Looking for Black Religions in 20Th Century Comics, 1931–1993

Home , Black Magic (comics), Caricature (comics), Comics Feature, Golden Duck Award, Henry (comics), June (comics)

religions

Article Looking for Black Religions in 20th Century Comics, 1931–1993Comics, 1931–1993 Yvonne Chireau Yvonne Chireau Department of Religion, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA 19081, USA; [email protected] Department of Religion, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA 19081, USA; [email protected]

Received: 10 April 2019; Accepted: 12 June 2019; Published: 25 June 2019 Received: 10 April 2019; Accepted: 12 June 2019; Published: 25 June 2019 Abstract: Relationships between religion and comics are generally unexplored in the academic Abstract:literature. ThisRelationships article provides between a brief religion history and of Black comics religions are generally in comic unexplored books, cartoons, in the animation, academic andliterature. newspaper This articlestrips, provideslooking at a briefAfrican history American of Black Christianity, religions in Islam, comic Africana books, cartoons, (African animation, diaspora) religions,and newspaper and folk strips, traditions looking such at African as Hoodoo American and Christianity,Conjure in the Islam, 20th Africana century. (African Even though diaspora) the treatmentreligions, andof Black folk traditionsreligions in such the ascomics Hoodoo was and informed Conjure by in stereotypical the 20th century. depictions Even of though race and the religiontreatment in ofUnited Black States religions (US) inpopular the comics culture, was Af informedrican American by stereotypical comics creators depictions contested of racethese and by offeringreligion inalternatives United States in their (US) treatment popular culture,of Black African religion American themes. comics creators contested these by oﬀering alternatives in their treatment of Black religion themes. Keywords: comics; black religions; Voodoo; Black Panther; race and religion; African American religionsKeywords: comics; black religions; Voodoo; Black Panther; race and religion; African American religions

Despite its acclaim as a unique vision of the genius of Africana cultures, the superhero comic book Black Panther (Figure 11)) isis notnotwell well known known for for its its portrayals portrayals of of religion. religion. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, overover itsits 53-year history, the comic frequently referenced ancestral religious rituals, supernatural realms and landscapes, and theologies of divine kingship. 1 Even though the relationships between religion and comics are largely unexamined, illustrations ofof blackblack religionsreligions inin comicscomics areare notnot new.new.

Figure 1. Orishas in Black Panther , 2016.

More than 150 years before the advent of Black Panther, a representationrepresentation of AfricanaAfricana religions appeared in a British cartoon called Johnny Newcome in Love in the West IndiesIndies.. In this 1808 sequential art print, the religious tradition known as obeah appeared in a story about th thee adventures of a hapless English plantation master in slavery-eraslavery-era Jamaica. In one panel, Newcome consults an “Oby man” to seduce “Mimbo Wampo”, a slave woman. We We see the black conjurer, with grizzled beard, staff, staﬀ, and medicine pot with feathers, grave dirt, and egg shells, dispensing assurances to Newcome, who is pictured inin anotheranother scenescene withwith ninenine o offspringﬀspring from from his his liaison liaison with with Mimbo Mimbo Wampo, Wampo, now now the the “queen” “queen” of ofhis his “harem”. “harem”. The The cartoon cartoon construed construed the spiritualthe spiritual tradition tradition of obeah of obeahas a bizarreas a bizarre magical magical practice, practice, while whiledescribing describing the perils the of perils social of intercourse social intercours betweene blacksbetween and blacks whites and in the whites New Worldin the environment.New World environment. The wry commentary indicates that prior to the twentieth century, the perceived

1 (Cowan 1988) See also (Faithful 2018); (Alexander 2018) and (Love n.d.).

Religions 2019, 10, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 400; doi:10.3390/rel10060400 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 400 2 of 17

The wry commentary indicates that prior to the twentieth century, the perceived “otherness” of African-based traditions like obeah readily translated into fodder for satire in the comics medium.2 In this article, I discuss Africana (African diasporic) religions, Islam, Christianity, and black folk traditions such as Hoodoo and Conjure, as they appeared in 20th-century cartoons, animation, comic books, and comic strips. Although comics are a topic of current academic interest in literature, history, and cultural studies, few discussions give focused attention to black religions. This lapse occurs in analyses of comics that represent Africana spiritual practices, and in comics that promote religious stories in order to educate or proselytize. Charting black religions in 20th century comics opens a window onto views of race and religion during this period and provides insights into the use of negative stereotypes that denigrate and distort Africana spiritual traditions. A focus on black religions also aﬃrms the ways that African American comics creators contested racial misrepresentations with viable portrayals of black spiritual life.3 In this article overview, I look at comics’ treatments of black religions in two movements. Part one speaks to the impact of misrepresentation, stereotyping, and caricature in depictions of black religions, particularly in mainstream American comics in the early- to mid-20th century. Part two considers the work and inﬂuence of black comics artists, writers, and other creators of black subjects and their engagement with religious themes in the same period to the turn of the 21st century. I show that, in depicting black religions, comics both supported and contested representations of race and religion in ways that parallel and diverge from their actual historical presence in United States (US) popular culture.

1. Representation from the Outside In the United States, issues of black representation were hard fought on the battlefields of popular culture, with comics at the forefront of many of those battles. As cultural artifacts, comics reflect many of the beliefs, values, and norms of the society in which they are produced. Insofar as African American religions are also products of culture, they are evaluated by society according to the prevailing ethnocentric standards of the majority. Nevertheless, due to their subordinate status, black religions are rarely represented on their own terms in the art and literature of popular culture.4 For example, in the heyday of comics’ rise in the early 20th century, black religions inhabited a diverse continuum that was rarely seen in popular depictions. Churches, organized sects, folk traditions passed down from slavery, political–spiritual institutions, and house temples existed side by side in African American communities throughout the United States.5 Often categorizing black traditions in pejorative terms as imperfect cognates of white Protestant Christianity, the disdain of the dominant society for black religions was made apparent by the invention of “Voodoo” to denote black religions of Africa, the Caribbean, and their American siblings, the black folk traditions of Hoodoo and Conjure. Adopted wholesale by comics artists and writers, cultural formations of “Voodoo” worked to vilify black religions with stereotyped characters, images, and narratives. In the first half of the 20th century, comics would turn en masse to the use of stereotypes, a practice with profoundly negative implications.6 As a “medium of extremes”, according to comics scholar Fredrik Stromberg, comics utilize stereotypes to simplify subjects in order to generate meaning, reducing physical characteristics with a visual shorthand of basic, recognizable symbols, and imagery.7 The early, widespread stereotyping of

2 Early comic images of black religion by African Americans are rare, although future research might illuminate the contributions of 19th century black artists and cartoonists such as Patrick Henry Reason and Henry Jackson Lewis, who provided illustrations in early African American newspapers and publications on a number of topics. See (Cutter 2017); (Taylor 2014) and (Jackson 2016, pp. 12–15). 3 Academic studies of comics and religion include (Lewis and Kraemer 2010) and (Lewis and Lund 2017). 4 On the 20th century anti-comics cultural crusades see (Nyberg 1998); (Hajdu 2008); (Inge 1979); (Nelson 2013). 5 On African American religious pluralism see (Weisenfeld 2018); (Perez 2015); (Finley and Guillory 2015) and (Curtis and Sigler 2009). 6 On comics and racial stereotypes, see (Singer 2002); see also (Gordon 1998); (White and Fuentez 1997). 7 (Stromberg 2003, p. 29). Religions 2019, 10, 400 3 of 17

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17 black religions in cartoons and comics animation was accomplished by distilling certain representational elementsof black ofreligions African in American cartoons religiosity and comics for comedicanimation eff ect.was For accomplished example, between by distilling 1930 and certain 1950, therepresentational “golden era” elements of cartooning of African in the American US, black re religionligiosity was for comedic mined for effect. its entertainment For example, valuebetween as animators1930 and created1950, the unambiguous “golden era” reproductions of cartooning of 19thin the century US, black blackface religion minstrelsy was mined and a hostfor its of profaneentertainment caricatures value of as the animators most distinct created qualities unambiguous of black sacred reproductions life. of 19th century blackface minstrelsyBlack religiousand a host styles of profane were consistently caricatures lampooned, of the most asdistinct seen with qualities the biblical of black satire sacredGoin’ life. to Heaven on a MuleBlack(1934), religious the Merriestyles were Melodies consistently animated la parodympooned,Clean as Pastures seen with(1937) the (Figure biblical2) andsatire the Goin’ Walter to LantzHeaven supernatural on a Mule (1934), ghost the comedy MerrieA Melodies Haunting animated we Will Goparody(1939), Clean as wellPastures as Lantz’s(1937) (Figure jazz-inflected 2) and Voodoothe Walter in Harlem Lantz(1938) supernatural and Hanna-Barbera’s ghost comedySwing A Haunting Social (1940),we Will a Go cartoon (1939), musical as well whose as Lantz’s rendering jazz- ofinflected black religionVoodoo in pitted Harlem the (1938) black and church Hanna-Barbera’s against the temptations Swing Social of (1940), the “Voodoo a cartoon devil” musical in acontest whose withrendering a jitterbug of black choir religion and African-styledpitted the black tom-toms. church against Black the faith temptations was also featuredof the “Voodoo in cartoons devil” that in botha contest imitated with a and jitterbug ridiculed choir its and expressions, African-styled such tom-toms. as the propensity Black faith for was unrestrained also featured emotionalism in cartoons inthat worship, both imitated rhythmic and music,ridiculed and its collective expressions, ritual such practices as the propensity for manifesting for unrestrained the Spirit withemotionalism physical embodiment.in worship, rhythmic Despite music, the institution and collective of a production ritual practices code for for manifesting filmmakers the in1930 Spirit that with prohibited physical “blasphemy,embodiment. religious Despite otheffense, institution and the of ridicule a production of clergy”, code black for filmmakers preachers and in 1930 religious that authoritiesprohibited were“blasphemy, regularly religious “burlesqued” offense, according and the toridicule cartoon of historianclergy”, black Henry preachers T. Sampson, and while religious “priests, authorities rabbis, orwere leaders regularly of any “burlesqued” other religious according groups” to were cartoon not. hi8 storian Henry T. Sampson, while “priests, rabbis, or leaders of any other religious groups” were not.8

