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The Transformation of Coca to Cocaine: an Overview of Traditional Drug Use and Modern Drug Abuse 1

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The Transformation of Coca to Cocaine: an Overview of Traditional Drug Use and Modern Drug Abuse 1 The Transformation of Coca to Cocaine: An Overview of Traditional Drug Use and Modern Drug Abuse 1. Marla Toyne The Andes Mountains of South America cocaine use by Andean peoples. Ironically, coca is have been the heart of coca cultivation and a substance that was traditionally ignored by the production for thousands of years. For centuries international community, yet, with the popularity coca has been an important part of the local of cocaine a powerful global market stepped into indigenous people's diets and lives. Today in the the daily lives of the Andean highland peoples. highlands of Peru and Bolivia, coca is still Thus, this paper will take a historical approach to consumed daily, primarily by the Aymara and outlining the development of both coca and Quechua peoples. Coca leaves playa key role in cocaine use, followed by an examination of the the medical, social and ritual activities of these physiological, and psychological effects of both peoples daily lives. On the other hand, cocaine substances upon their respecti ve users. The hydrochloride powder, the narcotic derived from differences between the substances will be coca, has found a niche in the international scene emphasized. Clearly, the transference of the as a recreational drug. As such, I will examine discourse surrounding the use and misuse of how 'drug' use in an indigenous community is cocaine, onto the use of coca by an indigenous very different from 'drug' use in a modem, population was irresponsible and inappropriate. capitalist society. Many of the attitudes held about cocaine as a narcotic have been transferred to coca. However, this negative transference is inappropriate, as cocaine is pharmacologically and When looking at the history and use of socially utilized in a much different way than coca. coca, it is important to examine the botanical Indeed, the biological and social significance that development of the plant, regional developments coca affords within the many Andean populations of consumption, as well as, the archaeological is very different from the novel use of cocaine, and record. Coca (Erythroxylum coca) is one of 250 its street derivatives such as crack, by the 'modem' species in the Erythroxylum genus (Plowman world over. Essentially, the comparison between 1986:9). Although coca is cultivated in other areas the physiological effect of chewing naturally of the world, such as Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, occurring coca leaves, to snorting manufactured Indonesia, and Taiwan (Karch 1998: intro), its cocaine powder, is like "comparing fire hoses with consumption as a masticatory stimulant occurs flame throwers" (Karch 1998:56). only in tropical America (Plowman 1984: 130). The focus of this research paper is the Coca leaves are grown and chewed in an extensive transition of coca from a "traditional" drug into an region along the western side of South America. illegal substance. I want to discuss the role that Its north-south range runs from Columbia to both drugs play in terms of the health and lifestyle Bolivia, while inland it is grown throughout the effects on the respective consumers, as one is steep, eastern mountain slopes of the Andean arguably relatively beneficial, while the other is valleys, all the way to the Amazon basin. It grows largely detrimental. It is worthwhile to note that in a tropical region of high rainfall and poor, many politicians, academics, and society in highly eroded soil, yet, it thrives producing up to general, are largely swayed in their opinions and four or more harvests yearly as a mature bush discourses surrounding coca use, by the negative (Allen 1988:221). As a species it has also literature and effects of cocaine. While certainly demonstrated a hardy resistance to insect pests and cocaine is a chemically manipulated derivative of is relatively self maintaining (Allen 1988). Coca is coca, the two products are vastly different in terms usually grown at elevations of 500-1800 meters of their use, physiological effects, social above sea level. Four species are grown in the importance, and overall cultural importance, as Andean region, and are widely cultivated for their will be discussed below. Lastly, I will also discuss leaves. It is the leaves that contain the economic tfle current changes occurring in Andean and pharmacologic,lly important alkaloid, cocaine communities as a result of the cocaine industry and (see Plowman 1986 for species distribution). paraphernalia as tomb offerings, such as lime The most \ widely spread and most gourds, ca. 400A.D. in Chile (Cartmell et ,aJ. commonly grown variation of coca plant is 1991:260). Also ceramic figurines with bulging Erythroxylum coca coca (Hu 1nuco or Bolivian "coca cheeks" holding gourd-like lime containers coca). It is