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Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition Version 15.0908 2014 EDITION BE FIRST. BE RIGHT. BE CREDIBLE. 2014 EDITION This manual introduces the reader to the principles and practical tools of crisis and emergency risk communication (CERC). Principles in this manual adapt (1) writings of classical rhetoricians; (2) a wealth of modern crisis, issues management, communication theory, and psychological theory; and (3) lessons learned from the real and often painful world of experience, old-fashioned trial and error. CERC addresses a number of topics critical to successful public, partner, and stakeholder communication during crises and emergencies. This is not intended to be an in-depth manual on risk communication, issues management, crisis communication, or disaster communication. It is an amalgamation of all of these, incorporated from theory and practical applications. CERC draws on the work of many experts including Drs. Peter Sandman and Vincent Covello; therefore, no single chapter is a complete source for a specific discipline. The chapters are meant to help those who are charged with these responsibilities, but who may not be steeped in these subjects, to manage the task of planning and implementing CERC activities. When possible, we have provided resource sites that offer more in-depth materials on a particular subject. CERC is the attempt by public health professionals to provide information that allows individuals, stakeholders, and entire communities to make the best possible decisions for their well-being during a crisis or emergency. CERC includes communicating to these groups regarding decisions made by response organizations within nearly impossible time constraints. CERC principles teach us to accept the imperfect nature of choices as the situation evolves. i Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 1 Communicating During a Public Health Crisis 2 Types of Disasters 2 A Changing World 3 Increased Population Density in High-risk Areas 3 Increased Technological Risks 3 Our Aging U.S. Population 4 Emerging Infectious Diseases and Antibiotic Resistance 4 Increased International Travel 5 Increased Terrorism 5 Defining Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 6 Crisis Communication 7 Risk Communication 7 Issues Management Communication 7 Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 8 Emergencies, Disasters, and Crises 9 The Communication Lifecycle 10 The Pre-crisis Phase 11 The Initial Phase 12 The Maintenance Phase 13 The Resolution Phase 14 The Evaluation Phase 14 The Role of CERC 16 Conclusion 19 References 20 Resources Chapter 2: Psychology of a Crisis 21 Four Ways People Process Information during a Crisis 21 We simplify messages. 22 We hold on to current beliefs. 22 We look for additional information and opinions. 23 We believe the first message. 23 Mental States in a Crisis 23 Uncertainty 24 Fear, Anxiety, and Dread 25 Hopelessness and Helplessness 25 Denial 26 What about Panic? 27 Media Coverage of Crisis and Potential Psychological Effects 28 Behaviors in a Crisis 28 Seeking Special Treatment 29 Negative Vicarious Rehearsal 30 Stigmatization 31 Harmful Actions Brought About by Crisis-Related Psychological Issues ii Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition 31 Positive Responses following a Crisis 32 Risk Perception 34 EPA’s Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk Communication 39 Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication During Different Stages of Crisis 39 Pre-crisis Phase 40 Initial Phase 41 Maintenance Phase 42 Resolution Phase 44 References 46 Resources Chapter 3: Messages and Audiences 49 Understanding Your Audiences 53 How Audiences Assess Messages in a Crisis 57 Making Facts Work in Your Message 60 Using CERC Principles 60 Pre-crisis Phase: Building Consensus for Actions 61 Culture and Your Message 63 Organizing Information for Emergency Response Presentations 64 Presentation Types Based on Situation 67 Presentational Dos and Don’ts 68 Additional Considerations for Presentations Before, During, and After a Crisis 69 Group Influences on the Effects of Your Messages 70 Communicating About Death One-on-one 72 Audience Feedback 75 Case Study: Hurricane Katrina Emergency Communication Response By CDC, U.S. Gulf Coast, 2005 81 Conclusion 82 References 83 Resources Chapter 4: Crisis Communication Plans 85 Crisis Phases 86 Pre-crisis phase 87 Initial Phase 90 Maintenance Phase 91 Resolution Phase 91 Evaluation Phase 92 A Seat at the Table for Communication 93 An earthquake and a tsunami 95 Developing the Plan 95 Knowing what to include 96 Plan Characteristics 97 Longer is not better. 