Figure 2. Black religion caricatures, Clean Pastures cartoon, 1937. Animation creators utilized racial hyperbole in depicting black religious practices and beliefs. Animation creators utilized racial hyperbole in depicting black religious practices and beliefs. For example, animated comics with traditional African American worship practices tended toward For example, animated comics with traditional African American worship practices tended toward the egregious use of “Negro” dialect, frenzied dancing and singing routines, pedantic storylines, the egregious use of “Negro” dialect, frenzied dancing and singing routines, pedantic storylines, indistinguishable subhuman characters, and the creation of “moral cartoons” which blended minstrel indistinguishable subhuman characters, and the creation of “moral cartoons” which blended minstrel styles and religious lessons with clownish sermonizing. Derogatory representations also extended styles and religious lessons with clownish sermonizing. Derogatory representations also extended to to print “funnies” in the 1930s and 1940s, with cartoon comics like Lil Eight Ball and Carl Bark’s print “funnies” in the 1930s and 1940s, with cartoon comics like Lil Eight Ball and Carl Bark’s Donald Donald Duck Hoodoo Voodoo, which maligned black spirituality as retrograde superstition, replete with Duck Hoodoo Voodoo, which maligned black spirituality as retrograde superstition, replete with blackface coons and pickaninnies whose terriﬁed antics and exaggerated fears of ghosts provided blackface coons and pickaninnies whose terrified antics and exaggerated fears of ghosts provided the the point for sight gags. (Figure3) Viewed through the lens of American popular culture in the early point for sight gags. (Figure 3) Viewed through the lens of American popular culture in the early 20th 20th century, comics were indelibly linked to appropriations of black religion in a pernicious cycle of century, comics were indelibly linked to appropriations of black religion in a pernicious cycle of love love and theft—or what Christopher Lehman calls “ignorance and contempt”, as cherished traditions and theft—or what Christopher Lehman calls “ignorance and contempt”, as cherished traditions were subject to mockery and human characters depicted as ugly and disﬁgured, even as they were were subject to mockery and human characters depicted as ugly and disfigured, even as they were sensationalized as crowd-pleasing sources of entertainment.9 sensationalized as crowd-pleasing sources of entertainment.9

8 (Sampson 1998, p. 4); (Lehman 2007, pp. 39–45) and (Sammond 2015). 9 (Lehman 2007, p. 112).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 4 of 17 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Figure 3. Blackface in Donald Duck Voodoo Hoodoo (1949).

Proceeding fromfrom post-Emancipationpost-Emancipation black black cultures cultures in thein the South, South, the folkthe folk religions religions associated associated with thewith poor the andpoor illiterate and illiterate classes ofclasses rural Africanof rural Americans African Americans were perceived were as perceived theologically as undevelopedtheologically andundeveloped backward and by theirbackward urban by and their Northern urban and peers. No However,rthern peers. predominantly However, predominantly white comics artistswhite andcomics animators artists and viewed animators folk traditions viewed asfolk “authentic” traditions blackas “authentic” religiosity black and normalizedreligiosity and their normalized display as spectacle.their display Accordingly, as spectacle. black Accordingly, churches black advanced church a politicses advanced of respectability a politics of andrespectability racial progress and racial that scornedprogress negative that scorned associations negative between associations their faithbetween practices their andfaith what practices they and considered what they to be considered primitive spirituality.to be primitive While spirituality. black churches While black criticized churches unseemly criticized aspects unseemly of blackaspects folk of black religion folk as religion ignorant as heathenism,ignorant heathenism, they also they protested also protested the commodiﬁcation the commodification of African of AmericanAfrican American sacred cultures,sacred cultures, joining blackjoining leaders black andleaders the blackand the press black in condemning press in condemning the use of racial the use stereotypes of racial in stereotypes comics, cartoons, in comics, and animation.cartoons, and They animation. were divided, They however, were divided, over the howe socialver, problem over ofthe controversial social problem Hoodoo of controversial and Conjure folkHoodoo practices, and Conjure magic traditions folk practices, which magic were traditions associated which with “Africanisms” were associated and with iterations “Africanisms” of what wasand commonlyiterations of called what Voodoo.was commonly10 called Voodoo.10 Pluralism andand heterogeneity heterogeneity were were defining defining traits traits of black of religionblack religion in the US in from the itsUS very from beginnings, its very andbeginnings, spiritual and diversity spiritual remains diversity an remains accepted an part accepted of the part culture, of the historically culture, historically strengthening strengthening the racial solidaritythe racial solidarity and inclusiveness and inclusiveness of black communities. of black communities. However, However, prior to theprior 1960s, to the Africana 1960s, Africana or black diasporaor black diaspora religions religions such as obeah such, Santeriaas obeah,, and SanteriaVodou, andwere Vodou viewed were by viewed most Americans by most Americans as exotic and as strange,exotic and with strange, foreign gods,with foreignforeign practices,gods, foreign hailing practices, from foreign hailing places. from Negative foreign perceptions places. Negative of these Africanaperceptions traditions of these entered Africana into traditions portrayals entered of black into religions portrayals in the of black comics religions at an early in the point. comics I use at thean phraseearly point.graphic I use Voodoo theto phrase refer tographic the ongoing Voodoocharacterization to refer to the ofongoing Africana characterization religions as insurgent of Africana and racialized,religions as overdetermined insurgent and byracialized, associations overdetermined with sorcery, by and associations presumed to with be violent sorcery, and and dangerous. presumed It to is importantbe violent toand underscore dangerous. that theseIt is important discursive formationsto underscore were that inventions, these discursive wholesale fabrications,formations were with littleinventions, to do with wholesale actual religions fabrications, and historical with little practices. to do with Graphic actual Voodoo religions became and a signifierhistorical for practices. spiritual alterityGraphic that Voodoo marked became black a “otherness”signifier for withspiritual resonant alterity elements that marked that disfigured black “otherness” two historical with religiousresonant sources:elements indigenous that disfigured African two sacred historical traditions religious and Haitiansources:Vodou indigenous. As a metonym African sacred for Africana traditions religions, and graphicHaitian VoodooVodou. As became a metonym a stand-in for Africana for raceand religions, religion graphic as presented Voodoo in beca manyme widely a stand-in circulating for race comic and booksreligion in as the presented US, especially in many those widely of the circulating action-adventure comic books and horrorin the US, genres. especially11 those of the action- adventureThe aesthetics and horror of graphicgenres.11 Voodoo, as ﬁrst established in action-adventure jungle comics, depicted AfricanaThe spiritualitiesaesthetics of as uncivilizedgraphic Voodoo, and idolatrous, as first butestablished strangely powerfulin action-adventure and compelling. jungle Outlandish comics, picturesdepicted of Africana black religious spiritualities authorities as uncivilized in roles asand Voodoo idolatrous, priests but and strangely witch doctors—half-naked,powerful and compelling. with

10 On migration-era disputes over race and religion between black churches and the black press, see 10 On migration-era disputes over race and religion between black churches and the black press, see (Weisenfeld 2018, pp. 272–78);(Weisenfeld on the 2018, cultural pp. and 272–78); religious on clashes the cultural between and Christianity religious and clashes Conjure, between see (Chireau Christianity 2003); for and a look Conjure, at the role see of newspapers(Chireau 2003); andthe for rise a look of Voodoo, at the role see “Sellingof newspapers Voodoo in an Migrationd the rise Metropolises” of Voodoo, see (Cooper “Selling 2017 ,Voodoo pp. 49–54). in Migration 11 VodouMetropolises”and Voodoo: (Cooperwhile these 2017, terms pp. are49–54). often conflated in public discourses, they hold very distinct meanings. The former term denotes a cluster of sacred lineages associated with the worship of African and indigenous spirits in Haiti, while the 11 Vodou and Voodoo: while these terms are often conflated in public discourses, they hold very distinct latter is a contrived utility noun that reconstitutes race and religion as the projection of the Other. Also, the concept of “Voodoo”meanings. authorizes The former the dualismterm denotes between a magiccluster and of religion sacred consistentlylineages associated applied in with western the classifications worship of ofAfrican indigenous and andindigenous African systems spirits ofin knowledge. Haiti, while Adiscussion the latter that is a qualifies contrived the historicalutility noun distinction that reconstitutes between these race terms and is (McGee religion 2012 as). the projection of the Other. Also, the concept of “Voodoo” authorizes the dualism between magic and religion consistently applied in western classifications of indigenous and African systems of knowledge. A discussion that qualifies the historical distinction between these terms is (McGee 2012).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 5 of 17 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Outlandishgrass skirts, pictures feathered of headdresses, black religious ornamental authorities necklaces, in roles bones, as Voodoo and fetishes—registered priests and witch doctors—half- the stereotype naked,of the timelesswith grass “Native”. skirts, (Figurefeathered4) While headdresses, 19th-century ornamental political necklaces, cartoons and bones, illustrated and fetishes— journals registeredemployed similarthe stereotype visuals inof portrayalsthe timeless of indigenous“Native”. (Figure people, 4) Africana While religions19th-century in 20th political century cartoons comics andwere illustrated refracted throughjournals a employed prism of broadly similar pejorativevisuals in tropes portrayals that beliedof indigenous their meaning people, as authenticAfricana religionsspiritual traditions.in 20th century Weighed comics against were western refracted standards through and a Anglo-Christianprism of broadly exceptionalism, pejorative tropes African that beliedcultures their were meaning belittled; as authentic Africans spiritual were seen tradit as abjections. Weighed denizens against of the western “dark continent”, standards degenerate,and Anglo- Christianlacking moral exceptionalism, virtue, “without African God, cultures law, religion, were belit or commonwealth”.tled; Africans were Defamation seen as abject of African denizens peoples of thein written“dark andcontinent”, visual discourses degenerate, would lacking be used mora tol rationalizevirtue, “without the West’s God, role inlaw, the religion, slave trade, or commonwealth”colonialism, and. itsDefamation postulations of Afri ofcan scientiﬁc peoples theories in written of white and visual racial discourses superiority. would These be accepted used to rationalizeimages of Africa the West’s and Africansrole in the ﬁltered slave trade, into the colonial comics.ism, Later, and asits 20thpostulations century Europeanof scientific neo-colonial theories of whiteincursions racial into superiority. Africa ensued, These accepted the US, driven images by of imperialist Africa and competition, Africans filtered expanded into the its comics. interests Later, into asadventures 20th century closer Europea to homen neo-colonial with the 1915 incursions invasion of into Haiti. Africa As theensued, living the repository US, driven of Africana by imperialist sacred competition,traditions in theexpanded western its hemisphere, interests into Haiti adventures would come closer to playto home a vital with role the in comics’1915 invasion representations of Haiti. Asof blackthe living religions. repository12 of Africana sacred traditions in the western hemisphere, Haiti would come to play a

