Proceedings of the Symposium on City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks
22nd -29th August 2015 EGE YAYINLARI
Proceedings of the Symposium on City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks 22nd -29th August 2015
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22nd -29th August 2015
E d i t o r s F l o r a K a r a g i a n n i - U fuk K o c a b a ş
In the frame of the project “LIMEN: Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea” www.limenproject.net The Project is co-financed by the EU Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2007-2013 The Black Sea Basin Programme is co-financed by the European Union through the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument for Pre-Accession Asistance.
PROJECT PARTICIPANTS
Istanbul University, Faculty of European Centre for Byzantine and Letters Department of Conservation Post-Byzantine Monuments of Marine Archaeological Objects. Leophoros Stratou 2, 54640, Thessaloniki Ordu Cad. 34459 Laleli Fatih, Istanbul GREECE TURKEY www.ekbmm.gr www.istanbul.edu.tr
Museum for National History and Municipality of Kavala Archaeology Constanta
Kyprou 10, 65403 Kavala Ovidiu Square no. 12, 900745 Constanţa GREECE ROMANIA www.minac.ro
The George Chubinashvili Odessa City Council, Department National Research Centre of Culture and Tourism 5, Tabukashvili St. 0105, Tbilisi Ekaterininskaya 14, 65026 Odessa GEORGIA UKRAINE www.gch-centre.ge
Koç University College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department Municipality of Varna of Archaeology and History of Art 43 “Osmi Primorski polk” Blvd, 9000 Varna Rumelifeneri Yolu 34450 Sarıyer Istanbul BULGARIA TURKEY http://cssh.ku.edu.tr/arha/home
ASSOCIATE PARTNERS
Business Council of the Organisation of the Black Sea Organization of the Black Economic Cooperation Sea Economic Cooperation, International Secretariat
Black and Azov Seas International Ports Association Black Sea Club
Management Consulting
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE OF THE SYMPOSIUM
Anastasia Tourta, Dr. Archaeologist, Director Sofronis Paradeisopoulos, Director, Branch of EKBMM (GR) for the Hellenic Foundation for Culture (UK) Flora Karagianni, Dr. Archaeologist, Head of Marika Didebulidze, Director of G. Chubi- the Office for the Promotion of Scientific Research nashvili National Research Centre for Georgian of EKBMM, Scientific Coordinator of the “Limen” Art History and Heritage Preservation (GE) project (GR) Mzia Janjalia, Art Historian, G. Chubinashvili Spyros Avdimiotis, Lecturer, Department of National Research Centre for Georgian Art His- Business Administration, Alexander Technologi- tory and Heritage Preservation (GE) cal Educational Institute of Thessaloniki (GR) Valeri Kinov, Historian, Manager of Aladzha Anastasia Chatzinikolaou, Architect, Project Monastery (under the management of Varna’s Coordinator of the “Limen” project (GR) Historical Museum) (BU) Ufuk Kocabaş, Professor, Faculty of Letters, Dessyslava Georgieva, Head of Department of Department of Conservation of Marine Archaeo- logical Objects, Istanbul University (TU) Festivals and Projects, Municipality of Varna (BU) Zeynep Kızıltan, Director of Istanbul Archaeo- Alessandra Ricci, Assistant Professor, Depart- logical Museums (TU) ment of Archaeology and History of Art, Koç Uni- versity (TU) Michalis Lychounas, Dr. Archaeologist, Mu- nicipality of Kavala, Deputy Mayor (GR) Halim Bulutoğlu, Director of Museum of the Princes’ Islands (TU) Menelaos Chatziapostolidis, Consultant, Mu- nicipality of Kavala (GR) Constantin Chera, Dr. Archaeologist, Museum of History and Archaeology of Constanta (RO) Glicherie Caraivan, Senior Researcher - Na- tional Institute for Marine Geology and Geoecol- ogy, Constanta Branch (RO)
7
CONTENTS
EDITORS’ NOTE 13
FOREWORDS 15
SALUTATIONS 19
PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT 27 The “Limen. Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea” Project
ΛΙΜΗΝ – PORTUS – HARBOUR IN METAPHORICAL USE 31 Evangelos Chrysos
PRESENTATIONS OF MEDIEVAL SHIPS IN THE ART OF THE BLACK SEA REGION 41 Elena Kostić
OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORTIFICATIONS OF THE LATE-BYZANTINE CITIES OF THE NORTH AEGEAN COAST 53 Stavroula Dadake
“TRAVEL, DRINK AND BE MERRY. PORT AND WINE IN BYZANTINE AEGEAN AND THE BLACK SEA”. PAST AND REALITIES 65 Michalis Lychounas
THE CHRYSOBULLOS OF 1189 AND THE HISTORY OF GERMAN AND FRENCH QUARTERS OF CONSTANTINOPLE 71 Oleg Lugovyi
PUBLIC OPEN SPACE IN THE CITY-PORT OF TOMIS (4TH – 6T H CENT . AD) 81 Irina Nastasi
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN ENVIRONMENT OF BATUMI 93 Nino Inaishvili
9 THEODOSIAN HARBOUR: A CROSSROAD BETWEEN BLACK SEA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN 109 Zeynep Kızıltan, Ufuk Kocabaş
THE COMMERCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN AEGEAN AND THE BLACK SEA ON THE BASIS OF THE TESTIMONY OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN AMPHORAS 127 Eugenia Gerousi
COMMERCE ET NAVIGATION DANS LA MER NOIRE DANS LES DOCUMENTS ÉPIGRAPHIQUES ET ICONOGRAPHIQUES 137 Livia Buzoianu
CONSTANTINOPLE RECEIVING ICONS; A NEW APPROACH TO AN OLD ISSUE 147 Nikolaos D. Siomkos
SOME NOTES ON THE IMPACT OF CONSTANTINOPLE ON THE BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE OF THE AEGEAN AND THE PELOPONNESE 163 Demetrios Athanasoulis
RHODES-CONSTANTINOPLE, 6TH CENTURY TO 1523 AD: A TWO-WAY TRAFFIC 179 Angeliki Katsioti
THE CULTURAL NETWORK OF CYPRUS – CONSTANTINOPLE – EUXEINOS PONT OS DURING THE ICONOCLASM ERA 191 Charalampos G. Chotzakoglou
PRESERVATION OF YENIKAPI SHIPWRECKS 203 Namık Kılıç
FROM UNDERWATER TO MUSEUM: PRESENTING UNDER WATER CULTURAL HERITAGE 209 A. Gökçe Kılıç
SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL ROUTES IN ISTANBUL: THE KÜÇÜKYALI ARKEOPARK AND ITS VICINITIES 215 Alessandra Ricci, Barış Altan
10 CULTURAL TOURISM: POTENTIALS FOR GROWTH 227 Georgia-Anna Kanaki
FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES FOR CULTURAL PROJECTS: HOW HIGH IS CULTURE IN THE EUROPEAN AGENDA? 235 Vassiliki Sotiropoulou
FROM ANCIENT DIVERS T O MODERN DIVING INDUSTRY AND ITS EFFECT ON CULTURAL TOURISM 243 F. Sancar Uğuryol, Volkan Demir
VARNA – A CROSSING POINT OF ANCIENT HISTORY, CULTURAL HERITAGE AND TOURISM OPPORTUNITIES 247 Irina Ugrinska
SUSTAINABILITY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE EXPLOITATION AND LOCAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: BALANCE AND COSTING AND THE ROLE OF THE STAKEHOLDERS 253 Ioannis Tsoukalidis, Menelaos Chatziapostolidis
CULTURAL ROUTES OF KAVALA: “TRACES OF MUSLIM AND CHRISTIAN ORTHODOX REFUGEES IN THE CITY OF KAVALA” 261 Boskou Chr. Effrosyni
THE ST. PAUL TRAIL 271 Kate Clow
THE ΕΝΙ IN THE CONTEXT OF CBC - TARGETED SYNERGIES FOR BRINGING EU AND ITS NEIGHBORS CLOSER TOGETHER 279 Anastasia Evangelidou
OLKAS: INTERNATIONAL CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL TOURISM IN THE BLACK SEA REGION 287 Sofronis Paradeisopoulos
THE BSUDRA PROJECT, EVALUATION, OUTPUTS, SUSTAINABILITY AND PERSPECTIVES 293 Polyxeni Adam-Veleni
THE DIGITAL ECONOMY, CULTURE AND TOURISM IN THE BLACK SEA REGION 301 Pyrrhus Mercouris
11 BLACK SEA PORT-CITIES, 1780S-1910S: OBJECTIVES AND ACT IONS OF AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECT 309 Gelina Harlaftis, Athina Vitopoulou
LIMEN. THE NEW INSTITUTION: “CULTURAL PORT OF T HE BLACK SEA” 321 Flora Karagianni, Anastasia Chatzinikolaou
FEASIBILITY – SUSTAINABILITY STUDY OF THE PROPOSED INSTITUTION “CULTURAL PORT OF THE BLACK SEA” - THE MARKETING PLAN 325 Sofia Bournatzi, Chryssa Kopra
EXPERIENCES OF THE CULTURAL CAPITAL INSTITUTION 333 Robert Palmer EMBRACING A NEW INSTITUTION FOR THE BLACK SEA: “CULTURAL PORT OF THE BLACK SEA” 341 Michael B. Christides
LEGAL ASPECTS IN CREATING CULTURAL NETWORKS: THE CASE OF THE “CULTURAL PORT OF THE BLACK SEA” 345 Dimitrios Nikolakakis
APPENDIX
LIST OF AUTHORS 355
PROGRAM ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM 359
PROGRAM AGENDA CRUISE 367
SAILING THROUGH HISTORY WITH SYMPOSIUM-ON-BOARD 379 Ufuk Kocabaş, Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş, Taner Güler, Evren Türkmenoğlu
12 EDITORS’ NOTE
The present volume records the proceedings of the international sym- posium: “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks” which took place on board during a cultural cruise in Aegean and the Black Sea, in August 22-29, 2015. The symposium was organized by the European Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments and Istanbul University within the framework of the project “LIMEN. Cultural City Ports from North Aegean to the Black Sea” funded by the “Joint Op- erational Program: Black Sea 2007-2013” with the collaboration of seven institutions (cultural institutions, museums, universities, municipalities) from Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia. In the sym- posium participated experts of the field of culture and tourism, as well as representatives of international bodies and states from Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia and England who present- ed their works on several topics related to the cultural heritage of Aegean and the Black Sea and its touristic promotion. The symposium begins with a general introduction on the metaphori- cal use of the word “Limen” in written historical sources and it continues with two major parts divided in eight sessions. In the first part there are discussed issues related to the medieval cultural heritage of the City Ports from the Aegean and the Black Sea, the trade and economy, the maritime routes and networks, as well as the presentation and preservation of the cultural heritage. In the second part which focuses on the Tourism sec- tor, there are discussed topics on culture and tourism as well as cultural routes, and there are presented various cultural and touristic projects im- plemented in the Black Sea. Finally, the symposium ends with a round table, in which the proposed institution: “Cultural port of the Black Sea” is discussed.
13 We want to thank a lot all the participants of the symposium and main- ly those who delivered their papers on time in order to be included in the present volume. We hope that the volume with the proceedings will be a valuable selection of remarkable papers and will contribute to the study of the medieval cultural heritage preserved in the Aegean and the Black Sea as well as to its touristic enhancement.
D r . F l o r a K a r a g i a n n i - P r o f . D r . U fuk K o c a b a ş Editors
14 FOREWORD
It is with particular pleasure that the Istanbul University and the Eu- ropean Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments (EKBMM) present this volume of the Proceedings of the On-board International sym- posium: “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Net- works”, which was held August 22nd-29th, 2015. The Symposium, was the climax of the project “LIMEN: Cultural ports from Aegean to Black Sea”, un- dertaken by the European Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monu- ments as leader in collaboration with institutions - universities, museums, and municipalities - from eight countries: Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roma- nia, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia. Co-funded by the European Program: “Black Sea Basin Joint Oper- ational Programme 2007-2013” and by national resources, the project aimed to push forward the cultural role of the Black Sea city-ports and shed light to their inter-communication and shared cultural features. The main objective of the project was to bridge the existing gap in the development of cultural tourism in the wider Black Sea area. Based on the results and the experience gained by the implementation of the pre- vious, now completed, project: “OLKAS: From the Aegean to the Black Sea” – medieval Ports in the Maritime Routes of the East”, which had as a target the promotion of the medieval city-ports of the Black Sea and their cultural heritage, the “LIMEN” project proposes the pilot imple- mentation of a new cultural Institution, the “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”. This proposal aims to give to all participants and stakeholders the possibility to support this new and innovative cultural Institution, which will contribute to the establishment of relations of friendship among the people and offer new opportunities for cooperation in the broader Black Sea area.
15 Bringing together experts from different countries, the first four Sym- posium sessions highlighted various issues on the North Aegean and the Black Sea touching on history, archaeology, art history, trade activities, product transportation, harbors, maritime routes and networks, preserva- tion, conservation and presentation of medieval monuments, demonstrat- ing the shared cultural heritage. The last four sessions were dedicated to cultural tourism and its diverse benefits and effects on local communities. The mutual approach of culture and tourism, the development of networks between destinations, the promotion of friendship and co-operation were some of the issues discussed. The presentations and the following discus- sions during the Symposium sessions contributed to our better under- standing of the cultural heritage and interrelations of the Black Sea city- ports. The Symposium procedures culminated in the final Round Table session in which the proposed new institution “Cultural port of the Black Sea” and the steps towards its implementation were discussed. On behalf of the Administrative Board of the European Centre of Byz- antine and Post Byzantine Monuments, I wish to warmly thank all part- ners and participants for their effective collaboration during the imple- mentation of the “LIMEN” project and for their scholarly contributions during the final Symposium. Our special thanks are addressed to the di- rector of the EKBMM, Dr. Anastasia Tourta, and the project co-ordinator and Head of EBMMM’s Office for the Promotion of Scientific Research, Dr. Flora Karagianni, for their effectiveness, pains and enthusiasm through all stages of the implementation of the project. The collective efforts of all in- stitutions and persons involved and the expertise of the two editors, Flora Karagianni and Ufuk Kocabaş led to the in-time completion of the volume in hand and the successful conclusion of the project.