98 Nine Steps for Success Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition iii 105 NIMS 110 The Importance of Establishing an Emergency Operations Center 111 Planning for JIC Requirements 115 Applying the Plan During the First 24 to 48 Hours 115 Be First, Be Right, Be Credible 115 Tell the Media and the Public What You Know 116 Verification 116 Notification and Coordination 117 Initial Media Response: Is the Media Beating on Your Door? 118 Get Your Information Out Early 118 Evaluate Required Response 119 Next Media Response Step 120 Assignments 121 Applying the Crisis Plan Throughout the Response 121 Step 1: Verify the Situation 121 Step 2: Conduct Notifications 122 Step 3: Conduct Crisis Assessment (Activate Crisis Plan) 123 Step 4: Organize Assignments Quickly 125 Step 5: Prepare Information and Obtain Approvals 125 Step 6: Release Information Through Prearranged Channels 126 Step 7: Obtain Feedback and Conduct Crisis Evaluation 127 Step 8: Conduct Public Education 127 Step 9: Monitor Events 128 Conclusion 148 References 149 Resources Chapter 5: The Spokesperson 153 Giving Your Organization a Human Form 154 Choosing the Right Spokesperson is Important 155 The Role of the Spokesperson in Crisis Communication 157 What Makes a Good Spokesperson? 160 Spokesperson Pitfalls (and How to Avoid Them) During an Emergency 160 Working with the Media 161 General Media Interview Goals 161 General Media Interview Pitfalls 162 Media Briefing or Press Conference Tips 163 In-Person Interview Tips 163 Telephone Interview Tips 164 Special Considerations for Television and Radio Interviews 165 Handling Techniques Sometimes used by Television and Radio Interviewers 166 Radio Interviews 167 Television Interviews 167 What to Wear on Television 168 Spokespersons in Public Meetings 168 When Emotions and Accusations Run High During an Emergency Public Meeting 171 Assessing Spokesperson Skills 173 Conclusion 175 References 176 Resources iv Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition Chapter 6: Working with the Media 178 The Media’s Role in a Crisis, Disaster, or Emergency 180 Interacting with the Media 181 Facilitating Positive Media Relationships 181 Equal Access Matters 182 Think Local Media First 183 Giving Reporters What They Need 183 What Do Reporters Want? 184 Media Operations in a Crisis 186 Getting Emergency Information to the Media 186 Press Releases 188 Press Conferences or Media Opportunities 189 Satellite Media Tours 190 Press Conferences by Telephone and Webcast 191 E-mail Distribution and Broadcast Faxes 191 Websites, Video Streaming, and Webinars 192 Response to Media Calls 193 Social Media 194 Writing for the Media during a Crisis 195 Prepare to Provide Basic Background on Issues to the Media . 195 What Should Your Media Release Include? 197 Press Statements Versus Press Releases 198 Media Fact Sheets and Backgrounders 199 Visuals, Video Press Releases, and B-Roll 200 Communicate Early and Often 200 Meeting Media Needs Throughout an Emergency 200 Where to Hold the Press Conference 201 How and When to Invite the Media 202 Whom to Invite 202 How to Conduct the Media Opportunity 204 Using Visuals 204 Handouts 205 Responding to Media Regarding Significant Errors, Myths, and Misperceptions 205 1. Remain calm. 206 2. Analyze the situation. 207 3. Know what to request. 208 4. Know whom to contact. 209 5. Know what you want to communicate. 209 6. Have a plan before you need it. 210 Monitoring the Media for Public Response to Crisis Management 210 Conclusion 211 References 212 Resources Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition v Chapter 7: Stakeholder and Partner Communication 213 Common Interests and Challenges 213 Expectations 214 Potential Stakeholders 216 Communicating with Stakeholders 218 Assessing Stakeholder Reactions 219 Responding to Your Stakeholders 220 Partnership Development 221 Coordinating with Partners 223 Differences Between Crisis Coordination and Crisis Collaboration 224 Working with Communities 224 Community Partnerships 224 Consensus Building 225 Convening a Community Forum 225 Task Forces and Advisory Groups 226 Effective Listening 226 Dealing with an Angry Public 227 Allow the Audience to Participate in Finding Solutions 228 Questions to Help People Persuade Themselves 230 De-escalating Conflict 230 Don’t Say “But.” Say, “Yes, and” 231 Conclusion 234 References 235 Resources Chapter 8: Other Communication Channels 237 Communication Channel Attributes 237 Channels of Communication during a Crisis 238 The Demographics 239 Channel Characteristics and Features 239 Multiple Options Available 240 KPBS Radio and the 2007 San Diego Wildfires 240 Questions to Ask When Selecting Channels 241 Telephone Call Centers during an Emergency 241 E-mail Services 242 Social Media 242 Applying Specific Communication Tools 242 Making Your Selection 242 Briefings 243 Community Mailings 245 Exhibits 246 Flyers 247 Newsletters 249 Open Houses and Availability Sessions 250 Presentations 251 Public Meetings 252 Small Group or Focus Group
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