Figure 4. AfricanAfrican Witch Doctors. SpellboundSpellbound,, 1954. 1954.

Depression-era newspapernewspaper strips strips were were precursors precur tosors the anthologiesto the anthologies and serials and that transformedserials that transformedcomics intocomic comics books, into comic becoming books, some becoming of the some most proﬁtableof the most print profitable products print in products the US during in the theUS duringdecades the between decades 1938 between and 1953. 1938 Inand comics 1953. ofIn thiscomi period,cs of this black period, spirituality black spirituality was still constituted was still constitutedas primitive, as butprimitive, presented but aspresented less of a as laughing less of a matter laughing than matter with thethan earlier with the cartoons. earlier Considercartoons. Considernewspaper newspaper comics’ introduction comics’ introduction of Africana of subjects Africana in storytellingsubjects in storytelling through the through lenses of the colonial lenses and of colonialimperial and mythologies, imperial mythologies, such as the renownedsuch as theTarzan renownedstrips Tarzan and their strips competitors, and their competitors,Jungle Jim and JungleThe JimPhantom and The. As Phantom comics. publishers As comics publishers capitalized capita on readers’lized on desires readers’ for desires escapist for literature, escapist literature, they delivered they deliveredstores with stores a more with potent a more combination potent combination of racial and of racial religious and images religious in excitingimages in and exciting dangerous and dangerousforms. Graphic forms. Voodoo Graphic served Voodoo to vitalize served the to explosivevitalize the growth explosive enjoyed growth by jungle enjoyed comic by jungle book brandscomic bookduring brands the World during War the II World and postwar War II periods.and postwar With periods. patriotic With messaging patriotic and messaging wartime and propaganda, wartime propaganda,these comics these embellished comics Americanembellished national American identity national with identity “whiteness” with “whiteness” as the cultural as norm,the cultural while “blackness”norm, while and “blackness” “Africanness” and “Africanness” were marginalized were and marginalized diminished, and along diminished, with their religiousalong with subjects. their religiousAccordingly, subjects. jungle Accordingly, comics adopted jungle the comics emerging adopted conventions the emerging of the conventions comic book of form, the withcomic heroes book form,and superheroes with heroes as purveyorsand superheroes of justice, as actionpurveyors sequences of justice, that engaged action thesequences essential that struggle engaged between the essentialgood and struggle evil, and between tropical/ forestgood and settings evil, that and symbolized tropical/forest the untamedsettings that wilderness. symbolized The blackthe untamed Voodoo wilderness.priest personiﬁed The black the criminal Voodoo element, priest thepersonified dark-skinned the criminal savage whose element, depravity the dark-skinned was ever confronted savage whose depravity was ever confronted and subdued by muscular white protagonists with greater intelligence, physical power, and athletic prowess. (Figure 5).13 12 On the social and cultural impact of the Occupation, see (Renda 2001).

12 On the social and cultural impact of the Occupation, see (Renda 2001). 13 On the black comics hero form as cultural fiction, see (Brown 1999, pp. 27–28). Religions 2019, 10, 400 6 of 17 and subdued by muscular white protagonists with greater intelligence, physical power, and athletic prowess.Religions 2019 (Figure, 10, x FOR5). 13PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Figure 5. Voodoo Doctor from Tarzan comic book, 1965. Figure 5. Voodoo Doctor from Tarzan comic book, 1965. Although at least one African character, Waku: Prince of the Bantu, made his debut in the post-World War IIAlthough era, most at jungle least one adventure African comics character, headlined Waku: whitePrince heroes of the Bantu and heroines,, made his with debut blacks in the fulfilling post- secondaryWorld War parts II era, as most foes andjungle adversaries. adventure14 comicsFor instance, headlined the Foxwhite syndicated heroes and comic heroines, book serieswith blacksWeird 14 Comicsfulfilling(1940) secondary introduced parts anas antagonistfoes and adversaries. called The Voodoo For Maninstance,, an evil the mastermindFox syndicated whose comic vengeful book schemesseries Weird against Comics government (1940) introduced agents, missionaryan antagonist doctors, called andThe Voodoo other innocents Man, an evil ignited mastermind a maelstrom whose of deceit,vengeful fraud, schemes and greed against that govern compoundedment agents, the collective missionary misfortunes doctors, of hisand African other tribesmeninnocents (Figureignited6 ).a Althoughmaelstrom the of Voodoodeceit, Manfraud,was and one greed of the that earliest compou comicsnded tothe feature collective a black misfortunes character of in his a recurring African series,tribesmen Voodoo (Figure criminals 6). Although were as ubiquitousthe Voodoo as Man the whitewas one jungle of comicsthe earliest kings comics and queens to feature whose a stories black theycharacter populated. in a recurring The Voodoo series, Voodoo comics nemesiscriminals also were granted as ubiquitous implicit as justification the white jungle for the comics mollifying kings presenceand queens of Christianity whose stories as a they civilizing populated. force, while The givingVoodoo voice comics to a regressivenemesis also political granted discourse implicit of blackjustification incapacity; for the left mollifying to their own presence devices, of blacks Christianity were unsuited as a civilizing for self-governance, force, while giving requiring voice rescue to a orregressive protection political from wild discourse beasts, of natural black perils,incapacity; unscrupulous left to their whites, own anddevices, cynical blacks religious werefrauds unsuited whose for soleself-governance, intent was to requiring beguile therescue gullible or protection masses with from false wild godsbeasts, and natural heathen perils, idols. unscrupulous The Voodoo whites, priest enactedand cynical immorality religious and frauds corruption, whose sole threatened intent was vengeance to beguile and the retribution gullible masses toward with all false who gods opposed and heathen idols. The Voodoo priest enacted immorality and corruption, threatened vengeance and him, and validated a social message of white paternalism and American-Christian virtue on behalf retribution toward all who opposed him, and validated a social message of white paternalism and of the heroic jungle monarchs. For its part, graphic Voodoo provided staging for assertions of black American-Christian virtue on behalf of the heroic jungle monarchs. For its part, graphic Voodoo duplicity that were articulated in episodes of some of the most widely read superhero comics in the provided staging for assertions of black duplicity that were articulated in episodes of some of the WWII period, including Superman, Detective Comics, Captain Marvel, and Captain America. most widely read superhero comics in the WWII period, including Superman, Detective Comics, Captain Perhaps even more detrimental to black religions in 20th century comics was the onset of horror Marvel, and Captain America. fiction, which transformed graphic Voodoo from a formulaic plot device into grotesque allegories of ecstatic and violent black power. Repurposing fantasies of jungle primitivism into reflexive narratives of white terror, horror comics evinced a wellspring of suspense, the perversion of good into evil, and the recasting of Africana religions as diabolical in nature. Buoyed by the success of supernatural and fantasy articles in pulp magazines of the 1920s, Voodoo horror comics drew assiduously from published reports by foreign journalists, wartime commentators, and American servicemen in Haiti during this period (Figure7). Men’s popular magazines such as Weird Tales, Strange Tales, and Argosy

13 On the black comics hero form as cultural ﬁction, see (Brown 1999, pp. 27–28). 14 One of the ﬁrst African American jungle comics characters, Lion Man, appeared in a leading role in the single issue of the black comics publication All-Negro Comics, in 1947. The popularity of graphic Voodoo themes also brought about the casting of white lead characters with names such as Doctor Voodoo, Voodah, and Vuda. See (Savage 1990, pp. 74–77). On the black Voodoo priest in the comics see (Jones 2016).

