on building our food The inequalities in the food system are the concept. To provide a – potentially sim- system back better. By now, it is a well-es- striking. Gender inequalities in access to plistic – example, it is of only little value to tablished fact that COVID-19 is not only a assets and frequent violation of migrant ensure proper vaccination of livestock against health crisis but also an economic and food se- workers’ rights are only two examples some well-known diseases if the conditions curity crisis. The pandemic left rural producers in this regard. for keeping them, such as high density of ani- without a market. Export-oriented agricul- Even at the current roughly 0.8 °C mals, create new breeding grounds for diseases. tural businesses quickly dismissed agricultural increase in global mean temperature, These conditions are not conducive to animal labourers. The Kenyan flower industry is but the temperature increase over land is wellbeing in the long run and often rely on the one example. Responses to curb the further 1.27 °C. Climate change is already lead- massive application of antibiotics. In conditions spread of the pandemic have undermined food ing to yield depressions of major crops. such as these, new threats are likely to emerge access by already poor and food insecure peo- for human and animal health. Although this ple. The World Food Programme warns that Building back cannot mean going back to be- is a well-established fact, it is not triggering 265 million people will be threatened by acute fore, it must mean building back better for a the necessary action! One Health needs to be hunger by the end of this year; that is twice new normal. designed and implemented in broad terms of as much as estimated prior to the outbreak of human and animal health, within the broader COVID-19. The pandemic, as some observers production system, which in turn is embedded have commented, has laid open some of the Building back better – elements of a in a sustainably managed environment. To ap- structural flaws of the food system. strategy ply a concept that is typically used in a different context, truly achieving One Health requires a So, building back the food system needs to be Current investments to combat the immedi- landscape approach – a landscape approach that done in a way that existing flaws in or threats ate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and is based on cooperation among different actors to the system are addressed. Building back bet- the measures to curb it must address the needs and openness for new solutions. RURAL 21 02/20 13

The informal sector in urban food sys- of adapting to climate change. The number an enabling environment for rural develop- tems. The informal sector is of outmost im- of extreme weather events is projected to in- ment. Rural service delivery systems, the re- portance as a way for poor people to access crease significantly. Production in controlled sponsible design of rights to land and natural food. Yet, this has been one of the sectors environments can contribute to reducing the resources, and creating linkages between pro- particularly hard hit by lockdown measures. vulnerability of production. Clearly, to suc- ducers and consumers are all key to sustaining Open air markets were closed, and informal ceed in densely populated peri-urban and ur- investments in sustainable land management, food trading was prohibited. This has further ban areas, agriculture requires corresponding ecosystem-based adaptation, and other mea- undermined food access by the poor. In ad- investments in urban land use planning and sures to protect and sustainably manage ter- dition, as they could more easily implement securing long-term land use rights for urban restrial ecosystems for food security. Securing physical distancing regulations, supermarkets and peri-urban production sites. women’s land rights is particularly important often remained open. It is yet too early to see in this context, as their investments in soil fer- whether this exacerbates inequalities in food Securing the natural resource base of tility affect household food and nutrition se- systems. It is not too early to conclude, how- agricultural production. If enhancing resil- curity disproportionately strongly. Investing in ever, that food security policies need to em- ience of the food systems partly means shorter such an enabling environment means securing brace the pivotal role of both the formal and value chains, it also implies protecting the nat- the investments to achieve food security and informal sectors to achieve urban food securi- ural resource base for agriculture. Protecting sustainable resource use. ty. Even in highly industrialised countries, the freshwater resources and soils is an inherently informal food sector has to solve the problems local activity. Measures to implement nation- of the highly commercialised food sector. For al plans to achieve land degradation neutrality The time is now example, the formal food sector in the USA (LDN) are therefore key to achieving resilient would never have managed to feed millions of food systems. However, this requires that they This list of strategy elements is a contribution unemployed people. Acknowledging the con- do not threaten food security by undermining to the on-going discussions on building back tinued higher prevalence of food insecurity in the legitimate rights to land of small urban and better. It is unlikely to be comprehensive. rural areas and taking into account the high ur- rural agricultural producers, a risk that parties Yet, we have derived these elements from the banisation rates in developing countries, food to the United Nations Convention to Combat reports by partners and colleagues from ten security policies need to learn from the impact Desertification (UNCCD) have begun to ad- African countries which are presenting their of COVID-19 and question its production- dress by their landmark decision emphasising impressions on the daily struggle for food on ist and rural biases. As urban geographer Jane the importance of the Voluntary Guidelines our Twitter platform @CovidFoodFuture. Battersby observes: “While the urban has been on Responsible Land Governance. In their re- And we have collated this list with a view to largely absent in the global discourse on food sponses to the pandemic, it seems to be a good address trends that undermine the resilience and nutrition security, food has been equally point in time for parties to start implementing of food systems and with the next upcoming absent from the global discourses on urban them. crisis in mind, the impact of climate change on development.” To brace food systems for the all four dimensions of food security. So, while next crises, these productionist and rural biases Agroecological approaches for food se- the list might seem eclectic, the overarching need to be rectified. curity. There is overwhelming evidence that message is rather straightforward: For some re- the current way of producing food more often gions and crops, we are only ten harvests away Urban agriculture. Measures to curb the than not undermines the very ecological basis from meeting or failing to meet the Sustain- further spread of the pandemic have interrupt- of its own existence. Estimates of the negative able Development Goals. As it stands, the odds ed or inhibited the marketing of fresh produce externalities of the food system amount to 12 are not in the SDGs’ favour. Given the level of in cities. In effect, the price for vegetables in trillion US dollars annually. A resilient food investments currently mobilised to soften the cities increased considerably with the advent system maintains and enhances the ecosystem impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, it would of the lockdown. Partners from Burkina Faso services on which it relies. Diversification of be a huge opportunity lost, if they were not reported threefold increases on the markets production and reducing the reliance on ex- invested in a way to make our food systems in Ouagadougou. Agriculture in urban and ternal inputs have demonstrably increased more resilient, if they were not invested to in- peri-urban areas offers the opportunity to cre- the adaptive capacity of households. In short, crease the adaptive capacity of those whom we ate employment and produce vegetables and agroecological practices enhance food system have committed “to not leave behind”. fruits closer to urban centres. This potential is resilience. Yet, systemic approaches to food increased by emerging low-tech solutions for and nutrition security do often not find an en- hydroponics. Not only does urban agriculture abling environment. Building our food system have nutritional and income benefits, it also back better implies a revision of the agricul- Jes Weigelt is Head of Programmes at TMG offers social benefits. Analyses from the Cape tural and food and nutrition security policies Research in Berlin, Germany. Flats in Cape Town, South Africa, show that along the four dimensions of food security: Alexander Müller is Managing Director of TMG women practising urban agriculture perceive availability, access, utilisation and stability. Research. this to increase their “social image”. Contact: [email protected] Rural governance for an enabling envi- Moving horticultural production to controlled ronment for food security and sustain- TMG Research is a policy advice and research environments in peri-urban and urban areas able natural resource management. We organisation working on sustainability issues in the is also advantageous from the point of view have elaborated earlier on the importance of areas of nutrition, climate and energy. 14 FOCUS

Photo: Jörg Böthling

Africa's rapid economic transformation

Thirty years ago, Africa was synonymous with war, famine and poverty. That narrative is clearly outdated. The living standards of Africans are rising remarkably fast, also thanks to the country’s agricultural growth and the development of rural-urban value chains. Our authors are convinced that improving education and entrepreneurship will ensure that the region’s progress is irreversible even as it confronts COVID-19.

By T. S. Jayne, Adesoji Adelaja and Richard Mkandawire

n the 1980s, most Africans lived in rural areas mary and secondary education. Women have tors expand employment and income growth Ithat were socially and economically isolated become considerably more active in labour more broadly. Since 2000, SSA has been the from the rest of the world, had no more than markets and are gaining greater influence over world’s second-fastest growing regional econ- primary school education, and were mostly household resources in many areas (Oduro and omy, exceeded only by Asia. The region’s per engaged in semi-subsistence farming. Poverty Doss, 2018). Nutritional indicators also show capita GDP increased during this period by and malnutrition were rampant and life expec- gradual but clear improvement (Masters et al., almost 35 per cent in real terms, doubling in tancy was under 50. It is almost mind-boggling 2018). Of all regions, SSA gained the most some countries (Barrett et al., 2017). These how rapidly Africa’s conditions have changed. in average life expectancy, which is now 64 trends have fuelled employment opportunities Today, 48 per cent of Africans have a second- years. Governance has improved, albeit un- in off-farm stages of the agrifood system, and ary school education, and 10 per cent of col- evenly across countries. especially in non-farm sectors, creating more lege-aged Africans are attending universities. diversified regional economies (see Table on Poverty rates have declined significantly since page 17). 2000. The share of people in sub-Saharan Af- Agriculture and agrifood systems are rica (SSA) living on less than 1.90 US dollars powering Africa’s transformation Africa’s agricultural growth has been catalysed (USD) a day declined from 58 per cent in 2000 by a growing class of commercialised, entre- to 41 per cent in 2015. Over the same period, Agricultural growth enabled SSA’s labour preneurial and relatively well educated African the proportion of Africans making more than force to gradually diversify into off-farm em- farmers (Jayne et al., 2019). Parts of sub-Saharan 5.50 USD per day rose from 10 per cent to 15 ployment. Since 2000, sub-Saharan Africa has Africa are witnessing profound changes in farm per cent, as recent World Bank figures suggest. achieved the highest rate of agricultural growth size distributions. “Medium-scale” farm land- Most Africans are now engaged in off-farm of any region throughout the world. Accord- holdings of five to 100 hectares now account employment that provides considerably higher ing to the World Bank Developing Indicators, for 30 per cent or more of national area un- living standards than farming (Tschirley et al., SSA experienced an annual inflation-adjusted der cultivation in many African countries, and 2015; Yeboah and Jayne, 2018). increase of 4.6 per cent in agricultural growth this share is rising in countries with substan- between 2000 and 2018, roughly double that tial unutilised land (Jayne et al., 2016). Over For the majority of the region’s population, of the prior three decades. When agriculture roughly a decade starting in the early 2000s, living standards have clearly risen. Girls have grows, its extensive forward and backward link- the value share of national marketed crop out- experienced remarkable improvements in pri- ages with agri-value chains and non-farm sec- put accounted for by medium-scale farms rose RURAL 21 02/20 15

Photo: Nichole Sobecki/ Redux/ laif Photo: Jörg Böthling in Zambia from 23 per cent to 42 per cent, in How sustainable? A more entrepreneurial workforce and Tanzania from 17 per cent to 36 per cent, and informed electorate in Nigeria from 7 per cent to 18 per cent (see At the same time, the pace of transformation Figure on page 16). Of the additional value of has been highly uneven across the region. Val- Rising levels of educational attainment is the national crop output during this period in Gha- id questions arise regarding whether the trans- main reason that Africa’s rise will be sustained. na, Tanzania and Zambia, medium-scale farms formation narrative will falter, whether it has The percentage of Africans over 25 years of age accounted for at least 45 per cent of growth been sustained by primary commodity price who completed lower secondary school has in each country (Jayne et al., 2019). Perhaps booms, and whether transformation is occur- climbed from 23 per cent in the 1980s to 43.7 ironically, the amount of land acquired by this ring without industrialisation or poverty reper cent in 2017, and is over 75 per cent for category of African farmers since 2000 far ex- duction. Indeed, some countries’ performance both men and women in rapidly developing ceeds the amount of land acquired by foreign may justify these concerns, while many others countries such as Ghana (World Bank, 2019). investors (Jayne et al., 2014a). This might be do not, highlighting the widely varying pace Student enrolment in tertiary education grew considered a surprising development, but in of transformation in the region. from 1 per cent in the 1970s to 10 per cent in retrospect, perhaps it should not have been. 2014 (Darvas et al, 2017). Quality of educa- The dramatic rise in global food prices after To assert that Africa is rapidly developing tion has declined over the past several decades 2007 initiated major foreign investment in Af- is not to assert that life is rosy for everyone. as universities have strained to accommodate rican farmland. Why shouldn’t African inves- Sub-Saharan Africa remains the poorest region rapidly growing numbers of students. But in tors have done the same? of the world. But at least most key indicators 2006, the most recent year for which data is of livelihoods have consistently moved in the available, African countries’ average public Agricultural growth has also synergistically co- right direction for several decades now. So, as expenditure per university student was 2,000 evolved with the rapid development of value Africans mobilise to tackle the region’s many USD per year – more than twice as much as chains that link farmers to Africa’s growing ur- sobering challenges, it is not constructive to non-African developing countries invested ban areas. The wealthiest African today built hold on to the “doom and gloom narrative” in tertiary education. There is also growing his fortune on the back of agriculture by pio- from the 1980s and 1990s, especially when Af- diversity in the fields covered by these insti- neering large-scale production in sugar, flour, ricans themselves have never been more opti- tutions, including greater focus on technical beverages and other food products. No won- mistic about the future and vibrancy of the re- education and entrepreneurship. The pace of der the President of the African Development gion, as the latest Africa Youth Report states. educational improvement in Africa is more Bank, Dr Akin Adesina, recently predicted rapid than any other region of the world has that the next generation of African billionaires While these trends point to SSA’s remarkable experienced. While decades behind the rest of will be farmers. Powered by rapid population development progress over the past several the world, Africa is starting to catch up. growth, rising incomes and urbanisation, the decades, one might question how sustainable size of Africa’s agrifood systems by 2030 will they are. We believe that Africa’s long-term A more educated workforce means that de- reach 1 trillion USD. Not surprisingly, small progress is irreversible for three interrelated cision-making in the private sector, which and medium-scale enterprises in agrifood sys- reasons: an increasingly savvy and informed includes millions of micro-entrepreneurs, is tems are an important part of the region’s de- work force, driven by rising levels of educa- becoming more effective and competitive in velopment. And unlike in prior decades, it is tion, the explosion of readily accessible infor- the global workplace, thereby contributing educated, savvy and capitalised Africans who mation, and improving governance and politi- to economic growth. It also means more in- are leading the charge. cal accountability. formed public policy-making. Rising educa- 16 FOCUS Rise of Medium Sized Farms in Africa

Share of total marketed output supplied by medium-scale farms Medium-scale (5–100 ha) farms’ share of national marketed crop output value

53% 50% 44% Period 1 39% 40% 38% 36% Period 2

28% 26% 20% 21% 19% 19% 18% 18% 13% 14% 14% 13% 11% 10% 7% 7% 5% 5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0% 1% 0% Horticuture Horticuture Horticuture Horticuture Legumes/oil seeds Legumes/oil seeds Legumes/oil seeds Legumes/oil seeds Legumes/oil Grains/roots/tubers Grains/roots/tubers Grains/roots/tubers Grains/roots/tubers Industrial cash crops Industrial cash crops Industrial cash crops Industrial cash crops

Ghana [1992-2013] Nigeria [2011-2016] Tanzania [2008-2014] Rwanda [2006-2014] Period 1 represents the market share of medium-scale farms in the first year indicated for each country, e.g., 2011 for Nigeria. Period 2 represents the market share of medium-scale farms in the most recent survey year indicated for each country.

Source: computed from national household survey data collected by the national statistical services in each country. See Jayne et al. (2019) for details. tion levels are driving Africans’ demands for development outcomes when users perceive transport services, market price information, better governance, too. In the early 1980s, we it as relevant, and when they have both the buyer opportunities, electricity payments, in- were struck by how most Africans looked to power and the incentives to act on that infor- put purchases and social welfare benefits trans- governments for protection, for employment, mation. Rising education levels will therefore fer. Digital technologies hold great potential and for ensuring access to cheap food. They contribute to more effective utilisation of the to reduce, if not overcome, the historical link viewed markets with suspicion. They bought rapidly expanding supply of information and between remoteness and poverty, and even to the narrative that governments were looking its conversion into improved livelihoods. redefine what remoteness means. Digital trans- out for their welfare after decades of foreign formation has also enabled Africans to connect colonial rule. As Africans have become more A special issue of "Foreign Affairs" documents with the global community in a manner that educated, they have become more politically the rapid growth in Africans’ use of mobile was not the case two decades ago. Millions of astute and active. It is hard to fool or oppress banking and software-based provision of infor- Africans now have access to global news and educated people. Today, most young Africans mation and services. Former Netscape founder know-how in ways that would not have been demand greater accountability from their gov- Marc Andreessen predicted recently that al- possible decades ago. ernments and view markets as their source of most every African would own a smartphone opportunity and livelihood. A recent study by 2025; in anticipation, software providers are from Kenya found that wealthier and more feverishly working to meet this growing mar- Governance improving educated people were more likely to support ket for digital services. As governments and democracy and vote for the opposition. To- businesses move deeper into the information Governance conditions are clearly improving day’s African youth are transforming the con- age and digitise many of their processes, op- for the region as a whole. Conditions for any tinent, not because they are young but because portunities are rapidly emerging for the grow- given country may improve or decline in the they are more educated, more entrepreneurial, ing number of African information technolo- short run, but the long-term trend is unmistak- more savvy, more technically skilled and better gy (IT) firms. With the rapid development of able. In the 1980s, most African governments able to utilise global information than any oth- new communication technology, important were repressive. Coups d’etat were common. er generation of Africans before them. aspects of the economy such as banking, pay- African big men ruled by iron fist and imposed ment systems, government revenue collection horrible policies on their people. Free presses and online education are becoming increas- were rare. This situation describes only a few The digital divide is being narrowed ingly digitised, especially in urban areas. The of SSA’s 45 countries today. Macro-economic alarming digital divide that Africa faced three management has improved dramatically in the Especially when combined with a more edu- decades ago is gradually being narrowed. post-structural adjustment period. Gone are cated workforce and electorate, the rapid rise the days of Idi Amin forcing finance ministers of publicly accessible Information and Com- In parallel to the transformational effect of to print money; today, most Ministries of Fi- munication Technology (ICT) and phone- digital technologies on business practices in nance are run by professionals who are com- based information even in the most remote developed countries, African farmers are gain- mitted to a market economy and adhere to rural areas of Africa will almost certainly have ing access to information that improves their global guidelines. Since 2000, there have been profound pro-development impacts. A re- decision-making and makes them more com- few cases of African countries falling into mas- cent special section of "World Development" petitive. New digital technologies are slowly sive debt, requiring bailouts from international shows that information can indeed improve emerging for farm management practices, rural financiers, or experiencing hyperinflation or RURAL 21 02/20 17