S o p h i a K a l o p i s s i -V e r t i Professor Emerita of the University of Athens Deputy President of the EKBMM Administrative Board
16 FOREWORD
The international “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea Me- dieval-Modern Networks Symposium” organized by Istanbul University and the European Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments (EKBMM), both leaders of the LIMEN Project, has brought together about one hundred participants from nine countries. While sailing on a cultural voyage for six days from the “Aegean Sea” to the “Black Sea” we also held this international symposium, which has undertaken an important mis- sion for the preservation of the cultural heritage in our region, develop cul- tural tourism as well as building new networks for sustainable relations. Delegates presented papers on the archaeology, history and art history of ports, maritime routes, preservation of cultural heritage and tourism routes with a chance to discuss and elaborate. We learned technical and valuable information on the preservation of the rich, multi-layered and varied cultural heritage of our region; also we had a chance to watch the implementation of related interventions. A point to be kept in mind and emphasised is the fact that cultural tour- ism can flourish only in a peaceful geography. Therefore, peace is one of the main prerequisites at venues of tourism in the region and for cultural tourism to develop. I am hopeful that our efforts will contribute to the re- inforcement of relations among our countries and to the building of peace in our region. I sincerely wish that this symposium is just a beginning and that the Aegean, the Marmara and the Black Seas may build bridges of friendship, peace and science while gradually removing the barriers be- tween countries, institutions and peoples. The symposium has been handled mostly from the budget set aside for Istanbul University, a partner of the LIMEN Project. I would like to express
17 my sincere thanks to all my colleagues from Greece, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Georgia and Turkey for their contributions to the Project; above all, to the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration of Romania, the administrative centre of the program; to the Ministry of EU Affairs, the Turkish authority for it as well as the Prime Ministry’s Undersecretariat of Treasury Central Finance and Contracts Unit; to Dr. Flora Karagianni and to the administration of Istanbul University for their great contribution in the realization of the LIMEN Project; to Asst. Prof. Dr. Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş for leading the project, and to project assistants Taner Güler and Evren Türkmenoğlu for their extraordinary efforts, as well as Corvus Travel Agency. Further thanks are due to Dr. Flora Karagianni, with whom I have been working closely for the publication of the symposium proceedings; to Ah- met Boratav of Ege Yayınları and Aydın Tibet for the graphic design. Wishing that our efforts will improve the friendship among these three seas and formation of new cultural tourism routes.
P r o f . D r . U fuk K o c a b a ş İstanbul University Head of Department of Conservations of Marine Archaeological Objects
18 SALUTATION
The publication of the Proceedings of the International Symposium: “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Net- works” completes the pioneer attempt of an onboard symposium that was held within a cultural cruise. This ambitious plan, which was realized with great success while sailing in Aegean and the Black Sea, had as its main target the promotion of the study and enhancement of the byzantine-me- dieval heritage of the city-ports of North Aegean and the Black Sea.
During the Symposium, experts, scholars and representatives of in- ternational organizations, specialized in the field of culture and tourism analyzed -each one from his own view-, topics related to their interests and fields. They presented different approaches of good practices and dis- cussed their views, promoting the scientific dialogue on the basis of the balanced multilateral cultural and touristic development.
This international meeting, which was implemented within the frame- work of the project “LIMEN. Cultural Ports from North Aegean to the Black Sea” funded by the Joint Operational Program “Black Sea 2007- 2013”, was enriched by a variety of cultural events, such as exhibitions of contemporary art and photography as well as with organized visits in many archaeological sites and museums.
This initiative tried in few words, to realize the meaning of sustainabil- ity and viability as well as to indicate to the states of the area the possibil- ity of exploitation and application of new development tools and models. This effort did not remain without response but it was embraced by seven different institutions from six countries. Besides, the collaboration on top-
19 ics related to the economic development, management of the cultural heri- tage and environment are very high in the agenda of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, in which our country participates very actively.
With great satisfaction for the endless and tireless efforts and the gen- erous work of those who contributed in that, we welcome the publishing of the current volume and we hope a fruitful continuation and extension of similar synergies on the benefit of the protection and promotion of our common cultural heritage.
We wish for the volume of the proceedings to have a nice trip and we are certain that it will find the place it deserves both as a collection of re- markable scientific papers as well as a useful manual for correct applica- tions and functional ideas for adoption.
D r . M a r i a V l a z a k i The General Secretary of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture
20 SALUTATION
This partnership (LIMEN) founded within the frame of the Black Sea Basin Cross-Border Cooperation in the field of cultural tourism by the rep- resentatives of Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia aims to create great awareness regarding the cultural heritage of the region and its protection. Turkey attaches much importance to hand down cultural heritage to future and thus, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism has paid extra atten- tion to protection works in the recent years. Thusly, our Ministry supports companies and institutions conducting activities in the field of cultural tourism and undertakes publicity services guiding all sorts of investment, communication and development potential. In this context, scientific excavations and researches conducted on land and under water lead the work for the protection and promotion of cul- tural heritage in our country, which has hosted many civilizations through the human history. With its coastline almost over 8300 km, Anatolia also has a consider- ably important status in terms of cultural heritage under the water. Today, the ancient harbours of Limantepe, Assos, Phaselis, Olympos, Simena, Andriake, Soli Pompeiopolis, and Kelenderis, where scientific excavations and researches currently have been carried out, constitute an important component of underwater cultural heritage in addition to the wrecks lying in our waters. Underwater excavations and research conducted in Turkey by Turk- ish and foreign scholars have utmost importance within the underwater archaeology of Turkey and the wider world.
21 Evidence currently available indicates over one hundred shipwrecks lying under the water along the Anatolian littoral ranging from the Bronze Age to the Ottoman period. Additionally, new wrecks have been identified thanks to advancing technologies, and efforts to build a shipwreck inven- tory have been continued. As for regions, the Aegean littoral ranks the first for the number of wrecks. We feel proud that Istanbul was chosen as the first cultural port for pilot implementation within the LIMEN Project. Inclusion of other ancient ports in Turkey in the future organisations will be added pride. With the permissions issued by our Ministry excavations were conducted and com- pleted by the Istanbul Archaeological Museums Directorate at Marmaray station site in Yenikapı, and the results are presented here by our experts; the results clearly indicate that Istanbul was a major port on the Marmara littoral during the East Roman period. Turkish underwater archaeologists participate in all the excavations and surveys carried out. I would like to congratulate all the participating countries and their delegates for the realization of this project and wish for successful and fruitful conclusion of this symposium and related project activities. Fur- thermore, I would like to express my gratitude to the European Centre for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments, Kavala Municipality, Istanbul University, Koç University, Varna Municipality, Constanta Archaeological Museum, Odessa City Council, and National History Research Institute of Georgia for their part in the organisation and to the Ministry of EU Affairs, Central Finance and Contracts Unit, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, International Black Sea Club, Black Sea Business Council, and Black & Azov Seas Ports Association for their supports. Finally, I hope that this activity paves the way for the development of cultural coopera- tion as well as friendly relations among the participating countries.
M e l i k A y a z General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, Head of Department of Excavations and Surveys (Turkey)
22 SALUTATION
Dear participants, ladies and gentlemen, It is a great pleasure for me to address you here today, on behalf of the Turkish Ministry for EU Affairs which is also the National Authority of cross-border cooperation programmes in Turkey. I would like to begin my words by emphasizing the significance of Black Sea Basin Cross Border Cooperation Programme for Turkey. As some of you may know, Black Sea Basin Programme is one of three maritime ba- sin programmes established under the ENPI (European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument) framework in the 2007-2013 period. Turkey’s participation in the Black Sea Basin programme aims at contributing to overcome common challenges together with its neighbours at the basin as well as creation of good practices of cooperation. By working together, we expect to raise awareness and establish joint mechanisms for constructing networks as well as cooperation at every level. Thus Cross-Border Coop- eration at the Black Sea Basin Programme is of great significance for us. Within the scope of the programme, two calls for proposals are launched and totally 60 projects were selected to be financed. Among them, 39 proj- ects have Turkish partners. As of August 2015, all projects with Turkish partners have been completed from the first call for proposals. Out of 30 projects with Turkish partners from the second call for proposals, 12 proj- ects have been completed while 18 projects are still under implementation. In this context, LIMEN project has been implemented under the second call for proposals of the Black Sea Basin Programme. As you may be aware, LIMEN project is highly relevant with a previous project, namely “OLKAS: From the Aegean to the Black Sea-Medieval Ports in the Maritime Routes of the East” in terms of objectives, final beneficia- ries and results. Both projects aim to develop cultural tourism in Black Sea region and project LIMEN can be evaluated as the institutionalization of
23 the cultural tourism program began with OLKAS project activities. In that sense, project LIMEN can be seen as a complementary to OLKAS project. This project contributes to address an important gap in the development of cultural tourism in the wider Black Sea area. Hence, we, as the National Authority, consider this project as a flagship and one of the best projects implemented under the Programme. Dear participants, I would also like to give brief information about 2014-2020 period of the Programme. The draft Programme Document for the new period is approved by the participating countries and submitted for approval to the European Commission by June 2015. It is foreseen that the Programme document will be approved by the EC in December 2015 and then it is planned to launch the call for proposals in the second half of 2016. For the new period, more result-oriented and simplified process will be adopted in the Programme. The total budget of the Programme for this period is approximately 53,9 million Euros (out of 39 million ENPI con- tribution, 10 million IPA contribution, 4,9 million national co-financing). On the other hand, in 2014-2020 period, Turkish partners will be able to act as Lead Beneficiaries, contrary to the previous period, since the IPA funds and ENI funds have been pooled together. In the new period, the Programme will constitute a framework to finance the projects that meet the following priorities: Jointly promote business and entrepreneurship in the tourism and cultural sectors; increase cross-border trade opportuni- ties and modernisation in the agricultural and connected sectors; improve joint environmental monitoring; promote common awareness-raising and joint actions to reduce river and marine litter. As it is seen, grant projects in tourism and cultural sectors will be supported in 2014-2020 period. Hence, we advise you to start preparations if you have a project proposal in tour- ism and cultural sectors. Within this context, we, as the National Author- ity, plan to organize info days in Turkey in the months to come. I conclude my words by underlining once again our appreciation for this project and our commitment for the continuation of cooperation at the Black Sea Basin. We also appreciate your activities in the project and wish to advance your partnership and cooperation with joint projects in the pe- riod ahead. Wish you success for this symposium meeting. Thank you for your attention
S e r k a n B o z k u r t EU Affairs Expert, Ministry for EU Affairs (Turkey)
24 INTRODUCTION KEYNOTE SPEECH SESSIONS
PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
The “Limen. Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea” Project
The project “Limen” is a cultural project funded by the “Joint Opera- tional Program “Black Sea 2007-2013” and implemented by a network of eight institutions (universities, museums, municipalities) from Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia under the leadership of the European Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments.
The network of the “Limen” project consists of: • Applicant: European Center of Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments (GR) • IPA Financial Beneficiary: Istanbul University (TU)
Partners: • Municipality of Kavala Country (GR) • Museum for National History and Archaeology from Constanta (RO) • Odessa City Council, Department of Culture and Tourism Country. Ukraine, Odessa region (UK) • G. Chubinashvili National Research Centre for Georgian Art History and Heritage Preservation (GE) • Municipality of Varna Country: Bulgaria, Varna region (BU) • Koç University: Turkey (TU)
27 Besides them, in the project participated as associate partners: • Organization for the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) • Business Council of the BSEC • International Black Sea Club • International Black Sea and Azov Seas Ports Association
The first actions for the promotion and development of the medieval city- ports of North Aegean and the Black Sea on the basis of the cultural heritage started being realized in 2012 within the framework of the project: “Olkas. From Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval Ports in the Maritime Routes of the East”, whereas since July 2013 the efforts have been enriched and extended with new activities implemented within the framework of the project: “Li- men. Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea”. Both projects focus on the idea of the development of the medieval ports of the North Aegean and the Black Sea through the increase of cultural tourism. Therefore, a network of partners representing museums, municipalities, universities and cultural institutions of Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia has been established and its members have been working since 2012 seriously and systematically for covering the main goals. Within the “OLKAS” project, among the actions that have been real- ized and implemented are the construction of a data base available online (www.olkas.net) where all the necessary information with the relevant archaeological and historical information for the ports is included, the production of a documentary film, the organization of an international symposium, the publication of a cultural guide, the implementation of educational activities/theatrical games for students, as well as the organi- zation of a photographical exhibition, displayed in Thessaloniki, Athens, Kavala, Volos, Istanbul, Constanta, Odessa, Symferopol and Tbilisi. The “LIMEN” project is a continuation and extension of the “OLKAS” one. Its general aim is the establishment of new maritime cultural routes on the basis of the historical-cultural background, which will strengthen the con- nection of the city-ports of the Black Sea through culture, and will contribute to the local development through increasing the archaeological tourism. The main objective of the project is the establishment of the institu- tion: “Cultural port of the Black Sea” which will support cultural tourism developmental efforts around Black Sea region. Having the establishment
28 of this institution as main priority, all the partners undertook the imple- mentation of several activities in order to promote in the best way their national cultural heritage to the general public, to professionals as well as to organizations, both private and public ones, which are involved to the tourist industry. A series of workshops and training courses have been or- ganized by all partners, during which fruitful discussions have taken place between participants, on the idea and the ways that the local communities can be benefitted by the establishment of the new institution. Moreover, all partners have worked a lot on the archaeological and tourist documentation of the city-ports which is available online in the official website of the project (www.limenproject.net) as well as inthe printed material (cultural guides, leaflets, pamphlets). The documentation includes extended information on the history and archaeology enriched by touristic information and maps with proposed itineraries which every tourist can follow when he/she visits the city-port in order to see monu- ments preserved. Additionally, in Kavala, Varna, Constanta, Odessa and Batumi, signs have been constructed on the streets, which highlight the existence of monuments and provide multilingual information on them. One of the main activities of the project is the organization of an onboard international symposium: “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Me- dieval - Modern Networks” where experts of the cultural and tourist sector present their studies on topics related to the cultural heritage and touristic promotion of the city-ports as well as to the networks of communication with other areas of the medieval East, such as with Aegean and Mediterra- nean. A special session of the symposium is dedicated to the new institution “Cultural port of the Black Sea”, during which a very fruitful discussion has taken place on the dynamic of the institution, the work that has been made by the team of scholars and specialists who prepared a study on it, on the support of the institution by the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation as well as on the legal aspects of its realization. The IPA partners, Istanbul University and Koç University, within the framework of the project, undertook the responsibility to implement two big pilot projects. Istanbul University, the IPA leader, among many activi- ties, has worked on the construction of a replica, in real scale, of one of the shipwrecks that has been found in the archaeological excavations of the Theodosius Harbor in Yenikapı. The replica will be an vivid example of how a medieval finding can provide modern tourists with a unique experi- ence of sailing to Bosporus with a byzantine ship.
29 Additionally, Istanbul University undertook the big responsibility to organize a cultural cruise and during it, an on board symposium with the collaboration of the European Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments. The departure of the cruise was made in Piraeus where an opening ceremony was organized in the Archaeological Museum of Pi- raeus, in which modern artists of the School of Fine Arts of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, inspired by the projects “Olkas” and “Limen” displayed 51 works of art in an exhibition dedicated to the sea, under the title: “Ode to the Sea”. During the cruise, in every city-port that the cruise ship arrived (Piraeus, Volos, Chios, Varna, Nesebar, Constanta, Histria, Istanbul) tours in archaeological sites, monuments, historic places and mu- seums have been organized by the EKBMM, the Municipality of Varna, the Museum for National History an Archaeology Constanta, the Istanbul University and Koç University. The aim of this activity was to function as a pilot “cultural cruise” which -under a regular basis- can join city-ports from Aegean to the Black Sea offering the opportunity to hundreds of tourists who participate in the cruise to visit archaeological sites, monu- ments and museums in every port where the cruise stops. If such “cultural cruises” will be established, they will function as tools of development for local communities providing a lot of benefits to the small and medium enterprises as well. The IPA partner, Koç University implemented activities in Küçükyalı Arkeopark which focus on demonstrating how cultural heritage can be integrated to the daily life of the area where it is located. Within this frame- work a lot of cultural activities have been hosted on site, such as concerts, exhibitions, screening of films, educational games, artisanal markets, whereas a bike route has been constructed which joins the port with the archaeological site, as well as pathways which will facilitate the accessibil- ity of the site. The project ends, in technical terms, by the end of 2015. A new area though starts, in which several initiatives are scheduled by the European Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments as well as by the part- ners of the “Limen” projects for the establishment of the new institution which will promote the cultural character of the city-ports of the Black Sea.