14 One of the first African American jungle comics characters, Lion Man, appeared in a leading role in the single issue of the black comics publication All-Negro Comics, in 1947. The popularity of graphic Voodoo themes also brought about the casting of white lead characters with names such as Doctor Voodoo, Voodah, and Vuda. See (Savage 1990, pp. 74–77). On the black Voodoo priest in the comics see (Jones 2016).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 7 of 17 refashioned the literature of the military occupation into fantastic and morbid drama for leisure readers of pulp fiction. The narratives ascribed a kind of supernatural fanaticism to devotees of Haitian Vodou, while projecting dark impulses and delusions of race and religion onto a poor, defiant black peasant population. The 20th century US intervention in Haiti and the persecution of Vodou evoked recollections of Haiti’s extraordinary colonial history, its claims to nationhood, and the unthinkable possibility of black rule. The Occupation highlighted in palpable terms the limits of white Christian supremacy and American sovereignty, thereby expediting the need for racial and religious fictions that Religionsreferenced 2019, Haiti 10, x FOR as the PEER site REVIEW of the West’s own lurking, hidden spiritual fears.15 7 of 17

Figure 6. Early Black comic book villain, The Voodoo Man, 1940. Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEERFigure REVIEW 6. Early Black comic book villain, The Voodoo Man, 1940. 8 of 17

Perhaps even more detrimental to black religions in 20th century comics was the onset of horror fiction, which transformed graphic Voodoo from a formulaic plot device into grotesque allegories of ecstatic and violent black power. Repurposing fantasies of jungle primitivism into reflexive narratives of white terror, horror comics evinced a wellspring of suspense, the perversion of good into evil, and the recasting of Africana religions as diabolical in nature. Buoyed by the success of supernatural and fantasy articles in pulp magazines of the 1920s, Voodoo horror comics drew assiduously from published reports by foreign journalists, wartime commentators, and American servicemen in Haiti during this period (Figure 7). Men’s popular magazines such as Weird Tales, Strange Tales, and Argosy refashioned the literature of the military occupation into fantastic and morbid drama for leisure readers of pulp fiction. The narratives ascribed a kind of supernatural fanaticism to devotees of Haitian Vodou, while projecting dark impulses and delusions of race and religion onto a poor, defiant black peasant population. The 20th century US intervention in Haiti and the persecution of Vodou evoked recollections of Haiti’s extraordinary colonial history, its claims to nationhood, and the unthinkable possibility of black rule. The Occupation highlighted in palpable terms the limits of white Christian supremacy and American sovereignty, thereby expediting the need for racial and religious fictions that referencedFigure 7. Voodoo-inspiredHaitiVoodoo-inspired as the site cover of the on West’s pulp magazine, own lurking, 1940. hidden spiritual fears.15

Although figurations figurations of Voodoo had circulated in books, theater, and American film film since the 1930s, graphic horror Voodoo was not extensively propagated until until the the World World War II era, when a predominantly adult male comics readership develope developedd a a taste taste for for more more explicitly explicitly violent violent materials. materials. However, unlike jungle adventure comics, horror Voodoo framed Africana spirituality as the locus of malevolence, with images and stories of demonic possession, corporeal desecration, and diabolical violence.15 On the usesBy ofthe Haitian earlyVodou 1950s,in early horror 20th centurycomic Americanbooks such culture, as seeVault (Renda of Horror2001); On (1950), Voodoo Black as a theme Magic in early (1950), film, see (Coleman 2011) and (Senn 1998). With the transfiguration of Africana spirituality into horror Voodoo, we also see a shift Mysteriousfrom comics Adventures tropes, from (1951), a focus Phantom on the self-serving Witch Doctor fetish priest(1952), tosinister and the spiritual Entertaining perils that Comics further detached series Voodoo Voodoo hadfrom inverted its liberating the mythos origins, culminatingof the white with jungle the non-person king into of theallegories zombie, theof abjectwhite living-dead terror and slave. black see (subjugationCussans 2017), thaton transmuted the cultural uses actual of terror wartime and Voodoo atrocities as Haitian andVodou abushorror.es by American occupying forces into unbridled aggression toward the black Other (Figure 8). Voodoo-themed comic books also underscored Haiti’s backwardness and instability, and reconfigured religious Vodou into graphic horror Voodoo.16 As author John Cussans has noted, the real-life suppression of Vodou in Haiti during the Occupation coincided with the government’s attempt to win social and political support for American ambitions on the island. “Black practices of animal sacrifice, sorcery, cannibalism, ancestor worship, divination, zombification,15 On the uses of and Haitian possession,” Vodou in early he 20th writes, century “whether American culture,imagined see (Rendaor actual, 2001); Onserved Voodoo as asa a moraltheme justificationin early film, for see an (Coleman American 2011) civilizing and (Senn mission 1998). With that th seemede transfiguration to symbolically of Africana mark spirituality the end into ofhorror the HaitianVoodoo, revolutionary we also see experiment.” a shift from comics The Voodoo tropes, comifromcs, a focuswith allon theirthe self-serving horrifying fetish excesses, priest functioned to sinister spiritual perils that further detached Voodoo from its liberating origins, culminating with the non-person of as an archive of lurid fantasies of black supernaturalism, which served both to legitimate American the zombie, the abject living-dead slave. see (Cussans 2017), on the cultural uses of terror and Voodoo as interests and provide a rationale for the continued denigration of Africana religious practices and Haitian Vodou horror. beliefs. As standard comics fare for decades to come, graphic Voodoo perpetuated many of the lingering, distorted views of Africana religions that persist in popular culture even in the present day.17

16 Such as the remarkable comic of the story of Faustin Wirkus, the “white king” of La Gonave, “(Gauvreau 1946). 17 (Cussans 2017). As sacred ground for African cultures and site of the only successful anti-slavery revolution in the West, Haiti was viewed as a powerful emblem of black resistance and freedom in black Atlantic. These themes were celebrated by pan Africanists and black nationalists as mythic sources of race pride the world over. See (Corbould 2011).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 8 of 17

However, unlike jungle adventure comics, horror Voodoo framed Africana spirituality as the locus of malevolence, with images and stories of demonic possession, corporeal desecration, and diabolical violence. By the early 1950s, horror comic books such as Vault of Horror (1950), Black Magic (1950), Mysterious Adventures (1951), Phantom Witch Doctor (1952), and the Entertaining Comics series Voodoo had inverted the mythos of the white jungle king into allegories of white terror and black subjugation that transmuted actual wartime atrocities and abuses by American occupying forces into unbridled aggression toward the black Other (Figure8). Voodoo-themed comic books also underscored Haiti’s backwardness and instability, and reconfigured religious Vodou into graphic horror Voodoo.16 As author John Cussans has noted, the real-life suppression of Vodou in Haiti during the Occupation coincided with the government’s attempt to win social and political support for American ambitions on the island. “Black practices of animal sacrifice, sorcery, cannibalism, ancestor worship, divination, zombification, and possession,” he writes, “whether imagined or actual, served as a moral justification for an American civilizing mission that seemed to symbolically mark the end of the Haitian revolutionary experiment.” The Voodoo comics, with all their horrifying excesses, functioned as an archive of lurid fantasies of black supernaturalism, which served both to legitimate American interests and provide a rationale for the continued denigration of Africana religious practices and beliefs. As standard comics fare for decades to come, graphic Voodoo perpetuated many of the lingering, distorted views of Africana religionsReligions 2019 that, 10, persist x FOR PEER in popular REVIEWculture even in the present day.17 9 of 17

Figure 8. White jungle king tropes. Voodoo Comics, 1955. Figure 8. White jungle king tropes. Voodoo Comics, 1955. With the imposition of a self-regulatory code of content for comics publishers in 1954, the remainder of theWith decade the saw imposition a decline inof subjecta self-regulatory matter deemed code morally of content offensive for orcomics overly publishers controversial, in including1954, the manyremainder religious, of the racial, decade and horror-themedsaw a decline materials.in subject Despitematter thedeemed fact that, morally in the offensive first half ofor the overly 20th century,controversial, both jungleincluding adventure many religious, and horror racial, comics and reinforcedhorror-themed notions materials. of black Despite spiritual the primitivism, fact that, in theirthe first entertainment half of the 20th value century, in the both US was jungle unparalleled. adventure and Since horror the 1930s, comics literary reinforced and theatricalnotions of works black withspiritual Voodoo primitivism, themes had their been entertainment marketed to value American in the audiences, US was unparalleled. culminating Since in what the Melissa 1930s, literary Cooper callsand theatrical the “Voodoo works craze”, with a culturalVoodoo phenomenonthemes had been in which marketed Voodoo to themes American were audiences, utilized as culminating consumable sourcesin what Melissa for news Cooper and entertainment. calls the “Voodoo She craze”, notes a that cultural African phen Americanomenon in newspapers which Voodoo were themes active domainswere utilized for the as “massconsumable commercialization sources for news and an commodification”d entertainment. ofShe Voodoo, notes that with African black journalistsAmerican andnewspapers black newspapers were active such domains as the forChicago the “mass Defender commercialization, the New York Amsterdam and commodification” News, and the ofPittsburgh Voodoo, with black journalists and black newspapers such as the Chicago Defender, the New York Amsterdam News, and the Pittsburgh Courier disseminating stories of Voodoo-related criminal activity and sponsoring advertisements for Hoodoo–Conjure services in their pages. Interestingly, the circulation 16 Such as the remarkable comic of the story of Faustin Wirkus, the “white king” of La Gonave, “(Gauvreau 1946). 17of sensational(Cussans 2017 Voodoo). As sacred subjects ground forby AfricanAmerican cultures media and sitecoincided of the only with successful the events anti-slavery of the revolution Occupation in the West,and its brutalHaiti was repression viewed as a of powerful black emblemresistance of black in Haiti. resistance Yet, and as freedom many inblacks blackAtlantic. in the US These looked themes to were the celebrated founding by historypan Africanists of Haiti as and a blacktemplate nationalists for African as mythic American sources of racegreatness, pride the portrayals world over. Seeof Africana (Corbould 2011religions). colored by the racist imaginary issued forth in a variety of forms. While black newspapers were of the few arenas in which African American points of view were advanced with an eye toward supplying greater substance, balance, and nuance to their readers, they too, notes Cooper, contained “a contradictory mix of voodoo coverage” that “condemned backwardness and superstitions in the black community” while covering “sensational voodoo reports designed to entice readers.” Nevertheless, we see that it was in their emerging roles as social critics, political commentators, and humorists that African American newspaper writers and comics artists would provide new possibilities for thinking about and representing black religions in their totality.18