and informed classes raise their voices in de- Proportion of labour force in farming, off-farm agri-food systems, and non-farm manding clean and accountable governments, activities among working-age population (15–64 years). the quality of public services, infrastructure Country Survey year Working age ------% of full-time equivalent jobs in ------and economic opportunities will continue to individuals improve as it has over the past several decades, (15-64 years) in labour farming off-farm agrifood system non-farm but at a faster pace. While Africa’s positive tra- force in sectors jectory is unmistakable, it will be at least sever- agro- downstream millions processing distribution al decades before most of its countries are firm- Ghana 2005/06 9.5 43.5 6.3 8.6 41.6 ly middle class. Compared to other regions of 2012/13 12.1 34.3 3.7 15.5 46.5 the world, that is a remarkably short period, 2016/17 12.8 28.6 7.9 16.7 46.8 even though millions of poor people will un- Nigeria 2003/04 61.9 21.8 1.4 3.3 73.5 derstandably regard it as painfully slow. 2012/13 66.7 33.7 4.6 18.6 43.1 2015/16 78.2 28.3 3.7 30.3 37.7 It is difficult to accurately predict how Rwanda 2005/06 4.4 65.7 0.4 7.4 26.6 COVID-19 will affect the region, but certain- 2010/11 5.1 54.0 1.2 7.7 37.0 ly it will kill many, create great pain especially 2014 5.7 59.7 1.2 7.6 31.5 for poor households, and arrest the region’s Tanzania 2008/09 17.4 60.8 1.7 4.5 32.9 development at least temporarily. COVID-19 2012/13 21.5 48.3 1.6 15.6 34.5 will also almost certainly set in motion great 2014/15 21.7 49.1 1.2 14.1 35.6 pressures for governments to invest in water, Uganda 2005/06 11.0 57.0 2.8 10.2 30.0 sanitation and health facilities and galvanise 2011/12 12.3 48.1 3.3 12.3 36.3 the region’s efforts to strengthen its own ca- 2014/15 14.5 54.2 3.0 10.8 32.1 pacity to address pandemics and other types Zambia 2005 4.9 61.2 1.6 3.1 34.1 of shocks, and meet its citizens’ basic human 2012 5.9 46.7 2.1 7.1 44.1 needs. These investments will reinforce Afri- Note: Full-time equivalent jobs account for the fact that many individuals have more than one job in a ca’s long-term development trajectory. given year. For this reason, sectoral employment shares based on primary sources of employment tend to overestimate the labour force share in farming. Former hockey player Wayne Gretzky Source: Yeboah and Jayne (2018), based on analysis of Ghana Living Standard Survey 5, 6 and 7; Nigeria’s Living Standard Survey (2004) and General Household Survey (2013 and 2016); Rwanda Integrated Household Living Survey (EICV 2, 3 and 4); Tanzania National Panel Survey quipped that a good hockey player plays where (2009, 2013 and 2015); Uganda National Panel Survey (2006, 2012 and 2014); Zambia Labour Force Surveys (2005 and 2012). the puck is, but a great hockey player plays where the puck is going to be. Because change rapid currency depreciation. The majority of Parliamentarians and government officials are is occurring so rapidly, Africa’s future is best African countries have stabilised their mac- mirrors of their society and constituents. And understood not by overly focusing on its cur- ro-economies over the past 20 years, and this fortunately for Africa, as education levels con- rent position – which can easily blight one’s has attracted massive foreign direct investment tinue to improve, the quality of governance vision – but by considering where the trajec- and improved economic performance in the will become more open, more egalitarian and tory of its many long-term trends is pointing. region. more responsive to constituents. This doesn’t mean that there won’t be major hiccups along Improved governance and cooperation have the way – one can point to setbacks and wor- T. S. Jayne is University Foundation Professor, also aided freer movement of capital across rying developments in any country – but what Michigan State University (MSU), USA. boundaries in Africa and expanded intra-Afri- matters is whether the cumulative impact of Adesoji Adelaja is John A. Hannah Distinguished can trade (Songwe, 2019). Four decades ago, the positive developments outweigh the neg- Professor in Land Policy, Michigan State University foreign banks controlled the banking sectors of ative ones. On net, the governance trends in and Global Fellow, Woodrow Wilson Center. African countries. Today, a number of indig- African are generally moving in the right di- Richard Mkandawire is Chair, Malawi National enous banks dominate Africa’s banking sector. rection, and this has been the case for at least Planning Commission, and Africa Director, Alliance Many of these banks now operate regionally. three decades. for African Partnership at MSU. As investment opportunities have emerged Contact: [email protected] across the continent, investment and private equity firms from the more advanced African Conclusions Acknowledgements: This article builds on research countries are investing in less advanced ones co-funded by the DfID-funded Agricultural Policy (Silici and Locke, 2013). For example, many Thirty years ago, Africa was synonymous Research in Africa (APRA) Project, the USAID- Nigerian banks operate across Africa. Entre- with war, famine and poverty. That narrative supported Food Security Policy Innovation Lab, and preneurship, agro-enterprises, women-owned is clearly outdated. A middle class has started the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, business and food enterprises are increasingly to emerge in Africa, propelled by agricultur- and Markets (PIM). Sections of this article draw upon the focus of emerging private equity funds. al growth, economic diversification, digitisa- material in a forthcoming chapter by the authors The Tony Elumelu Foundation has commit- tion, entrepreneurship, labour mobility and entitled “Africa Is Truly Rising” in Moseley, W. G. and ted 100 million US dollars towards creating urbanisation. Africa’s rise has much to do with K. Otiso (2021). Debating African Issues: Conversations 10,000 entrepreneurs, 1 million jobs and 10 broadly improving education, greater access to under the Palaver Tree. London: Taylor & Francis. billion US dollars in new economic activity information and opportunities, the spread of within ten years and has leveraged co-financ- democracy and greater rule of law. Virtuous References: www.rural21.com ing from international organisations. cycles are being initiated: as the more educated 18 FOCUS

Informal household enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa – livelihoods for rural transformation

Seeking a “formalisation” of the informal sector, many national and local governments would like to see informal household enterprises vanish from public spaces. However, our author believes that such a development would be disastrous, and calls for informal-sector-friendly policies.

By Louise Fox

nformal nonfarm household en- reported hours, more than either wage Households have few other oppor- Iterprises (HEs) are a critical part of employment or on-farm activity. In tunities in rural areas to diversify rural transformation and poverty re- rural areas, they account for as many their income sources, as nonfarm duction. At the household level, they hours as on-farm work. About 40-50 wage jobs are scarce and often low- are an income source in the off-sea- per cent of rural households have an paid. son or year-round as the rural agricul- HE, and for around 40 per cent of tural and non-agricultural economies rural owners, the HE is their primary Even in urban areas in Africa there develop. At the level of communities, livelihood. The majority of HEs are are not enough wage jobs for those towns, and cities, they are a vibrant in the retail trade sector, small-scale who have the educational and skill part of the economy, creating eco- manufacturing (e.g. oil-seed pressing qualifications. Currently, African HEs nomic growth and increased incomes. or furniture making) or service provi- account for as many reported hours While the history of economic devel- sion (e.g. haircutting or repairs). HEs worked in urban areas as wage jobs opment suggests that they diminish in operate on the street, in a market, or (casual or formal). importance as agriculture and non-ag- from home. Almost all HEs in Africa ricultural sectors become increasingly sell their goods and services to house- modernised and commercialised and holds or individuals, not to other busi- Opportunities and constraints countries reach higher incomes lev- nesses. els, HEs are economically and socially In rural areas, HEs not only offer an important during key transformation As countries develop, HEs become opportunity to reduce seasonal un- phases. less common, and wage employment deremployment and increase income, (formal and informal) in modern en- they also represent an option to use terprises more common. In low- and under-utilised human capital. Out- What are informal nonfarm middle-income Asia, HEs account for side of a few jobs in the public sector household enterprises? 26 per cent of reported hours worked, (teachers, health workers or agricul- in Latin America for only 20 per cent tural extension and support), rural Af- According to the International Labour (see Figure). rica offers few opportunities for using Organization and UN statistical defi- secondary education, even as access to nitions, the informal sector is a group this level of education becomes more of production units which form part Why do they exist? widespread. In rural HEs, returns to of the household sector as household completed primary or some secondary enterprises or, equivalently, unincor- A range of push and pull factors ac- education are high, on average. HEs porated enterprises owned by house- count for HE existence and growth in also offer opportunities for women hold. Key points in this definition are: rural areas. to have an independent source of income, as these earnings are harder for Size: small-scale, self-employment As on-farm incomes rise, house- male family members to appropriate. or under five workers who are ei- hold demand increases for a range ther household members or casual of nonfarm goods and services Employment in the HE sector in Af- employees; which HEs conveniently supply. rica grows almost entirely through Usually not registered under na- HEs supply services cheaply and household creation of new business- tional law (often national law ex- conveniently – in the owner’s es. Ninety per cent of African HEs cludes these businesses from regis- home, often at off-hours relative have no one outside of family mem- tration requirements); and to farm work, and in small quan- bers working in the business. Nine- Lack of separation between house- tities (e.g. one cigarette), affordable ty-five per cent never increase their hold and enterprise assets and fi- for poorer households with limited employment over the life of the busi- nances. cash. ness. In other words, these are not HEs increase household incomes – growth-oriented enterprise gazelles; HEs are quite common in rural and ur- by 10 to 60 per cent, depending on that is not the HE business model. ban Africa. In terms of hours worked, the country, sector, scale of opera- While HEs clearly offer opportuni- HEs account for 40 per cent of total tion and location. ties for increased household incomes RURAL 21 02/20 19

and consumption, they are nonethe- HEs, often calling them a symptom more, and more productive, modern less a precarious livelihood. In both of failed development policy. In many labour-intensive enterprises offering rural and urban areas, HEs depend on African countries, this bias continues, good, formal, wage and salary jobs, but other households’ income for demand especially in larger cities including the until there are enough of these enter- for their products. This means that capital, as local and national govern- prises to employ the majority of the la- any economic shock – a natural disas- ments seek to establish “world class cit- bour force, “informal will be normal”. ter, an economic downturn, a global ies”. In this view, capital cities should It would also imply recognising HEs pandemic – hits HE sector incomes have clean, empty sidewalks; no open, for what they are – and are not. hard. In rural communities, they are covered or night markets so that HEs not immune from the risk agricultur- can sell products, offer services, and What would informal-sector-friend- al incomes face. Household-specific prepare and serve food; no small-scale ly policies look like? Primarily, they shocks – such as illness or death – also bars created out of shipping contain- would cover: negatively affect enterprise incomes, ers, no motorcycles, bicycles or rick- even causing business to fail. shaws offering rides; no informal waste The right to exist, and do business picking scavengers, and no unlicensed in one’s own name, without incor- HEs tend to be undercapitalised and barbers, haircutters, and manicurists poration. use limited skills. This makes business working from home. Advocates of Provision of adequate workspac- entry easy, but also increases com- this position want to “clean-up and es for different types of businesses petition, pushing down profits. Too clean out” the informal sector. They within city plans, taking account small and risky for the formal banking often advocate “formalisation”, a term of HE’s need for electricity, water, system, HEs are started and survive which has various meanings. sanitation, and solid waste disposal; primarily through loans or gifts from for market infrastructure to cluster family and friends; some get loans There is no doubt that informal en- and be near foot traffic (including for working capital or new invest- terprises, if not supported by friendly bus stops and mass transit stations, ment from micro-finance institutions local governments, can create conges- and in the central business district), (MFIs). HE owners, especially in ur- tion and hygiene problems. However, and to have a secure place to work ban areas, often face harassment, re- efforts to control, reduce or eliminate and store inventory. quest for bribes, and even assault from this sector can impoverish house- Financial inclusion, especially suppliers, passers-by or local police. holds who own and operate these cheap and reliable mobile money so Local governments often ignore them, businesses (or want to open one), as that HE owners do not have to car- or worse, slap on punitive taxes or fees there are simply not enough alterna- ry and store cash (a major business (frequently not reported in local active income-earning opportunities in risk) and can record transactions, counts), which jeopardises profits and low- and middle-income countries. allowing them to qualify for higher business survival. Instead, national and local govern- loan amounts or better terms. ments could enact policies and pro- A licensing and permitting regime grammes to support the survival and that is transparent, affordable given Policies to support HE incomes growth of this sector, within a national HE profit margins, and backed up and livelihoods development vision and strategy. Such by reliable public service provision a development strategy would imply (e.g. police protection in markets). In the past, economists, urban planners understanding that economic growth and policy-makers would disparage and development requires creating Some have argued for increased training in business skills for HE owners as well, but these programmes have had Hours worked by type of employment almost no success in raising HE profits. Approaches designed to teach negoti- 120 ation and other “soft skills” appear to have had more success, but the evi- 100 dence is still meagre, limited to a very 80 few studies.

60 Some stakeholders argue for “formal- ising the informal sector”, drawing on 40 evidence that formal businesses (modern, more capital-intensive enterprises) 20 are more productive and pay higher wages. However, this policy prescrip- 0 tion misses a key point. If HE owners Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total knew a business model that could be Asia Latin America & Caribbean Africa as productive as a modern enterprise  Own farm  Farm wage  Nonfarm wage  HE employing 20 or more people (and had access to capital to implement it), 20 FOCUS

they would apply it. The informality seen in Incorporation and VAT registration do not economic empowerment, and poverty reduction. HEs (small scale, etc.) reflects the only busi- change a business model, nor do they make She is currently Nonresident Senior Fellow, ness model which HE owners can implement. a business more productive or more credit- African Growth Initiative, Global Economy and They lack the management skills to hire and worthy. Informality needs to be permitted for Development, The Brookings Institution, and manage workers, organise production at scale, its own sake – as a livelihood strategy. Visiting Scholar, Blum Center for Developing adopt and adapt new technologies, procure in- Economies, University of California, USA. puts and manage inventory, and develop new Contact: [email protected] customer bases. Asking HE owners to incor- Louise Fox is an experienced development porate makes no sense – incorporation offers economist who specialises in strategies for References: www.rural21.com few benefits, and it would be an increased cost. employment creation, opportunity expansion,

Leveraging the employment potential of industries without smokestacks

For decades, economic growth and structural transformation was equated with manufacturing-led development. This applied to most of today’s advanced and many emerging economies. With a global trend of premature deindustrialisation, an entirely different pathway could now open up for Africa, as examples from several countries show.

By Brahima S. Coulibaly

example, whereas manufacturing could absorb 30 per cent or more of labour for early in- dustrialisers such as Great Britain or Sweden, now its share of labour is peaking at around 15 per cent or less in many emerging market and developing countries. Across Africa, manufacturing as a share of total economic activity has stagnated at around 10 per cent, with economic activity moving from agriculture to low-productivity services instead.

This global pattern of premature deindustrialisation suggests that manufacturing-led growth may no longer serve as a viable development model for current low-income countries. In this context, new research by the Brookings Institution’s Africa Growth Initiative finds a promising alternative path towards economic transformation based on tradable services. These tradable services or “industries without Like horticulture and tourism, agro-processing is intensive in low- and semi-skilled labour. smokestacks” (IWOSS) include subsectors like

Photo: Jörg Böthling tourism, horticulture, agro-processing and certain ICT-based services.

conomists have long regarded economic economies, large numbers of workers leaving Three salient features of manufacturing made it Etransformation – the movement of work- agriculture moved into manufacturing, driving an effective development escalator. First, man- ers from lower to higher productivity employ- growth, job creation and poverty reduction. ufacturing goods are tradable, which provides ment – as essential to successful economic However, evidence is emerging that manufac- possibilities for countries to scale up produc- development. Traditionally, the development turing-led development is losing its effective- tion beyond the consumption capacity of lo- of export-oriented industries, notably manu- ness. cal economies, thus boosting national income. facturing, has been a key driver of structural Second, manufacturing benefits from tech- transformation. Since the first Industrial Rev- In 2015, Harvard economist Dani Rodrick nological transfers, which allows productivity olution in the 18th century, manufacturing has documented a global pattern of premature of local production to converge with that of helped transform most of today’s advanced and deindustrialisation – in other words, declining global production. Third, importantly, manu- richest economies and, more recently, has been peak shares of output and employment at low- facturing absorbs large numbers of moderately the catalyst of the East Asian Miracle. In these er levels of income – in recent decades. For skilled labour at a productivity premium, de- RURAL 21 02/20 21

livering sustained aggregate productivity gains Gross value-added (GVA) and employment growth in South Africa, by sector, 2000-2018 and driving structural economic transformation. 8.0 Finance Within its research project, the Africa Growth 6.0 Initiative has identified an emerging, novel pattern of structural change in Africa based on 4.0 CSP Services industries without smokestacks. Indeed, these Utilities Construction sectors are outpacing manufacturing in many 2.0 Transport countries. Between 1998 and 2015, services W&R Trade 0 exports grew more than six times faster than Manufacturing merchandise exports. Kenya, Rwanda, Sene- -2.0 gal and South Africa have vibrant ICT-based 2000 - 2018 (per cent) Mining services sectors. Tourism is Rwanda’s largest -4.0

single export activity, accounting for about 30 Average annual employment growth Agriculture per cent of total exports, and provides 14 per -6.0 cent of GDP in Tanzania. In 2014, 9.5 million -2.0 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 tourists visited South Africa, contributing 3 per Average annual GVA growth, 2000 - 2018 (per cent) cent to its GDP. Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya and Source: Haroon et al. (2020) Senegal all actively participate in global horticultural value chains. Ethiopia has achieved ex- traordinary success in flower exports, so much Formal private sector employment in IWOSS and Non-IWOSS sectors in South Africa, 2019 so that the country is now a global player in the sector. Industries without smokestacks are also 6,000,000 relatively more labour intensive. 5,000,000

4,000,000 Leveraging IWOSS to address the employment challenge 3,000,000 Employed

While premature deindustrialisation is a global 2,000,000 phenomenon not unique to Africa, the process will be more consequential for the continent, 1,000,000 given the scale of the demographic and employment challenges. By some estimates, Af- 0 rica’s working-age population will grow by approximately 450 million people – about 3 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 per cent per annum – between 2015 and 2035.  IWOSS  Non-IWOSS By 2050, Africa will have 362 million young Source: Haroon et al. (2020) people between the ages of 15 and 24 years. Where will the region find the productive jobs Labour productivity in Rwanda for such a rapidly growing, young population (millions of Rwandan Francs per worker) in the context of premature deindustrialisation? The ability to move large numbers of workers 2.5 from lower to higher productivity activities will boost overall aggregate productivity and 2.0 deliver structural transformation. The Afri- 1.5 2017 ca Growth Initiative is conducting a research 2000 programme to assess the employment creation 1.0 potential of industries without smokestacks in 0.5 ten countries across Africa. The preliminary results, which are available for Rwanda and 0 Overall economy Manufacturing IWOSS Other Non-IWOSS South Africa, show that IWOSS have an en- (excl. agro-processing) couragingly high employment potential. Source: Newfarmer and Twum (2020)

The case of South Africa ment rate – at close to 55 per cent in 2018 ployment have shown an upward trend over – is considerably higher than in compara- the past ten years or so. In short, like in many Economic growth in South Africa has re- ble upper-middle-income countries or other countries across Africa, South Africa’s current mained very low since 1994, averaging just countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, growth path has failed to provide enough jobs 2.7 per cent. The country’s youth unemploy- both overall unemployment and youth unem- for the low-skilled unemployed. 22 FOCUS

The post-1994 South African economy has cent of total employment in these sectors can Between 2000 and 2017, employment growth been characterised by an eroding primary sec- be characterised in such a way. Thus, these in IWOSS averaged nine per cent, three times tor and a stagnant manufacturing sector – both sectors have the potential to generate em- higher than in the rest of the economy. Nota- concerning trends (see upper Figure on page ployment for the low-skilled labour force on bly, employment in key IWOSS sectors such 21). At the same time, there has been a shift a large scale, if the operating scale of these as agro-processing and tourism expanded at towards services sectors, with finance, trans- sectors can be increased. Indeed, early pro- double-digit rates. By 2035, IWOSS are pro- port, construction and other services experi- jections indicate that, annually and on aver- jected to generate nearly 70 per cent of new encing modest employment growth. Notably, age, around 3.4 times more jobs are to be employment in Rwanda. the financial and community services sectors created in IWOSS sectors in comparison to have accounted for over half of the increase non-IWOSS sectors, and that IWOSS will in employment between 2000 and 2019. In account for nearly 80 per cent of all new jobs Shared characteristics allow two-tier short, while the shift to services may offer through 2028. development South Africa an opportunity for the type of structural transformation previously anchored As the preliminary results for South Afri- by growth in manufacturing, this achievement The case of Rwanda ca and Rwanda illustrate, industries without depends, importantly, on the type of services. smokestacks are tradable services with the The middle Figure on page 21 shows the evo- In contrast to South Africa’s economy, that of potential to support structural transformation lution of employment in IWOSS and non- Rwanda has expanded rapidly, at an impres- in low-income countries given their shared IWOSS sectors. Out of 8.9 million formal sive eight per cent annually since 2000. How- characteristics with traditional manufacturing. private sector jobs in South Africa in 2019, ever, like South Africa, Rwanda’s economic Like manufacturing, apart from being tradable, IWOSS sectors account for over two thirds transformation has involved the movement of they benefit from technological innovation, (68 per cent), more than double the share of workers into progressively higher-productivity and, very importantly, they are intensive in non-IWOSS sectors. industries without smokestacks. As shown in low- and semi-skilled labour. IWOSS sectors the lower Figure on page 21, labour produc- also benefit from agglomeration, including In the face of premature deindustrialisation, tivity, defined as value-added per worker, is information and knowledge spill-overs. Most South Africa already appears to be on a path comparable to that of manufacturing and twice low-income countries often focus on develop- of structural transformation characterised by as high as productivity in the overall economy. ing special economic zones (SEZs) to promote a shift toward IWOSS. Industries without As such, the movement of labour into IWOSS manufacturing. SEZs are relevant to IWOSS smokestacks, notably agro-processing, horti- sectors is occurring at a productivity premium sectors such as agro-based industries as well. culture and tourism, are all intensive in low- that is boosting aggregate productivity and The enabling environment that supports the and semi-skilled labour; in fact, about 90 per overall economic transformation. development of manufacturing, including an adequate investment climate, capacity to export and agglomeration, is like that for indus- Changes in share of employees and movement into higher productivity sectors tries without smokestacks. While economists in Rwanda, 2000-2017 have been increasingly confident that development models for today’s low-income countries, notably those in Africa, will be different from that of East Asia, they have been less certain about what shape these will take. The industries without smokestacks model offers an answer. Because manufacturing and IWOSS have similar characteristics and enabling environment, from a public policy perspective, it is happily not a choice between manufacturing and IWOSS. Policy-makers can develop industries without smokestacks alongside efforts to develop those with smokestacks, thus offering a multifaceted approach to achieve structural transformation and overall economic development.