D r . F l o r a K a r a g i a n n i Co-ordinator of the “Limen” project
30 ΛΙΜΗΝ – PORTUS – HARBOUR in Metaphorical Use1
E v a n g e l o s C h r y s o s
“The greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that cannot be learnt from others; and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity of dissimilars.”
Aristotle, Poetics 22, 1458b
The experience of sea-faring several forms in order to capture is as old and as typical it could and express their awe and per- be for the entire humankind sonal familiarity with it, rational since man discovered the possi- or irrational.3 Most of the nine bility to expand his life activities muses of the Greek mythology into the sea and acquired access seem to have been in action in to the water as a route of trans- ABSTRACT order to embroider the cloth for portation and communication. dressing the experience of life in The experience common to all Hence the perils of the open sea the sea and at the safe harbour.4 humankind with the sea and the and the safety of the harbour are dangers that always accompany The theme of the paper in- prominent elements of life but cludes restrictively the Greek navigation has been a timeless they also dwell in the dreams word “λιμὴν” and the Latin source of inspiration for the and in the prayers of those who word “portus” although there creation of myths and beliefs that live with the adventure of seafar- are several other words in both often result in the idealization of ing. Therefore they were given languages that apply for the the security provided when the expression in a variety of ways in broad definition of “a body of ship enters the port. In many all kinds of art. The same is true water deep enough for anchor- lands, cultures and languages with the metaphorical use of the ing a ship and providing protec- the metaphorical use of the term term “harbor”.2 The Greeks, lat- tion from the weather.”5 haven-harbor was applied literally er (less) the Romans and all oth- in large areas of private and er peoples for whose life the sea More commonly but less public life. was a daily experience, created precisely “limen” is translated
31 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
as “port”.6 However, the meta- Ahrweiler on Byzantium and phorical use of port7 is more sen- the Sea13. In addition, I should sitively expressed by the word mention the seminal monograph “haven”, a late Old English of Peregrine Horden and Nicho- word,8 known since the 12th cen- las Purcell focusing on the Medi- tury, especially in the figurative terranean Sea.14 sense of shelter and “refuge.” Perhaps the most famous This word is widely applied to- reference to the relationship be- day in the metaphor of the “safe tween the Greeks and the sea is haven”, both with reference to in Plato’s likening of the Greeks the preservation of capital and to frogs around a pond15. Plato’s smart investing in the stock mar- simile illustrates the defining 9 ket and to in the cinema indus- role played by the sea in the way try with a popular film of 2013 that the ancient Greek mind per- 10 under this title. ceived the geography of Hellas. The natural sensitivity of the The sea was at the centre of the Greeks for all things connected world while the land formed its with the sea is documented in fringe. This is aptly expressed by many sources and it has been the name Mediterranean, the sea 16 studied accordingly. In mod- in the middle of land. The map ern scholarship much attention drawn by Eratosthenes similarly has been focused on the use shows that the sea was con- and perception of this special ceived at the very centre around 17 territory by the ancient Greeks. which the land is located. Book-length treatments include Accordingly, the pattern of Albin Lesky’s monograph, Thal- Greek colonization around the atta11, in which he explores the Mediterranean Sea - and the changing attitudes towards the Black Sea, as its natural exten- sea from the archaic to the Hel- sion - shows that significant set- lenistic period on the basis of tlements tend not to have been literary evidence, as well as A. founded more than twenty-five J. Parker’s archaeological study miles inland.18 Plato’s metaphor of 1992,12 in which he discusses also highlights that the sea was the significance of shipwrecks in an integral part of ancient Greek the history of seafaring. On the life and a mediating and unify- other hand the historical, bet- ing agent: aspects that are all ter than the literary role of the well attested in other literary Sea in the Byzantine Period is sources and archaeological evi- the focus of the book of Hélène dence.
32 Λιμην – Portus – Harbour in Metaphorıcal Use • EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
Simplified reconstruction of Eratosthenes’ (c. 275 - 194 BC) map of the world, based on north-south and east-west lines intersecting at Rhodes (after, Dilke 1985)
Thus we can comprehend metaphor is found with the first how common it was that any meaning in Aeschylus: human endeavor was likely to “Ah! It’s like a torrential be perceived as a dangerous river!/A flood of evil is washing me voyage heading to a success- away. /And I have entered into an ful conclusion at a safe har- unfathomable/abyss, an ocean of bour. For instance, Plato in the misery./I see no harbour anywhere. dialogue Protagoras compares a 20 speech to a dangerous seafaring / I see no haven of escape.” and he advices Protagoras: “nor With the second meaning the must you, Protagoras, let out full metaphor is found in Sophocles, sail, as you run before the breeze, who speaks of “the shipwreck of and so escape into the ocean of state” and the “well steered ship speech leaving the land nowhere in of state.”21 The figure of the ship 19 sight.” of state was further elaborated The image of a ship caught by Cicero and it is well-known to in a storm and struggling to us through the classic verses of make harbour was to the poets Horace: “Ship, new waves will re- a superb way of expressing the turn you/Upon the sea! O, how are life course of a hero or even of you? Boldly/Take the port! Do you the political fate of a state. The not see that/ Your side is stripped
33 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA of oars,/And your mast is wounded life, preserved in the Palatine An- him as a hospitable harbour: “O, by Africus [i.e.African wind]/ and thology: “Life is a perilous voyage philosophy, I hastened to your ben- your sails lament, and without for often we are tempest tossed in efits and for the rest of my life and girding/scarcely is your hull able to it and are in worse case than ship- decided to escape from storms and endure/ the mightier ocean?”22 wrecked men, and with Fortune at waves and enter into a hospitable Life’s helm we sail uncertainly as harbour.”33 I should add that On the other hand, Euripides if on the open sea, some on a fair Sophocles does not seem to trust summarizes the human experi- voyage, others the reverse: but all friendship as a reliable support. ence as follows: “Whoever has es- alike reach one harbour under the Hence his verdict: “For the major- caped a storm at sea is a happy man earth.”27 The same author reach- ity of men, the harbour of friendship in harbour, whoever overcomes great es a very pessimistic conclusion: is untrustworthy.”34 hardship is likewise another happy 23 “I am beyond of hope and luck, man.” Furthermore Sophocles * * * in Oedipus Rex compares the the fraud can no more cheat me. I 28 womb of Oedipus’ mother with have arrived at the harbour.” In a In Christian thought the im- an awful harbour: “Both of you, shorter, very precise version we age of the harbour in connection [Oedipus - father and son -] how read: “The common harbour for ev- to death attains a new meaning. It 29 did the same awful harbour manage eryone is Hades.” Epictetus the becomes the harbour of salvation to receive you both?”24 Similarly, philosopher thought in a similar in the afterlife. Thus for Gregory Artemidorus Daldianus, second way that “death is the harbour.”30 of Nazianzus the passing to the life beyond death is similar to century AD, attaches a personal On the other hand Philo of the entering into a harbour after quality to the harbours and calls Alexandria applies to the har- a stormy seafaring. In his Funeral them “friends and benefactors of bour the same quality in relation men.”25 Oration on his Father he wrote: to wisdom: “For you will find the “That transfer and removal thither In the image of life as a sea- house of wisdom a calm and secure is to us who are tempest-tossed here faring experience the harbour, haven, which will gladly receive you like a calm haven to men at sea.”35 31 where the journey ends, attains when you are anchored within it.” In Gregory’s Carmen II, 1, 45 religious and symbolical signifi- Similar is his verdict on Virtue: the harbour of death becomes cance. In the pagan literature it at- “And all those who are truly lovers the harbour of God’s kingdom, tains the image of Hades [the un- of God desire eagerly to escape from which he longs to enter after the derworld], where the man ends the storm of multiplied affairs and adversities of life: “So than you at the end of his life. Of the death business in which there is always might lead me from hostile and pain- as a harbour speaks also Seneca: tempestuous weather, and rough ful sufferings to the friendly harbour “For those who sail upon this stormy sea, and confusion, and to anchor in of your kingdom.”36 sea, exposed as it is to every gale, the calm and safe untroubled haven Furthermore a person as pro- there is no harbour save death.”26 of virtue.”32 tector is often imagined as the Even in Late Antiquity, the Lucianus of Samosata in the harbour of the protected. Thus pagan Palladas (c. 400 AD) second century AD explains John Chrysostom calls the bene- wrote in his allegory of human how Philosophy was offered to factor Sopatros “α harbour com-
34 Λιμην – Portus – Harbour in Metaphorıcal Use • EVANGELOS CHRYSOS mon to the poor.”37 In addition, Other writers developed this bring the boat to the hospitable har- John Chrysostom, remarkably imagery in different sorts of bour of truth.”47 ways. For Isaac of Antioch (fifth in his oration on virginity (!), de- Other synonyms for the har- century) a monastery is a “hav- scribes marriage as “a harbour of bour are “the City of the Great 38 en-limen of sobriety and peaceful- prudence.” King”, reaching into “God’s ness”.41 It is interesting that in As a matter of fact the image realm”, the “Fatherland”, even, the Syriac Church nautical im- in Origenes, as the place of res- of the ship reaching harbour can agery coined the name for the li- be found in all literatures of East toration – “ἡ ἐπὶ τὸν λιμένα turgical office for Holy Monday ἀποκατάστασις”, “Land of Peace” and West, ancient and modern as in the Passion Week (Μεγάλη or as the “Φάρος”, “pharus, the an often appearing metaphor for Δευτέρα). The liturgical office of Lighthouse of Eternity”. This is the successful completion of a that day has the name “The ar- interesting because iconographi- difficult task. This is true also in rival in harbour”, for it perceives cally the most common way oriental literatures, for instance as the entrance to the Holy Week to present the harbour is in the in the Christian Syriac literature, 42 as the safe harbour. form of a lighthouse.48 where we come across quite of- John Chrysostom praises St. ten authors such as Ephrem the At the southern side of the Paul as the hospitable harbour Syrian using the seafaring and Mediterranean Sea, on the shore for those in threat: “Greetings, o harbour metaphors, although of North Africa, some centuries Paul, calm harbour for those who these persons had probably later St. Augustine, bishop of are exposed to tempests.”43 Fur- never seen the sea! Apparently Hippo, saw the great middle sea thermore, John asserts that the under the influence of Chris- as the World where good row- life of a woman as a virgin is ers are required. The fact that tian Greek writers, Ephrem and freed from any turbulence and sweet water flows into the brine his fellows in the fourth cen- likens it to a hospitable harbour gives him in one instance a met- tury AD adapted to their own dominated by silence and by aphor for the life of Nature and use such classical themes as the calmness of the soul.44 Already of Grace; but his master image world being the sea and the in- in his oration on the occasion of equates the sea with the life of tellect the pilot, the ship captain his ordination as presbyter in men, and on this sea the salva- [κυβερνήτης νεὼς]. Accord- 386 in Antioch John Chrysostom tion ship of Christ or the Church ing to Ephrem, life is a voyage compared old age to a hospita- sails: “There is danger, it is true, in where “blessed is the person, who ble harbour: “When he settles into the sea; but without her there is in- has directed his ship straight to old age, as into a calm harbour,”45 stant perishing. Keep thyself there- 39 Paradise.” Here is another ex- while he spoke of youth as a fore in the ship, and pray to God. ample from Ephrem: “Aiming at maddened sea: “For youth is like For when all counsels fail, when the life of the Saints, we should ad- a maddened sea.”46 Similar meta- even the rudder is unserviceable, just our own ship in that direction, phors are employed by Seve- and the very spreading of the sails so that we can land at the hospitable rianus, bishop of Gabala around is rather dangerous than useful, harbour and enjoy beyond limits of 400 AD: “we, brethren, escaping when all human help and strength time the inviolate life.”40 from the storm of the waves should is gone, there remains only for the