also the preferred leaf for commercial have been recovered and are dated to the Moche cocaine production (Plowman 1986: 13). Other culture of 100 -800 A.D. (Cartmell et aJ. species, such as Erythroxylum novograntense 1991 :260). Moreover, the use of coca is confirmed novograntense are not used for cocaine production as of A.D. 500 by the discovery of preserved coca- because they have lower levels of the cocaine leaf quid in the mouths of mummified remains alkaloid (Plowman 1986:21). Hu=E 1nuco coca is from this time (Cartmell et aJ. 1991 :260). This known to grow at relatively higher altitudes, and it artifactual evidence is found outside of today's is believed that this is the cause of the higher main coca producing region, simply because of cocaine alkaloid (Plowman 1986: 12). There is also differences in the preservation of archaeological a positive correlation between coca chewing and remains on the coast, versus, the highlands. The high altitude residence (Hanna 1974). In terms of very antiquity of these finds stands to support the the botanical evolution of the plant, Plowman long-history of coca use in the Andean region, and (1986) suggests that it may have first been sampled the central importance to which coca use was as a famine food by early nomadic hunting and likely relegated by centuries of peoples. gathering groups inhabiting the eastern Andes. Lanning (1967) believes the Once the stimulating effects of the plant became archaeological evidence demonstrates that coca known it probably became routinely or daily was an important trade good between the coast and gathered from the forest (Plowman 1986:27). The the cultivation areas in the mountains even before development of four varieties of the plant the Incan empire dominated coca distribution. occurring in different regions was the result of Judging from the archaeological record and early intensive human domestication. Indeed, the modern day uses, coca has been an important part ancestral strain of E. coca coca is still found in the of Andean life over the past 3000 years. wild, and little morphological, genetic or physiological changes seemed to have occurred through domestication (Plowman 1984: 135). The different species of coca and the The archaeological record has also helped different ecological regions of importance, result to establish the historical importance of coca use in in there being a variety of methods for preparing the Andes. The earliest archaeological evidence and consuming coca. The most common ways of suggestive of coca leaf use is associated with consuming coca, in most areas, involve using the ceramic lime pots of the Valdivia culture from leaves of the plant. Coca leaves are used daily in Ecuador, dated ca. 2100 B.C. (Plowman 1986:23). the diet as though they were a food component, but Cartmell et aJ. (1991) were able, through the use of are recognized as having special effects on the radioimmunoassay, a technique of microscopic body. Although children may start or try chewing analysis, to detect the metabolic product of cocaine coca early on, it is generally a practice more in preserved hair of ancient mummies in Northern commonly used throughout adult life, by both men Chile. High concentrations of the cocaine alkaloid and women. Although not everyone partakes in were recorded, indicating intensive or prolonged coca leaf chewing on a regular basis, most people use of coca by the individuals examined (Cartmell at least consume it during special occasions. Since et aJ. 1991). Others have looked at ancient coca is mostly utilized in the Highland region, it is osteological remains for evidence of the use of not a commonly observed practice in the more coca. For example, Langsjoen (1996) looked at urban centres. the detrimental effects of coca use on dentition, as The dried leaves are taken into the mouth indicated by the accumulation of lime, which is a few at a time and held against the cheek in a ball used while chewing coca. or "quid" which is periodically chewed or sucked. Both Cartmell et aJ. (1991) and Plowman The description of the masticatory process as "coca (1984) outline other archaeological contexts that chewing" is somewhat misleading as the wad of suggest prehistoric coca use. These include the leaves is basically sucked to extract the bitter presence of coca-leaves and associated juices from the leaves. The moistening of the leaves is done to extract the active alkaloids, of stimulation of a strong cup of coffee (Allen which cocaine is one. About 30-70 grams per day 1988:221 ). Furthermore, the minerals present in are consumed, although each session of "chewing" the leaves are thought to supplement a diet that lasts only about 15 to 45 minutes (Plowman generally has limited nutritional variety, because 1986:6). The addition of a lime or of the ash of a the extreme elevations limit the number of burnt plant is necessary as an alkaline to activate nutritional choices (Mazess & Baker 1964: 341; the alkaloid in the leaves when chewed (Plowman Bastien 1981: 3). 1984: 129).
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