Brahima S. Coulibaly is a Senior Fellow and Director of the Africa Growth Initiative at the Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., USA. He holds a PhD in Economics from the University of Michigan. Contact: [email protected]

Source: Newfarmer and Twum (2020) References: www.rural21.com RURAL 21 02/20 23

Demand-driven extension and advisory services – catalysing opportunities for youth in agriculture

While education access has improved globally, gains are uneven, and development impacts driven by increases in education continue to be left on the table, especially in rural areas. Demand-driven extension and advisory services (EAS) – as a key institution educating rural people while providing agricultural advice and supplying inputs – have a critical role to play in bridging the education gap. This can help ensure that millions of young people successfully capitalise on opportunities in agriculture markets, as surveys in Rwanda and Uganda demonstrate.

By Steven Franzel, Jane Lowicki-Zucca, Richard Miiro and Nicolas Uwitonze*

ore people than ever before are access- Ming education around the world. In the last two decades alone, the number of out-of- school girls dropped by 79 million, and in the past decade, girls have become more likely to be in secondary school than boys. Evidence is clear that, on average, increased education is associated with increased opportunities for employment, lifetime earnings, national growth rates and innovation, and decreased poverty, gender inequality, child marriage, child mor- tality and child stunting. The global rate of return on one additional year of education is approximately nine per cent per year, with those in private sector employment benefitting even more.

However, major regional and country-level disparities have continued to leave 258 million children, adolescents and youth out of school, particularly at the primary level in sub-Saharan Africa. Although at 8 per cent, the proportion of youth in sub-Saharan Africa who are Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEET) appears more promising than the global figure A young village agent with farmers in Uganda. The village agents use smartphones for registering farmers, of 20 per cent, informal employment predom- helping them order inputs, sell produce and access information via call centres and videos and access inates and masks the realities African young services such as microfinance, insurance and soil testing services. people face in finding and sustaining better Photo: m-Omulimisa (higher earning and more youth inclusive) jobs. About 38 per cent of Africa’s youth live in extreme working poverty. Demand-driven EAS has a key role to increased government revenue and conducive play policies and governance, their inclusivity and Many of the countries with the fastest grow- sustainability will continue to fall short while ing youth populations in the world are in Mass formal education and technical and pressure for youth employment generation ris- Africa. With a rapidly growing labour force, vocational education and training (TVET) es. employment transformation (from household have not been able to keep pace and deliv- and self-employment to wage employment) is er high-quality, relevant education and skills Particularly in rural areas of developing coun- slowed. Most African youth must pursue in- development opportunities at scale to serve tries, demand-driven extension and advisory formal, mixed livelihoods or commercial ag- the record numbers of African youth expect- services (EAS) have a major role to play in riculture in household and other enterprises. ed to enter the workforce each year over the bridging gaps in know-how and connections Youth are often underemployed, and their next 30 years. Vocational training investments that would enable large numbers of young level of success in agriculture and supporting have largely lagged behind market demands, people and businesses to successfully engage markets is highly constrained by – among oth- supplying graduates with skills which are often with one another in agriculture and support- ers – low levels of education (secondary, and mismatched to business needs, and which are ing markets in the near term. More attention management, technical and soft skills), lack of able to reach only a highly limited number of has been paid in recent years to targeting youth access to capital and technology and gender youth. Although investments in high-quality both as providers and recipients of EAS. But norms. formal education systems are critical, without how is this occurring? 24 FOCUS

The Unites States Agency for International employees on fruit and nut production. The addressed this weakness by using a holistic ap- Development (USAID) Feed the Future De- companies took different paths to growth, proach, the Youth Options Pathway Model, veloping Local Extension Capacity (DLEC) with Agriwin relying on contracts with private which ensures that technical training is inte- project conducted a three-country study on farmers whereas HoReco’s contracts were grated with financial services, soft skills such youth and EAS in Rwanda, Niger and Gua- largely with government and donor agencies. as work readiness, and coaching, leading to temala. These case studies provided a land- As of early 2020, HoReco employed 104 ex- self- or wage-employment. Needs assessments scape analysis to inform actions to strengthen tension staff (89 per cent youths) and Agri- are conducted to find out youths’ aspirations, the inclusion of youth in EAS to improve win 20 (100 per cent youths). In Uganda, the assets and constraints. Training topics include their livelihoods and increase the effective- Uganda National Apiculture Development foundational training such as goal setting, lead- ness of EAS systems. Following on from the Organization has trained 150 “drones” (the ership and financial literacy, as well as technical three-country study, DLEC expanded the name they give to their extension staff), all vocational training. Business incubation hubs research to examine youth engagements in youths, who provide fee-based advisory ser- such as the one at Bishop Stewart University, EAS in Uganda and Rwanda, and take a spe- vices to beekeepers and start other businesses Uganda, which helps youths create and grow cial look at demand-driven, private sector-led, in the honey value chain. young businesses, are an important sub-cate- youth-inclusive EAS models. The objective of gory of this model. this latter study was to assess how private sector 2. Village agents EAS engages youth and what the potential is Village agents in Uganda link farmers to in- 4. Internships for greater engagement. It focused on private put suppliers, produce buyers and other service Internships offer an effective way for youth sector initiatives, public-private partnerships, providers. Often paid through sales commis- to strengthen skills, gain experience, enhance and government, NGO and project initiatives sions, they may work directly for these ser- their marketability, develop professional net- to engage youth in the private sector. Results vice providers or for NGOs, projects or pri- works and realise that there are fulfilling careers of DLEC’s work are described below. Multi- vate companies which link farmers to inputs in agriculture. The Rwanda Development ple methods were used to collect data for this and services. There is much variation in the Board (RDB) has an internship programme study, including a literature review, key infor- amount and types of information that village for university graduates, placing them in public mant interviews and focus group discussions. agents supply to farmers. Village agents of institutions or private companies and paying Interviews were conducted with youths in- some companies, such as m-Omulimisa Ltd., the interns a stipend for six months. USAID’s volved with such EAS initiatives across the two provide only basic information about the in- Private Sector Driven Agricultural Growth countries and with representatives of 37 private puts they are selling. Village agents of other Project (PSDAG) worked with RDB and companies, NGOs, government, educational companies provide general extension advice, other partners to strengthen the programme institutions and farmer organisations engaging and some, such as those of Akorion Ltd., are by extending 328 internships to agribusinesses with the young people in the initiatives. able to share videos, weather information and and cooperatives to one year, providing orien- other resources through their smartphones. tation training and helping interns find long- Some conduct soil tests to customise fer- term employment. The programme also had Models for youth engagement in EAS tiliser recommendations. Some also, such as an additional dividend – many interns were m-Omulimisa, “bundle” inputs, providing hired by their hosts when their internships The following demand-driven models for them on credit and deducting the debt from ended. engaging youth in EAS all involve youth as produce sales at harvest time. The agents man- recipients of extension, while in the first, sec- age this process at the village level, and many ond and fourth, youth are also providers of ex- use apps on their smartphones to do so. Many Implementing EAS models – lessons tension. All four are pluralistic in terms of in- also facilitate interactions between farmers and recommendations volvement by government, private sector and and other value chain service providers such NGOs, but the private sector usually leads in as banks and insurance companies. Five com- Even though the individual models are based the first two models whereas the public sector panies interviewed in Uganda employed 106 on very different approaches, some common usually leads in the last two. agents on average and served about 130,000 conclusions can be drawn from the surveys. farmers. Around three-quarters of the agents 1. Fee-based extension services were youths. Differentiating among youth. More con- Fee-based extension services are not widely sideration needs to be given to understanding considered as offering opportunities for youth 3. Strengthening youths’ skills and the heterogeneity of youth, and programmes employment because of youths’ lack of exper- capacities need to be tailored to the contexts of particu- tise and experience. But youths have started Programmes to strengthen rural youths’ skills larly vulnerable youth segments. For example, successful fee-based extension companies in and capacities with a business focus were more attention is needed for helping econom- Rwanda and Uganda by focusing on niche en- common. For example, the Africa Institute ically poor rural youth who have not complet- terprises for which there was scant expertise for Strategic Services and Development at ed high school and understanding their vary- in the country. For example, youths return- Makerere University, Uganda, trains rural ing aspirations, needs and contexts. Dedicated ing from agricultural training in Israel started youth in livestock and business skills on de- resources for conducting youth assessments two private companies, HoReco in 2016 and mand. An important weakness of some train- should be required in project planning, and Agriwin in 2017. HoReco trains extension ing programmes was that they were not in- targets should be set and monitored for achiev- staff, volunteer “farmer promoters” and farm- tegrated into a broader strategy of increasing ing levels of youth inclusion. Incentives for ers in irrigation and production techniques, employment and offering support services private companies to hire youth should also be and cooperative staff on cooperative manage- such as coaching and credit. The USAID “Get encouraged, such as corporate social responsi- ment. Agriwin trains farm managers and their Trained and Lets Work” Project in Rwanda bility awards or tax credits. RURAL 21 02/20 25

Digital tools. Digital tools have important benefits: enhanced communication and feedback, improved economic efficiency and added prestige to agricultural enterprises. The considerable emphasis being given to digital tools needs to be sustained. Increased research is warranted to assess performance and guide future use of these tools, particularly for ensuring that the economically poor and traditionally underserved have access to them.

Interestingly, the above models are not being implemented uniformly. Rather, there are important variations in each of them as different implementers test different approaches. Do twelve-month internships in extension result in significantly more youth employment than six-month ones? Or would six-month ones give an opportunity for twice as many youth to get involved? Will the cost of making the Constraints including domestic responsibilities and negative attitudes towards women’s capabilities lead to young village agent an extension agent pay for women still being underrepresented in public and private extension services, despite many improvements. itself in increased sales, or is a village agent that Photo: Steven Franzel does not provide EAS more cost-effective? Or is backing up the village agent with a call centre, as two Ugandan companies do, a more Helping young women. A corollary of the of reducing risks of investing in new ways of effective strategy? Research to rigorously assess above is the need to focus on gender at the doing business. One of the underlying pri- the advantages, disadvantages and cost-effec- same time as youth. Otherwise, the benefits vate sector interests in youth engagement is tiveness of different models and how best to accruing to youth may benefit only young workforce development, as exemplified by implement them could go a long way towards males, particularly if the unique constraints the internship model. Among other motiva- improving the viability of the models and the that young women face are not addressed. tions for youth engagement, businesses are potential for young people, and the companies These include domestic responsibilities, which also interested in increased sales, market share and markets they engage with to benefit from limit women’s mobility and time-flexibility, and profits, public relations, and at times, the them. lack of access to land and negative attitudes achievement of social impacts. about women’s capabilities. Again, it is imper- ative that incentives, such as those mentioned Ensuring that youths also have incentives to Steven Franzel is an agricultural economist and above, are created for organisations and com- engage is critical, and short-term financial consultant based in Orlando, Florida, USA. panies to set, monitor and meet gender tar- gain, though important, is not the only in- Jane Lowicki-Zucca is Senior Youth Advisor, gets. Public and private extension services have centive that youths consider. For example, USAID, Bureau for Resilience and Food Security, learned a great deal in recent years concerning the fact that some village agents have gone Washington, D.C., USA. how to increase their proportion of women, on to become input suppliers provides a huge Richard Miiro is Senior Lecturer, Department such as proactively encouraging women to incentive for other youths to become village of Extension & Innovation Studies, School of apply for positions. These lessons need to be agents. Non-financial incentives are often also Agricultural Sciences, College of Agricultural and more widely shared. important such as improving one’s social status Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, and developing social networks. Village agents Kampala, Uganda. Market-based solutions. Private sector, who are youth may be best-placed to influence Nicolas Uwitonze is a Masters Student, Advanced market-based solutions help ensure sustain- and engage other young people in agricultural Studies in Integrated Crop Management, University ability, as in the above-mentioned cases of markets and encourage more expansive peer- of Neuchatel, Delemont, Switzerland. fee-based extension and village agents. Inclu- to-peer exchange. Contact: [email protected] sive markets are achieved when youths benefit from engaging with and within the private Effectiveness of public-private partner- * With contributions from Kristin Davis, Senior sector, and when other actors, including the ships. Many successful initiatives feature col- Fellow, International Food Policy Research private sector, benefit from engaging with laboration among different types of develop- Institute, Washington, D.C., Beatrice Luzobe, Chief youth in markets. The right incentives are ment partners. For example, the internship Executive Officer, Uganda Forum for Agricultural needed to ensure that private-sector engage- programme mentioned above involved the Advisory Services, Kampala; and Raphael ment with young people involves extension, Rwandan government administering the pro- Rurangwa, consultant, based in Kigali, Rwanda. where information is exchanged that gets at gramme, private companies hosting the interns learning gaps among youth and others. Some- and a development project providing training. The views and opinions expressed in this article times, businesses take the initiative, and other Private companies, government and devel- are those of the authors and not necessarily the times, governments and development actors opment projects also partnered effectively in views and opinions of the United States Agency for have facilitation roles to play, including that Uganda’s village agent models. International Development (USAID). 26 FOCUS

Skills development – what the dual approach can achieve

Traditional apprenticeship training should again be given more significance in development cooperation, ideally via the dual training approach, our author maintains. In the article below, he explains why this concept is so promising and how it can be applied in the Global South.

By Winfried Heusinger

earning, i.e. the dissemination of form of employment in many econo- Lknowledge and skills has made hu- mies of the South, as existing compa- mans what they are today. This ability, nies are often unable to provide enough in its complexity and immanent func- jobs. The countries are frequently over- tion, which is based on the transfer of burdened with the necessary resources abilities and skills from an experienced for satisfactory vocational training. Part- practitioner to the learner, accompanies time vocational schools can make more an individual from birth. It is thus a cen- effective use of the scarce resources of tral feature of our civilisation, which has the state. At the same time, it can be been manifested through apprentice- assumed that the quality of training in ship training for thousands of years. In vocational schools will increase because all cultures, the older and more expe- both places of training benefit from the rienced individuals pass on their skills alternation between practical training to the next generation. Apprenticeship in the company and in the vocational training is thus not only a tradition but school, as knowledge and know-how is also a characteristic of our species, espe- actively transferred to both partners by cially when it comes to the acquisition the learners. of practical skills. A constellation must be created for the As a result of the ongoing process of ac- training companies which prevents the ademisation, which is being driven by employer from incurring a financial loss the commercial interests of internation- through apprenticeship training. How- al education providers and a universal ever, particular care must also be taken tendency in society to portray academic Two young men being trained as energy technicians in Mongolia. to ensure that apprentices are not mis-

education as a superior form of educa- Photo: Winfried Heusinger used as cheap labour. Rather, the em- tion, traditional apprenticeship training ployer must see the vocational training has been removed from the focus of de- as an investment that pays for itself in velopment cooperation, and has even been re- fully designed as a dual system. This requires the course of the training. This is already the garded as backwards, assigned to the informal part-time vocational schools to make appren- case with traditional apprenticeship training. sector or, at best, ignored. This is all the more ticeship training an integral element of the The combination with part-time vocational surprising because the universally recognised formal education system, thus simultaneously schooling can be expected to significantly in- dual system of vocational training, which has improving the quality of vocational training. crease the effectiveness of the training process, been particularly successful in providing the It is crucial for success that there is no exces- as well as generating a technology transfer to economy with the necessary qualified special- sive bureaucracy, which is inevitably linked to the participating training companies. ists in Central Europe, is based on traditional mechanisms that promote corruption. Rath- apprenticeship training. Thus, dual vocational er, the aim is to establish a trusting partner- A dual approach must therefore take into ac- training is an optimised apprenticeship train- ship between the private and public sectors. count the interests of all parties involved in ing, combining the increased demand for the- Such a partnership will only be successful if a order to create a system that can function oretical background knowledge, which is be- win-win constellation is created which enables without payment flows, as money transfers coming more necessary to carry out practical companies to carry out apprenticeship training basically carry the risk of corruption. Addi- work professionally, with the master craftsper- without financial losses and at the same time tionally, a cost-effective framework is to be son-apprentice principle, for the benefit of all provides young people with the quality of created which, unlike a CBET system (Com- stakeholders. training that enables them to successfully posi- petency-Based Education and Training, a very tion themselves on the labour market. popular educational product which is mainly marketed by English-speaking countries), Creating a win-win constellation By being trained directly in the work process, functions without formalities that cannot be the learners are equipped with the skills that are financed, such as complicated accreditation Consequently, forward-looking, sustainable actually required by the employer. The learn- procedures or small-scale certification mecha- and financially viable vocational training sys- ers are also given the prerequisites to be able to nisms. Instead, the system is based on tradition- tems will emerge in the Global South if the tra- become self-employed after training, for ex- al procedures that are integrated seamlessly into ditional apprenticeship system can be success- ample as a subcontractor, which is a common the social and cultural reality of the people. RURAL 21 02/20 27