35 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA sailors the earnest cry of entreaty, custom was in constant use for moved to other associations. For and pouring out of prayer to God. many centuries until modern example, Codex Parisinus Grae- He then who grants to sailors to times in Greek and in Latin, but cus: “The harbour is sweet, but also reach the haven, shall He so forsake also in Syriac, Arabic and other the end of a book. For both mean rest His own Church, as not to bring it manuscripts. In a Syriac manu- from the pains.”58 on to rest?”49 script at St. Catherine’s Monas- A colophon in a Georgian tery on Mount Sinai, dated to Furthermore in the Greek manuscript among the new December 543 we find the first Orthodox Prayer book, in the finds at Sinai (N.2) refers toSi- appearance of it in a colophon Supplication canon to the Virgin nai itself as “this holy mountain, - that is a personal final note by Mary we read the praise: “(Vir- 59 the scribe, with which he ex- the spiritual harbor.” gin Mary): you take care of the or- presses his personal feelings for phans, support the widows, you are A colophon in a Russian reaching the end of his endeav- sweet bread to those who are hun- manuscript reads as follows: our, the copying of the text: “As gry, water to those who are thirsty, “The merchant rejoices having made the boatman rejoices at the ship’s joy to those who are sad, you are a a bargain, the helmsman heaving to final harbour, thus the scribe too re- calm harbour for those in peril.”50 in calm water, and the traveler re- joices at the last line of the book.”54 Finally in the liturgical ceremo- turning to his native land, so also The earliest equivalent colophon ny for the tonsure of a monk we rejoices the scribe reaching the end in a Latin manuscript, dated in 60 read: “who of those who enter this of his books.” 669, now in the abbey of Luxu- harbour in need and seeking for help eil, reads: “Ut nauta gaudet litore Similar colophons are pre- is not saved?”51 post pontum evectus, ita et scriba served also in Arabic manu- From Georgian Church lit- novissimum versum sulcatum.”55 scripts. Adam McCollum cites erature Adam McCullum cites several, among them the fol- Among many Greek manu- a quotation from the Georgian lowing in Garšūnī: “As the sailor scripts with the same or similar hagiography which refers to a [< ναύτης] rejoices when his ship colophon the oldest is dated in martyr’s death as following: “He reaches the harbor [< λιµήν], so the 898 AD and reads as follows: departed for the sheltered haven and scribe rejoices at the last line, that it “As sweet the calm harbour to the eternal resting place.”52 On the oth- remains to him in the book.”61 navigators, so the last line for the er hand, a proverb known in Ar- scribes.”56 In a manuscript dated Hence it is apparent that the menian about solitaries compares in 927 we have the following ex- ancient Church developed early their propensity to desert-dwell- panded form: “As bread is sweet in its literature the metaphori- ing with a ship seeking port: “A to those who are hungry and to cal rhetoric of the nautical ex- ship in trouble heads for port, and a travelers by sea the hospitable har- perience in the Mediterranean continent soul seeks the desert.”53 bour, so is sweet the last line to the Sea. Both aspects of seafaring, One of the most interest- scribes.”57 In the fifteenth century the delight and the pleasure of ing metaphors of harbour is as- seafaring was no more as peril- the voyage and the mortal dan- sociated with the copying and ous as in the past centuries, thus ger of being in the mercy of the production of manuscripts. The the wording of the colophon had waters provided symbolism ap-
36 Λιμην – Portus – Harbour in Metaphorıcal Use • EVANGELOS CHRYSOS plicable to the understanding of and gullies; / and from the rocks pleasure. Thus the cruise we be- the Church, in its ecclesiology of and the waves it preserved me: gan and the conference we have the harbour as the ultimate ref- / And it became to me a haven of started under the flag of the in- uge, which served, in accordance Salvation: / and set me on the arms ternational research project on with its salutary mission and its of immortal life.”62 LIMEN will turn the experience life in the perils of the world of danger and of safety into a Furthermore the metaphor of aiming at the harbour of salva- chapter of the history of the past the boat guided to the harbour tion, [λιμὴν σωτηρίας - portus and will allow the metaphors of as the right destination is ap- salutis], the harbour of eternity, the limen I spoke about to ap- plied by Eusebius of Caesarea [λιμὴν αἰωνιότητος - portus ae- in relation to the person of the pear in our mind as figurative ternitatis] and also the harbour of emperor Constantine the Great: maidens of our long European paradise, [λιμὴν παραδείσου - “He himself, as a skillful pilot, sits culture. portus paradisi]. As perils for the on high above the steering oars, and Church, while navigating in the directs the vessel with unerring world, were identified with the course, conducting his people as it pagan daemons, the heretics and were with favoring breeze to a se- the mundane weaknesses due 63 to fleshly desires and greed of cure and tranquil haven.” the faithful for things material. Finally, let me add a land- On the ship of the Church the mark of European wisdom. Ac- stabilizing factor was the Cross cording to Menander (c. 342/41 in the form of the mast and, of – c. 290 BC) “for all humans (safe) course, the governor was Christ harbour is the paideia (education the Logos, supported by the cler- and culture).”64 gy as the serving seamen. Con- To conclude, the ancient sequently in liturgical texts the and medieval experience of the Cross itself is identified with the open sea as the domain of perils safe harbour for those in need: and risks and of the harbour as “Σταυρὸς τῶν χειμαζομένων the garden of safety and peace, λιμήν”. supported by the correspond- We also encounter the meta- ing connotations from the Bible phor of the harbour as the place remained valid until quite re- of salvation in connection to cently,65 more advanced when the Truth, here identified with shipping technology allowed Christ, in the so-called Odes of the building of ships such as our Solomon where we read: “I went Princess Emerald, and any rea- up to the light of truth as if into a sonable anxiety was removed chariot / and the Truth took me and from the mind of the passengers led me: and carried me across pits who are travelling mainly for
37 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES 8 “Hæfen”, from Old Norse “họfn”; related to Dutch “haven”, Ger- man “Hafen”, Oxford Advanced Lerner’s Dictionary, s.v. haven. 1 It is a profound honor for me to metaphorically hold the key by address- ing this very extraordinary symposium on board. I owe this honor to the 9 http://www.safehaven.com/ generosity of my friends on the Scientific Board of the project LIMEN. 10 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yivDxlunHec. For further mod- 2 The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary offers the following cur- ern applications of the metaphor see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ rent uses of the harbour metaphor: The wood is a haven for wildlife / Safe_harbor. They were living in a safe haven away from the fighting / This house 11 Lesky 1947. is a haven of peace compared with ours / The hotel is a haven of peace 12 Parker 1992. and tranquility / We have a duty to offer a safe haven to all refugees. 13 Ahrweiler 1996. 3 My wish to widen the horizon and include examples of metaphors from the Phoenician and the Punic languages through the support 14 Horden and Purcell 2000. The two authors went further into estab- of specialists in those languages did not provide any results. Profes- lishing an autarchic discipline under the name “Thalassology”. Cf. sor Wolfgang Röllig, Tübingen University, responded collegially to Horden and Purcell 2006, 722-740. See further Abulafia 2005, 64–93. my request and informed me that “unsere Kenntnis des Phönizischen All this scholarship is under the flag of the classic by Braudel 1976. ist leider noch immer sehr unbefriedigend, da es aus vielen Lebensbereichen 15 Phaedo, 109b: “ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν praktisch keine Texte gibt, selbst über so zentrale Bereiche wie z.B. die θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας”. The simile has been wisely used as a title Schifffahrt und alles, was damit zusammenhängt, so dass wir häufig auf by Horden and Purcell 2000 and Amelia R. Brown in her ongoing das Hebräische zurückgreifen, das einen viel reicheren Wortschatz hat und project “Like frogs around a pond: Maritime Religion and Seafaring dem Phönizischen sehr nahe stand. Dort gibt es ein Wort /machoz, /das Gods of Ancient Greek Culture.” gern mit “Hafen(stadt)” übersetzt wird und ein Pendant im Akkadischen 16 However the word is first attested by Isidore of Seville in his Ety- hat: /machazu /was etwa “Markt- und Kultstadt” bedeutet. Dafür hat Frau mologies, 13, 16,1: Mare Magnum est quod ab occasu ex Oceano fluit M.G. Guzzo Amadasi einmal einen Aufsatz geschrieben, in dem sie dieses et in meridiem vergit, deinde ad septentrionem tendit; quod inde Wort als “Hafen” auch für das Phönizische glaubt nachweisen zu können. magnum appellatur quia cetera maria in conparatione eius minora Jedenfalls gibt es im Punischen mchz mit der Bedeutung “Marktplatz”. Im sunt. Iste est et Mediterraneus, quia per mediam terram usque ad Hebräischen gibt es darüber hinaus noch /miprasz /für “Einschnitt, Bu- orientem perfunditur, Europam et Africam Asiamque disterminans. cht, Hafen” [email 16.09.2015]. Interestingly, in the Oxford English- [Translation by Stephen A. Barney and others, Cambridge 2006, 277: Phoenician Dictionary we see that the word “haven” is translated “The Mediterranean Sea (De mediterraneo mari) 1. “The Great Sea is with “refuge”
38 Λιμην – Portus – Harbour in Metaphorıcal Use • EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
27 Palladas, Anthologia Palatina X 65: “πλοῦς σφαλερὸς τὸ ζῆν 50 Παρακλητικὸς κανὼν εἰς τὴν Παναγίαν τὴν Ἐπακούουσαν: χειμαζόμενοι γὰρ ἐν αὐτῷ /πολλάκις ναυηγῶν πταίομεν οἰκτρότερα./ “Ὀρφανῶν ἀντιλήπτωρ καὶ τῶν χηρῶν στήριγμα, ἄρτος τε τὴν δὲ Τύχην βιότοιο κυβερνήτειραν ἔχοντες, /ὡς ἐπὶ τοῦ πελάγους, ἡδὺς τοῖς πεινῶσιν, ὕδωρ διψῶσί τε, τοῖς λυπημένοις χαρά, ἀμφίβολοι πλέομεν,/ οἱ μὲν ἐπ᾽ εὐπλοΐην, οἱ δ᾽ ἔμπαλιν ἀλλ᾽ ἅμα χειμαζομένοις λιμήν τε, Σὺ ὑπάρχεις εὔδιος, ὦ Ἐπακούουσα”. πάντες / εἰς ἕνα τὸν κατὰ γῆς ὅρμον ἀπερχόμεθα“. 51 “Τὶς χειμαζόμενος καὶ προστρέχων τῷ λιμένι τούτῳ οὐ 28 Anthologia 9, 172: “Ἐλπίδος οὐδὲ Τύχης ἔτι μοι μέλει, οὐδ’ ἀλεγίζω διασώζεται;” http://www.imaik.gr/?p=6014. Cf. For the Sunday λοιπὸν τῆς Ἀπάτης· ἤλυθον εἰς λιμένα”. vespers: http://www.glt.xyz/texts/Tri/Tone4.uni.htm http://trans- 29 Anthologia Palatina 7, 452: “Κοινὸς πᾶσι λιμὴν Ἁϊδης“. late.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Forthodoxesanazitise is1.blogspot.gr%2F2013%2F04%2Fblog-post_1451.html%23.Vga2zs 30 Tōn Epiktētou diatrivōn vivlia tessera, 4, 10, 27: “λιμὴν τὸ uqqko&langpair=auto%7cen&hl=en ἀποθανεῖν”. 52 See: The Martyrdom of Romanos, § 5. Text in: Khakhanov 1910, 31 On flight and Finding 50:“τῆς γὰρ σοφίας οἶκον εὔδιον καὶ γαληνὸν 28.29-30. Cf. McCollum 2015, 71. λιμένα εὑρήσεις, ὃς ἐνορμιζόμενόν σε ραδίως, ὑποδέξεται“. 53 Movsēs Xorenac’I, 3.47, text in: Abełean and Yarowt’iwnean 1913, 32 On Dreams 2, 225: “σπουδάζουσι δὲ καὶ πάντες οἱ θεοφιλεῖς τὸν 316. English translation in Thomson 1978, 310; see a list of a few φιλοπραγμοσύνης χειμῶνα ἀποδιδράσκοντες, ἐν ᾧ σάλος καὶ other nautical metaphors in Armenian listed by Thomson 1978, 337, κλύδων ἀεὶ κυκᾶται, τοῖς τῆς ἀρετῆς εὐδίοις καὶ ναυλοχωτάτοις n. 4. Cf. McCollum 2015, 71 sq. ἐνορμίζεσθαι λιμέσιν”. 54 Brock 1995, 198. 33 Piscator 29: “ἐπὶ δὲ τὰ σά, ὦ φιλοσοφία, καλὰ ὡρμήσας, ἠξίουν ὁπόσον ἔτι μοι λοιπὸν τοῢ βίου καθάπερ ἐκ ζάλης, καὶ κλύδωνος 55 Brock 1995, 196. ἐς εὔδιον λιμένα ἐσπλεύσας“. 56 “Ὡς ἡδὺ τοῖς πλέουσιν εὔδιος λιμήν, οὕτως καὶ τοῖς γράφουσι ὁ 34 Sophocles, Αίας 682: “τοῖς πολλοῖσι γὰρ βροτῶν ἄπιστός ἔσθ᾽ ὕστατος στίχος”. ἑταιρείας λιμήν“. 57 “Ὡς ἡδὺς ὁ ἄρτος τοῖς πεινῶσιν, καὶ τοῖς πλέουσιν, ὁ εὔδιος λιμήν, 35 Funeral Oration on his Father 18.6: “καὶ ὅπερ ἐστι τοῖς πλέουσι οὕτω τοῖς γράφουσι ὁ ὕστατος στίχος”. λιμὴν εὔδιος τοῦτο τοῖς ἐνταῦθα χειμαζομένοις ἡ ἐκεῖσε 58 “Λιμὴν μὲν ἡδύς, αλλὰ καὶ βιβλίου τέλος. Ἄμφω γὰρ εἰσὶν μετάστασις καὶ μετάθεσις”. ἀνάπαυλα τῶν πόνων”. 36 Carmen II, 1,45, v. 347 sq.: “καὶ μ’ ἐκ δυσμενέων τε καὶ ἄργαλέων 59 Aleksidze, Shanidze, Khevsuriani, and Kavtaria 2005, 247, 375. μελεδώνων εὔδιον ἐς λιμένα σῆς βασιλείας ἄγοις“. 60 Lavrentiy’s copy of the Chronicle (1377): Vinokur 1971, 36, cited by 37 John Chrysostom, ep. 64: “κοινὸν τῶν πενήτων λιμένα“. McCollum 2015, 70. 38 PG 48, 539: “λιμὴν τῆς σωφροσύνης“. 61 McCollum 2015, 85. McCollum ends his presentation of the exam- 39 Ephrem, Hymni de Paradiso, XIV 5. Cf. Brock 1995, 195. ples with the following conclusion: “It is not surprising that scribes, who typically trumpet their humility and make inventories of their labo- 40 Ephrem, In Loth, et de securitate: “Ἔχοντες οὖν σκοπὸν τὸν rious hardships appropriated it so ably to their own voyages in writing. τῶν Ἁγίων βίον, πρὸς αὐτὸν ῥυθμίσωμεν τὸ ἑαυτῶν σκάφος, These samples taken from manuscripts in Latin, Greek, Syriac, and Ara- ὅπως καταντήσαντες εἰς εὔδιον λιμένα ἀϊδίως ἀπολαύσωμεν bic (Garšūnī) show how widespread the analogy became, and how creative τῆς ἀκηράτου ζωῆς.” https://greekdownloads.files.wordpress. scribes could be when artfully recording their happiness at the end of their com/2013/06/in-loth.pdf. copying labor” (McCollum 2015, 91). 41 Brock 1995, 195. 62 Odes of Solomon, 38. 42 Rücker 1923, 78-92. Hambye 1974, 400-411. Cf. Brock 1995, 196. 63 Vita Constantini 10, 7: “ὁ δ’ οἷα σοφὸς κυβερνήτης ὑψίζυγος ὑπὲρ 43 In Petrum et Paulum 59.494.2: “Χαίροις, Παῦλε, εὔδιος λιμὴν τῶν πηδαλίων ὀχούμενος εὐθείᾳ πνεύματι τοὺς ὑπ’ αὐτῷ πάντας ἐπὶ χειμαζομένων”. τὸν ἀσφαλῆ καὶ γαληνὸν ναυστολῶν ὅρμον”. 44 De virginitate 68, 4. 64 “Λιμὴν πέφυκε πᾶσι παιδεία βροτοῖς”. Liapis 2002, nr. 428, 174. 45 Sermo cum presbyter fuit ordinatus 24 = Τοῦ αὐτοῦ ὁμιλία πρώτη The correct meaning of “λιμὴν” as “refuge” is preserved in the ὅτε πρεσβύτερος προεχειρίσθη: ὅτε ὡς ἐν εὐδίῳ λιμένι τῷ γήρᾳ proverb “ἡ παιδεία εὐτυχοῦσι μέν ἐστι κόσμος, δυστυχοῦσι δὲ κάθηται… καταφύγιον” (Wachsmuth 1882, nr. 54. Cf. Liapis 2002, 377). 46 Ἡ μὲν γὰρ νεότης, πελάγει προσέοικε μαινομένῳ. 65 It would be an enormous but interesting task to bring systemati- cally together the metaphors of safe harbour in the post-medieval 47 In illud: Quando ipsi subiciet omnia 159.18: ἡμεῖς δέ, ἀδελφοί, τῶν times. Let me cite a negative metaphor from William Shakespeare’s, κυμάτων τὴν ζάλην φεύγοντες ἐπὶ τὸν εὔδιον λιμένα τῆς ἀληθείας The Rape of Lucrece, l. 768, where we read of “Dark harbour for τὸ σκάφος ὁρμήσωμεν. defame.” I owe this reference to S. Balch. On the other hand, Pro- 48 See: Peterson 1950, 77-79. fessor Joachim Grage, Freiburg University, in his monograph on 49 St. Augustine, Sermon 35: “et ipsa velorum extensio majori periculo Chaotischer Abgrund und erhabene Weite, Göttingen 2000, 41 sq., quam utilitati fuerit; dimssis huraanis omnibus adjutoriis et viribus, sola devotes a subchapter on “die Ankunft im Hafen”, where he cites restat nautis intentio deprecandi et voces ad Deum fundendi. Qui ergo texts from the baroque spiritual poetry of Scandinavia, where praastat navigantibus, ut perveniant ad portum, numquid Ecclesiam suam among others we meet the metaphor of the ‘sweet haven of heaven’ dimissurus est, ut eam non perducat ad requiem?“ [Himlens søde Havn].