18 (Cooper 2017); (Corbould 2011).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 9 of 17

Courier disseminating stories of Voodoo-related criminal activity and sponsoring advertisements for Hoodoo–Conjure services in their pages. Interestingly, the circulation of sensational Voodoo subjects by American media coincided with the events of the Occupation and its brutal repression of black resistance in Haiti. Yet, as many blacks in the US looked to the founding history of Haiti as a template for African American greatness, portrayals of Africana religions colored by the racist imaginary issued forth in a variety of forms. While black newspapers were of the few arenas in which African American points of view were advanced with an eye toward supplying greater substance, balance, and nuance to their readers, they too, notes Cooper, contained “a contradictory mix of voodoo coverage” that “condemned backwardness and superstitions in the black community” while covering “sensational voodoo reports designed to entice readers.” Nevertheless, we see that it was in their emerging roles as social critics, political commentators, and humorists that African American newspaper writers and comics artists would provide new possibilities for thinking about and representing black religions in their totality.18

2. Representation from the Inside We now turn to representations of black religion by African American writers, artists, and other comics creators in the 20th century. By the 1930s, the combination of an emerging consumer class and the expansion of black newspapers created a demand for more relatable themes for the reading public. Artists and illustrators sought syndication for their cartoons and comics in order to bring a greater variety of perspectives to their depiction of black subjects and to counter degrading imagery that appeared in the mainstream press. Black comics in the ﬁrst half of the 20th century developed Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17 in concert with the independent black press, and the historical contributions of African American editorialcartoonists,” cartoonists writes tocartoon the development historian Tim of the Jackson, form should committed not be to underestimated. rebutting racist “Black imagery cartoonists,” of black writespeople, cartoon and took historian “emphatic Tim control Jackson, of committed their self-image.” to rebutting Here, racist we see imagery the ways of blackthat African people, American and took “emphaticcomics artists control also ofissued their positive self-image.” representations Here, we see of theblack ways religiosity that African that counterbalanced American comics many artists of alsothe images issued that positive circulated representations in American of black popular religiosity culture. that Twentieth counterbalanced century black many newspaper of the images cartoon that circulatedand comics in artists American drew popular upon culture.what Angela Twentieth Nelson century calls blacka “black newspaper repertoire” cartoon in their and comicsdepiction artists of drewreligious upon characters what Angela and Nelsonscenarios, calls articulating a “black repertoire” the political, in their ideological, depiction and of religious aspirational characters values and of 19 scenarios,their readers articulating (Figure 9). the19 political, ideological, and aspirational values of their readers (Figure9).

Figure 9. Black preacher as seen in newspaper comic strip. Dark Laughter, 1947. Figure 9. Black preacher as seen in newspaper comic strip. Dark Laughter, 1947.

18 (CooperOne unusual 2017); (Corbould newspaper 2011). comic in this era that centered on black religiosity and the black church 19 was(Jackson Deacon 2016 Jones, p. 8);by ( SuggsIke “Sam” 1983); ( GordonP. Reynolds, 1998). columnist and local scribe of black Atlanta in the 1930s. Deacon Jones was published in the Atlanta Daily World from 1931–1932. Reynolds was well known for his reporting of local neighborhood happenings in and around the Auburn Avenue district, the thriving epicenter of black business and home to the renowned Ebenezer Baptist Church, an anchor of the African American religious community. Reynolds, who also wrote a gossip column called “Sam on the Avenue”, instilled the homiletic voice and humor of the traditional black preacher into his comic, with sketches and inside jokes from the pulpit directed at the portly Deacon, whose witty and sometimes profane commentaries appeared daily in the newspaper with a single panel gag strip, and with a longer cartoon on Sunday.20 As rare as Deacon Jones was as a religion-themed newspaper comic strip, the appearance of black women in 20th century comics with religion topics was even more uncommon. Their absence may be attributed to the insidiousness of racialized gender stereotypes, an overemphasis on renditions of masculinity in comics, and the lengthy, troubling history of black women’s exploitation with sexually objectifying images. Nevertheless, two comics serve as bookends to other examples in this arena: first, a four-page comics feature on the life of Sojourner Truth, which appeared in a 1945 issue of Wonder Woman called “Wonder Women of History”. The product of an intersectional collaboration between the black artist Alfonso Greene and feminist icon Alice Marble, the short graphic biography depicts the abolitionist and preacher as a devoted slave mother, evangelical convert, and ardent women’s rights advocate whose righteous dedication to her cause proved the “fighting spirit” she shared with other female subjects in the comic book series. In stark contrast, nearly 30 years later, the first syndicated newspaper strip with an African American female character in a title role debuted in the Chicago Tribune, a romantic soap opera called Friday Foster. The weekly comic, about the life, loves, and adventures of a single African American career girl, presented a limited story arc in which Friday, a photographer’s assistant-turned-model, squared off against a “Hoodoo Doctor” gang kingpin and cult leader in the heady urban jungle of Harlem, New York. This episode repackaged graphic Voodoo

19 (Jackson 2016, p. 8); (Suggs 1983); (Gordon 1998). 20 (Jackson 2016); (Suggs 1983, pp. 135–36).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 10 of 17

One unusual newspaper comic in this era that centered on black religiosity and the black church was Deacon Jones by Ike “Sam” P. Reynolds, columnist and local scribe of black Atlanta in the 1930s. Deacon Jones was published in the Atlanta Daily World from 1931–1932. Reynolds was well known for his reporting of local neighborhood happenings in and around the Auburn Avenue district, the thriving epicenter of black business and home to the renowned Ebenezer Baptist Church, an anchor of the African American religious community. Reynolds, who also wrote a gossip column called “Sam on the Avenue”, instilled the homiletic voice and humor of the traditional black preacher into his comic, with sketches and inside jokes from the pulpit directed at the portly Deacon, whose witty and sometimes profane commentaries appeared daily in the newspaper with a single panel gag strip, and with a longer cartoon on Sunday.20 As rare as Deacon Jones was as a religion-themed newspaper comic strip, the appearance of black women in 20th century comics with religion topics was even more uncommon. Their absence may be attributed to the insidiousness of racialized gender stereotypes, an overemphasis on renditions of masculinity in comics, and the lengthy, troubling history of black women’s exploitation with sexually objectifying images. Nevertheless, two comics serve as bookends to other examples in this arena: first, a four-page comics feature on the life of Sojourner Truth, which appeared in a 1945 issue of Wonder Woman called “Wonder Women of History”. The product of an intersectional collaboration between the black artist Alfonso Greene and feminist icon Alice Marble, the short graphic biography depicts the abolitionist and preacher as a devoted slave mother, evangelical convert, and ardent women’s rights advocate whose righteous dedication to her cause proved the “fighting spirit” she shared with other female subjects in the comic book series. In stark contrast, nearly 30 years later, the first syndicated newspaper strip with an African American female character in a title role debuted in the Chicago Tribune, a romantic soap opera called Friday Foster. The weekly comic, about the life, loves, and adventures of a single African American career girl, presented a limited story arc in which Friday, a photographer’s assistant-turned-model, squared off against a “Hoodoo Doctor” gang kingpin and cult leader in the heady urban jungle of Harlem, New York. This episode repackaged graphic Voodoo themes with 1970s blaxploitation aesthetics and other period references. The Friday Foster newspaper comic strip enjoyed a four-year run and later took on a second life as a one-shot Dell comic book and a feature film before it was discontinued in 1975. Although these two publications present somewhat nominal portrayals of black religion, atypical as they were, their significance lies in their advancement of spaces for the future presence of black women in comics.21 Although religion remained a rock-solid institution in black American life, comics with a specific theological focus or spiritual orientation were hard to come by in the black secular press. Of course, black newspapers highlighted pertinent religious subjects, as with the signature works of the artist Ahmed Samuel Milai of the Pittsburgh Courier (1937–1950), whose cartoons for Your History and Facts about the Negro occasionally juxtaposed religious themes with notable persons of achievement from the annals of African American history (Figure 10). As comics became more deeply embedded within the fabric of American popular culture, black writers and artists over the decades strove to capture multiple dimensions of the African American experience by valorizing religious leaders and celebrities as exemplary figures and creating comic books and cartoon biographies of religiously significant personalities, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Muhammad Ali, and Malcolm X. African American religion was also presented in the comics as a catalyst for galvanizing nonviolent political activism, as seen in Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a 1956 single issue comic book by the Fellowship of Reconciliation and published by the cartoon studio of Al Capp (of Lil Abner fame), which was distributed in schools and churches throughout the South. The 16-page comic also provided