Bridging the gap between the dual vocational training, it is clear to world of work and the world of the learner that he or she can see this education process as an opportunity. The focus of training is not on processing pure factual Not only are school-based vocational knowledge, but rather on developing a training systems hardly affordable, they mentality that enables the apprentice to also lead to a relatively large gap between learn. Above all, this includes how con- the world of education and the world of tinuous learning can be structured, how work. This is due to the fact that the the necessary information can be found teaching staff move further and further and verified and how this can be used to away from the reality of the world of arrive at optimal decisions for the work work the longer they teach. However, process. In such an approach, which is if the largest and especially the practical only a representation of the design of part of vocational training takes place a work process, the learner is qualified in the companies, then, thanks to the to realise continuous learning as part of system, this gap does not arise. Appren- working life. ticeship training is therefore a guarantee that vocational training produces There are promising approaches in Af- skilled workers who are optimally pre- ghanistan to make traditional appren- pared for the labour market. Of course, ticeship training more efficient using at this point it is of crucial importance dual components and transferring it to that there are responsible persons in the the formal education system. Other ex- companies who can act as In-Company amples from Nepal, Bhutan and African Trainers (In-CT). Basically, an In-CT countries also show that dual vocational is a master craftsperson from the tradi- training concepts adapted to local condi- tional apprenticeship system who has to A trainee at a construction industry inter-company training centre tions can lead to a win-win constellation continuously be qualified further, not in Frankfurt am Main/Germany. between apprentices, companies and only to guarantee the desired training Photo: Winfried Heusinger the state. For state institutions, the dual quality, but to also strengthen the com- approach creates the opportunity to use petitiveness of the participating compa- their own resources more effectively. nies. The integration of the apprentices into Taking advantage of this potential can build For example, a part-time vocational school can the labour market will only be successful if the on the fact that smartphones have now also provide three classes instead of one using the training can be carried out in the companies become standard in the countries of the South. same premises and teaching staff. An increase with the appropriate quality. This is therefore For example, apprentices can be encouraged in the quality of training can also be expected an essential factor which must not be neglected to produce their own learning sequences in since the intermittent approach means that the under any circumstances. Almost all cultures video format and make them available to oth- two learning locations correspond with each have a positive concept of the master craftsper- er apprentices on the Internet. This can sig- other at the technical level as well. son, and here too there is a good starting point nificantly increase the learning effect on the for profiting from the traditional apprentice- one hand, and on the other hand it gradually The dual training approach can also be trans- ship system. Master craftsman training can be creates a rich pool of learning videos, which ferred to higher education. In dual courses of formalised and integrated into the qualification enables learners to gain an insight into other study, the training time is divided between framework. This can also provide young peo- working environments. This can ultimately the university and the company. The same ple with an attractive and valuable alternative improve the learner’s chances on the job mar- mechanisms are used here as for apprentice- to further qualification outside the university ket. A professional evaluation of the learning ship training, with a stronger focus on plan- world. applications created must be carried out by a ning and organisation. For the companies, this competent body. has the advantage that graduates of such a dual While practical apprenticeship training in course of studies can get to know the struc- companies is carried out directly in the work tures within the company, which is of great process, the quality improvement through Paving the way for lifelong learning advantage for the pursuit of engineering tasks, digitisation offers opportunities for the trans- for example. Here, too, it is evident that this fer of theoretical and methodological back- If a learning ecosystem is created in which form of training leads to skilled workers who ground knowledge. Teaching staff in vo- the learner is actively involved in the learn- are optimally prepared for the job market. The cational schools often do not have access to ing process, an outstanding goal of dual vo- companies in turn gain access from human re- necessary and up-to-date training material. cational training can be achieved: preparing sources whose level of quality cannot be found Moreover, teachers are often very poorly paid, for lifelong learning. We all know that we are on a labour market. which means that the motivation situation is living in a time of rapid technological change not optimal. Didactically well-prepared train- – a change that has affected all sectors of the ing sequences that are oriented towards actual economy. We also feel that this change will Winfried Heusinger is Associated Senior Advisor customer orders and made available via online continue, making it clear that what has been in Vocational Education and Training at Helvetas platforms have a considerable potential to en- learnt previously cannot guarantee its value Swiss Intercooperation in Berne, Switzerland. hance the quality of apprenticeship training. for the labour market in the long term. In Contact: [email protected] 28 FOCUS

What works in rural (youth) employment?

Job creation has become a major objective in development cooperation. However, regarding rural areas, there are only few strategic analyses that address the aspect of which factors promote (youth) employment. A study of different approaches in a number of African countries demonstrates key success factors.

By Julia Müller and Frank Bertelmann

he population in Africa will double by grammes cover a wide range of global, con- well as building the right meso-level support T2050, the average sub-Saharan African tinental, regional and bilateral projects against structures (including e.g. strong youth net- is about 18 years old. Every year, 25 million the background of different development ap- works, training and incubation centres, etc.) new jobs need to be created for young people proaches e.g. rural and value chain develop- is important in complementing the key inter- entering the labour market in Africa. A large ment, vocational training and private sector ventions in promoting skills development and proportion of them live in rural areas. With cooperation as well as national employment business opportunities. both a fast-growing demand for food and un- policies. Based on eleven case studies focused der-utilised resources, the agri-food sector has on the African continent, the study presents by far the largest potential to create additional systematic insights on how projects address the Key success factors employment opportunities, as shown in recent issue and what can be learned from that for studies, e.g. by OECD-SWAC on “Agricul- future strategy and portfolio development. Derived from the detailed analysis of good ture, Food and Jobs in West Africa”. However, practices and lessons learnt from each case major challenges need to be addressed. Rural study, 18 success factors have been mapped youth often see (traditional) agriculture as a Adapting the integrated approach to and clustered along four project dimensions less attractive, low-opportunity occupation the context of rural areas (see Figure). While several of the success fac- with high risks and drudgery owing to outdat- tors are specific to rural youth employment, ed working practices. They tend to be biased In German development cooperation, an in- others are relevant in the broader context of towards white-collar jobs in urban areas. Ad- tegrated approach has proven to be useful in rural development or employment promotion ditionally, access to education and training, ad- employment promotion. In a nutshell, it con- programmes or even development projects vice and services (especially financial services), nects the main elements of labour demand and in general. By further generalising these suc- land, markets and networks, physical and digi- labour supply with matching services and an cess factors, four main aspects are of particu- tal infrastructure and technologies is compara- enabling environment. Nonetheless, given the lar importance as they played a crucial role in tively weaker than for more experienced adults distinct characteristics within the agri-food nearly all the programmes and represent, as it and their urban peers. Young rural women are sector, the approach needs to be adapted re- were, core standards that every project on rural affected disproportionally with a “triple bur- garding a number of key aspects related to the youth employment should consider: den” as framed in IFAD’s 2019 Rural Devel- specific features of rural economies. opment Report. Leverage local partner structures to First, in rural settings, informal and entrepre- strengthen youth as key actors for devel- In order to better understand what works in neurial training approaches take a higher prior- opment. To be successful in a complex topic rural youth employment promotion, eleven ity on the supply side of the labour market than like rural youth employment promotion, pro- programmes being implemented by Deutsche formal vocational education and training. Sec- grammes should pay attention to relevant con- Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenar- ondly, small and micro-enterprises and small- text factors. This can be achieved, e.g. by close beit (GIZ) in Africa have been analysed in holder farmers with a high share of self-em- alignment with national or continental devel- the context of a stocktaking study. The pro- ployment and family labour play an important opment agendas. Fostering buy-in and owner- role on the demand side of the labour market. ship of (political) partners and promoting ac- Thirdly, due to limited institutional capacities tivities that cultivate trust between rural youth and public services in rural areas, matching ser- and political decision-makers can be of addi- vices are much more challenging and should tional value. Projects must promote a sense of include the matching of labour (e.g. access to shared stakeholder ownership and collabora- freelance work, job placement, internships) tion in local ecosystems and multi-stakeholder as well as products and services (e.g. farmers' platforms. Embedding programmes in nation- access to markets for their products). And fi- al policy frameworks, e.g. the integration of nally, the addition of agricultural curricula into national education “labour market frameworks, may add to their complexity, but foundations” ad- it usually pays off by contributing to efficacy, dressing the in- sustainability and the potential for upscaling. clusion of young rural women, Acknowledge the employment realities changing the and needs of rural youth and work with perception of multi-component approaches. Since youth agriculture as in rural contexts usually face a wide range of RURAL 21 02/20 29

specific and interrelated chal- SUCCESS FACTORS OF RURAL YOUTH EMPLOYMENT (RYEP) information, land, capital and lenges, programme strategies markets. Both are necessary to and design factors should in- PROCESSES PARTNER & PEOPLE capitalise on the manifold op- clude a multi-component or portunities that the agri-food “integrated” approach, ad- Alignment with national or con- Use of an integrated approach sector offers to contribute to a dressing key factors of skills tinental development agendas to employment promotion true "youth dividend”. development, enterprise de- Buy-in by political partners and Use of a long-term time frame velopment and matchmaking local authorities Use of specifically focused To really answer the ques- services. Thus, it is paramount Empowerment of rural youth programme design tion “what works in em- to adapt and tailor formats and through meso-level support Provision of support using a ployment creation”, further delivery modes to local condi- structures multi-component approach research and more systematic tions and employment needs, Improvement of young people’s Adaptation of employment-pro- knowledge management will especially as the rural youth perception of agriculture motion activities to the needs of be necessary. Only compre- are no homogenous group. rural youth hensive programme evalua- Youth organisations and net- tions will allow for a deeper works play an essential role CONTEXT DESIGN understanding of the most in involving young people effective approaches to cre- in decision-making processes. Business opportunity studies to Use of co-funding to increase ate broad-based employment They should, therefore, be an identify market-driven oppor- flexibility opportunities and to achieve integral part of the stakeholder tunities Collaboration with private sec- scalable impacts. However, it landscape. Flexibility in programme struc- tor to respond to market needs is interesting to already see the tures Facilitation of stakeholder coor- different types and scales of Transform the image of Use of RYEP indicators and a dination and alignment results, outreach, and impacts agriculture – from subsis- theory of change Work through local partner on rural youth employment tence agriculture to prof- Exchange of knowledge with structures and beyond, that the projects itable business models. Of- other programmes or organi- Capacity-building for local ser- achieve in their specific con- fering youth a broader view of sations vice providers texts. The study also outlines the agri-food sector, especially a couple of additional open Source: Own elaboration, based on GIZ projects interviewed. on attractive on- and off-farm questions for further research, job opportunities along value e.g. on the impacts on land chains, can help to spark their interest. Draft- suitable for young entrepreneurs. The private rights, the prevention of a brain drain, effects of ing specific business-opportunity studies and sector is also crucial to harnessing the expertise mechanisation and digitalisation, or the quality setting up flexible implementation structures and, finally, to mobilising resources for invest- (and future) of work. In this sense, the results allow projects to identify and build service of- ments in job creation and income generation. of the study represent an important, albeit only fers around context-specific business models. initial step for future strategy development and Programmes can promote the development of project design, helping to shape development modern and innovative agri-food networks, Further recommendations and key programmes and investments in the field of ru- including parties who grow, harvest, process, takeaways ral youth employment promotion. Besides the package, transport, and market agricultural suggested research, it would also be of interest products, consumers, restaurants and waste Building on the results outlined above, there to broaden the regional and institutional scope disposal, too. Supporting awareness campaigns are two main recommendations for shaping of the analysis by including experiences of oth- and successful “agripreneurs” as role models youth-specific interventions as well as the er institutions who are likely looking for similar and mentors will help in transforming the per- overall portfolio for rural youth employment answers. ception of the sector and developing produc- promotion. First, it is important to address tive employment opportunities. employment promotion more holistically, combining activities on the supply side and de- Strengthen multi-stakeholder coordi- mand side of the labour market. For successful nation and cooperation with the pri- employment creation, all elements of the in- vate sector. Programme activities should be tegrated approach should be comprehensively well-coordinated and agreed with the diverse analysed and addressed if necessary. However, range of relevant public and private stakehold- this does not mean that everything needs to be ers to capitalise on existing resources. In this realised within one project or institution alone. Julia Müller is a Junior Advisor at the Global way, they can break up so-called silo thinking It is crucial to take the distinct characteristics Project Rural Youth Employment of Deutsche and facilitate the creation of coherent support of employment in rural areas into account and Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit services. Private sector perspectives are partic- shape approaches accordingly. Secondly, de- (GIZ) GmbH and is based in Bonn, Germany. ularly relevant for the selection and develop- pending on specific contexts and target group Contact: [email protected] ment of employment-intensive value chains as demands, policies and programmes need the Frank Bertelmann is Head of Programme of the well as for needs-oriented curricula and quali- right balance between mainstreaming youth GIZ Global Project Rural Youth Employment. fication offers. Market-driven approaches help aspects in broader economic development pro- Contact: [email protected] to identify robust business models with rela- motion and developing youth-specific solu-

tively low risks and investment costs that are tions to address challenges such as access to Link to study: www.rural21.com GIZ Photos: 30 FOCUS

Africa's face of agriculture is female

Africa has a huge opportunity to make agriculture its economic driver. However, the potential for this is far from being made exhaustive use of, one reason being that women face considerable difficulties in their economic activities. The organisation AWAN Afrika seeks to change this state of affairs.

By Beatrice Gakuba

f you are driving along any major highway in IAfrica, you will not miss women crowding at bus stops, farm produce in their hands, seeking possible buyers for their wares. Unmistakably so, because women control a sizeable portion of trade in agricultural produce in Africa, be it in production, where, according to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), 50 per cent of the entire agricultural labour force is made up of women, growing nearly 70 per cent of Africa’s food and therefore contributing about 21 per cent of sub-Sa- haran Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

These statistics are a clear indication that women contribute to Africa’s economic and food security. Yet policies in African countries continue to deny women the full rights over the land that they tend or even the earnings that they derive from their produce. Accord- An AWAN Afrika B2B session during the organisation’s Continental Conference 2019 in Kenya, Nairobi.

ing to the Center For Women’s Land Rights, Photo: AWAN Afrika 65 per cent of land in Kenya is governed by customary law, which gives men precedence in land ownership over women and applies in just to mention a few restrictions. Value ad- ing opportunities available within the regional various forms throughout Africa. It means that dition is still not fully exploited on the con- markets, and for them to tap into the newly the women who tend to the land cannot use tinent – most African countries continue to created Africa Continental Free Trade Area it as collateral should they need a bank loan. export their food, for example cocoa, tea and (AfCFTA) and global markets. It is a network coffee, as raw materials and then import it as that comprises individual members’ business- Furthermore, women are denied a seat at the finished products. African markets are still sta- es such as producers, processors, aggregators, decision-making table that determines land tionary buildings which to access farmers must export companies and input suppliers, among rights as well as agricultural policies. Yet nu- use a poor road network, where movement is others, across 38 countries in Africa. merous research programmes have shown that weather-dependent, so that a lot of food does if women had the same access to resources as not reach the markets and will waste away in For agriculture to be profitable, we have to men, then agricultural yields in Africa would farms with poor infrastructure and poor stor- embrace technology. The organisation pro- increase by up to 4 per cent, reducing the age facilities. While E-commerce is slowly vides women-owned and youth-owned number of hungry people by 17 per cent. De- gaining ground on the continent, it is still a agribusinesses with an E-Hub, which is a re- spite being endowed with more than 20 per preserve of a few tech savvy farmers especially pository of information on agriculture along cent of the world’s arable land, Africa’s food the youth, who unfortunately have no access value chains and supply chains and also facil- import bill stands at 35 billion US dollars and to land and capital to start businesses. itates access to new agricultural technologies. is expected to reach 110 billion by 2030. In #AWANAfrikaUnder30 champions are Afri- this decade of action, Africa has a huge op- can youth of either gender engaged in agri- portunity to make agriculture its economic A tailwind for women and youth-owned business. Since our establishment, we have driver. agribusinesses registered 1,500 women- and youth-owned businesses and groups in our network in 42 Yet there are several barriers that hinder As a non-profit network limited by guaran- countries, and we have impacted over one women’s success in agribusiness, despite their tee, the Africa Women Agribusiness Network million women-owned small agribusiness en- representing 70 per cent of Africa’s agricul- (AWAN) Afrika was established with a vision terprises (mama fish, mama mboga), which we tural activities. Women lack access to capital, to create a platform for African women and do through regular coaching. farming inputs as well as knowledge on new youth in agribusiness to access finance, mar- technologies on sustainable farming practices kets, and trade information. The aim is to en- Some of the major obstacles to Africa’s agri- and local, regional and global market trends, able and accelerate their businesses by leverag- business that I mentioned above would be RURAL 21 02/20 31

solved if women and youth had access to fi- Moving forward IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON nance and financial services, yet women and AGRIBUSINESS agriculture are still considered a risky business We have but scratched the surface, and much by most banks and lenders, who will not offer more needs to be done if women are to ben- 31 African countries have imposed full them loans for farming. At AWAN Afrika, we efit from their labour in agriculture. Working border closures – as governments battle to work with financial institutions advocating for with development partners, African govern- contain the spread of the virus, this means innovative financing models for our members, ments must deliberately introduce training on that in some areas, smallholder farmers, be it digital loans or the use of facilities other the whole agricultural value chain, targeting who make up 80 per cent of Africa’s food than land as collateral. We also lobby govern- women and youth. It is clear that agriculture producers, cannot farm. ments to work on policy that makes it easier will be the next youth employer. But out of There are fears that production will fall for governments to support lenders who prior- the eleven million youths entering the job in the various sectors. Much of Africa’s itise women and youth in agribusiness. market in Africa each year, only three million agricultural production is manual, and are able to get gainful employment. Govern- the ongoing lockdowns and restrictions in Furthermore, we train our members on the ments and development partners should sup- movement are likely to cut labour supply need for market-driven agriculture, which port initiatives like AWAN Afrika to scale up but also harvests and supplies. The disrup- ensures them ready markets for their pro- our activities in order to reach more women tions have also affected the value chain, for duce. This ties in with our other two pillars and youth. those in agribusiness are not able to reach of Technology and Trade facilitation – where markets. we see to it that our members are keeping up Unlike wealthy countries, African agribusi- to date on agricultural information via our What about COVID-19? ness players do not have the resources to E-hub repository for agricultural information, cushion their businesses from the effects which informs them about trade, including Finally, as Africa stares at its first recession in 25 of prolonged closures and lockdowns. This agreements between trading blocs, as well as years, owing to the effects of the COVID-19 therefore calls for urgent financial inter- standards and certifications. It also provides pandemic, international solidarity with the ventions to help them build resilience for them with the latest information on trading continent is required to keep businesses afloat. their businesses and also recover from the in different markets. At the moment, we are The first victims of the sustained lockdowns effects of the coronavirus pandemic. engaged in ensuring that our members are not and restriction of movement measures put in left out of the African Continental Free Trade place to contain the spread of the Coronavi- actually not be the solution. We need to seek Area, which will offer a bigger market and a rus are women smallholder farmers and young solutions that will impact the lives of millions chance for Africans to trade more with each agripreneur start-ups. Women will be affected of vulnerable farming families. other. down to the household level due to additional work as a consequence of the lockdown. AWAN Afrika is in the process of finalising a We are in the process of finalising a platform survey on the impact of COVID-19 on Small that will connect our continental digital plat- Post-COVID-19, the international commu- and Medium Enterprises. We aim to under- form with the aim of linking women’s agri- nity has been left devastated, and traditional stand their coping mechanisms and what their businesses with buyers, exporters, investors, lenders will be dealing with their own domes- businesses are going to look like eight months Agritech companies and other value chain ac- tic challenges. While big businesses will decry from now. Women will suffer a double blow, tors to facilitate inclusive participation in the a lack of stimulus packages, for informal traders because now, in addition to losing income, continental and global markets. and smallholder farmers, these packages may they must take care of their children, who are at home as schools are closed, they lack labour to manage their farms, and domestic violence is on the rise.

We, the AWAN Afrika initiative appeal for the support of our project, which is based on a business model that seeks flexible funding to help our Small and Medium enterprises survive the economic shocks of COVID-19. Businesses need cash, and our women have no access to cash sources. As many of these women have told us, for them, hunger is closer and more dangerous than COVID-19.

Beatrice Gakuba is the Executive Director of Africa Women Agribusiness Network (AWAN) Afrika, a panafrican non-profit organisation based in Kenya. Contact: [email protected]

A common sight along Africa’s roads. Women control a sizeable portion of trade in agricultural produce. References: www.rural21.com Photo: Jörg Böthling 32 FOCUS

Livelihoods beyond survival

Dignity, stability, resilience: Our author from the Living Income Community of Practice explains how the concept of a living income evolved and why putting it into practice is more important today than ever before.

By Sheila Senathirajah

able Development Goals (SGDs), in particular, SDGs 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger), 8 (decent work and economic growth), 10 (reduced inequalities) and 17 (partnerships for the goals). This is not to say that these are the only associated goals. In fact, organisations such as the Sustainable Food Lab and Business Fights Poverty have identified levers for improving smallholder incomes that strongly associate with several other SDGs.