39 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
REFERENCES Rahner, H., 1954. Symbole der Kirche, Die Ekklesiologie der Väter. Salzburg
Abełean, M. and S. Yarowt’iwnean, S., 1913. Movsisi Xorenac’woy Rücker, A., 1923. “Die Ankunft im Hafen‘ des syrisch-jakobitischen Patmowt’iwn Hayoc. Tbilisi Festrituals und verwandte Riten“. Jahrbuch für Liturgiewissenschft 3:78-92 Abulafia, D., 2011. “Mediterraneans”. In Rethinking the Mediterranean, edited by W.V.Harris, 64–93. Oxford Schlimme, L., 1986. Art. “Hafen“. Reallexicon für Antike und Christentum 13: 297-305. Ahrweiler, H., 1966. Byzance et la mer. Paris Thomson, R.W., 1978. History of the Armenians, [Harvard Armenian Texts Aleksidze, Z., Shanidze, M., Khevsuriani, L., and Kavtaria, M., 2005. and Studies 4]. Cambridge, Mass. and London. Catalogue of Georgian Manuscripts Discovered in 1975 at St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mt. Sinai. Athens Treu, K., 1977. “Der Schreiber am Ziel. Zu den Versen ὥσπερ ξένοι χαίρουσιν…und ähnlichen“. In Studia Codicologica edited by K. Babiniotis, B., 2009. Ετυμολογικό Λεξικό. Athens Treu. 473-492. Berlin
Bonner, C., 1941. “Desired Haven”. Harvard Theological Review 34 : 49-67 Vinokur, G.O, 1971. The Russian Language: A Brief History, translated by M.A. Forsyth, edited by J. Forsyth. Cambridge. Braudel, F., 1976. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2nd ed. trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. New York. Wachsmuth, C., ed., 1882. Gnomologium Byzantinum. Berlin Brock, S., 1995. “The scribe reaches harbor”. Byzantinische Forschungen 21: 195-202 [reprinted as ch. 16 of From Ephrem to Romanos (Aldershot, 1999)]
Dilke, O.A.W., 1985. Greek and Roman maps. Ithaca
Hambye, E., 1974. “The Symbol of the “coming to the harbour“ in the Syriac tradition”. Symposium Syriacum 1972: 400-411 [Orientalia Christiana Analecta]. Rome
Horden, P. and Purcell, N., 2000. The Corrupting Sea. Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford
Horden, P., and Nicholas Purcell N., 2006. The Mediterranean and the “New Thalassology”. Americal Historical Review 110: 722-740
Kahlmeyer, J., 1934. Seesturm und Schiffbruch als Bild im antiken Schrifttum. Greifswald
Khakhanov, A., 1910. “Материалы по грузинской агиологии”. Труды по востоковедению 31:25-46. Moscow.
Lesky, A., 1947. Thalatta: Der Weg der Griechen zum Meer. Vienna
Liapis, V., ed., 2002. Menandrou Gnomai monostichoi. Eisagôgê, metaphrasê, scholia. Athens
Lindenlauf, A., 2004. “The sea as a place of no return in ancient Greece”. World Archaeology 35: 416-433
Lorenz, B., 1973. “Zur Seefahrt des Lebens in den Gedichten des Gregor von Nazianz“. Vigiliae Christianae 33: 234-41
McCollum, A., 2015. “The rejoicing sailor and the rotting hand: Two formulas in Syriac and Arabic colophons with related phenomenain some other languages”. In Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, 18.1: 67-93.
Parker, A.J., 1992. Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces [BAR International Series 580]. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum
Peterson, E., 1950. “Das Schiff als Symbol der Kirche in der Eschatologie: Die Tat des Messias im eschatologischen Meeressturm in der jüdischen und altchristlichen Überlieferung“, Theologische Zeitschrift 6: 77-79
40 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region
E l e n a K o s t i ć
This paper aims to study the 1840, when one of the first ship- types of medieval ships based building texts by Auguste Jal on several kinds of art such as was published.2 It is a copy of frescos and icons from the Black part of a manuscript by Michael Sea region. The present paper of Rhodes (Michalli da Rudo), as does not aim to study every sep- it is known today, which among ABSTRACT arate case but to discuss the mat- others includes texts about ship- This paper discusses types of ter and present an extra source building accompanied by elabo- ships depicted in the Byzantine and of information as to medieval rate illustrations.3 shipbuilding. post-Byzantine frescoes and icons, A lot of information was which originated from the southern The work of Edmund Dum- gathered from archaeological and western shores of the Black Sea. mer (1651 – 1713)1, English ship- investigations of shipwrecks, From the cases discussed, arise the builder and naval engineer, who which begun at the ‘60s, near the first conclusions on the typology of was commissioned by the Royal coast of Asia Minor, in Serçe Li- ships, painter’s inspiration sources family to travel to the Mediterra- man4 and in Bozburun5, as well and the role of ships in these specific nean in order to survey the local as the excavation in Yenikapı6, at works of art. As comparative shipbuilding and port facilities, the port of Theodosius, where 37 material, are used old drawings has contributed to the study of byzantine shipwrecks have been and plans of known types of ships Greek ships. His survey result- found and the results of which which were in use at the time that ed to a manuscript, in which 24 are expected with eagerness. types of ships are described, ac- the examined paintings are dated, Another, more used source companied by a series of excel- as well as painted works of art from for studying medieval ship- lent illustrations, which allowed the other, inland regions, dated in building is the graffiti of ships the identification of complex the same period. On the basis of this which are to be found not only types of ships in this paper. examination, interesting conclusions in monuments of the Mediter- on the realistic or not depiction of Medieval shipbuilding was ranean basin and the Black Sea, the ships in art come up. studied more consistently after but also outside Europe. Al-
41 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA ready, since 1972, Dr. Otto Mei- rus, are scratched by shipmen or without oars at all. The first boat nardus, in his article, when try- by their relatives as votive offer- has a distinctive round shape ing to identify types of ships in ings for safe navigation or pros- and is extremely small; seem- a large number of graffiti, has perous trading10 and according ingly it cannot fit more than one stressed the need to group ships to Bryer are linked to the dedi- more passenger. It is a small in Mediterranean and Black Sea cation of ships in Saints, either fishing boat, which could not ships, based on different types general or before an important be more than a few meters long. of navigation.7 trip.11 However, they maintain a The second boat seems similar. religious character. It is longer and has got no oars. The shipbuilding of the Black It is undoubtedly powered by Sea Region is depicted at the On the contrary, wall paint- oars, but they are not depicted. graffiti of Saint Sofia8, which are ings and icons are created by art- Both boats are depicted with the more than 100, of Saint Evge- ists, either professional or not, characteristics of the “round” nios (Yeni Cuma Camii) and of who usually are very observant ships of the 13th century, such as Panagia Chrysocephalos Church and can depict what they see re- low hulls and high curved bow (Ortahisar or Fatih Camii) in alistically. However, one should and stern (Fig. 1). Trabzon but also in Panagia always bear in mind the factor of “artistic freedom”, which does Theoskepastos Church in Boz- The next four examples were not always allows prototypes to tepe as well as at the Panagia found at the church of Saint Ste- be depicted faithfully. This pa- Soumela Monastery at Maçka. fanos or the New Metropolis of per discussed some cases com- At those monuments the graf- Nesebar. We can trace the paint- ing exclusively from cities-ports fiti are scratched both to the ex- ings of Saint Stefanos in 1599, in the Black Sea, in order to in- ternal walls of their arches and based on the dedicatory inscrip- crease the odds that the artists inside at the painted surfaces. tion. Four ships are depicted in were native, had immediate con- Graffiti have been also record- three scenes of the Christological tact to the sea and the boats, or ed at the Church of Saint Sofia Cycle. In the first scene two row- that at least have stayed at some in Istanbul, in Kilise Mescidi in ing ships of the same type but of time at the places of origin of the different size are depicted. There Amasra and in various churches artworks. at the western coast of the Black are low hull boats with slightly Sea, in Bulgaria. The graffiti of The first examples of ships’ high bow and stern. The thin oars that are held by the pas- the churches of Nesebar have depiction that are presented sengers only in one hand are been studied extensively by N. come from the frescoes of the Church of Saint Sofia in Trab- also characteristic. The other two D. Ovčarov.9 zon, excellent specimen of art ships are sailing vessels. The first The depictions of ships in of the era of Komnenos dating of them, depicted in the scene of graffiti are amateur efforts to back to the 13th century.12 There the Multiplication of the fishes, render the shape of the medieval are two depictions of the Chris- is a typical “round” ship with and late medieval ships and can- tological Cycles, showing two a rather small mast for its size not be characterized as works of small rowing boats, one with and a gathered sail. It is a fishing art as, according to O. Meinda- two pairs of oars and the other boat, which can accommodate no
42 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region • ELENA KOSTIĆ
more than six people. The bow astasia the Pharmakolytria13, Fig 1. Turkey. Trebizond. Church of St. Sophia. Wall and the stern do not seem to dif- placed at the monastery with painting. 13th c. fer in the stylized representation, the same name at the little is- making thus the hull to look like land in the gulf of Burgas, has a nutshell. Obviously, the pro- painted two ships at the scenes portions of the hull and the sail from her life, depicted on both do not correspond with reality; sides of the central theme. One they just serve the needs of the is a larger masted ship and the scene. The second ship with the other a smaller, painted only round hull and a lateen is more half and has got three oars. The realistically depicted (Fig. 2). bigger ship can be identified as The painter Demetrios (1781 a tartan. Tartan from the sec- -1800) at the icon of Saint An- ond part of the 17th century was
43 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 2. Bulgaria. Nesebar. used as a fishing boat or rarely The same painter painted Church of St. Stephanos the icon of Saint Nikolaos with (New Metropolis). as a trading ship or as a small 14 Wall painting. 1599. sized galley with a single mast scenes from his life , for the and a triangular sail (lateen), a church of Theotokos in Sozopol. short long hull, a fantail stern At the lower part of the icon, and a big rudder. The smaller where the scenes of the life of boat is depicted half and is a the Saint are depicted, Deme- small rowing boat with a short trios has painted two ships. The hull, beak at its bow and three first has a large mast with two thin oars fasted at the hull, since open square sails and a smaller there are no passengers. The lateen at the mast of the stern. rope in which the anchor is pos- Both ends are raised and the sibly tied can be seen from the ship looks like a half moon. At bow (Fig. 3). the stern the keel as well as an
44 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region • ELENA KOSTIĆ ornate red rudder is discernible. icon of Saint Panteleimon17, It is a shaika, a ship representa- with scenes from his life, at the tive not only for the Black Sea Church of Saint Georgios in but for the eastern Mediterra- Sozopol. This time it is a small, nean Sea as well.15 It had a crew long and narrow fishing boat, of 19 or 14 persons and during with low hull, tow oars and a the second half of the 18th cen- vividly painted rudder. tury, those ships reached Egypt At the right side of the cen- and Malta. The smaller ship tral theme, at the icon of Saint is a two-masted one, with an Nikolaos with scenes from his open and a gathered sail, with life18, dating back to the 16th an extremely low, curved at the -17th century, the Miracle of Ar- edges hull and hasn’t got any temida is depicted. At the cen- oars. The type of the ship could tre of this scene there is a sailing Fig 3. Bulgaria. Island in Burgas be either a small trading galley gulf. Monastery of St. Anastasia boat with a rounded high hull, or the second type of shaika, as Pharmakolytria. Icon of St. Anastasia, with one mast and a gathered detail. 1789. defined by Lucien Basch, which sail. The hull is painted without has got two masts either with a lot of details and highly styl- square sails or with lateens16 ized and as a result it looks like (Fig. 4 - 5). a nutshell. The rendering of the Another ship painted by ship, which might be a small Demetrios can be found at the sized galley, reminds us of the
Fig 4-5. Bulgaria. Sozopolis. Church of Panaghia. Icon of St. Nikolaos, detail. End of 18th c.
45 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 6. Bulgaria. Sozopolis. Icon of St. Nikolaos, detail. 16th 17th c.
similar depiction of the 13th or are brigs, two-masted ships, 14th century and it might very most commonly used towards well be copied by an older icon the end of the 19th century. (Fig. 6). The icon of Saint Minas and 20 The icon of the Archangel Saint Demetrios comes also Michael19, with scenes from his from the city of Varna, depicting scenes from their lives, work of life, in Varna is dated in 1840 ac- the painter Demetrios of Theod- cording to an inscription. Under oros. In the last scene of the life the Archangel’s body there are of Saint Minas, we can see a ser- eight scenes from his life, set in vant of a lord to be rescued. In an inlaid frame in rococo style. the background are painted two At the fifth scene the Archangel identical big ships with open is painted in a rough sea, the gi- and gathered sails respectively. ant waves of which overturn six Even if it may be a miniature, it Fig 7. Bulgaria. Varna. Regional Museum. Icon of St. Demetrios ships. Judging by the number of is an excellent detailed represen- and St. Menas, detail. 1844. small square sails, all six of them tation of brigs (Fig. 7).
46 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region • ELENA KOSTIĆ
Fig 8-9. Bulgaria. Varna. Regional Museum. Icon of St. Nikolaos, detail. 1839.
Another artwork by the paint- a shaika under sail, however with er Demetrios of Sozopol is the its lateen gathered (Fig. 10 -11). large sized icon of the enthroned The icon of Saint Nikolaos Saint Nikolaos21, which was com- (1857)23 comes from Plovdiv, and missioned by seamen of Varna, in on its left lower side there is a order to honor their patron saint. detailed representation of a ship. On each side of the footstool two The elaborate wide ship with the brigs under sail are painted with hyperconstruction in the stern detail. They have almost identi- and the curved bow is very im- cal masts, while their hulls are pressive. It has two masts, one completely different (Fig. 8 – 9). with two sails and the other with At the lower part of the por- a single one. It is the only of the table icon of Saint Galini of Nese- ships discussed in this paper, 22 bar , which was painted in 1809, where the holes for the oars are three scenes from her life are discernible. Judging by the draft, depicted, two of which include its two masts and three sails, it ships. In the middle of the first is obviously a cabarra, a type of scene, where Saint Galini is been ship similar to barque. Those two thrown in the sea along other types have similar hulls but dif- saints, there is a small galley with fer as to the number of masts. a “round” hull with extremely curved ends and a single lateen. As the examples discussed, Those ships were characterized in byzantine and post-byzantine by a flat bottom which allowed art, ships are mostly depicted in them to sail in shallow waters icons of Saint Nikolaos, patron of and made it easy to pull them the seamen, as well as at scenes ashore, but it was a disadvan- from the Christological Cycle, Fig 10-11. Bulgaria. Nesebar. tage to the hydrodynamics of the such as the multiplication of the Archaeological Museum. ship. At the second scene, there is fishes, and the “Calming of the Icon of St. Galini, detail. 1809.
47 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 12. From Serbia. Lesnovo Monastery. Wall painting. 1346.