20 (Jackson 2016); (Suggs 1983, pp. 135–36). 21 “Wonder Women of History: (Marble and Greene 1945); (Lawrence and Longaron 1973); Chicago Tribune-New York Syndicate (1970–1974). On black women and comics, see (Whaley 2016). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17 themes with 1970s blaxploitation aesthetics and other period references. The Friday Foster newspaper comic strip enjoyed a four-year run and later took on a second life as a one-shot Dell comic book and a feature film before it was discontinued in 1975. Although these two publications present somewhat nominal portrayals of black religion, atypical as they were, their significance lies in their advancement of spaces for the future presence of black women in comics.21 Although religion remained a rock-solid institution in black American life, comics with a specific theological focus or spiritual orientation were hard to come by in the black secular press. Of course, black newspapers highlighted pertinent religious subjects, as with the signature works of the artist Ahmed Samuel Milai of the Pittsburgh Courier (1937–1950), whose cartoons for Your History and Facts about the Negro occasionally juxtaposed religious themes with notable persons of achievement from the annals of African American history (Figure 10). As comics became more deeply embedded within the fabric of American popular culture, black writers and artists over the decades strove to capture multiple dimensions of the African American experience by valorizing religious leaders and celebrities as exemplary figures and creating comic books and cartoon biographies of religiously significant personalities, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Muhammad Ali, and Malcolm X. African American religion was also presented in the comics as a catalyst for galvanizing nonviolent political activism,Religions 2019 as, 10seen, 400 in Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a 1956 single issue comic book11 of by 17 the Fellowship of Reconciliation and published by the cartoon studio of Al Capp (of Lil Abner fame), which was distributed in schools and churches throughout the South. The 16-page comic also inspiration for the 2015 award-winning graphic novel trilogy by Congressman John Lewis and Andrew provided inspiration for the 2015 award-winning graphic novel trilogy by Congressman John Lewis Aydin, March.22 and Andrew Aydin, March.22

Figure 10. Sam Milai created comics for the syndicated feature Your History (1942). Figure 10. Sam Milai created comics for the syndicated feature Your History (1942). While newspaper artists offered many meaningful contributions to the project of black While newspaper artists offered many meaningful contributions to the project of black representation, none treated religion more consistently than the illustrator Eugene Majied, editorial representation, none treated religion more consistently than the illustrator Eugene Majied, editorial cartoonist for one of the most widely circulated African American newspaper weeklies in the 20th cartoonist for one of the most widely circulated African American newspaper weeklies in the 20th century, Muhammad Speaks. Majied, who began his career as an artist at the Chicago Defender in 1961, century, Muhammad Speaks. Majied, who began his career as an artist at the Chicago Defender in 1961, brought a sensibility to his work that instilled theological precepts from the Nation of Islam and brought a sensibility to his work that instilled theological precepts from the Nation of Islam and foregrounded black Muslim religion in order to provide meaningful and positive self-images of African foregrounded black Muslim religion in order to provide meaningful and positive self-images of Americans. Moreover, while many of his cartoons were tempered with strong doses of racial political African Americans. Moreover, while many of his cartoons were tempered with strong doses of racial opinion, their subject matter dealt almost entirely with themes of religious uplift, black history, and political opinion, their subject matter dealt almost entirely with themes of religious uplift, black matters of spiritual import that were infrequently addressed in secular newspaper comics. With history, and matters of spiritual import that were infrequently addressed in secular newspaper incisive satire and penetrating analysis of current events, Majied’s cartoons reflected his strongly held comics. With incisive satire and penetrating analysis of current events, Majied’s cartoons reflected his convictions on the redemptive teachings of Elijah Muhammad as they related to black self-reliance, strongly held convictions on the redemptive teachings of Elijah Muhammad as they related to black racial discrimination in the United States, and economic empowerment. His comics appeared in Muhammad Speaks from 1960 to 1975. 23 21 “WonderFrom the Women 1970s ofonward, History: (Marble blackwriters and Greene and 1945); artists (Lawrence harnessed and the Longar comicson 1973); medium Chicago to supportTribune- particularNew York various Syndicate theological (1970–1974). agendas, On black to celebrate women and African comics, American see (Whaley faith 2016). traditions, and to reinterpret 22traditional (Benton and religious Barry beliefs1958); (Lewis in light et ofal. a2013). shared cultural heritage. One of the most prolific black comics illustrators from this period was the African American artist Fred Carter, whose work delivered a fundamentalist message of conservative Christian doctrine in an array of widely read pamphlets, tracts, and comic books by the Jack T. Chick Publications Company. Carter, an uncredited artist for the California-based publisher from 1975 to 1980, was known for his vivid oil-paint images which dramatized the horrors of sin, the judgment of the wicked, and the glory of spiritual conversion with distinctive graphics and lavish colors. His notable works for the Jack Chick studio included “Soul Story” and “The Sissy”, and the Christian hero-duo series “The Crusaders.” While illustrating numerous publications for the Jack Chick studio, Carter focused on creating content pertaining to African Americans and later redesigned Chick’s persuasive missionary publications using only images of black people for tracts which focused on issues such as crime, drugs, abortion, and the presence of

22 (Benton and Barry 1958); (John Lewis and Powell 2013). 23 Another illustrious cartoonist for the Black Muslim newspaper was Abdelaziz Ramzah/Gerald 2X, creator of political cartoons in the 1960s and 70s. See (Jackson 2016, pp. 126–28); (Tisserand 2008). On African American Muslim characters in comics, see (Pruitt 2017). Religions 2019, 10, 400 12 of 17 competing religions like Islam and African diaspora traditions. A Pentecostal minister, Carter also illustrated a race-specific bible for Nia Publishing/Urban Spirit Ministries called The Children of Color Bible, in which he reworked Old and New Testament stories into brightly rendered images of black- and brown-skinned characters with the original biblical narratives.24 In contrast with the prolific but sometimes controversial work of Jack Chick, other religious comics publishers made black representational inroads by adding storylines that were attuned to African American experiences. An example of this genre is the comic book Up from Harlem from Spire, an imprint of the Christian publisher Fleming H. Revell (1974), a company dedicated to creating educational comics with an evangelical theological slant. Up from Harlem is an account of the life story of the African American street-gang member turned preacher Tom Skinner, whose stirring biography was one of several titles published in Spire’s extensive series of illustrated stories about celebrity Christians, ministers, and missionaries. The comic, which adopted the unmistakable idioms of the “Soul” era, relayed a dramatic account of Skinner’s unlikely religious conversion and rescue from the social ills of poverty and inner-city gangs. Skinner, depicted in the comic as a real-life black “street prophet”, would go on to become a charismatic motivational preacher whose passionate witness and radical critique of social and racial injustice made him one of the most prominent African American Christians on the white evangelical crusade and missionary circuit in the 1970s. Up from Harlem is one in a genre of publications that privileged the Christian viewpoint while focusing on the pathologies of urban African American culture, promoting the need for spiritual transformation among black people as a primary evangelical endeavor.25 In the final quarter of the 20th century, dedicated artists and writers adapted the modern conventions of comics storytelling in works that accorded complex characterizations of black religion in narratives of fantastic, superhuman characters and godlike heroes that spoke explicitly to themes of Africana spirituality and racial identity. With the introduction of African and African American superhero characters in mainstream comic books in the late 1960s, graphic Voodoo would be deployed once again, but now with an alternative, positive take on race and religion. A Marvel superhero by the name of Brother Voodoo first appeared in the 1973 comics series Strange Tales in a supporting role as a supernatural agent and protector of justice. Later, he would be featured in his own series as one of a leading generation of “black power” superheroes (Figure 11). Brother Voodoo personified conventional styles of superhero masculinity and enacted comics horror tropes while complicating questions of racial and religious authenticity in his role as an Africana religions practitioner. This time, it was Vodou, not Voodoo, that was reformulated as a weapon of choice in an arsenal of enhanced abilities for Jericho Drumm, a repatriated Haitian, in his secret identity as a mild-mannered and rational black psychologist. Brother Voodoo wielded a cache of superpowers loosely associated with Haitian Vodou, including the deities known as loa, the ritual technology of spirit possession, and the artifacts of magical protection and defense called wanga. Although the character engaged in supernatural warfare against zombies, evil bokors, demons, and stock graphic Voodoo villains, the comic drew from an extensive lexicon of Africana cultural styles that transformed him from a mystical sorcerer with an obscure pedigree into a consummate down-to-earth action hero with a historical black diasporic religious lineage.26 The 1980s and 90s inaugurated shifts in the work of comics writers and artists of the post-civil rights, post-black power generations, and institutionalized a more diverse readership of the comics themselves. A decisive period in mainstream comics production, unstable economic trends, and the declining sales of newsstand comic books led to an increase in direct marketing and a subsequent turn by artists and writers to more mature, violent, and psychologically driven narratives. Concurrent with these trends, the establishment of independent black comics had a massive impact on the medium