An increasing number of organisations have begun focusing on the concept of a living income – defined as the net annual income required for a household in a particular place to afford a decent standard of living for all members of that household. This includes food, water, housing, education, healthcare, transport, clothing and other essential needs, including provision for unexpected events.

Many farming families in the Global South are not able to earn enough for a decent life. The concept of living income builds on the

Photo: Curt Carnemark/ World Bank work of the Global Living Wage Coalition, which publishes living wage levels for different countries based on a shared definition and nsuring resilient livelihoods and sustained the food and healthcare they need or to send methodology. While a living wage applies to Eemployment for vulnerable commu- their children to school. Even for those who hired workers in farms, factories and other en- nities was already a stretch in normal (pre- are getting by, a bad harvest, an accident or terprises, a living income also encompasses the COVID-19) times, but we have now entered some other unexpected event – like the one hundreds of millions of smallholders and farm- a new reality. For most of us, this situation has we are experiencing now – is all it takes to tip ers who are self-employed and can be more largely meant a change in the way we work and them back into poverty. complex to address. These households may live, an inconvenience at most but still largely earn income from multiple sources, including manageable. However, for vulnerable commu- It does not have to be this way. When farming off-farm labour and other businesses as well as nities that lack a stable income, the impact is households earn enough to live on, it is more a variety of crops. To understand and address significantly different. With border closures than their own quality of life that improves. this complexity, a multi-stakeholder approach and travel restrictions in place, the subsequent They can afford to reinvest in their farms, buy is needed. downturn in trade has massively affected in- equipment and new seeds, and raise the quality come and employment of vulnerable commu- and diversity of the crops they produce. Yields nities, particularly those that are self-employed. and profits increase. Families can set something Chances and challenges These self-employed people also include small- aside to see them through difficult times. Wom- scale farmers. Currently, more than 475 mil- en set up new businesses. Children no longer Of course, efforts to reduce poverty and im- lion smallholder families work on less than two have to toil in the fields, and their parents can prove conditions for smallholders are hardly hectares of land. In addition, average equilibri- pay school fees and buy uniforms. The vicious new. But the idea of a living income is about um market wages can be low, with prices that cycle of poverty becomes a virtuous circle. more than just basic subsistence and survival: farmers earn for agricultural produce econom- it is about dignity, stability and resilience. And ically unsustainable. it leads to lasting change. Because so many of Living income – directly linked to the these smallholders are linked to global agri- It is a fundamental human right to be able to SDGs cultural and commodity supply chains, it is a earn enough for a decent life. But for far too shared responsibility. many people, particularly farming families in The concept of living income clearly has im- the Global South, their income barely covers plications for sustainable development and The business benefits of assuming such re- the cost of living. Families struggle to afford links directly to a number of the UN's Sustain- sponsibility and investing in smallholder sup- RURAL 21 02/20 33

ply chains are also evident. They can include The Living Income Story The Living Income Story long-term supply security, improved quality and yields, greater supply chain transparency and new market creation. Supporting smallholders can also build stronger government Potential OTHER SOURCES relationships, increase the ability to meet household OF INCOME stakeholder expectations, enhance reputation income and align with initiatives such as the SDGs. In some cases, investing in local supply chains re- Cost of a basic, decent standard NET OFF-FARM LIVING INCOME of living for a household INCOME duces costs and minimises price volatility and BENCHMARK currency risks. INCOME GAP

PRIMARY CASH While tackling poverty may seem impossi- FOOD FOR DECENT CROP INCOME bly broad, a living income provides a clear, MODEL DIET HOUSING measurable and consistent view. By looking OTHER INCOME NET OFF-FARM at what constitutes a living income for small- INCOME SECONDARY CROP INCOME holders in a region and what they earn today, OTHER ESSENTIAL NEEDS it’s possible to get a clearer idea of what action NET FARM ACTUAL needs to be taken to close that gap and subse- INCOME INCOME PRODUCE CONSUMED quently move beyond. UNEXPECTED EVENTS AT HOME

Source: The Living Income Community of Practice

For more information and to join the community visit: Supported by the Implemented by Effective strategies to close the www.living-income.com income gap ered?Contact: Who [email protected] are the other relevant stakeholders to raise incomes. They also help to clarify the that need to be in these conversations? role that different actors, from public to private There are various levers in place to help drive sectors, have in effecting change. change and close the income gap, such as: The Living Income Community of Practice, coordinated by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Inter- Over the last few years, significant strides have implementing sustainable programmes nationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Sustainable been achieved in some sectors, but more needs at the producer level Food Lab and ISEAL Alliance, is a vital plat- to be done. We still need more information applying a smart mix of solutions to form for tackling such questions. Formalised to know with real certainty where we are or balance supply and demand in 2015, the community of practice acts as a where we need to be regarding farmer in- embedding sustainability systems and platform for motivating actors across sectors to comes. To determine what farmers are actu- strategies to specifically address living help close income gaps, so that smallholders ally earning, existing datasets have to be im- income. can earn a decent standard of living as a basic proved and verified, and data managers need human right. It drives multi-stakeholder dis- to improve data transparency. We also require In addition to this, subsequent monitoring and cussion on common definitions and approach- better information to assess the level at which reporting on improved outcomes is equally im- es to calculating actual and living incomes. farmer incomes allow for a decent standard of portant. In this respect, sustainability standards Providing clarity and guidance on baselines living and a sustainable sector. The Commu- play a significant role in implementing activi- and benchmarks are conducted. Transpar- nity of Practice provides clarity on the various ties and functions to help bring about specific ency and data sharing among stakeholders is methodologies and their applicability through short- and medium-term changes, which help encouraged. Through the community, differ- published guidance papers. achieve long-term goals. We see examples of ent actors in the living income space can share these in the Fairtrade living income strategy, information about their efforts, including up- Enabling smallholders to earn a decent living which comprises a holistic approach to address dates on upcoming living income studies, is critical to breaking the cycle of poverty and income as a specific topic, and the Roundtable benchmarks and development activities. achieving the SDGs. But it is something that on Sustainable Palm Oil’s smallholder strate- can only be realised by working together across gy, which not only stresses the importance supply chains, regions and sectors. Efforts to of smallholder inclusion in sustainability pro- Where are we today? ensure a sustained and resilient living income grammes, but also places livelihood improve- for all are a topic more relevant than ever be- ment as a key objective. To better understand the income gap, some fore. The time to make these efforts is now. organisations, such as Mondelez and Fairtrade In addition to these efforts already in place, International, have embarked on measuring more needs to be done to better address the actual income levels. In addition, work has Sheila Senathirajah is Innovations Senior Manager biggest challenges faced by all (not just a few) been done to calculate what a living income at ISEAL Alliance and represents the Living Income segments of vulnerable communities. For ex- benchmark should be for particular commodi- Community of Practice. ample, the poorest of the poor that are hit the ties, in particular regions, and these can be ref- Contact: [email protected]; hardest. Greater inclusion involving govern- erenced on the Living Income Community of [email protected] ments and the public sector need to be consid- Practice website. These questions are essential ered. Questions remain. What have we not yet to define boundaries and targets for the short, References: www.rural21.com done? What other strategies need to be consid- medium and long-term interventions needed 34 FOCUS

Why East Africa chose to develop a regional bioeconomy strategy

In 2019, seven countries in East Africa opted for the development of a bioeconomy strategy for the region. The aim is to use the rich biological resources of the continent in a sustainable way while promoting economic diversification. The innovative potential that this holds also became apparent in the response by scientists from Tanzania and Uganda to the advent of the coronavirus pandemic.

By Julius Ecuru

ast Africa is endowed with plants, animals, which will ascertain priorities, build partner- 60 per cent v/v (i.e. 60 per cent of the liquid Einsects and microorganisms (tiny living ships around shared goals and guide investment is alcohol) are effective disinfectants, which kill things which cannot be seen by the naked eye) in a wide range of biological resources. microorganisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria and fun- of various kinds. This rich diversity of biolog- gi). In an active bioeconomy, scientific ideas ical resources is a strong foundation for a bio- The recent coronavirus disease 2019 involving biological resources and the agility economy. The term “bioeconomy” is widely (COVID-19) pandemic, which first broke of scientists in responding to emerging situa- understood in the region as the use of scientific out in China in December 2019 and spread all tions such as disease outbreaks are vital assets knowledge to add social and economic value to over the world, has further highlighted the im- for countries. biological resources in a sustainable way. This portance of having a resilient bioeconomy. As added value is expressed in healthier foods, saf- part of the response to the pandemic, a team er medicines, useful substances from biologi- of scientists in Tanzania and Uganda started to Seeking a low-emissions pathway cal waste and other environmentally friendly produce alcohol-based sanitisers from the fer- from the start processes in manufacturing, distribution and mentation of cassava peels and stalks of sweet consumption of goods and services. The region sorghum, respectively. These materials are Countries all over the world are gradually turn- chose to develop an innovation-driven bio- usually discarded as waste. Alcohol-based san- ing to biological resources as a means to reduce economy strategy, the first of its kind in Africa, itisers having a concentration of alcohol above carbon dioxide and methane emissions, which RURAL 21 02/20 35

and many foreign companies are also investing Stakeholders are contributing views on what in the region. Collectively, these factors have the regional bioeconomy strategy for East Af- Ms Njeri, a fruit and vegetable vendor driven the region’s GDP growth rate consis- rica should look like and what it should ad- in Kenya. East Africa’s rich diversity of biological resources is a strong tently above five per cent in the last decade, dress. But already there appears to be a grow- foundation for a bioeconomy. as data from the International Monetary Fund ing recognition that the strategy should focus

Photo: Valine Moraa and African Development Bank show. on increasing economic and social value of regionally traded biological-based goods and Going forward, the challenge is for the region services, on converting biological waste into to increase this growth rate to at least seven useful material (thus promoting circular proper cent per annum, if it is to realise its ambi- duction), and connecting national, region- tion of achieving upper middle-income status al and global biological-based value chains. (where gross national income per capita is be- There is also a growing appreciation that if tween 3,996 and 12,375 US dollars) within the properly implemented, the strategy would in- next 30 years. To a large extent, this challenge crease the region’s capacity to fully participate can be addressed by diversifying sources of in and benefit from the African Continental growth. Why does a bioeconomy offer more Free Trade Agreement, which was signed on opportunities for economic diversification in the 21st March 2018, in Kigali, Rwanda. the region?

Incentivising the informal sector and Linking farmers to new value chains productive partnerships

Over 65 per cent of people in East Africa de- Incentivising the informal sector, which cur- pend directly on biological resources for food, rently dominates much of the businesses and fuel, medicine and other uses. They use these makes up over 50 per cent of non-farm em- biological resources in their raw form, and ployment, should be a vital element of the dispose of significant portions as biological strategy. Promoting bioeconomy clusters of waste. By adding value, numerous other uses innovation and entrepreneurial activities based of the biological resources can be found, e.g. on renewable biological resources is one way biowaste can be turned into biofertilisers and in which this can be done. The other ele- energy, and high-value green chemicals can ment would be to support universities and be recovered from the waste. These new uses research organisations in the region to work are responsible for global warming. These bring new business prospects and jobs, thus co-creatively with industry and government in emissions arise from the use of fossil fuels like diversifying the economy. With rising urban- moving biological-based ideas and inventions oil to power automobiles or make plastic ma- ising trends in the countries and the continent to the market. This is possible. It has already terials, etc., and coal to generate electricity or as a whole, farmers who produce or are custo- been demonstrated through regional initiatives produce cement for house-building. If people dians of most of the biological resources can be like BioInnovate Africa that scientists from were to change the way they produce and con- linked to new value chains that demand their universities, research institutes and firms in the sume these things and adopt biological-based produce. region can work collaboratively to add eco- alternatives, then emissions would drop, and nomic and social value to biological resourc- the planet would be saved from potential cat- It is in this regard that seven countries in East es. These types of productive partnerships can astrophic climatic effects of global warming. Africa (Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, be expanded with support from the region’s Regions like East Africa, which still have low South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda) identi- governments and development partners. The carbon emission levels, can choose a growth fied a need and chose to develop a regional scientists in Tanzania and Uganda, who used and development pathway that circumvents innovation-driven bioeconomy strategy. De- their knowledge involving biological resources the pitfalls of a fossil-driven economy. This mand for the strategy received further impetus to produce hand sanitisers in response to the pathway is a bioeconomy! from a consensus at the Global Bioeconomy COVID-19 situation, is only a glimpse of the Summit 2018, which called on countries and wide latitude East Africa has to innovate using Developing an East African bioeconomy is at- regions to develop bioeconomy strategies biological resources and contribute to a sus- tractive because the region has a rich biolog- that meet their unique development aspira- tainable economy in the region. ical resource base. It also has scientists who, tions and priorities. Developing the regional when given the necessary support, are capa- bioeconomy strategy for East Africa began in ble of harnessing knowledge from within and 2019, and has already motivated several coun- Julius Ecuru, Ph.D., is head of BioInnovate Africa, elsewhere in the world, to add value to these tries, e.g. Ethiopia, Uganda and Tanzania, to a regional science and innovation-driven network resources in a productive and sustainable way. start developing their own national bioecon- in Eastern Africa, based at the International Centre The region has the fundamentals for growth. omy strategies. The regional strategy will en- of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) in Nairobi, There is relative macroeconomic stability – able countries to pool their resources to ad- Kenya. markets are liberalised and fiscal policies are dress shared regional priorities, while national Contact: [email protected] effective. A lot of investment has been made strategies will deal with highly contextual in security of persons and property. Infrastruc- needs and also be a vehicle for domesticating References: www.rural21.com ture like roads and electricity are being built, regionally agreed actions. 36 FOCUS

Green urban development creates rural employment perspectives

By creating novel value chains from agro-waste for construction materials, rural areas can significantly benefit from urban growth. At the same time, opportunities develop for greener and more sustainable construction in Africa’s expanding cities. Female farmers could especially benefit from these new value chains.

By Wolfram Schmidt, Kolawole A. Olonade, Nonkululeko W. Radebe, Vincent Ssekamatte and Faudhia Zando

he destiny of sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) Zimbabwe. A recent Turban areas will inevitably be determined workshop on chil- by their surrounding rural areas. They provide dren’s visions of their the goods that are required and consumed in city of the future at urban areas, such as food, energy, minerals and the Star Kids Initia- materials for production. With a growing ur- tive in Mukuru estate ban population, more rural goods are required. in Nairobi, Kenya, Therefore, the low capacity for rural livelihood clearly showed that enhancement along with the dramatic urban the urban children growth is detrimental to sustainable socio-eco- dreamt of more space, nomic developments in Africa. plants and animals, which resembles a Average annual urban growth in sub-Saharan rural setting rather In Africa, only 20 per cent of the urban structures that will have been installed by Africa is 4.13 per cent, with a 6.48 per cent than an urban one. 2050 are already built. Construction material is in high demand. maximum and a 0.14 per cent minimum for In contrast, a simi- Photo: Arne Hoel/ World Bank Equatorial Guinea and Mauritius, respectively. lar workshop with In contrast, average rural growth is only 1.95 girls and young mothers at the Forward Step of urban construction will take place over the per cent, with a 3.77 per cent maximum and Organisation in rural Bagamoyo in Tanzania course of the next 30 years. Although often a -0.81 per cent minimum for Niger and Ga- clearly showed that the major wishes of the fe- considered as unpopular, concrete is the most bon, respectively. Although the rural popula- male rural population were closer to an urban feasible material for future cities. Compared tion is increasing in most countries of SSA, its setting. The most important wishes addressed to all other construction materials, it has the growth relative to urban growth is dramatical- were infrastructure, water and energy supply, lowest carbon footprint and energy demand. ly smaller. as well as short distances to services, health and In addition, it is the only resource on Earth educational facilities. In summary, from the that can meet the tremendous global demand. On average, the urban population grows 2.12 perspective of their future dwellers, this means times faster than the rural population, and the that cities should have more rural and villages In Africa, steel has to be imported, and tim- decreasing livelihood potentials in rural areas more urban components. ber is prohibitive in most countries because of are likely to increase this ratio in the future. already dramatic deforestation. And although Service, a typical urban business, grew by Thus, instead of overdeveloping already ur- building heights should generally be limited 12.17 per cent from 2000 to 2018, while the banised areas, the development of rural areas to save materials, building heights are per se agricultural market dropped by 10.90 per cent becomes vital. The creation of rural employ- limited with timber construction. However, in the same time. The better urban employment perspectives and better livelihoods is key given the tremendous amount of concrete re- ment perspectives in SSA are also underpinned to a more balanced development of urban and quired in the world, its binder cement alone by a service employment growth of 26.91 per rural areas. With the aforementioned limited is responsible for about ten per cent of the cent compared to a decrease of 14.16 per cent development perspectives in the classical rural global carbon emissions. Future African urban in agriculture. Furthermore, the income gap business areas, it becomes necessary to identi- concrete construction will significantly add up and the number of people below national pov- fy new perspectives, which lie in the synergies to this already high climate impact. In return, erty level are much higher in rural areas. between urban growth and rural development. Africa also has more potential than any other region in the world to invent green and low carbon concrete innovation, by applying state- Making use of synergies between Climate-friendly construction of-the-art knowledge and using local supplies urban and rural development materials offer new income sources in an innovative way.

Nevertheless, the better urban potentials do The most relevant employment and business In order to identify where urban construction not always result in better living conditions. perspectives in growing African cities results can create rural development perspectives, it Approximately 60 per cent of SSA’s urban from the sheer need for construction materi- is important to understand typical rural econ- population live in low-income, disadvantaged als. Only 20 per cent of the urban structures omies. Agriculture usually accounts for about settlements, with a maximum of 96 per cent in that will have been installed by 2050 are al- 60 to 80 per cent of the livelihoods. Mining is South Sudan and a minimum of 18 per cent in ready built. In return, this means 80 per cent another major contributor. Retail, administra- RURAL 21 02/20 37

tion and social services are significantly less im- Possible climate friendly and low-emission processes from agro-waste to portant. Therefore, the large branches should construction materials be focused on. With regard to potentials in mining, novel future perspectives lie in choos- ing clays that cannot be used for ceramics but can perform excellently as cement replacement after calcination.

However, one largely neglected available resource is agricultural waste materials, which can be converted into high-performance concrete constituents. The African continent provides about 60 per cent of the global unused arable land. Most agricultural waste from food production has a high content of organic residues. Although they cannot be used for food, they can still serve as water-reducing or robustness-enhancing admixture in concrete, and thus contribute to higher performance with less cement consumption. These agro- based organic admixtures can create new and local business opportunities by replacing crude oil-based agents, which today in Africa have to be imported at high prices. lel to the burning of clay bricks or the energy right value chains in the urban construction While construction chemicals are a small and can be used for food processing. An ideal pro- business, formerly unused rural wastes can be specialised market, cement is a high-volume cess with a maximum yield of by-products and converted into cement replacement materials, market. Therefore, the most relevant resource minimum carbon emissions can be obtained if construction chemical, energy and precursors is ashes from agricultural waste, which occurs the agro-waste goes through a pyrolysis pro- without creating additional competition. This in vast amounts and today is not used for oth- cess before being burnt to a reactive ash. This way, rural farmers can significantly enhance er technologies. If agro-waste is burnt at tem- process produces pyrolysis gas (energy), pyrol- their livelihoods and in parallel contribute to peratures between 600 and 800 °C, it often ysis oil (chemicals), as well as a bio-char that reduced emissions of climate gases. contains significant amounts of reactive silica can be further processed as fertiliser or cement and alumina oxides, and thus can replace Port- replacement. In order to prove the concept, land cement clinker in concrete by up to 30 a small-scale 2-stage pyrolysis plus kiln pilot Value chains based on cassava waste per cent or more. plant was built recently on the campus of the in Nigeria University of Ghana within the context of the In order to make maximum use of the process, INFRACOST project, funded by Germany’s Cassava is a staple food for over 500 million the burning of the ashes can be done in paral- Federal Ministry of Education and Research people in the world, and it represents a source (BMBF). An ex- of food for about 80 per cent of people in ample of the larger SSA. It is a cheap provider of carbohydrates Possible climate friendly and low-emission processes from scale coupled with that grows on marginal soil without complex agro-waste to construction materials a vertical shaft kiln processing. Besides food, cassava starch has also technology is given been established in paper, textile and pharma- Existing employment Urban growth New employment in the upper Figure. ceutical industries. Africa accounts for nearly potentials perspectives in innovative and green urban materials 60 per cent of global production. With its Wastes such as sug- 56 megatons per year, which is 35 per cent ar cane bagasse, of the African and 20 per cent of the glob- rice husks, cassa- al production, Nigeria is the largest producer va peels or palm world-wide. Since cassava has relatively thick kernel excellent- peels, the waste represents up to 20 per cent ly qualify as green by mass of the tuber, which today creates large Portland cement challenges of effective disposal. The peels do clinker replace- not qualify for livestock feeding, as they can- ment. Normally, not be well digested and contain low protein. these wastes have Typically, they are dumped in landfills, burnt no or low-value uncontrolled, or just left to rot. This causes use today. Howev- malodour and environmental pollution, and er, as shown in the it requires plenty of space which could be Figure on the left, made better use of. There is no significant val- Rural development by developing the ue chain for the wastes to date, although they 38 FOCUS

civil and environmental engineering, economics, agriculture, materials and chemistry.