Storm”. Ships can also be found bia and the mainland of Russia, and Venice26. In those areas as in scenes of miracles performed there are but the typical ships, well as in the coast of the Black by Archangels and saints more forms are depicted stylized and Sea, we come across both the sim- rarely though, such as Saint Gali- sometimes let us believe that the ple types of merchant and fishing ni, Saint Anastasia, Saint Pan- painter only knew the simplest ships and the more sophisticated teleimon etc. The comparative vessels. At those areas, two types ones, which follow the progress study of the icons discussed in of ships prevail. The first is a sim- of shipbuilding (Fig. 14 -15). this paper with other cases from ple ship, consisting of a wooden From the cases discussed, it other regions allows us to con- hull and two or more oars (Fig. can be concluded that mostly clude that there are local charac- 12). The second type is more de- small, slow moving ships that sail teristics. Especially in areas far veloped and has got a single mast near the shores are more popular. from sea such as medieval Ser- and a lateen (Fig. 13). In both cases these are either fishing or Those ships can be grouped in small trading ships, which could two categories, based on the sails be explained as the mainland did or their absence. Painters seem to not had access at sea and there- opt for sailing ships, which are fore painters could not have seen always depicted without oars. how ships looked like. On the Depicted ships serve always the contrary, in coastal areas paint- needs of the scene while only in ings seems to represent originals one case they are depicted realis- Fig 13. Serbia. Patriarchate of Peć. Wall painting. 1674. St. Demetrios and realistically, as it is proven by ex- tically, when they are offerings to St. Menas, detail. 1844. amples from Athos24, Albania25 Saint Nikolaos, as it is the case in
48 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region • ELENA KOSTIĆ
the icon of Sozopolis. The paint- ed after the 17th century that are Fig 14. Albania. Moschopolis. er, Demetrios of Sozopol, was a found in icons painted in coastal Icon of St. Demetrios, detail. 1725 native of the area and we can be areas, efforts had been made to almost certain that he had knowl- depict them more realistically. edge of the brigs he painted and Now, their inspiration sources that he was generally accus- can be traced, which could have tomed to the types of ships that not been others than real ships crossed the Black Sea. that the artists saw to sail in the Finally, another parameter seas of their own area. During th to be considered when we are the 18 century iconography is talking about representation of enriched with the introduction ships is the period in which the of more types of ships and we painting has been created. It is understand that they tried to obvious, based on the historical depict the ships’ accessories and classification of depictions that components. During the 18th and Fig 15. Venice. Church of San Marco. th Byzantine Art did not represent 19th century ships are painted Chapel of St. Isidor. Mosaic. 14 c. reality faithfully and that artists realistically and in some cases, both in mainland and in coastal such as the one of the two brigs areas do not tend to include the offered to Saint Nikolaos, they miracles of Saints in scenery con- can be a valuable clue that will temporary to their own. On the allow us to study shipbuilding contrary, in ships’ paintings dat- in the Black Sea region.
49 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Dummer 1685, see the description of 24 sorts of vessels. Basch, L. 2009. “Reflections on the Graffiti of Haghia Sophia at Trebizond 2 Jal 1840. (Trabzon), Turkey”. In Between Continents, Proceedings of the Twelfth Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, edited by N. 3 Indicatively for the manuscript see: Long 2009 Günsenin, 165-9. Istanbul 4 Bass 1978, 119-132; Van Doorning 2006, 715 - 23. Bass, D. and Van Doorning F. H. Jr. 1978. “An 11th century Shipwreck 5 Hocker 2009, 3-8; Harpster 2009, 297 - 313 at Serçe Limani. Turkey”, IJNA7: 119-132 6 For the excavations at Yenikapı see: Kocabaş 2014, 26-41; Pulak 2014, 8-25. Bryer, A. 1980. “Shipping in the empire of Trebizond”, The Mariner’s Mirror 52, 1966(= Id., The empire of Trebizond and the Pontos, 7 Meindarus 1970/2, 29-52, pl. 15-18. Variorum Reprints [London 1980] (CS117) VIII) 3-12. 8 Bryer 1980, 3-12. Pl. 5; Talbot-Rice 1968, 248-51. Damianidis, K. and Delis, A. 2014. “Μαρσιλιάνα, σάικα, σαϊτία, 9 Ovcharov 1977, 59-61; Ovcharov 2000/1, 9-27. λόντρα, ταρτάνα, γαβάρα”. In Ναυς. Πλοία και ναυπηγική 10 Meindarus 1970/2, 29-52, pl.15. στον ελληνικό κόσμο, edited by K. Damianidis, 300-315. Athens.
11 Bryer 1980, 3 -12. Damianidis, K.A. 2009. “Byzantine Ship Grafiti in the Kilise Mescidi 12 I would like to thank Dr. Flora Karagianni for the photos from her per- of Amasra”. In Between Continents, Proceedings of the Twelth sonal archive. Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, edited by N. 13 Mutafov 2008, 168, fig.68. Günsenin, 135-139. Istanbul 14 Mutafov 2008, 173-174, fig. 83-5. Damianidis, K.A. 2014. Ναυς. Πλοία και ναυπηγική στον ελληνικό 15 Gardiner 1995, 78-79; Damianidis - Delis 2014, 306-8 κόσμο, επιμ. K. Δαμιανίδης. Athens. 16 Basch 2009, 165-9. Dimitrov, B. 2009. Sozopol. Sofia.
17 Popova 2008, 53. Djurić, V., Ćirković S., Korać V. 1990. Pećka patrijaršija. Beograd. 18 Dimitrov 2009, 216. Dummer, E. 1685: A Voyage into the Mediterranean Seas, King’s MS.40, 19 Popova 2008, 53. British Library. London 20 Tourta 2011, 171-4; Popova 2008, 52. Faith and Power 2007: Faith and Power. The Age of Ivan the Terrible, 21 Tourta 2011, 166-8; Popova 2008, 47. exhibition catalogue 12/12/2007-13/04/2008 Moscow. Moscow. 22 I would like to thank Dr. Anastasia Tourta for the photo of the icon of Gabelić, S. 1998. Manastir Lesnovo. Istorija i slikarstvo. Beograd. Saint Galini. 23 For examples of representation of ships in Serbian and Russian medi- Gardiner, R., ed. 1995. The Heyday of Sail. The Merchant Sailing Ship, 1650 eval art see Djurić 1990, 307, pl. 197; Tatić-Djurić 1984, No 27, 47; Gabelić – 1850. London. 1998, pl. XVII, XXI; Lazarev 1996, 182, 247, 249-50, 320-1; Kondakov Giakoumis, K., ed. 2015. Water in Arts and Crafts in the Berat region. 4th 2009, 201, pl. 137; Faith and Power 2007, 128-30, 142-3 etc. century B.C. to 19th century A.D. Tirana 24 For representations of ships from Mount Athos see: Pantokrator 1998, fig.159, 161; Tsigaridas 2011, fig. 228 and its’s detail, Hiera Moni Hagiou Harpster, M. 2009. Designing the 9th –century-AD Vassel from Dionysiou 2003, fig. 272, 277; Tourta 2006, 202 etc. Buzburun, Turkey, IJNA 38: 2, 297 – 313 25 For representations of ships from Venice see: Tselenti-Papadopoulou Hiera Moni Hagiou Dionysiou. 2003: Οι τοιχογραφίες του καθολικού. 2002, pl. 68-69 etc. Mount Athos. 26 For representations of ships in Albania see: Tourta 2006, 37, 129; Giak- Hocker, F. M. 2009. The Byzantine Shipwreck at Bozburun, Turkey, INA oumis 2015, fig. 1.2.1. etc. Quarterly 22/4: 3-8.
Jal, A. 1840. Archéologie Navale I-II, ed. Arthus-Bertrand. Paris.
Kocabaş, U. 2014. Yenikapı: Shipwrecks Excavation and Studies, TINA maritime Archaeology Periodical 1: 26-41
Kondakov, N.P. 2009. Ikoni. Sofia.
Kouroudis, Y., ed. 1998. Icons of the Holy Monastery of Pantokrator, Mount Athos
Lazarev, V.N. 1996. Icônes russes. XIe – XVIe siècle. Paris.
Long, P.O., D. Mc Gee, A. M. Stahl, eds. 2009: The Book of Michael of Rhodes. A Fifteenth – Century Maritime Manuscript. Volume 3: Studies, Cambridge MA
50 Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region • ELENA KOSTIĆ
Meindarus, O. 1970-1972. “Mediaeval Navigation According to Akidographemata in Byzantine Churches and Monasteries”, Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 6: 29-52
Mutafov 2008: Έλληνες αγιογράφοι στη Βουλγαρία μετά το 1453, Σόφια.
Ovcharov, D. 1977. “Ship Graffti from Medieval Bulgaria”, IJNA 6.1: 59-61
Ovcharov, D. 2000-2001. “Unknown representations of 14th and 15th century ships from churches in Bulgaria and Skopje”, Ενάλια: 9-27.
Popova, T. 2008. Varnenski ikoni/ Icons from Varna. Varna
Pulak, C., R. Ingram and M. Jones. 2014. “Galleys and Merchantmen: Shipwrecks of Portus Theodosianus Yenikapı- Istanbul”, TINA maritime Archaeology Periodical 1: 8-25
Ševčenko N.P. 1983. The life of Saint Nicolas in Byzantine Art. Torino
Talbot-Rice, D. 1968. The Church of Hagia Sophia at Trebizond. Edinburgh
Tatić-Djurić, M. 1984. Poznate ikone od XII-XVIII veka. Beograd.
Tourta, A. 2006. Icons From the Orthodox Communities of Albania. Athens
Tourta, A., ed. 2011. Icons from Thracian Coast of the Black Sea in Bulgaria. Athens.
Tselenti Papadopoulou, N. 2002. Οι εικόνες της Ελληνικής Αδελφότητας της Βενετίας από το 16ο έως το πρώτο μισό του 20ου αιώνα. Athens.
Tsigaridas, E. 2011. Εικόνες Ιεράς Μονής Καρακάλλου. Mount Athos.
Van Doorning, F.H. Jr. 2006. “Βυζαντινά ναυάγια”. In Οικονομική ιστορία του Βυζαντίου, edited by A. Laiou. 715- 723. Athens.
51
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast
S t a v r o u l a D a d a ke
The fortifications securing by the outfall of river Strymon. the defence of the north Aegean It is the first coastal city one can coast between river Strymon meet while sailing from Thessa- and river Evros are mainly char- loniki to Constantinople. It was acterized by city fortifications founded during the Middle Byz- and only secondary by isolated antine period, when the inland towers1. In this paper we are ancient and early Christian Am- dealing with the fortifications phipolis had seized to exist. The belonging to cities which peaked city reached its peak during the or were founded during the Late late Byzantine period3. Byzantine period2 (Fig. 1). These The irregular quadrilateral are commonly cities of small or fortification, with the exception medium size (Chrysopolis: 6,5ha of the north side, whose course Anaktoropolis:1,7ha Christopo- was dictated by the lagoon, is lis: 12,4ha, Polystylon: 3,5ha, Peri- perplexing since the area is flat theorion: 7,5ha, Maroneia: 19ha). with no special geophysical for- They can all be characterized mations (Fig. 2). A traverse wall, as coastal, even Peritheorion most probably formed a basic which, despite the fact that its Acropolis, since it is situated distance from the sea is signifi- at the foot of a low hill. Based cant, it still had access to it, via on the visible ruins there were the lagoon. three gates, one at the western Chrysopolis dominates a side and two at the eastern side shallow bay which was formed respectively.
53 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 1. The Northern Aegean In total, we can safely locate architectural elements, such as Coast and the late byzantine twelve towers, six of which are steps, a balk-walk or bastions, fortified cities. related to gates. They are gen- are preserved. At the interior erally rectangular with few of the west side of the fortifi- exceptions (Tower 2). Most of cation, traces of pillars can be them have an interior space discerned. The pillars, via the (Towers 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13) arcade they supported, prob- but there are also solid towers ably created a wide area for the (Towers 3, 5, 7 and 8). No other bulk-walk (Fig. 3).
Fig 2. Chrysoposis. Plan of the fortification.
54 Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast • S. DADAKE
The building method is succeeded the ancient city of characteristic for the area dur- Oisyme, which was located in- ing the period of the Palaeolo- land6. goi4. There is abundant use of The enceinte of the fortifica- bricks at the vertical joints and tion has the shape of an irregular there are also horizontal inter- trapezium (Fig. 4). An internal val zones of five rows of bricks. Wall creates a second defence The dating to the period of Pa- line and divides the area in two laeologoi is also supported by parts. At the eastern side there the literal sources, where the is a forewall. We can discern fortification is attributed to An- thirteen towers in total. They dronikos the Third. are quadrilateral, cylindrical The next city the sailor could or polygonal. Most of them are meet is Anaktoroupolis5. It is solid. The largest of all is situ- founded on the next bay of the ated at the south east corner and coastal line, after the one men- it served as a donjon. Built steps tioned above, and it is situated leading to the balk-walk are pre- 20 nautical miles away from served at four spots. The balk- Chrysopolis. The late byzantine walk is preserved in enough Fig 3. Chrysoposis. city succeeded the middle byz- areas while there are only few The interior face of the antine one, which in turn had traces from the bastions (Fig. 5). West side with pilasters.
55 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Anaktoropolis. Aerial View
There are three gates preserved: modern times, was founded on ers, quadrilateral in their major- the west, which was probably the rocky peninsula of Panaghia, ity, are more densely arranged the main one, the north which a fact which defined the shape at the inland part of the walls opened towards the sea, and the of the fortification8. The longest (Fig. 8). Although what we see south gate. There was perhaps part of the fortification is by today belongs to later building one more at the east side. the sea with the walls rising on interventions, the remains of the The main building method, the edge of the peninsula rock, older building phases testify to which incorporates more an- which is the main reason there the longevity of its ground plan cient phases, belongs to the pe- are so few towers. The inland (Fig. 9). riod of Palaeologoi, a dating walls connect the two parts of Polystylon succeeded the which is in accordance with a the coastal wall at the neck of ancient city of Abdera9. It was recent reading of an inscription the peninsula (Fig. 7). An inter- limited to a low hill next to the which places the restoration of nal wall formed the acropolis. ancient port which is consid- the fortification during the pe- Five out of the seven discovered ered the acropolis of the ancient 7 riod of Andronikos the Third gates are located at the inland town. The circuit follows the (Fig. 6). part of the walls. They are all outline of the hill forming an Ancient Neapolis, known as simple openings on the walls, irregular shape (Fig. 10). The Christoupolis during the Byz- which, at a later date, were north-western side which was antine period and as Kavala in decorated with arches. The tow- more vulnerable was fortified
56 Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast • S. DADAKE
with a forewall. Two transverse The tower which is situated Fig 5. Anaktoropolis. The interior walls intersected the city along in the middle of the transverse face of the North Wall. Restored parapet of the wall-walk. its entire width. The eastern- wall dividing the acropolis pres- most of these walls formed the ents us with special interest. Due byzantine acropolis while the to its size it can be considered to other one divided the city in two have been used as a donjon. The parts. The central gate is opened characteristic use of plinths at its at the north-western side. joints dates the fortification to the period of Palaeologoi and it Of the towers which rein- is possibly associated with the forced the fortification, we can restoration work done by Ioan- still distinguish the ground plan nis Kantakouzenos, as the liter- of four of them; while one more ary sources testify10. is suggested at the connection point between the acropolis Peritheorion, as is known walls and the north part of the from the late byzantine sourc- fortification. All surviving tow- es, is the early Christian city ers are quadrilateral with inte- of Anastasioupolis which was rior spaces. founded by emperor Anasta-
57 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 6. Anaktoropolis. Vertical Joint between two masonries. To the left, banded masonry of Late Roman period, to the right, typical palaeologan masonry with bricks between the joints
58 Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast • S. DADAKE
Fig 7. Christopolis. The Land Walls sios, according to the literary blind arches, where the bulk- relatively sparsely. The donjon sources. The fortification has walk was situated11. of the north-western corner is the shape of an irregular hexa- very distinguishable (Fig. 14). Byzantine Maroneia is lim- The main phase of the fortifica- gon (Fig. 11). Only few courtins ited to the southernmost coastal tion is considered to be dated to remain, while some of the tow- area of the huge expanse occu- the period of Komnenoi, a date ers are better preserved. The pied by the ancient city12. The which is in accordance with the majority of them are quadri- irregular trapezoid form of the excavation data from the city in- lateral. There is also a circular fortification was enforced main- terior. The city appears to have one. The only confirmed gate ly by the natural boundaries been deserted by the beginning opens to the south side, facing (Fig. 13). A forewall reinforced of the thirteenth century. the lake. It is a simple opening the north more vulnerable side. in the width of the walls with The only preserved gate opens The fortifications we have an arched lintel, which is exter- at the northwest corner, where discussed above have more or nally flanked by two quadrilat- the city was accessible by the less much in common with the eral towers (Fig. 12). Of special land roads. The towers are fortifications of the inland cities. interest is the elevation of the quadrilateral, except from a cir- They are common constructions walls with the construction of cular one, and they are arranged without large dimensions, with-
59 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 8. Christopolis. The Land Walls, Tower. Fig 9. Christopolis. Curtain wall with earlier face in the foreground.