24 (Kuersteiner 2004). 25 On the life and career of Tom Skinner, see (Gilbreath 1996). 26 (Wein et al. 1973); (Nama 2011, pp. 105–10). Religions 2019, 10, 400 13 of 17 itself, leading to a re-envisioning of black representation, with respect to themes of race, religion, and spirituality. A signal event was the 1993 founding of Milestone Media, a publishing collective of African American artists and writers that tapped crossover markets in an appeal to diverse audiences all the while initiating conversations about racial representation went beyond the black/white binary.27 Yet, while Milestone opened up opportunities for the presence of new black characters and themes, neither religion nor spirituality was of great significance to their conceptualizing of African American subjects. Milestone’s culminating success was their achievement of greater ethnic representation in the comics industry and the recognition of the need for black comics creators to control the licensing, distribution, and publication of their products; it fell to independent black comics publishers, drawing impetus from cultural movements such as Afrocentrism and black nationalism, to put forth relevant religious subject matter. For instance, Onli Studios, founded by Chicago-based artist Turtel Onli, as well as the Association of Black Comic Book Publishers (also known as ANIA), a consortium of four Black-owned comic companies, promoted comics that merged ancient myths, black diaspora imagery, and Afrocentric themes with conventional crime and superhero narratives. In most of these comic books, spiritual, esoteric, and mystical symbols and themes formed the center of their vision of black culture. Insofar as these contemporary writers and artists considered mythic blackness and the Sacred as dual lenses with which to create stories and images, they utilized a variety of resources, including iconographic imagery derived from Egyptian and Khemetic motifs, technologically complex tropes from science fiction, and traditional theological frameworks from indigenous African faiths. Onli, also known as the father of the “Black Age of Comics”, wrote, illustrated, and published a spectacular universe of comic book titles that employed black and Africana spiritual frameworks. Onli said that an “African American aesthetic” imbued his work with purpose and meaning as it drew inspiration from African American arts activism of the 1970s (in movements such as BAM). His spiritual and artistic sensibilities converged in the publication of his 1981 comic NOG, Protector of the Pyramides, the story of a powerful entity from a race of immortal beings whose mission was revealed to be cosmic guardian of the planetary outpost Nuba (Nubia). Similar themes would be taken up by other independent black comics in the latter decades of the twentieth century, including, notably, the work of Roger Barnes, whose Heru, Son of Ausar (1993) brought ancient stories of the Nile Valley to life in tales of primal beings, demigods, and goddesses that waged epic battles against earthly oppressors, presenting new mythologies of powerful black heroic defenders of the righteous against corrupt invaders and alien malefactors (Figure 12).28 By creatively adopting African-centered metaphysics and cosmologies in their world-making practices, latter twentieth century black comic writers and illustrators anticipated the black arts and culture movement known as Afrofuturism. In emphasizing the speculative and the technological in service to Africana identity and liberation, Afrofuturism re-envisions the past in ways that reach beyond the present histories of black people in the West.29 Comics Afrofuturism, as defined by communications scholar Reynaldo Anderson, is an aesthetic orientation that conceives of alternate realities, utopian and dystopian scenarios, and scientific archetypes in imagined narratives of the future for black people. Strongly mythic in its expressions, Afrofuturism “reinvents a visionary discourse related to the diasporic experience [that is] impacted by technological transformation,” Anderson writes, but “remains connected to an African humanistic past.”30 Religiously inspired Afrofuturism, in various manifestations, draws from indigenous African religions, biblical prophecy, and ancient esoteric literature as resources to explore topics like time travel, astronomy, space exploration, and the

27 (Dallas 2018, pp. 107–8); (Brown 2001). 28 (Womack 2013). 29 Afrofuturism emerged as a category of speculative narrative and art that combines science, blackness, technology, and culture. See (Womack 2013). 30 Reynaldo Anderson, “Critical Afrofuturism: A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric, Sequential Art, and Post-apocalyptic Black Identity”, in (Gateward and Jennings 2015, pp. 182–83); (Womack 2013, pp. 142–45). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Religions 2019, 10, 400 14 of 17 arsenal of enhanced abilities for Jericho Drumm, a repatriated Haitian, in his secret identity as a mild- mannered and rational black psychologist. Brother Voodoo wielded a cache of superpowers loosely integrationassociated with of machine Haitian and Vodou human, including consciousness, the deities centering known characters as loa, the and ritual themes technology that speak of to spirit black resistancepossession, and and liberation. the artifacts By of reformulating magical protection the mythic and defense past and ca reconstructinglled wanga. Although the present the character through speculativeengaged in superna narratives,tural independent warfare against black zombies, comics evil creators bokors, extended demons, the and very stock notion graphic of “religion” Voodoo beyondvillains, traditional the comic conceptualizations drew from an and extensive reclaimed lexicon Africana of Africanaspiritual sources cultural as central styles to that the representationtransformed him of black from religions a in US popular culture.

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17 fiction, and traditional theological frameworks from indigenous African faiths. Onli, also known as the father of the “Black Age of Comics”, wrote, illustrated, and published a spectacular universe of comic book titles that employed black and Africana spiritual frameworks. Onli said that an “African American aesthetic” imbued his work with purpose and meaning as it drew inspiration from African American arts activism of the 1970s (in movements such as BAM). His spiritual and artistic sensibilities converged in the publication of his 1981 comic NOG, Protector of the Pyramides, the story of a powerful entity from a race of immortal beings whose mission was revealed to be cosmic guardian of the planetary outpost Nuba (Nubia). Similar themes would be taken up by other independent black comics in the latter decades of the twentieth century, including, notably, the work of Roger Barnes, whose Heru, Son of Ausar (1993) brought ancient stories of the Nile Valley to life in tales of primal beings, demigods, and goddesses that waged epic battles against earthly oppressors, presenting new mythologiesFigure of 11. powerful First cover black appearance heroic of defenders Brother Voodoo of ,the 1973. righteous against corrupt invaders and alien malefactors (Figure 12).28 The 1980s and 90s inaugurated shifts in the work of comics writers and artists of the post-civil rights, post-black power generations, and institutionalized a more diverse readership of the comics themselves. A decisive period in mainstream comics production, unstable economic trends, and the declining sales of newsstand comic books led to an increase in direct marketing and a subsequent turn by artists and writers to more mature, violent, and psychologically driven narratives. Concurrent with these trends, the establishment of independent black comics had a massive impact on the medium itself, leading to a re-envisioning of black representation, with respect to themes of race, religion, and spirituality. A signal event was the 1993 founding of Milestone Media, a publishing collective of African American artists and writers that tapped crossover markets in an appeal to diverse audiences all the while initiating conversations about racial representation went beyond the black/white binary.27 Yet, while Milestone opened up opportunities for the presence of new black characters and themes, neither religion nor spirituality was of great significance to their conceptualizing of African American subjects. Milestone’s culminating success was their achievement of greater ethnic representation in the comics industry and the recognition of the need for black comics creators to control the licensing, distribution, and publication of their products; it fell to independent black comics publishers, drawing impetus from cultural movements such as Afrocentrism and black nationalism, to put forth relevant religious subject matter. For instance, Onli Studios, founded by Chicago-based artist Turtel Onli, as well as the Association of Black Comic Book Figure 12. Sacred legends in Heru Son of Ausar. Afrocentric Comics, 1993. Publishers (also knownFigure 12.as SacredANIA), legends a consortium in Heru Son of of four Ausar Black-owned. Afrocentric Comics, comic companies,1993. promoted 3.comics Conclusions that merged ancient myths, black diaspora imagery, and Afrocentric themes with By creatively adopting African-centered metaphysics and cosmologies in their world-making conventional crime and superhero narratives. In most of these comic books, spiritual, esoteric, and practices,We complete latter twentieth this discussion century having black comecomic fullwriter circle,s and “looking illustrators at the anticipated past to retrieve the black what wasarts and lost, mystical symbols and themes formed the center of their vision of black culture. Insofar as these andculture reclaiming movement the present”, known as as Afrofuturism the wisdom sayings. In emphasizing of the Akan the Sankofa speculative philosophers and the a ﬃtechnologicalrm. From early in contemporary writers and artists considered mythic blackness and the Sacred as dual lenses with imagesservice ofto blackAfricana religion identity in twentieth and liberation, century Afrofu comicsturism to the presentre-envisions day—with the past the in extraordinary ways that reach 2018 which to create stories and images, they utilized a variety of resources, including iconographic comicbeyond book-based the present ﬁlm historiesBlack Panther of blackopening people up in new the domainsWest.29 Comics of Afrofuturist Afrofuturism, representation—black as defined by imagery derived from Egyptian and Khemetic motifs, technologically complex tropes from science Americancommunications religions scholar and Africana Reynaldo spiritualities Anderson, were is an transformed aesthetic orientation from a waning that conceives trajectory of of alternate negative images,realities, stereotypes, utopian and and dystopian distortions scenarios, that once and dominated scientific comics archetypes art and narrative.in imagined Even narratives now, black of andthe 26 Africanafuture (Wein for spiritualet blackal. 1973); people. themes (Nama resonateStrongly 2011, pp. with 105–10).mythic the latestin its generationexpressions, of comicsAfrofuturism consumers, “reinvents whose relationshipa visionary 27 (Dallas 2018, pp. 107–8); (Brown 2001). discourse related to the diasporic experience [that is] impacted by technological transformation,” Anderson writes, but “remains connected to an African humanistic past.”30 Religiously inspired Afrofuturism, in various manifestations, draws from indigenous African religions, biblical prophecy, and ancient esoteric literature as resources to explore topics like time travel, astronomy, space exploration, and the integration of machine and human consciousness, centering characters and themes that speak to black resistance and liberation. By reformulating the mythic past and reconstructing the present through speculative narratives, independent black comics creators

28 (Womack 2013). 29 Afrofuturism emerged as a category of speculative narrative and art that combines science, blackness, technology, and culture. See (Womack 2013). 30 Reynaldo Anderson, “Critical Afrofuturism: A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric, Sequential Art, and Post- apocalyptic Black Identity”, in (Gateward and Jennings 2015, pp. 182–83); (Womack 2013, pp. 142–45).