Seizing the opportunity

By creating novel value chains from agro- waste to construction materials, rural areas can significantly benefit from urban growth and contribute to greener and more sustainable construction in Africa. This can also be a potential to accelerate rural development, which in return would reduce the driving force for migration to cities. Since one-fit-all Kolawole Olonade and students of the University Cassava peels could be used for high-performance solutions for agro-waste value chains do not of Lagos during a workshop on the development urban construction materials, providing income for exist, best-practice solutions have to be devel- of high-strength self-compacting concrete with female cassava processors. oped individually, based on the local boundary cassava peel ash. Photo: Wolfram Schmidt framework. These must be worked out in close Photo: Wolfram Schmidt collaboration with local academic units, which are typically located in cities. Hence, the de- could be used entirely for high-performance be used either on a small scale by formal or velopment of construction materials based on urban construction materials. Firstly, the starch informal smallholders, or by the large cement agro-waste offers a unique opportunity for adhered to the peels can be dissolved and con- industry, where the cassava peel ashes could be business and knowledge transfer between rural verted to a plasticising chemical admixture blended with cement to be sold in the national and urban areas with mutual benefit, and with which has proven to have the capacity to re- and international retail market. This would re- a highly positive impact on the global climate. duce the water content in concrete to increase quire complex waste collection infrastructure its strength. Secondly, the residual peels can be and homogenisation. Smallholder producers burnt, and the residual ashes can help replace could directly use the ashes to reduce their ce- Wolfram Schmidt is a researcher at Germany’s cement in concrete in an environmentally ment in concrete for the local market, but un- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und friendly manner. like in the large-scale industry, more training -prüfung (BAM) in Berlin, Germany, with focus on and technical support would be required. sustainable construction materials. He has initiated While the technical potential has been proven several pan-African research and education scientifically before, the socio-economic and collaborations. climatic impacts are the topic of research with- Obstacles and skill requirements Kolawole Adisa Olonade is a senior lecturer in civil in the Local-Care project, which was award- engineering at the University of Lagos, Nigeria. He ed the German African Innovation Incentive The biggest obstacle for the implementation of has been involved in various pan-African research Award of the BMBF in 2018. Within the proj- such green construction materials techniques collaboration schemes, and together with Wolfram ect, for the first time, a real structure made out is the societal misconception that agricultural Schmidt, he was awarded the German-African of cassava-based concrete (see left Photo) will waste products only qualify for low-end use. Innovation Incentive Award in 2018. be built in 2020 on the campus of the Univer- Furthermore, and despite the striking added Nonkululeko Winnie Radebe is a 3rd year PhD sity of Lagos – an important matter, because values that can be created, new technologies student at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, research innovation needs tangible pilots in are always accompanied by yet unknown chal- Germany. She is working in the Institute for order to find acceptance in society. lenges. Typical challenges arise from residues Technical Chemistry and Polymer Chemistry. of fertilisers as well as scattering qualities and Faudhia Zando and Vincent Ssekamatte are In this project, a survey among 200 cassava production volumes. These obstacles can be initiators and chairpersons of the Forward Step processors in Nigeria indicated that 81 per cent solved technically but require research and in- Organization, an empowering and mentorship were females, mostly between 20 and 50 years terdisciplinary competences. centre for girls and young mothers in Bagamoyo, of age. Approximately 75 per cent only had Tanzania. primary education, and thus little potential to Therefore, the knowledge has to be brought Contact: [email protected] enhance their livelihoods. The revenues from to the prospective rural decision-makers, who the peels were marginal. Less than 20 per cent need a clear picture of the economic and socie- Acknowledgements: were sold. Hence, at least 80 per cent would tal potentials of agro-based construction materi- Parts of the presented works on kiln processes and be available for the cement and concrete in- als markets. Despite new income sources, these cassava peel processing have been developed within dustry, which could enhance the potentials for markets also help to empower female farmers the projects INFRACOST and Local-Care, respectively. better livelihoods of the local producers sig- and create more independence, which is of ut- The authors highly appreciate the funding provided nificantly. Assuming that all available peels will most importance in the rural environments. At by the German Federal Ministry of Education and be collected and used as sustainable cement the same time, decision-makers need clear in- Research in the schemes CLIENT II and GAIIA. replacement, this would translate to 2.5 to 5 formation about technical challenges and infra- per cent of the Nigerian cement market, or structure that has to be established prior to im- approximately 0.7 million tons of saved car- plementation. This requires closer collaboration References: www.rural21.com bon emissions. Both peel ashes and starch can with academia and relevant disciplines such as RURAL 21 02/20 39

Women completing PV training at the Strathmore Energy Research Center in Nairobi, Kenya. Photo: SERC

Creating livelihoods through clean energy and agriculture

Just 35 per cent of the African population have access to electricity, with rural access rates at less than one-third of urban communities. Not only could decentralised renewable energy technologies help in meeting energy demand in rural areas in a climate-friendly manner, and promoting innovations in the agri-food sector, they are also an important potential driver of local job creation and the formalisation of labour – provided that the skills gaps hindering the sector’s growth can be closed.

By Rebekah Shirley

ith the economic impacts of the cur- employs over 65 per cent of the continent’s looking for work. So, there is an urgent need Wrent pandemic projected to be of his- labour force. Increased automation and mech- to regain momentum on sustained growth. toric proportions, the future of work is a anisation will improve yields and reduce farm Virtually of all the various “big push” agendas, source of major uncertainty, particularly in costs but may jeopardise traditional agricultural from the Africa Union to national development emerging economies. After two decades of job opportunities. strategies, list energy and infrastructure devel- per capita income growth rates that outpaced opment among the top priorities for Africa. those of rich countries, economic activity in Meanwhile, as jobs grow scarce, recent im- sub-Saharan Africa has decelerated, driven by provements in healthcare access, among other factors involving external developments, diffi- factors, have led to a youth explosion. As of Renewables at the core of Africa’s cult domestic conditions and low commodity 2018, the rate of population growth has ex- energy transition prices. Economic growth was down to 2.3 per ceeded the rate of economic growth for four cent in 2018, severely impacting the availability consecutive years, and according to the African The challenges of energy infrastructure in- of jobs. The growing impact of climate change Development Bank, young men and women clude a lack of adequate transmission networks on Africa’s largely rain-fed agricultural sector between the ages of 15 and 24 years comprise to support the distribution of power resulting compounds these issues, deepens the food cri- over 34 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa today. in grid congestion, system inefficiencies and sis, and also affects the predictability and avail- The World Bank estimates that each year, ten high losses, utility mismanagement, the dif- ability of work for millions in farming, which million young Africans join the ranks of those ficulty of cost recovery as usage rates remain 40 FOCUS

low across the continent, and more. Another A snapshot of the solar mini-grid operators workforce profile in Kenya major challenge lies in the difficulty of delivering electricity to remote and rural communities. In fact, access to electricity stands at 35 per cent of the population, with rural access rates at less than one-third of urban communities. The United Nations estimates that globally, 650 million people will still lack access to electricity in 2030 and nine out of ten of them will be in sub-Saharan Africa. Many African countries are in the midst of an energy transition as utility-scale solar, wind and geothermal power projects displace diesel generation, battery storage systems make headway and rural electrification receives growing attention.

Renewable and decentralised technologies are at the centre of this energy transition. Eastern

African countries alone have announced more Source: Power for All than 2,000 MW in new solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind power projects coming online in the next three years. In fact, more than 40 There are few studies to date that provide er in emerging markets. Although nascent and per cent of sub-Saharan Africa countries have reliable job counts for the renewable energy just beginning to scale, decentralised renew- official rural electrification targets, and at least sector in Africa, and there is little quantitative ables have already grown a direct workforce a third have specific decentralised renewable data on the specific skills gaps that hinder the comparative to traditional utility-scale power energy targets or plans. From January to June sector’s growth. Filling the data gap needed to sectors. In Kenya, the sector employs around 2019, over four million quality-certified solar inform policy is the goal of the #PoweringJobs 10,000 people in direct, formal jobs, almost as lanterns, multi-light and solar home systems campaign, founded by a coalition of partners, many as the national utility company in Kenya were sold on the continent. And while there led by the international non-profit organisa- according to its own estimates. Decentralised are only 1,500 mini-grids currently installed, tion Power for All. Recently, the campaign renewable energy companies in Nigeria em- another 4,000 mini-grids (mostly third gen- launched a job census – the first of its kind, ploy about 4,000 people in direct, formal jobs, eration solar-hybrids) are in various stages of bottom-up count of employment in decen- the same order of magnitude as those in the planning and development across Africa. tralised renewable energy in sub-Saharan Af- electricity, gas and steam sector in Nigeria. rica. It focuses on Nigeria and Kenya – one of Importantly though, compared to this formal the fastest growing and one of the most mature job impact, decentralised renewables engage Quantifying jobs in the clean energy renewable energy markets, respectively. twice as many workers through informal jobs. sector This is critical as informal work is the largest Released in 2019 this is the most compre- source of employment for most sub-Saharan There may be a major opportunity for em- hensive job survey known to date, but only Africa. ployment through delivering energy services scratches the surface of job estimation, creating to the 650 million people who still lack access. a baseline for future data collection exercis- Moreover, applying best estimates from the Decentralised renewable energy technologies es. The survey captures employment data for literature suggests as many as five times the – which enable power generation to happen over one hundred companies in Nigeria and number of persons may be gaining employ- close to the node of consumption – are agile, Kenya which are engaged in renewable energy ment through jobs stimulated by newly pow- able to reach remote communities or “the last products and services, from those selling so- ered productivity, enterprise and business in mile” more efficiently and are growing their lar lanterns, solar home systems and solar ir- rural areas. While salons, food, retail and en- market share quickly, already helping to stim- rigation systems to commercial and industrial tertainment kiosks are popular, a new wave of ulate productivity. In fact, agriculture, the sec- stand-alone solar systems and renewable ener- agriculture-processing enterprises is emerging tor which still dominates the African econo- gy powered mini-grids. This means the sample – from fruit drying to refrigeration and cold my, is likely the sector best poised to benefit covers decentralised renewable energy com- storage, milling, egg incubation, honey pro- from the potential of clean energy access to panies working in off-grid, weak-grid or on- cessing and more. There are over 100 firms mitigate climate change, unlock productiv- grid communities across the local supply chain, developing off-grid solar productive use ap- ity, and thereby boost near-term economic from manufacturing and wholesale imports to pliances for the African market and hundreds growth and, of course, create local jobs. So, sales, installation and operations. more distributing them. Sales are still relatively food security, livelihoods, energy access and low since many agro-processing units are as advances in renewable technologies are inher- yet in pilot stage, but this is anticipated to be a ently connected. The question is: how can we Enabling job creation through major new sector in the coming years. unlock the potential of this interconnectivity? productivity This is important because women and youth Part of the challenge is the lack of data for in- The early data shows that the renewable ener- are the hardest impacted by the dearth of ru- formed, sharp, targeted policy intervention. gy sector has emerged as a significant employ- ral employment opportunities, due to lack of RURAL 21 02/20 41

education, traditional perceptions of gender ment channels to reach roles, lack of social mobility and a host of them are frequently just other sociocultural factors. To give a sense of simply missing. scale, rough estimates of ‘productive use jobs’ stimulated through new or improved electric- These challenges, com- ity access were 65,000 in Kenya and 15,000 pounded by other social in Nigeria at the time of study. But because barriers and business energy companies do not standardly track cultures, leave women’s end-user job creation as a performance metric, representation lacking. they cannot place strong confidence in their On average for Kenya estimates. And as mentioned, the literature is and Nigeria, women thin, requiring more research. make up less than a third of direct, formal work- Exactly what types of jobs are renewable enforce and fill about 25 ergy creating in Nigeria and Kenya? Compa- per cent of managerial nies employ electrical engineers, programmers, roles. But women are technicians, technology designers, metering critical to the sector’s experts, data analysts/data managers, software ability to expand access. engineers and monitoring experts. Finance, For instance, women, legal and business managers, as well as sales, as the social influencers retail, product distribution, logistics manag- within their communi- ers, customer care and customer engagement ties, play a major role in agents are also all core to business function. successful sales, product There are of course further jobs in upstream distribution and mi- industries (like local solar panel manufacturing) cro-enterprise develop- Solar PV technicians at work in Athi River, Kenya. Photo: Rebekah Shirley and downstream industries (such as waste re- ment. Alongside tech- cycling). nical skills, companies explained that recruits were often not indus- and the formalisation of labour to align with For each type of technology, the value chains try-ready, in terms of lacking general business local and international decent work standards, and thus the required job functions vary. Solar soft skills, like communication, leadership and compensation standards, and social protection. mini-grid companies, for instance, are seeing critical thinking. Soft skills are important to Finally, all these early indicators suggest that need for micro-financers, community trainers every job function across the board for strong much more quantitative research is needed to and entrepreneur support service professionals, business performance. This applies especial- understand job displacements in other sectors, to support the businesses and enterprises de- ly to younger, entry-level recruits. Although indirect and induced job impacts, and produc- veloping through access. These types of cus- young people make up 40 per cent of the sec- tivity, requiring more cross-sector data, and tomers are important to revenues, so mini-grid tor’s workforce in Kenya and 30 per cent in standard reporting metrics and sampling tools companies expect this aspect to become more Nigeria, companies agreed that there was op- directed toward end users, with a focus on core to their business model over the near fu- portunity to hire even more. different productive use value chains. Deliv- ture. Over two-thirds of the decentralised re- ering affordable, reliable energy access quickly newable energy workforce is skilled and full- through renewable energy solutions that meet time, with average retention being more than Strategies to unlock the renewable people where they are is a major way to open 30 months and average compensation falling energy job creation opportunity economies, especially in rural areas. Particu- within the middle-income range of both larly in these times where identifying ways to countries. This kind of data provides many insights for jumpstart economic recovery and build resil- interventions that can help increase job cre- ient systems is key, renewables should be core. ation in the near term. There are clear skills Filling the skills gaps is crucial needed to both expand renewable energy at scale and create more employment. First, Rebekah Shirley is the Chief of Research at Power Pairing these findings with publicly available stronger collaboration is needed to develop for All, an international non-profit organisation future market projections suggests that many, standardised, accredited, industry-relevant promoting integrated approaches to universal many more jobs may be possible, but decen- training programmes and career development electrification. Rebekah and her research team tralised energy companies say they are chal- programmes for graduates. Second, establish- have won many awards for thought leadership lenged by skills gaps, and by recruitment barri- ing formal recruitment pipelines for youth and in the African energy sector. Before living in ers. In fact, it is said that human resource, not women is an overlooked area where voca- Kenya, Rebekah was a Chancellor's Fellow at technology, is what makes or breaks companies tional training, higher education institutes and the University of California, Berkeley, where she in this field. While technical (STEM) training industry associations can play a pivotal role. earned her PhD researching solutions for power is key, companies revealed having the most Third, the sector’s massive footprint in the in- systems optimisation in emerging markets. difficulty in recruiting for management, fi- formal and productive use job creation pres- Contact: [email protected] nance, legal, sales and marketing skills. But en- ents an opportunity to directly support new try-level graduates from these programmes are innovations in agricultural processing, while References: www.rural21.com often in short supply, and established recruit- also encouraging direct training interventions, 42 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

A win-win-win model: urban investors finance rural agriculture

A new business model that could catch on – with their company “I Support Farming”, two brothers from South India’s Chennai are bringing investors from the city together with farmers who lack capital for necessary investments. The investors bear the risk, while the profits are shared.

By Jency Samuel

As a practising farmer, Sridharan Venkatacha- lam could not believe that total strangers would pay him 231,000 rupees, money he had spent on preparing his ten-acre farm and on sowing paddy. The strangers offered to guide him in his cultivation process. They wanted a percentage of his profit, if their work showed results. The proposition was so irrational that the farmer thought it was a scam. It came from siblings Vijaykumar Mani and Vasanth Ku- mar Mani of Chennai, a city in South India. Having observed the disconnect between rural farmers and urban consumers, the duo decided to bridge the gap. They quit their corporate jobs and founded a company called "I Support Farming".

Fallow farm lands because capital is Farmer Sridharan Venkatachalam (right), who has benefitted thanks to associating with ISF, speaks to visitors. Photo: courtesy ISF lacking

The brothers practised farming on their six Vasanth Kumar, farmers take crop loans from other hand, an urbanite would spend the same acres of land near their hometown. As they banks or financial institutions at an interest of amount, say, on dinner. The same amount has were employed in Chennai, they would visit 7 to 9 per cent per annum, or borrow from different values in the city and in the village,” their farm about 170 km from Chennai during local money lenders at an interest of 24 to 48 explains Vasanth Kumar. The brothers decid- weekends. During the visits, they observed per cent per annum. The third option is not ed to connect the farmers to urban consumers. that the neighbouring farms were left fallow. borrowing in the true sense. Agricultural in- Leveraging the urbanites’ interest in farming, They found that the farmers were not culti- put shops give fertilisers and pesticides without they resolved to spur them to invest in farming. vating because they did not have money to taking money from farmers. In turn, farmers They arranged a farm visit, bringing friends and prepare the land, and buy farm inputs. “To sell their produce to the supplier at the end of farmers together, where the latter explained the cultivate paddy, a farmer needs about 25,000 the crop cycle. “Normally the shops hike up issues they were facing. The meeting resulted rupees – 300 euros – per acre per crop cycle. the price of inputs and also pay a lower price in the formation of a new farming business As farmers generally have two or three acres, for the produce. So the farmers lose out on model that the brothers had developed. They they need double or triple that amount,” says both counts,” says Vijaykumar. After repaying founded I Support Farming (ISF) in May 2016. Vijaykumar. “Since they don’t have that much the loan with the harvest, farmers were left Their first project involved two farmers whose money, they don’t make use of their lands.” with a small profit if they had a good yield. land was near theirs. With the investment of With growing input costs and increasing risks If they suffered a crop loss because of pest at- seven urbanites, they started cultivation on because of unpredictable weather patterns, tacks or natural calamities, they did not have eight acres (1 acre = 0.4 hectare) of land. farmers – 86 per cent of them marginal and the means to repay the loans. small farmers with landholdings of less than As capital was the main issue for farmers, the two hectares – are unable to sustain on farm- ISF model has completely de-risked them fi- ing as a livelihood. Hence many of them take Urban investors de-risking farmers nancially. Farmer Sridharan reluctantly agreed up other labour, leaving their land fallow. As to let ISF guide him in his farming. “I always per the agriculture census of 2011, eight per Vasanth Kumar observed his colleagues be- maintain financial records. So ISF understood cent of farmland in India – about 13 million coming interested in farming when they learnt that my expenses were for real and paid me,” hectares – is thus affected. that he was a weekend farmer. Often they he says. Then ISF’s field staff visited the farm asked him about his farm, farming practices, every day. They ensured that fertilisers and Working capital to start cultivation is a ma- farmers’ debts, etc. And they wished to support pesticides were applied only when necessary jor challenge for farmers. Depending on var- farmers. “On the one hand, a farmer could not and only in required quantities. The higher ious factors, they borrow money from one of prepare his land because he did not have the yield surprised the farmer. He recalls paying the three sources to start cultivation. According to 1,000 rupees needed for ploughing. On the brothers Rs 43,800 (524 euros), their margin. RURAL 21 02/20 43

The investment from the city is spent directly appropriate solution only in that part of the on the farm. Right from purchasing certified field which needs it. This results in consider- seeds and farm inputs, to giving guidance on able cost reduction. proper and timely application of fertilisers and paying the workers every day, ISF’s field staff ISF ensures that the farmers are benefitted take care of every farm activity. “Thanks to the most. Depending on the risk and work ISF, we don’t need to invest any money at all involved, the profit is divided as 80:10:10 or for cultivation. They buy the inputs, pay the 60:20:20 between farmer, investor and ISF. As workers, they sell the produce, and they give it is a zero financial investment for the farmer, us our share of the profit. So there is absolutely if a crop fails, the loss is borne only by the in- no financial risk for us,” says Sridharan. vestor and ISF. The farmer merely loses time and efforts.