out any distinguished features or isolated towers guarding the The city, in turn, was undivided and without any novelties pres- ports and rendering protection or in some cases divided in two ent. Remnants of constructions against a possible attack from parts (Anaktoroupolis, Polysty- which project from the walls are the sea more effective, are ab- lon, Maroneia). Also testified is considered to be piers whose sent. the use of a donjon, an element form and function escapes us All cities, with the exception which characterizes the late byz- due to the fact that they have not of Anaktoroupolis, present the antine fortifications (cases of been properly excavated yet. We common for the middle and late Chrysopolis, Anaktoroupolis, note, however, that construc- Byzantine period, division be- Polystylon, Maroneia). The byz- tions of special defensive use tween city (polis) and acropolis. antine phase of the donjon at the
60 Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast • S. DADAKE
Fig 10. Polystylon. Plan of the fortification.
Fig 11. Peritheorion. Plan of the fortification.
61 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 12. Peritheorion. The south gate.
Fig 13. Maroneia. Plan of the fortification.
acropolis of Christoupolis, has (cases of Polystylon, Anaktorou- not been confirmed yet, while polis, Maroneia). the preservation state of the one The towers also present the at Peritheorion, cannot allow us usual shape and arrangement to reach any safe conclusions. around the perimeter of the for- The forewall, which com- tification: quadrilateral in the pleted the defensive organiza- case of elongated courtins, circu- tion of a city, were only sparsely lar at the points where the walls used. Most commonly they are changed course.
Fig 14. Maroneia. restricted to reinforce the most The gates in their vast major- The acropyrgos. vulnerable side of the enceinte ity belong to the simplest shape
62 Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast • S. DADAKE and they are flanked by quad- istic of the late roman fortifica- and through but instead they rilateral towers. At Chrysopolis tions, is also attested to almost are limited to the depth of two and at the interior of the Poly- all late byzantine fortifications rows of bricks. The influence stylon walls, the gate opened in of the area between Thessalon- of the capital and the co-capital between two strong projections iki and Constantinople13. The cities seems to have been strong of the walls, forming thus a main difference lies in the fact and timeless. more elaborate shape. The deco- that the latter are not through rative additions are limited to small arches with brick decora- tive designs, brick inscriptions, or decorative use of spolia (Fig. 15). Most commonly these are observed close to the gates or towers. In regards to the building method, the use of bricks in be- tween the joints as well as rows of bricks is dominant (Fig. 16). Fig 15. Anaktoropolis. North walls. Arch The so called opus mixtum filled with decorative technique, although character- patterns.
Fig 16. Chrysopolis. Masonry with brick bands.
63 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 For a short introduction of these fortified sites see: Dadake 2013. Asdracha, C. 1976. La région des Rhodopes aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles. Étude de 2 For the cities of the Late Byzantine period in the region see: Lemerle geographie historique. Athens. 1945, 69-112 113-240; Asdracha 1976, 93-137, 173-179; ΤΙΒ 6 1991, in- Bobtchev, S.N. 1961. « Le parément arasé dans les constructions romaines cludes all the earlier bibliography. Tsoures 2012, 561-87. et byzantines de la première période », Bulletin de ľ Institut ď 3 Dunn 1999, 399–413. Archéologie 24:153-202
4 Τsoures 1998, 387–454. Dadaki, St., S. Doukata, I. Elliadis and M. Lychounas. 2013. “Από τη 5 Kakoures 1980, 260–2. σκιά του Όρους περ λεβάντε είναι μίλια...” Πόλεις – κάστρα 6 Papazoglou 1988. –λιμάνια στις ακτές του Βορείου Αιγαίου». In: Medieval Ports in North Aegean and Black Sea. Links to the Maritime Routes of 7 Zekos 2008, 19-29. The East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited 8 Τsoures 1998, 387–454. by F. Karagianni. (Thessalonike, 4-6 December 2013), 211-22. 9 Zekos 2002. Thessalonike 10 Asdracha 1976, 96-97. Doukata-Demertzi, S. 2008. Παληόχωρα Μαρωνείας. Η ανασκαφή 11 Moutsopoulos 1984, 108. της παλαιοχριστιανικής βασιλικής και του μεσοβυζαντινού οικισμού. Kavala:12h Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities 12 Doukata-Demertzi 2008. 13 Foss 1986, 25-9. See also: Bobtchev 1961, 153-202. Dunn, A. 1999. “From Polis to Kastron in Southern Macedonia: Amphipolis, Khrysoupolis and the Strymon Delta”. Castrum 5: 399-413
Foss, Cl. and D. Winfield. 1986. Byzantine Fortifications. An introduction. Pretoria: University of South Africa
Kakoures, I. 1980. “Aνακτορόπολη. Iστορικὲς πληροφορίες και αρχαιολογικά δεδομένα”. In A΄ Τοπικὸ Συμπόσιο: “Η Καβάλα καὶ ἡ περιοχὴ της”. (Kavala, 18–20 april 1977). 260-2, Thessalonike
Lemerle, P. 1945. Philippes et la Macédoine orientale à l’époque chrétienne et byzantine. Paris.
Moutsopoulos, N. 1984. « Une Forteress Byzantine en ruines inconnue sur les rives du lac de Bistonie ren Thrace Occidentale », IBI Bulletin 42 :101-10
Papazoglou, F., 1988. Les villes de Macédoine à l’époque romaine, BCH Suppl. XVI. Paris.
Soustal, P. 1991. Thrakien. [ΤΙΒ 6]. Wien
Tsoures, K. 2012. “Η αμυντική οργάνωση των Θρακικών ακτών από τον 9ο μέχρι τον 15ο αιώνα”. In Η οχυρωματική αρχιτεκτονική στο Αιγαίο και ο μεσαιωνικός οικισμός Ανάβατου Χίου, (Chios, 26-28 September 2008), 561-87. Chios.
Τsoures, K. 1998. Νεάπολις-Χριστούπολις-Καβάλα. Διορθώσεις- προσθήκες- παρατηρήσεις στην οχύρωση και την ύδρευση. Αρχαιολογικό Δελτίον. Μελέτες 53: 387–454.
Ζekos, N. 2008. “Ανακτορούπολη. Νέες πληροφορίες & αρχαιολογικά δεδομένα”. In Η Καβάλα και τα Βαλκάνια από την αρχαιότητα μέχρι σήμερα. Η Καβάλα και το Αιγαίο. Πρακτικά Β΄ Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου Βαλκανικών Ιστορικών Σπουδών, edited by N. Roudometov, (Kavala, 15-18 September 2005), 19-29. Kavala
Zekos, N. and St. Dadake. 2002. Abdera-Polystylon. Komotini.
64 “Travel, Drink and Be Merry. Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea”. Past and Realities
M i c h a l i s L y c h o u n a s
ABSTRACT This paper explores in a short and wine making in the region, overview the rich Byzantine wine which themselves are informative culture in the region of the north of political and socio-economic Aegean coast and the west coast of developments in the responding the Black Sea (as that was visited countries. From this presentation, during the on-board symposium). it becomes clear that the current It approaches wine as a commodity situation in wine making can circulating in the ports of this and should contribute to the region carrying along vast luggage enhancement of the image of the of agricultural, commercial, region as a cultural destination political and cultural nature. and hopefully assist the process Yet, as LIMEN is a project of re-enacting long standing, of cultural tourism, the paper but recently disturbed networks also included a presentation, between the ports of the regions, fragmentary and brief though although giant international cruise it may be, on the current liner might not be the best medium developments in viniculture to facilitate that.
65 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The topic of ports has been commercial activities. What was cussed by late Angeliki Laiou.10 rather attractive in the recent loaded and unloaded in the ves- The technology employed for times. In particular in our part sels reaching or leaving these the tendering of the plants was of the world, the Eastern Medi- ports? There are non perishable virtually the same till the intro- terranean and the Black Sea it artifacts, such as glazed pottery duction of mechanization, al- has been dealt with in many (an article, by Ms Manolova - though the depiction of tools in eras as it affects a number of Voykova does exist in the vol- manuscripts raises the question issues. A very good example is ume6), which are documented in of their authenticity, with the the volume “Cities of the Medi- the well known pattern of style illuminations of the Geoponika terranean”, edited by Biray and material dissemination as a being in the focus.11 Issues con- Kolluoglu and Meltem Toksöz sign of commercial and cultural cerning major wine producers, dealing with ports in the late ties. There is hardly anything mainly big monasteries have Ottoman era.1 In the Mediae- on the perishable goods traded also been addressed in papers, val World the projects of Olkas2 in the ports of Byzantium, with although the impression created and that of the Vienna Institute the exception of the facilities of by the much later huge installa- of Byzantine Studies3 reveal the city port of Thessaloniki.7 tions in monasteries, such as the the interest in that aspect of the Yet, there again, the archeologi- monastery of St. John Prodro- Byzantine culture. The sensa- cal approach of the architectural mos, the Forerunner near Serres tional excavation of the Theo- remains prevail. might be misleading.12 Spe- dosian port during the con- In this paper, I will try to cial attention has been paid to struction of the mass transport sketch the ports as getaways of the pottery containers (of wine system of Istanbul has elevated a rather precious commodity of among other things). the interest of both experts and the time, wine and present an The monastic documents laymen alike.4 application of its current culture mainly those of Mount Athos are In our contribution to the as part of the concept of cultural full of references to vineyards, volume of Olkas we wrote about port or cultural tourism. especially in the area of northern the fortified ports from Mount The bibliography on vine- Greece. Few cases of industrial Athos to the Straits.5 The de- yards and wine making in the facilities though from the Byzan- scription was mainly archaeo- Byzantine era is very rich.8 We tine era are preserved, the most logical and historical and fo- do have both, literary and non- common one being the wine cused on the military aspect of literary written sources, while presses. A good example of the the construction dealing with research in the field of economic Late Roman is to be found in the them as fortifications and also history proves that the value of vicinity of Philippi in Kefalari.13 on the several phases of them on the land dedicated to vineyards A number of wine presses from the basis of the masonry chang- was worth three times as much Chalkidiki has been published es. In browsing the volume, I as the regular agricultural land.9 by I. Papaggelos,14 where the noticed that despite the richness The socioeconomic aspect of the issue of dating on the basis of of information there is very little industry, as a rather egalitarian context has been raised. Finally on the very essence of a port, its activity has already been dis- in the same area, the case of Ma-
66 Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea. Past and Realities • MICHALIS LYCHOUNAS roneia is quite interesting. The at encouraging cultural tourism region by business people from wine presses found on mount in the Aegean and the Black Sea, other business fields, mainly Ismarion15 and those attached I think that presenting you with the marble industry.22 The area on the outer facade of the fortifi- a number of manuscript illumi- proved extremely hospitable to cation are an excellent case of an nations,18 all very well known, both Greek and international industrial tradition that might or photos and drawings of ves- varieties and unique and prize- touch the Homeric tradition of sels either amphorae, pythoi or winning wines have come to the the sweet wine of Polyphemos magarika would seem redun- market. Thrace is a late comer, till the Byzantine one. The case dant.19 If wine culture is to be in- but very promising region, re- of Maroneia is of additional in- corporated into cultural tourism viving its Homeric tradition, as terest, as we have inscriptions on and contribute to the establish- already mentioned.23 The win- shreds of pottery indicating that ment of some sort of a ‘Cultural eries and their vineyards have they were containers for another Port’ institution, here is a first, transformed the landscape in wine by product, vinegar.16 brief, rudimentary and therefore many cases and more and more frequently wine itineraries and Yet, although we have a superficial presentation, hope- open door days are organized.24 small number of names from fully to be part of cruises such as written sources concerning the this. As the Municipality of Ka- The Turkish part of Thrace varieties of grapes grown in the vala is a partner of Limen Proj- is another interesting example Byzantine times, along with the ect and this cruise will call only of the blooming of wine mak- their place of origin, and we at western Black Sea ports I will ing in Turkey. The region was know from sources, such as De focus on wine making develop- known as a wine making centre ceremoniis for the highly appre- ments in these regions, without for ages.25 In the so-called Gano- ciated wine of Chios, Thasos, discarding at all the wine pro- chora, in the foothills of the ma- or the famous malvasia from duction of other partner coun- jor monastic centre of Ieron Oros Monemvasia17, no palaiobotano- ties, such as Armenia or Geor- (Holy Mountain) wine was pro- logical work has been conducted gia. Anyway, with the latter we duced to be sold in Istanbul, in to my knowledge, according to are in an weird competition con- the so-called Krasoskala (wine- which we will be able to identify cerning the earliest wine making trading dock)26, in Karaköy by that vine varieties, among others example, between the Neolithic members of the same families or with those we tend to consider settlement of Dikili 20 Tas and a the same communities. One of indigenous. In other words, are cave in Georgia21! them was my great grandfather, the so-called indigenous Tha- In any case, instead of Byzan- Georgios Nasos from Myriofy- 27 sian varieties the same that pro- tine wines I will move on to the ton. duced wine in the Byzantine pe- current situation. Starting from A new wave of Turkish riod or not? the region of Eastern Macedo- wine enthusiasts have revived As these questions cannot nia and Thrace we have a range the century-old traditions and be answered and the current of new wineries, which revived produce good quality wine28 project ‘Limen’ is not another a tradition lost in the Ottoman through a combination of local archaeological project, but aims period, but introduced to the and international varieties. In
67 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