Religions 2019, 10, 400 15 of 17 to race and religion appears to be far less sectarian and more religiously expansive than any that came before them. The comics of the past century offer an array of valuable lessons as we consider the treatment of black religion as subject matter in US popular culture. Comic books, cartoons, animation, and newspaper strips conveyed harmful assumptions and racist ideas in their treatment of black and Africana religions, but comics were also used as a corrective, offering truer and more authentic perspectives. This investigation of black religion and comics, while limited, shows how comics articulated understandings of blackness, race, and Africana spiritualities that both supported and contested the views of the dominant society. What conclusions may be drawn regarding the significance of black religions and their depiction in comics? Firstly, it is worth underscoring that, as the comic developed as a multi-faceted form in the twentieth century, so did the breadth of styles by which black religion was illustrated. From the early caricature and satirizing of African American church performances, black folk traditions, and Africana practices in cartoons and animation, to the contrasting presentation of religious themes as viable subject material by the black press and mainstream comic books, depictions of black religion were shaped by perceptions of their creators and their readers, even as the expansion of the comics medium would be ultimately industry-defined. The rise of Graphic Voodoo in the early twentieth century as an imaginary construction and false depiction of black religious and spiritual otherness is an example of the power of outsider representations that has had considerable cultural impact, as it was later adopted, appropriated, and disseminated both by insiders and others, becoming embedded within comics discourses even in the present day. Notwithstanding their commercialized aspects, comics centering on blackness and spirituality advanced over the decades as increasingly visible presentations of racial identity, becoming more salient in US popular culture. In response to these trends, black artists, writers, and creators in particular have developed more elaborate, complex, and authentic depictions of black religiosity and spirituality through comics storylines, characters, and images. It may be possible to consider comics as one of many forms of religious definition and expression—as facilitating new and imaginative spiritual practices of meaning-making through narrative, art, and social commentary that focus on traditional and non-traditional spiritual sources, persons, and subjects. Historically, black religious representation in comics originated as one-sided, created and offered as a spectacle to be viewed from the outside, looking in; in large part, the work of black artists and writers in the 20th century exemplified the struggle to correct and take control of the same so as to provide images and narratives with an insider’s vision. It remains to be seen in what new directions comics and black religions will flow in as they extend into the 21st century, but it is clear that, for comics creators and their readers, the future is present.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

References

Alexander, Torin Dru. 2018. Africana Religion, Black Panther, and the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Journal of Pan African Studies 11: 64–67. Benton, Reswick, and Sy Barry. 1958. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Montgomery Story (comic). Nyack: Fellowship of Reconciliation Press. Brown, Marc. 1999. Comic Book Masculinity and the New Black Superhero. African American Review 33: 27–28. Brown, Jeﬀrey A. 2001. Black Superheroes, Milestone Comics, and Their Fans. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Chireau, Yvonne. 2003. Black Magic: African American Religions and the Conjuring Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 121–49. Coleman, Robin Means. 2011. Horror Noire, Blacks in American Horror Films from the 1890s to Present. New York: Routledge Press, pp. 58–63. Cooper, Melissa. 2017. Making Gullah: A History of Sapelo Islanders, Race, and the American Imagination. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, pp. 40–67. Religions 2019, 10, 400 16 of 17

Corbould, Clare. 2011. At the Feet of Dessalines: Performing Haiti’s Revolution during the New Negro Renaissance. In Beyond Blackface: African Americans and the Creation of American Popular Culture, 1890–1930. Edited by W. Fitzhugh Brundage. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, pp. 259–88. Cowan, Denys. 1988. A Hero No More! Black Panther #1, New York: Marvel Comics, July 1. Curtis, Edward, and Danielle Sigler. 2009. New Black Gods: Arthur Huff Fauset and the Study of African American Religions. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 1–12. Cussans, John. 2017. Undead Uprising: Haiti, Horror and the Zombie Complex. London: Strange Attractor Press, pp. 85–86. Cutter, Martha. 2017. The Illustrated Slave: Empathy, Graphic Narrative, and the Visual Culture of the Transatlantic Abolition Movement. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Dallas, Keith. 2018. American Comic Book Chronicles: The 1990s. Raleigh: Two Morrows Publishing, pp. 107–8. Faithful, George. 2018. Dark of the World Shine on Us: The Redemption of Blackness in Ryan Coogler’s Black Panther. Religions 9: 304. [CrossRef] Finley, Stephen, and Margarita Guillory. 2015. Esotericism in African American Religious Experience. Boston: Brill Publishing, pp. 71–85. Gateward, Frances, and John Jennings. 2015. The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Gauvreau, Emile. 1946. Famous Marine Crowned King of the Voodoos. In Picture News Comics #4. New York: Lafayette Street Corporation. Gilbreath, Edward. 1996. A Prophet out of Harlem. Christianity Today 40: 36–43. Gordon, Ian. 1998. Comic Strips and Consumer Culture, 1890–1945. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 59–79. Hajdu, David. 2008. The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic Book Scare and How it Changed America. London: Picador. Inge, M. Thomas. 1979. The Comics as Culture. Journal of Popular Culture 630. [CrossRef] Jackson, Tim. 2016. Pioneering Cartoonists of Color. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Jones, William. 2016. The Ex-Con, Voodoo Priest, Goddess, and the African King: A Social, Cultural, and Political Analysis of Four Black Comic Book Heroes. Philadelphia: CreateSpace Publishing, pp. 41–43. Kuersteiner, Kurt. 2004. The Unofficial Guide to the Art of Jack T. Chick: Chick Tracts, Crusader Comics, and Battle Cry Newspapers. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Co., pp. 7–8. Lawrence, Jim, and Jorge Longaron. 1973. Friday Foster. Chicago Tribune. Chicago: Chicago Tribune Syndicate. Lehman, Christopher. 2007. The Colored Cartoon: Black Animation in American Short Films, 1907–1954. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Lewis, C. David, and Christine Hoff Kraemer, eds. 2010. Graven Images: Religion in Comic Books and Graphic Novels. New York: Continuum Publishing Corporation. Lewis, C. David, and Martin Lund. 2017. Muslim Superheroes: Comics, Islam, and Representation. Boston: Ilex Foundation. John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell. 2013. March. Marietta: Top Shelf Productions. Love, Tirhakah. n.d. Black Panther’s Spirituality Pulls from Reality. Available online: https://www.syfy.com/ syfywire/wakanda-wednesdays-black-panthers-spirituality-pulls-from-reality (accessed on 15 March 2019). Marble, Alice, and Alfonso Greene. 1945. Wonder Woman of History: Sojourner Truth. Wonder Woman #13. In National Comics. New York: Quality Comics. McGee, Adam. 2012. Haitian Vodou and Voodoo: Imagined Religion and Popular Culture. In Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. New York: SAGE Publishing, vol. 41, pp. 231–56. Nama, Adilifu. 2011. Super Black: American Pop Culture and Black Superheroes. Austin: University of Texas Press. Nelson, Angela. 2013. Studying Black Comic Strips: Popular Art and Discourses of Race. In Black Comics: The Politics of Race and Representation. Edited by Sheena Howard and Ronald Jackson. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 91–102. Nyberg, Amy. 1998. Seal of Approval: The History of the Comics Code. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Perez, Elizabeth. 2015. Working Roots and Conjuring Traditions: Relocating Black Sects and Cults in African American Religious History. In Esotericism in African American Religious Experience. Edited by Stephen Finley and Margarita Guillory. Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 71–85. Pruitt, Dwain. 2017. The Comics that Hate Produced: Representing the African American Muslim Experience in the Comics. In Muslim Superheroes. Edited by David Lewis and Martin Lund. Boston: Ilex Foundation. Religions 2019, 10, 400 17 of 17

Renda, Mary. 2001. Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of US Imperialism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, pp. 170–178. Sammond, Nicholas. 2015. Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation. Durham: Duke University Press Books. Sampson, Henry T. 1998. That’s Enough, Folks: Black Images in Animated Cartoons, 1900–1960. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, Inc. Savage, William. 1990. Comic Books and America, 1945–1954. Norman: Univ of Oklahoma Pr. Senn, Bryan. 1998. Drums O’ Terror: Voodoo in the Cinema. Baltimore: Luminary Press, pp. 11–17. Singer, Marc. 2002. Black Skins and White Masks: Comic Books and the Secret of Race. African American Review 36: 107–19. [CrossRef] Stromberg, Fredrik. 2003. Black Images in the Comics: A Visual History. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. Suggs, Henry Lewis. 1983. The Black Press in the South, 1865–1979. Westport: Greenwood Press, pp. 135–36. Taylor, Garland Martin. 2014. Out of Jest: The Art of Henry Jackson Lewis. Critical Inquiry 40: 198–202. [CrossRef] Tisserand, Michael. 2008. The Cartoonist and the Champ. The Comics Journal. Available online: http://www.tcj. com/the-cartoonist-and-the-champ/ (accessed on 21 June 2019). Wein, Len, Gene Colan, and Dan Adkins. 1973. Brother Voodoo! Strange Tales #169, New York: Marvel Comics. Weisenfeld, Judith. 2018. New World A-Coming: Black Religion and Racial Identity During the Great Migration. New York: New York University Press, pp. 272–78. Whaley, Deborah Elizabeth. 2016. Black Women in Sequence: Re-inking Comics, Graphic Novels, and Anime. Seattle: University of Washington Press, pp. 3–27. White, Sylvia E., and Tania Fuentez. 1997. Analysis of Black Images in Comic Strips, 1915–1995. Newspaper Research Journal 18: 72–85. [CrossRef] Womack, Ytasha. 2013. Afrofuturism: The World of Black Sci-Fi and Fantasy Culture. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, pp. 142–45.

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).