Smart technologies and economies of Sridharan recalls a flood that occurred, when scale ensuring success he thought he would lose his crop. “But ISF salvaged it, and I got 57,000 rupees as profit. While bringing in urban capital was part of the If not for ISF, I would have borrowed money, ISF business model, for the model to work, and the profit wouldn’t have been enough to the brothers had to increase revenues for ev- repay it,” he says. A detailed costing by the eryone concerned. “Our aim is to reduce cost brothers shows that on average, an ISF farmer and increase productivity,” says Vasanth Ku- gets a minimum net profit of Rs 11,500 (138 mar. With a sizeable acreage under its patron- euros) per acre per crop cycle, whereas a farm- Brothers Vasanth Kumar (left) and Vijaykumar have age, ISF buys seeds, fertilisers and pesticides in er following conventional methods earns a net brought in urban capital to the rural farm sector, to bulk, which results in an overall cost reduction profit of Rs 5,000 (60 euros). The net profit make agriculture beneficial to farmers. of five to ten per cent. Similarly, as the com- varies according to the crop that is cultivated. Photo: courtesy ISF pany operates on a large scale, ISF’s quantum of produce is high. This gives the company the Gokulavan Jayaraman, who works in an In- negotiating power on the price. “In the pro- formation Technology-enabled Service (ITeS) dy, they have now advanced to growing maize, curement market, a local trader generally buys company in Chennai, is one of the urban in- groundnut and vegetables, besides water melon the paddy from farmers and sells it to rice mills. vestors. He gets about five to six per cent re- and musk melon. Soon they plan to do value We sell directly to the rice mills. This gives us turns on his investment. addition and sell directly to consumers via an a 10 to 20 per cent benefit on the price,” says online portal. “There are many, especially in Vasanth Kumar. the IT field, who are interested in agriculture A farmer-friendly solution and feel the need to address rural distress. They ISF relies more on a scientific approach to lack time. There is no-one to point them in farming and technology, to increase produc- ISF identifies a lead farmer to collaborate with. the right direction. That’s where ISF scores and tivity and minimise expenditure. “As the field The success of the partnership brings in more is a success,” opines Gokulavan. Listening to staff are agriculture graduates, they are able to farmers. Sometimes ISF identifies farmers with the farmers voicing their concerns at the farm guide us in improving productivity. Using cer- the help of local non-governmental organisa- meeting prompted him to invest in ISF. He also tified seeds has increased the yield,” says farm- tions working in the farming sector, and also got a handful of his friends to invest. After his er Sridharan. “Earlier, the yield was 35 bags of with the support of field staff. The team do initial investment, he has made additional in- paddy per acre, with a bag weighing 63 kilo- a complete background check before taking vestments twice. “One should not invest with grams. Now it’s a minimum of 40 bags. Once a farmer on board. ISF signs a contract with the sole aim of profits. Investing in agriculture I harvested 53.5 bags.” each farmer and a separate contract with each through ISF helps one play a part in alleviating investor, to make things binding for everyone. farm distress as well as getting a reasonable re- According to Sridharan, previously, when turn on investment,” says Gokulavan. farmers like him observed crop stress, they Initially one could invest in multiples of Rs would not know the cause. They would spray 5,000. Now the company encourages invest- ISF’s innovative business model of urban in- three or four pesticides available locally, with ment in multiples of Rs 25,000. Depending vestment and nil risk for farmers and its en- the hope that one of them would abate the on the amount invested, ISF maps it to one suing success attracted media attention. The problem. “There is no penetration of tech- or more farmers. “If a farmer has five acres, company’s social media engagement also gar- nology in agriculture in India. Farmers know money from five or six investors goes towards nered interest among the public. Their success there’s crop distress only on visual observation. his cultivation expenses,” says Vijaykumar. being evident in the four years they have been But an aerial view in variation of colours gives A technology platform assists the brothers in in operation, increased urban investment has a better idea,” Vijaykumar explains. ISF uses keeping track of each investment and each enabled them to bring more than 200 farmers a drone-mounted multispectral camera that crop. This helps them e-mail investors on a and 600 acres of land under the ISF umbrella. takes images in multiple shades of green. Us- regular basis to keep them abreast of the farming a special software, the ISF team analyse the ing activities. images and identify whether the colour varia- Jency Samuel is a freelance journalist based in tion is due to weeds, moisture stress or disease. The brothers have been growing single harvest Chennai, India. The exact diagnosis helps the farmer apply the grains and pulses. Starting with cultivating pad- Contact: [email protected] 44 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

Will Zanzibar’s algae farmers soon be ruined?

Carrageens are contained in soft drinks, shampoos and ready meals. These carbohydrates, which are also known as E407, are gained from red algae, also in the shallow water along the coast of Zanzibar, where they constitute an important – and sometimes the only – source of income for women. However, trading this much-demanded natural resource is threatened.

By Klaus Sieg

urquoise water and white sand as far as Mwanaisha Makame peers across the beach slithery stems full of little branches which look Tthe eye can see. Paje Beach, in Zanzibar’s with squinted eyes. The brilliant sun, the like rubber worms intermingle, Makame says: Southeast, is a dream destination for all tour- white sand and the salty air – it all puts a strain “This is what the miracle plant which they use ists. If they don’t happen to be lazing by the on the eyes. “But we have to keep looking all over the world actually looks like.” pool of their resort or hanging out in one of after our algae,” 45-year-old Makame says, the countless bars, they can be seen sitting or tightening her colourful scarf, pulling up her lying on the beach, usually holding a drink or long skirt a little and then wading into the A substance for all needs … an ice-cream. In the evening, they will help lukewarm water together with two other al- themselves at the buffet and, just like nearly ev- gae farmers. Their goal is behind the gentle Not very appetising – but that’s not an issue eryone else throughout the world, brush their surf rolling towards the beach. There, the wa- as far as the final product, carrageen, which teeth. Some of them then also apply a lotion ter of the Indian Ocean, which is still shallow is gained from these fast-growing aquatic to their skin, which has had to bear the equa- and very warm, laps around wooden poles plants, is concerned. And this is why every- tor sunshine. Only few of them will probably stuck into the sand in rows. The women bend one talks about it. As E407 binds and thick- be aware that in consuming all these products, down, pull out weeds, fasten some algae anew ens glaze, yoghurt and other dairy products, they have nearly always come into contact and remove individual impurities. They also pastries, soft drinks, diets for sportspeople, with an ingredient which is gained from the harvest some of the algae. Finally, they carry a sausages, chocolate bars, ketchup, custard or shallow water along the beach, right in front couple of yellow-green bundles to the beach. ready meals. E407 is one of the few additives of their noses. Pointing at one of these bundles, in which the also permitted in organic food. Above all the

Mwanaisha Makame (right) is the chief earner in her family.

Photos: Jörg Böthling RURAL 21 02/20 45

Hardly any women in Zanzibar can swim. Women have to rely on men’s support in sailing boats Dr Flower Msuya is the chairperson of the Zanzibar and diving for algae. Seaweed Cluster Initiative. burgeoning group of vegetarians and vegans for the production of carrageen, although Climate change is threatening the eat it frequently. Agar Agar, used as a gelatine they do need tropical water temperatures. trade substitute in jelly babies, sandwich spreads, soy Women in particular were intended to earn milk or tofu cold cuts, and also obtained from income growing them alongside seeing to the However, the red algae business has run into algae, is likewise popular among them. What household and the family, thus gaining inde- difficulties. Climate change is to blame. Over is more, carrageen is used in many cosmetics pendence in a traditionally shaped culture. the last 30 years, the Indian Ocean’s tempera- and body care products, in the dye and paint This appears to have been a success, albeit at a ture has risen by one degree – with disastrous industry or as an additive in drugs. “Demand modest level. Makame earns the equivalent of consequences for the shallow water off the has been growing for years, and new fields roughly 40 euros a month. That is almost half coast. “In the 1990s, it was never warmer than of application are still being created,” says a the wage of a labourer in the city. And with 31 degrees, but now it can heat up to 38 de- spokeswoman for Cargill, one of the world’s it, you can buy a lot in Zanzibar, as long as grees.” This is making the red algae vulnera- biggest carrageen manufacturers. Food devel- you’re shopping outside the tourist hotspots. ble to disease. The women are losing parts of opers in particular would hardly find an alter- And then there is Makame’s proud smile. their harvest, which is why Msuya and her col- native substance with such excellent proper- Otherwise, she and the other women would leagues are attempting to establish cultivation ties. Despite its health impact recently having find hardly any employment on the island of in deep water, where temperatures are lower. become somewhat controversial, the popular- spices. ity of E407 is still on the rise. The coast in front of the village of Muun- “Most of the algae farmers used to depend on goni, in the Southeast, has no white, sandy government support, which they no longer beach – and hence no tourists. Instead, there A bit of financial independence need,” says Flower Msuya, an expert on al- are plenty of jagged rocks and coral reefs. The gae at the University of Dar-es-Salaam, whose rubber gloves of Jina Makame and the other This is good for Makame, who has been grow- marine research institute is located right at the members of the group are correspondingly ing algae for more than 25 years. “Success was ferry terminal in Stonetown, the old city of tattered. The women have just gathered algae initially modest, and now I am the chief earner Zanzibar’s capital. There are piles of papers to reproduce them. For this purpose, they tear in my family,” she explains. Although her hus- and files on the little table and the warped shelf the plants into finger-long ends that are tied to band works as a diving instructor, his income in her office. An old-fashioned PC screen is ropes, and then they are pulled through blue is irregular. She can harvest the algae eight to flickering in the dark room without any win- pipes into longish nets that are subsequently ten times a year, and she can plant them just as dows. This senior researcher is about to leave anchored a couple of metres deep out in the often. For this purpose, Makame ties little sap- for a conference in Dar, as the capital on the sea. “This keeps the current from drawing the lings to ropes, which are then fastened to poles coast of the mainland opposite is known. Her saplings away,” Jina Makame explains. This in the water. Nature sees to the rest virtually expertise is in high demand, and she was in- vegetative reproduction of red algae enables on its own. After two or three months, the al- volved in the introduction of the algae right unlimited further cultivation. The farmers are gae are ready for harvesting, they have formed from the start. One of her activities has been still working with the offspring from the red the crucial ingredients, and their biomass has the setting up of the Zanzibar Seaweed Cluster algae imported in the 1980s. grown twentyfold. So the plants aren’t much Initiative (ZaSCI), a network that is meant to work. bring together farmers, traders and producers. Once all the nets are full, Rajid Mohammed “After the Philippines and Indonesia, Tanzania starts the boat’s outboard motor. The women, This was also what Tanzania had in mind is the third largest area the plant is grown in all of them wearing lifejackets on top of their when it introduced the two red algae vari- world-wide,” she explains, referring proudly colourful clothes, carefully step onto the boat, eties Eucheuma spinosum and Eucheuma cot- to what has been achieved so far. “With its which is swaying to and fro. “We can’t swim,” tonii, originally from the Philippines, in the 24,000 women farmers, the algae business now Jina Makame grins timidly. Hardly any women semi-autonomous archipelago off its coast in employs the largest number of people in our in Zanzibar can swim, even though they live the 1980s. Both species are especially suitable archipelago,” Msuya notes. right next to the sea. Here, it is simply not cus- 46 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

tom for girls and women to swim. This is “Establishing carrageen production may why Mohammed and his two helpers have be a good idea, but I am not sure whether to deal with swimming and diving, which, this can work here,” says one of the leading alongside the costs of the boat and fuel, is buyers of red algae in Zanzibar, a local who a further hindrance to deep water algae doesn’t want to have his name mentioned. growing, at least if mainly women are to continue benefiting from the business. Al- He says that the tax burden in the archi- gae cultivation in deep water would enable pelago is too high and port handling of double the present yield. And the demand cargo is chaotic. “Sometimes, our contain- is there. “If we give him a call, the buyers are stuck for weeks or even months,” er will come on the same day, for he is he notes, adding that the corporations very anxious about us selling the harvest to then have to buy the respective capacities someone else,” Makame later on explains elsewhere. “And yet the quality of the red in front of her house in the village and, algae here meets the standards, and every- grinning, strokes her arms painted with thing that is harvested is bought up by the henna-coloured ornaments. The 37-year- companies,” the buyer remarks. old woman is sitting next to sacks full of red algae that sea salt is trickling from. Next to Nevertheless, the producers cannot always them, the harvest just brought in is drying supply. Water that is too warm causes dis- on the ground, with the individual plants eases among the plants, while storms and turning more and more colourful. “Unfor- other weather events lead to interruptions tunately, they only buy them dried,” says Jina Makame is paid the equivalent of 40 euro cents for one in supplies as well. And if the algae are not the mother of six. She is paid the equiv- kilogram of red algae. sufficiently covered by seawater, rain or alent of 40 euro cents for one kilogram. dryness can threaten the harvest. Cargill On average, this earns her 30 to 40 euros a confirms these challenges and difficulties month, which one kilogram of carrageen costs sequently filtered. Only then is the carrageen too. This corporation, which buys red algae a multiple of in the industrialised countries. precipitated with alcohol or gelatinised with on four different continents, has therefore According to Makame, the price is better than potassium chloride. Once it is dried, the sub- launched the Red Seaweed Promise initiative. it used to be thanks to the engagement of the stance thus obtained can then be ground into According to Cargill, world-wide, around a Seaweed Cluster Initiative, although she notes the state usually traded and packaged. “Not a million producers and their families and com- that it is “still too low”. particularly difficult process, but we need tech- munities depend on red algae sales. The ini- nical support and above all investors seeking to tiative is meant to offer them more support in put their money elsewhere than into tourism,” growing, harvesting and marketing the prod- Value is added elsewhere says Hammid. He has developed a business uct. plan for a carrageen factory. Also, he will soon With Cargill, CP Kelco and a further US cor- be meeting experts from Indonesia to explore Mwanaisha Makame and her group of wom- poration, three major carrageen manufactur- options for how such a plant could meet the en algae farmers from Paje have started their ers are represented in Zanzibar that produce required quality standards. “In the Philippines, own production with the aid of the United and distribute the substance world-wide. The the Chinese are currently establishing carra- Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. buyers travelling around the villages supply the geen production – but we don’t necessarily They manufacture soap, oils, pasta or fried subsidiaries of these major corporations, which want to invite them here,” Hammid remarks. snacks with their algae. Red algae contain have their own warehouses at the docks where many minerals and vitamins as well as anti-ox- the algae are further dried, cleaned, pressed and idants. “During the season, we sell quite a lot packaged. The miracle material is produced in Too many obstacles to local production to the tourists,” she says, greeting a tourist Europe, the USA, the Philippines and China. approaching her on the beach. However, the “We export almost 15,000 tonnes of dried For some time, reports have been circulating women only process a very small portion of algae to these countries,” notes Haji Abdul in the media that the production of carrageen their harvest for their own production. They Hammid as he peers from his office window and Agar Agar is soon to commence in Zanzi- continue to sell most of it in dried form to the across the port of Zanzibar, where the quay’s bar. Tanzania’s Ministry of Agriculture recent- buyers. They have only limited influence on only crane is just loading a ship with containers ly launched such a plan in collaboration with whether this will stay a source of income for bearing the names of the well-known inter- a major seafood producer based in Dar-es- their families. If global warming is not stopped, national shipping companies. Hammid heads a Salaam. At local level, however, such reports all that can help them will be new varieties of Trade and Industry Ministry agency promot- vanish into thin air. Responding to queries red algae that can cope with the rising water ing small and medium-sized enterprises. “We about the challenges involved in manufactur- temperatures. Otherwise, only the tourists will really have to make better use of this potential, ing carrageen, the corporation states that in ad- be left on the beaches of Paje. and this means that Zanzibar needs carrageen dition to the constant supply of red algae of the production of its own,” he stresses. right quality, this also requires detailed know- how regarding the various requirements for the In order to extract the carrageen, the red al- wide range of applications. Actors at national Klaus Sieg is a freelance journalist based in gae are washed and boiled in an alkaline solu- level also tend to be more sceptical about man- Hamburg, Germany tion for up to 48 hours. The solution is sub- ufacturing the miracle substance in Zanzibar. Contact: [email protected] RURAL 21 02/20 47

'Cellphilms’ and ‘Photovoice’ – how visual tools can help understand farmers’ adaptation to climate change

Use of mobile phones holds great promise for identifying and understanding gendered climate change adaptation strategies in rural areas of the Global South. Our authors describe the methodology and results of a case study with women, men and youth farmers in Uganda demonstrating the benefits and challenges that need to be addressed.

By Laura Kawerau, Regina Birner, Athena Birkenberg and Thomas Daum

limate change is increasingly affecting ru- Cral communities and food security around the world. Research on how farmers adapt to climate change has been intensified in the last years. Many studies use quantitative research designs in order to generate statistically rep- resentative data. Qualitative methods such as focus group discussions are also relatively common in this field, but the use of visual research tools is still rare. Considering that a picture is worth a thousand words, such tools can have a considerable potential to generate new insights on climate adaptation in agriculture.

As part of a research project on climate-smart agriculture (see Box on page 49), we implemented two participatory visual research tools in Uganda: ‘photovoice’ and ‘cellphilm’. The goal was to explore how small-scale farmers – including male, female and young farmers – adapt their farming practices to climate change. Part of a video by farmer Nabbona Cissy Mulumba, who participated in the project.

Photovoice and cellphilms as participatory research tools a participatory action research tool in a book tute for Strategic Animal Resource Services edited by Katie MacEntee, with goals similar Development (AFRISA), we conducted this The methodology of photovoice was devel- to those of photovoice: to empower people, study in six districts of Uganda. We stayed oped in the 1990s by Caroline Wang (Univer- raise awareness on critical issues and promote in each district for six days and worked with sity of Michigan, USA) and Mary Ann Burris social change. Cellphilm follows the tradition one group of women, men and youth, respec- (Ford Foundation), who first implemented this of earlier methods that have used videos. Par- tively. We conducted a first group discussion method in China in a women’s health and de- ticipatory videos were chiefly used to engage a with each of these groups on climate change velopment programme. The researchers gave group or community to produce a film using adaptation and also handed out the smart- cameras to the study participants to document professional equipment in order to inform pol- phones to participants. The discussion includ- their health issues and needs. Using this ap- icy-makers about a community’s needs. Cell- ed open-ended questions about livelihoods, proach, they pursued three goals: 1) to em- philms are different in that they are shorter, general agricultural activities and gender-spe- power people – especially women – to record created by individuals and use the video ap- cific activities. Subsequently, we asked if par- and reflect on their community’s strengths and plications of mobile phones. Since these visual ticipants had experienced a change in climate challenges, 2) to promote critical conscious- research methods have not yet been widely during their lifetime, which signs of climate ness about key challenges through group dis- adopted in rural and agricultural studies, we change they had observed and how they had cussions of the photos taken, and 3) to reach wanted to explore whether they can unravel been adapting to those changes. After these in- policy-makers. additional insights into how farmers relate and terviews, we introduced the photovoice and adapt to climate change. cellphilm approach to each group. Depending Another visual research method is ‘cellphilm’. on the interest of members, we handed out This term was coined in 2009 by Jonathan 5-12 smartphones per group. After training Dockney and Kethan Tomaselli from the Spending six days with farmers the farmers on how to use the smartphones as University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa cameras for taking pictures and videos, we left in the context of cinema/film studies and re- With our project collaborators from the Ugan- the smartphones with participants for two days fers to short videos (films) recorded on cell- dan Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries and asked them to capture their climate-smart phones. This concept was later popularised as and Fisheries (MAAIF) and the Africa Insti- practices and strategies in cellphilms and pho- 48 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

tographs. On the day after handing out the Overview on research design in all districts smartphones, we visited participants on their farms to check if they had any questions or Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday problems concerning the use of the phones. 1st group dis- 1st group dis- Visiting youth Collecting 2nd group dis- Joint group This visit created an opportunity to give feed- cussion cussion smartphones of cussion discussion women + youth + handing youth men: screening men + women + back on photos and cellphilms already taken handing out out smart- of cellphilms youth and to charge batteries of the smartphones in smartphones phones and photos case they were running low and farmers had 1st group dis- Visiting women Collecting 2nd group dis- 2nd group dis- no access to electricity. The following day, our cussion smartphones of cussion cussion research team collected the smartphones. men + handing men + women women: youth: screen- out smart- screening of ing of cell- phones cellphilms and philms and photos photos Visiting men

Before, only my daughter Practices recorded on photos and cellphilms, but not mentioned during interviews knew how to use a (women) smartphone. Now I am District Bukomansimbi Kalungu Kiboga Mubende Nakasongola able, too. Livestock Housing for Housing for Treating Treating Treating animals animals livestock with livestock with livestock with traditional traditional traditional concoctions concoctions concoctions We transferred the recordings from the phones Livestock feed Livestock feed to an external hard drive and selected at least management management one picture or cellphilm from each participant Crop Agroforestry Agroforestry Handpicking Agroforestry Application of for the second group discussion, which was management pests pesticides / held on the following day. Selection criteria herbicides for the photos and cellphilms included ref- Manual weeding Manual weeding Trapping pests Intercropping erence to a relevant climate change-related Water and soil Application Intercropping management of traditional practice and visual quality. Blurred recordings concoctions were only selected if they showed a relevant Planting trees practice and no alternative of better quality Pruning of was recorded. In a second round of group bananas discussions, we reviewed and discussed the Application of Application of Application of Application of Water harvest- photos and cellphilms with each group us- organic manure organic manure organic manure organic manure ing ing a portable and battery-operated projector. Mulching Mulching Mulching Mulching In order not to overburden the meeting, we Soil and water showed a maximum of 20 photos and cell- conservation structures philms. During the screening, farmers ex- Land use Deep ploughing plained the climate adaptation strategies that Other Bee keeping Bee keeping they had documented. Cultivating degraded land Afterwards, the facilitator wrote the practices Energy-saving down on a flipchart paper and drew a simple stove picture to visualise the practices for the ben- Income diversi- efit of members with limited literacy. Using fication a common participatory ranking procedure, each participant received three stickers and was asked to rank the practices considered to be Visualisation is beneficial, lowing women to take photos and cellphilms most important in adapting to climate change. participation is empowering is a suitable method that allows them to ex- Afterwards, the participants explained why they press themselves. considered the selected practices important. The cellphilms and photos elicited additional On the last day, a third, joint group meeting adaptation strategies that had not been men- While there was no strategy that was sole- with all participants of the three groups (male, tioned in the first set of discussion groups. The ly recorded on photos and cellphilms, some female and youth) was conducted, in which use of photos and cellphilms thus revealed ad- practices mostly came up in the recordings. each group presented their three to four most ditional preferred practices in use. During the For women, these practices include mulching, preferred practices. Members of other groups discussions, women generally mentioned few- application of organic manure and agroforestry were encouraged to ask questions to the group er strategies compared to men and youth, but (see lower Table). presenting, and the participants engaged in they took an approximately equal number of lively discussions. A feedback round completed photos and cellphilm recordings. The record- Overall, the number of climate change adap- the meeting and the whole research week in ings thus elicited more information, especially tation practices mentioned was larger during the respective district (see upper Table). from women. This finding indicates that al- the Focus Group Discussions, since it takes RURAL 21 02/20 49

less time to talk about strategies during a con- The project “Reaching Smallholder Women with Information Services and Resilience Strate- versation than to take photos or cellphilms of gies to Respond to Climate Change” is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic these practices. In addition, brainstorming in Cooperation and Development with further support from the CGIAR Research Program on a group generally brings up ideas more easily Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), and is implemented jointly by the International Food than thinking about them individually. Hence, Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the University of Hohenheim in Germany, the Ministry of the distinctive advantage of photovoice and Agriculture, Animal Industries and Fisheries (MAAIF) of Uganda as well as the Africa Institute cellphilm can be seen in revealing additional for Strategic Animal Resource Services Development (AFRISA) of Makerere University. Other insights into climate adaptation of farmers, and partners include the national movement of grassroots women-led community-based groups particularly women farmers, which are not (GROOTS) Kenya and the Self-Employed Women’s Association in India. The project aims to easily discovered without such visual methods. reach more than 30,000 women farmers with information on climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices to improve gendered yield gaps, women’s empowerment and The research experience also showed that par- resilience to climate change. ticipants were very creative in how they recorded practices: some held the smartphones themselves, showed their plots and explained cordings to 20 each. Moreover, in most groups were shown using a projector. These meetings how they, for example, dig trenches as soil and there were more volunteers than available were held in participants’ houses or public fa- water conservation structures; others asked a smartphones, so we encouraged members to cilities, such as schools, but in some locations, family member or friend to film them while share phones and assist each other in recording suitable rooms were hard to find. they were digging a trench. However, some climate adaptation practices, which they did. photos were not self-explanatory and required Collecting the smartphones back from partic- further clarifications from farmers. With their ipants did not pose any challenge. Not a sin- “It is a good method to learn from active participation in the research process, gle smartphone was lost, but possibly this was friends” farmers not only learned to use a new tool, due to the fact that we worked with farmers’ they were also empowered by contributing groups and the group leaders assisted in col- In addition to having value for development to a first analysis of their own findings during lecting the phones. practitioners and researchers, short videos tak- the second group discussions. Farmers’ self-es- en by farmers may contribute to developing teem was visibly enhanced by the opportunity However, some farmers were sceptical about new ways of knowledge exchange among to share their knowledge and experience on smartphones, suggesting that these devices farmers, between farmers and agricultural ex- climate change adaptation. One woman said: may create controversy or even conflict within tension workers, and between farmers and re- “We found out that it was us who had all the communities. As an example, one woman in searchers. Once recorded, a cellphilm can be information that we shared, so it was us teach- a youth group stated that her parents would distributed, shared and watched independently ing you [the research team], and we just fail to not approve of her using a smartphone, so from weather, seasons and infrastructural chal- practise what we know.” Participants also saw she chose not to take part. Using photovoice lenges, such as impassable roads due to flood- value in learning how to use a smartphone. and cellphilm needs to take local perceptions ing after heavy rains. Videos can be installed on One woman pointed out: “Before, only my of digital devices into account and should be the phone of an extension officer, who shows daughter knew how to use a smartphone. Now considered carefully in each context. In addi- the video in the communities he or she works I am able, too.” Moreover, participants were tion, the empowerment of participants might in, and they can also be shared with commu- able to teach someone else to use the smart- well be limited to the duration of our study, nity members via messaging services such as phone and record them, because they often since we collected the smartphones as well as WhatsApp. Innovative solutions of small-scale wanted to be seen in the photo or cellphilm digital recordings at the end of the study. farmers for coping with changing climate con- themselves as demonstrating the practice. ditions could thus be shared with a much larg- Using visual research methods also requires re- er community, enhancing rural development searchers to reflect on the power relations be- and communicating (women’s!) perceptions, tween participants and scientists. If smartphone needs and strategies to policy-makers. ownership in developing economies continues

to increase, researchers may want to choose We found out that it was us using participants’ own devices, so that they who had all the information can keep their photos and cellphilms after the Laura Kawerau is a M.Sc. Student at the University that we shared, so it was us study is completed. of Hohenheim, Germany. This article is based on teaching you [the research her Master’s thesis „Using photovoice and video Availability and access to electricity can pose as a research tool: A case study on CSA farming in team], and we just fail to a challenge to this research approach. Occa- Uganda“. practise what we know. sional power cuts in our research areas made Regina Birner is a professor, and Athena it difficult to charge phones before distributing Birkenberg and Thomas Daum are research them and also affected the selection of cell- fellows at the Hans-Ruthenberg-Institute of The general enthusiasm in engaging in the philms and pictures for the second meeting, Agricultural Sciences in the Tropics of the smartphone activity can probably be explained since such data transfers discharge smartphone University of Hohenheim. by the appeal of smartphones to people. The batteries rather quickly. Contact: [email protected] majority of farmers were eager to participate, and the enthusiasm demonstrated required the A final challenge was the need of a dark room References: www.rural21.com research team to request farmers to limit re- for the second meeting where the recordings 50 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

Sharing knowledge – to the benefit of all

Germany’s Thünen Institute has increased its activities in Africa in recent years. Scientific training and education are a crucial part of many of these activities. Specific examples are presented in this article, as are opportunities and challenges in the sharing of knowledge.

By Veronika Jorch, Heino Fock, Aida Gonzalez-Mellado and Goran Schmidt

As a Federal Research Institution, under the current policies. In the the Thünen Institute and its prede- project ‘AGMEMOD goes Africa’ cessors have more than 100 years of (the abbreviation stands for AGri- experience in providing scientific cultural MEmber State MODel), advice to the German government scientists from the Thünen Institute and stakeholders. Long-term moni- and six African countries work to- toring of greenhouse gases, fisheries gether to develop similar agricul- surveys, soil and forest inventories, tural models in order to project the and extensive modelling capacities, future situation regarding local and such as fisheries and agro-econom- imported food supplies. Thünen ic modelling, are the main tools to scientists have been preparing train- generate advice for national and ing sessions on the building of ag- international policies. Combatting ricultural economic models since climate change and the manage- 2013. Furthermore, scientists com- ment of fish stocks requires inter- municate continuously to maintain nationally coordinated efforts, and and extend the models, but also to bound by the terms of international evaluate results together via vid- trade and exchange, ecological-eco- eo conferences. Regular training is nomic policies can only be suc- provided in Germany for new staff cessful if conducted at regional to starting to work with the model in global scale. Present and historical the partner countries. As the project ties between European and the Af- has already been running for eight rican countries are strong, and the years, it has been possible to estab- neighbourhood status makes sci- lish a cooperative network, particu- ence collaboration between Africa larly in Eastern Africa. and Europe a natural process. With a strengthening of German policies towards African countries in recent Enhancing local training years, the Thünen Institute has ac- capacities for fisheries knowledged its responsibility to Scientific Production Technician Mbulelo Makhetha with the CTD research contribute with an increasing num- (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) rosette aboard the research vessel ber of partnerships and research ac- 'Meteor', during a practical training & research cruise. In close cooperation with African tivities with African institutions. Photo: Anne Sell/ Thünen Institute SF and European partners, a series of fishery research projects build up As for policy consulting, developing networks munication of results for other segments of on each other and interlink strongly. This and scientific infrastructure can only be suc- the population, meaning farmers, government has contributed significantly to the enhance- cessful in the long term if a sufficient number and consumers, are included. In the following, ment of academic fisheries science capacities of adequately trained researchers, laboratory we present a selection of activities run at the in several African countries and Germany. The staff, technicians and consultants are available Thünen Institute. series began in 2013 with AWA (Ecosystem and employed in the target regions. Also, the approach to West African fisheries) in Senegal. effectiveness of bilateral research collabora- Cheikh Anta Diop University in Dakar and tion will be higher if both sides dispose of an Agricultural economic modelling for the Thünen Institute shared supervising sever- understanding and sound knowledge of the strengthening food security al Senegalese PhDs. This comprised inter alia respective other region. Therefore, a core el- mini-symposia in Germany, summer schools ement in our cooperative activities is to de- Agricultural economists from the Thünen In- in Senegal and training on-board a research velop capacities among both partners with stitute use agricultural mathematical models vessel. International conferences have been shared training and education programmes. as tools to estimate potential agricultural and organised to strengthen the regional network Moreover, research in rural areas will only economic developments for key agricultur- of marine science in terms of fisheries research be efficient if it benefits the local population. al markets in Germany and European Union and other ocean-related issues. During the So our activities follow a holistic approach in countries. Policy-makers use these estimates to PREFACE project (Enhancing the predict- which stakeholder involvement and the com- assess how the agricultural markets will behave ability of tropical climate), the Thünen Insti- RURAL 21 02/20 51

tute continued the activities in Cabo Verde at The Thünen Africa Concept graduate and post-graduate level in cooperation with the University of Cabo Verde. The The Thünen Institute is a diverse and geographically dispersed departmental research insti- first Master’s degree in fisheries science will be tution. It consists of 14 specialised institutes that carry out research and provide policy advice conferred in 2020. The concept of individu- in the fields of economy, ecology and technology. Alone in 2019, Thunen Institute cooperated al doctoral theses evolved into a full academic with 57 partners in 23 different African countries. Cooperation centres on the topics of food post-graduate programme within the WAS- security, climate change and sustainable use of natural resources. CAL framework (West African Science Ser- The exchange and coherence underlying the different activities in Africa is more demanding vice Centre on Climate Change and Adapt- than for other central organisations. To address this challenge, the institute is working out ed Land Use), of which the maritime branch a special Africa Concept, following the idea that capacity development in distant countries has been hosted by the University of Cabo is a process of change, involving all partners and individuals. The core of the Thünen Africa Verde since 2019. Within WASCAL, research concept is to: and educational capacities are shared between • establish an Africa contact point at the Thünen Institute both for scientific cooperation as eleven West African countries and Germany. well as for the political level and the Ministries; Thünen experts contribute in the fields of ma- • create an internal network of scientists taking an interest in Africa; rine genetic resources, fisheries biology and • provide guidelines for project planning for cooperation with African institutions, based on assessment, and hydro-acoustics. The Coastal the knowledge of partners and colleagues; Ecosystem Monitoring in Cabo Verde project • contribute to the national network of capacity building institutions. augments fieldwork for the WASCAL programme which also addresses non-academic capacity-building. Finally, these activities feed cation and training. Together with the Uni- bon footprint of teaching programmes and can back into the EU maritime “All Atlantic” versity of Hamburg, they are designing a be seen as a model to sustain capacity build- strategy as one of the pillars of Thünen Insti- masters’ curriculum in "Wood Science" for ing programmes cost-effectively. Thus, the tute marine research. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia and Ku- "screen-sharing button" in most conferencing masi Technical University, Ghana, and are tools evolves into a "knowledge-sharing but- In Namibia and South Africa, African partners building open educational resources. The ton". and Thünen colleagues co-supervise individu- postgraduates are grouped thematically (Geo- al students and support them in their academ- polymer-Wood-Composites, Wood Plastic The promotion of a suitable environment for ic careers to reach Masters and PhD degrees. Composites and Mass Flow Analysis) and per- effective scientific education is challenging, Participation in international research cruises form as learners and as teachers. During sum- given the short 3-4-year lifetime of most proj- is provided to enable sea-going training, and mer schools in Germany and hands-on work- ects. Therefore, within the African activities, training sessions will be organised to strength- shops in Ethiopia and South Africa, the African the Thünen Institute attempts to build a com- en the networking component. students learn about cost-saving processing and plementary series of projects by pursuing one characterisation methods whilst the Europeans topic with a number of successive ventures, as study the infrastructural circumstances of re- described for fisheries research. In addition, BioHome – research-driven education cycling and construction in urban Africa. The approaches to obtain independent project on recycling resources teams develop their teaching content based funding for education and training are under- on their genuine research work and qualify way. Two examples are curriculum develop- Sub-Saharan economies consume enormous themselves with e-learning tools (markdown, ment by BioHomes and the capacity-building amounts of non-African imported build- wiki, github). Excerpts from the lectures are activities in the area of agro-economic mod- ing materials, while waste management and translated into local languages and are illustrat- elling. Scientific education is a crucial part of eco-industrial products are in their fledgling ed to further mutual understanding between the Thünen activities in Africa, while other stages. A shortage of skilled staff further exac- academics and locals. important components involve the manner of erbates this scenario. Low-threshold teaching communicating scientific results to different formats for specialists may overcome such con- segments of society. Moreover, scientific ed- straints. One example is the BioHome project, Scientific education needs long-term, ucation can only be effective if the educated in which the Thünen Institute is cooperating trustful relationships persons find jobs or can be encouraged to cre- with University of Hamburg/Germany and ate their own enterprises at home. This asyn- the universities in Ethiopia, South Africa and Long-lasting trustful und respectful relation- chrony needs to be solved by governments and Ghana. The BioHome team develop building ships are important to enhance an environment international organisations. materials from by-products of combustion, for exchange and mutual learning. Moreover, post-consumer plastics and waste lignocel- learning, and thus education, are never-end- luloses. They work on frugal processes, e.g. ing processes of progress and adapting to new compounding waste agricultural foils into high conditions. The world-wide Corona pandem- Veronika Jorch (Thünen Institute of Climate- value building products. Consumer acceptance ic has hampered international education ef- Smart Agriculture), Heino Fock (Thünen Institute of their utilisation in the urban social housing forts. BioHome and WASCAL courses as well of Sea Fisheries), Aida Gonzalez-Mellado (Thünen sector is analysed and the substitution potential as the yearly-organised AGMEMOD Summer Institute of Market Analysis) and Goran Schmidt identified. School had to be transferred completely to on- (Thünen Institute of Wood Research) are all line formats. This highlights the importance of scientists and coordinate or work on the above- The project’s backbone is postgraduates from digitalisation in the development of capacities mentioned activities. eleven countries doing research-driven edu- in international collaboration, reduces the car- Contact: [email protected] InternatIonale Steuerberatung · speziell im Bereich Entwicklungszusammenarbeit ·

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Wir sind: eine deutsche Steuerberatungsgesellschaft mit Sitz im Zentrum des Rhein-Main- Gebiets bei Frankfurt am Main. Wir verfügen über internationales Know-How und betreuen langjährig fast ausschließlich weltweit tätige Arbeitnehmer und Consultants der führenden Akteure in der weltweiten Entwicklungszusammenarbeit – staatliche Organisationen, UNO, NGOs, kirchliche Dienste, Stiftungen, Vereine, gGmbH. Auch Mitarbeiter in Missionen des Friedensdienstes von EU und OSCE zählen zu unseren Mandanten.

ARGUS International Max-Planck-Straße 20 · 63303 Dreieich Steuerberatungsgesellschaft mbH Fon +49 6103 69 744 0 · [email protected] | www.argus.tax

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