several cases whole regions or fits exactly our project. A region even an island see their land- famous for its ideal soil and scapes restored to the shape weather condition hosts local they had before the Exchange and international varieties creat- of Populations in 1923 or the ex- ing no major worries to viticul- pulsion of Greeks in 1955-1964 turalists. The region did and still (Bozcaada-Tenedos). Rather ap- is producing wonderful wines33. pealing is the creation of a wine In the current situation with route in Turkish Thrace present- the Eastern Balkans in the Euro- ing viticulture and winemaking pean Union and Turkey open- in the wider context of a com- ing up and prospering (hope- prehensive cultural discovery experience.29 fully also in the years to come) the northern coast of the Aegean The case of Bulgaria presents and at least the western coast of 30 another particularity. The state the Black Sea (I sincerely hope controlled industry, depended that the north and eastern coast for its survival on exports to the will follow suit) are a unique Soviet Union and the UK for scenery to travel, taste and en- cheap and low-quality wines. joy good wine, the combination It was privatized after the col- of a long, if not ancient, tradi- lapse of the regime. Interest- tion and technological novelty. ingly enough, it attracted not Unfortunately, American com- only local investment, but also pany tacky cruise liners, where foreign, both Italian and French. predominantly Californian wine Through it, international variet- is poured and no local products ies where re-introduced blended are served or sold might not be with local ones, one known in the ideal venue, but still there Greece as well (Mavrud, Greek is no reason not to be merry and Mavroudi31) and higher stan- wait for the next port of call to dards in hygiene and equipment experience another aspect of the have lead to the Bulgarian wine cultural ports, that of the wine making to claim its fair share on the international markets. In the making, an integral part in cul- 34 Black Sea region one area with a tural tourism ! high concentration of wineries is that of Pomorie in the province of Burgas.32 The case of Romanian region of Dobrogea on the Black Sea
68 Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea. Past and Realities • MICHALIS LYCHOUNAS
NOTES 23 For one of the numerous exemplary wineries of Thrace, www.tsan- tali.com/maronia with its Homeric connections. 1 Kolluoglu and Toksöz 2010. 24 www.wineroads.gr/eng/index.php 2 www.olkas.net 25 For a brief reference for the viticulture in the Byzantine Period in the 3 Under the umbrella of the project, “Harbours from the Roman Peri- region see: Külzer 2008, 215-6. od to the Middle Ages” (www.spp-haefen.de), there are three proj- ects concerning Byzantine Ports: The Thracian harbour city Ainos 26 Known in Turkish as Sarap Iskele (Mumhane) is located in the in Roman and Byzantine times – the development of a traffic hub very hype district of Karaköy. A similar story is that of the famous in a changing environment (www.spp-haefen.de/en/projects/die Babacim family, known in Greece for their Ouzo production, see: -thrakische-haefenstadt-ainos/ ), Byzantine harbours on the Balkan www.wineplus.gr/4/154/359 coasts (www.spp-haefen.de/en/projects/byzantine-harbours-on- 27 For Myriophyton, TIB12: 540 the-balkan-coasts/), Harbour administration in the Byzantine Em- 28 There are a number of internet sources on the developments of pire (www.spp-haefen.de/en/hafenverwaltung-im-byzantinischen- winemaking in Turkey. For a brief overview : www.jancisrobinson. reich/) of com/articles/young-turks-of-note. From the limited printed mate- 4 For an overview of the project: www.istanbularkeoloji.gov.tr/ rial the standard work remains: Ergenekon 1999. web32-238-1-1/muze_-_en/museum /announcements/yenikapi_ex- 29 www.threcewineroute.com cavations). 30 www.jancisrobinson.com/learn/wine-regions/bulgaria. 5 Dadaki, Doukata, Heliades and Lychounas 2013, 211-23 31 This variety produces excellent wines both in mountainous Bulgaria 6 Manolova - Voykova 2013, 353-67 (www.Zagreus.org) as well as in the coastal zone of Greek Thrace (www.anatolikoswinery.org). 7 Chatzioannides and Tsamisis 2013, 187-211. 32 The city known until 1934 as Anchialos was a Greek colony and of- 8 Koukoules 1949. 280-96. Numerous publications supported by win- ten contested in the Mediaeval period, see Soustal 1991, 175-7. It was eries and published by the Industrial Bank Foundation, e.g. ETVA a vibrant Greek centre in the 19th c. as well. Today, it is a marked by 1990. ETVA 1998. For an overview of the wine culture in Byzantium, intensive tourism development. The main local variety cultivated is see, Anagnostakis 2006. that of Dimyat, suitable for white wines. 9 Schilbach 1970, 242-4. 33 Generally for the Romanian wine: www.jancisrobinson.com/learn/ wine-regions/romania For the region of Dobrogea: www.premium- 10 Laiou 1977, 166-71, 174-7 and 204-8) romania.com/regions/dobrogea.html 11 For an overview on the issue of farming equipment, see: Liveri 2000, 34 The literature on cultural tourism has been growing at a very brisk 275-86. pace in the last 25 years and from different perspectives (tourism, 12 Savvopoulou-Katsiki 1993, 340-53. culture, economy, anthropology, sociology etc). For an introduction 13 Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou 1973, 36-49. see: Richards 2003, with extensive literature. 14 Papaggelos 1993, 246-261. 15 Tsibidis-Pentazos 1973, 116, pl. 142 a and b. 16 The pottery shards with the engraved letter Ο Ξ or Ο Σ have been kindly shown to me by the excavator, Ms. S. Doukata-Demertzi and were presented in a paper at a conference in Maroneia held on the occasion of the opening of the local Tsantali Winery in 2002. 17 For several aspects of the wine world in the Byzantine Era: the entries of WINE, WINE MERCHANT, WINE PRODUCTION and WINE TRADE in the OXFORD DICTIONARY OF BYZANTIUM, OUP, Oxford, 1991, v. 3: 2199-2201. 18 Codex Parisinus Greacus 74, f. 39v, mid 11th C. 19 A standard work for the shape and function of vessels, Bakirtzis 1989, in particularly 110-21. 20 Valamoti Mangafa, Koukouli-Chrysanthaki and Malamidou 2007, 54-61; Valamoti, Darcque, Koukouli-Chrysanthaki, Malamidou and Tsirtsoni 2015, 125-139. 21 For the Areni Cave, Barnard, H. et al., doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.11.012 22 Such is the case of the Pavlidis winery (www.ktima-pavlidis.gr) and Lazaridis (www.domaine-lazaridi.gr/en ) and (www.chateau-laz- aridi.com) . For a comprehensive, yet outpaced by the rapid devel- opments, presentation of the situation, Lazarakis 2005, 95-111(Thra- ce), 163-85 (Eastern Macedonia).
69 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
REFERENCES Papaggelos, I. 1998. “Οι ληνοί στην Ψαλίδα της Νικήτης Χαλκιδικής”. In Αμπελοοινική Ιστορία στο Χώρο της Μακεδονίας και της Anagnostakis, E. 2006. Ο βυζαντινός οινικός πολιτισμός. In Οίνος, Θράκης, 246-261. ETVA πολιτισμός και κοινωνία, edited by E. Grammatikopoulou. Athens: EIE. Richards, G. 2003. “What is cultural Tourism?”. In A. Erfoegd voor Toerisme, edited by A. van Maaren, Nationaal Contact Monumenten. Bakirtzis, Ch. 1989. Τα Βυζαντινά Τσουκαλολάγηνα. Athens Savvopoulou-Katsiki, X. 1998. “Το Βαγεναρειό δύο μακεδονίτικων Cave A., H. Barnard et al. 2010. “Chemical evidence for wine μοναστηριών”. In Αμπελοοινική Ιστορία στο Χώρο της production around 4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near Μακεδονίας και της Θράκης, 340-353, ΕTVA. Eastern Highlands”. Journal of Archaeological Science, doi:10.1016/ j.jas.2010.11.012 Schilbach, E. 1970. Byzantinische Metrologie. München.
Chatzioannides, A. and Ch. P. Tsamisis. 2013. “Οι λιμενικές Soustal, P. 1991. Thrakien (Thrakē, Rodopē und Haimimontos) [TIB 6]. Wien: αποθήκες της Θεσσαλονίκης. Από τα δημόσια ωρεία στην Östereichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. αποθήκη των βασιλικών κομμερκίων”. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea, Links to the Maritime Routes of Tsibidis-Pentazos, E. 1973. “Αρχαιολογικαί έρευναι εν Θράκη”. the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited Praktika tes en Athines Archaeologikes Etaireias by F. Karagianni, (Thessaloniki, 4-6 December 2013), 187-211. Valamoti S.M., M. Mangafa, Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki and D. Thessalonike Malamidou. 2007. “Grape-pressings from northern Greece: the Dadaki, S., S. Doukata, I. Eliades, M. Lychounas. 2013. “Από τη σκιά earliest wine in Aegean?” Antiquity 81: 54-61 του Όρους περ λεβάντε είναι μίλια ….” Πόλεις-κάστρα- Valamoti S.M., P. Darcque, Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki and D.Malamidou λιμάνια στις ακτές του Βορείου Αιγαίου”. In Medieval Ports and Z. Tsirtsoni. 2015. “An archaeobotanical investigation of in North Aegean and the Black Sea, Links to the Maritime Routes of prehistoric grape vine exploitation and wine making in northern the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited Greece: recent finds from Dikili Tash”. In Olive oil and wine by F. Karagianni, (Thessalonike, 4-6 December 2013), 211-223. production in Eastern Mediterranean during Antiquity, Proceedings Thessalonike of the International Symposium, edited by A. Diler, K. Şenol and Ergenekon, S. 1999. The Guide to Turkish Wines. Istanbul U. Aydinoğlou, (Izmir, 17-19 November 2011), 125-139, No 189. Izmir: Ege Universitesi Yayinlari. ETVA 1998. Αμπελοοινική Ιστορία στο Χώρο της Μακεδονίας και της Θράκης, Ε’ Τριήμερο Εργασίας, (Naousa, 17-19 September 1993), Athens: Politistiko Texnologiko Idryma ETVA.
ETVA 2001. Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Κρασιού. 2001, B’ Τριήμερο Εργασίας, (Santorini, 7-9 September 1990), Athens: Politistiko Texnologiko Idryma ETVA.
Kolluoglu, B. and M. Toksöz, eds. 2010. Cities of the Mediterranean: Form the Ottomans to the Present Day, I.B.Tauris, New York.
Koukoules, Ph. 1949. Βυζαντινών Βίος και Πολιτισμός 5: 280-296. Athens.
Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, E. 1973. “Ληνοί εἰς τάς πηγάς Βοϊράνης”. Archaeologi Ephemeris. Chronika, 36-49
Külzer, A. 2008. Ostthrakien (Eurōpē), [TIB 12]. Wien: Östereichische Akademie der Wissenschaften
Laiou, A., 1977. Peasant society in the late Byzantine Empire: a social and demographic study. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lazarakis, K. 2005. The wines of Greece. London
Liveri, A. 2000. “Βυζαντινά γεωργικά εργαλεία και μηχανές”, Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikis Etaireias, 4΄/ 21: 275-286.
Manolova –Voykova, M. 2013. “Import of Middle Byzantine Glazed Pottery to the Western Black Sea Coast: the case of the two cities - Varna and Anhialos”. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea, Links to the Maritime Routes of the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, (Thessalonike, 4-6 December 2013), 353-367. Thessalonike.
70 The Chrysobullos of 1189 and the History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople
O l e g L u g o v y i
ABSTRACT The article is dedicated to the church of S. Eirene at Perama. the analysis of information from Close connections of the German emperor’s chrysobullos issued in merchants` close connections with 1189 and also of other sources Venice conditioned and facilitated on the history of German and transfer of embolus Alemannorum French emboli in Constantinople. exactly to the Saint Marcus Created most likely in the time of republic. the Second Crusade these quarters Embolus Francigenarum had different fate and significance. probably established in the German quarter was a symbol accordance with the French of alliance between Byzantium king practically served the and the Holy Roman Empire. trading interests of Occitanian It’s economical role wasn’t merchantry that paid duties to considerable. Aragon, not France. Obviously Correspondence between the the main role here was played rulers of these states shows that by Montpellier. It’s count even German warriors in the service succeeded to conclude a dynastic of the Byzantine Empire were alliance with the Comneni. It the very object of attention from was the break of this alliance that both sides, especially their need in could cause the transfer of the their own church. This could be embolus to Venice.
71 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Frenchmen and Germans but as this benefaction was made not connected with the chrysobul- are among the least studied for all people of Alemans and Fran- los – was about the reasons of foreigners at Constantinople of cigens, but only to a few outcasts the said emboli liquidation. Com- the Comnenian time. The big- and mostly unknown with unde- mon thing here was the argu- gest puzzle here is the problem termined and casual service for Ro- mentation of the chrysobullos it- of German and French emboli in mania, but from the other side they self: the emboli hadn’t been used Constantinople. The only source have the great income from these in full, they had been visited telling us about their existence emboli and wharves, so Our Excel- only by a few merchants, people is the emperor’s chrysobullos is- lence prefers the service, proposed by infamous, without any benefit sued in June 1189. the whole nation to the service of a for Empire3. Additionally Kr.N. few gathered from a dispersion”. Сiggaar4 says that such a state- Fragment from the ment can reflect a depopulation Chrysobullos of 1189: This document was the last of both emboli after the disor- in the series of Byzantine satis- “That is why Our Clemency der of 1183 bringing Androni- factions of Venice demands af- orders by the word of this Chrys- cus Comnenus to power. David ter the destruction of Venetian Jacoby5 is surprised by the fact obullos for Venetians to get eve- embolus at 1171. Previous orders that Germany needed any wharf rything, that is requested by their granted to Venetians their privi- in Constantinople while its mer- envoys, and the whole embolos leges and also compensation for chants came there by land, not Alemannorum et Francigenarum merchants’ losses. But Byzan- by sea. But it is obvious that ar- and their marine wharves, that are tine had no possibility to close guments from economical suit- transferred to them in the presence up the compensation question ability are not the only adequate of our Serenity clerks Constantine by it’s own resources. So em- in internationally important ac- Pediadites and the most clear pro- peror Isaac Angelos decided to tion. tonobilissimus Niceta Balianit by transfer German and French em- the practica of Constantine Petrio- boli into Venetian hands. Greek Charles Brand6 according to ta. This must be confirmed by the text of the chrysobullos haven’t his concept of Byzantine-West resolution of pansebastos sebastos survived. But it’s Latin transla- confrontation gave an idea that and the retinue of Our Sublimity tion was inserted in the First transfer of the emboli to Venice archichancellor master John Duka. (12th cent.) and the Second (13th was caused by Isaac hostility Relevant secretaries have to be ac- cent.) Liber Pactorum, and also towards approaching German quainted with this Chrysobullos. – in the Liber Albus by Andrea troops of Frederick Barbarossa 1 Whole the annual income of the Dandolo . and by danger from French cru- saders. We have to agree, that emboli is equal to 50 livres of hy- Actuality of this research is this circumstance played sig- perpyrons (14 kg of 20karat gold conditioned by actual inexist- nificant role in the Isaac deci- – O.L.) calculated for this transfer. ence of historiography of the sion. But surely there were some Although said emboli with the mari- problem. The chrysobullos of more aspects. time wharves by the words of [pre- 1189 was either ignored, either vious] chrysobulla had been trans- mentioned, but without deep One of them is very close dis- ferred to Alemans and Francigens, analyze2. The only question, location of both emboli with the
72 History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople • OLEG LUGOVYI
Venetian quarter on the Golden among them plans of renewal of approved why Porta Piscaria Horn coast. We have to thank the temple of sent Eirene on the are the same Gates as Perama David Jacoby for their ascertain- seashore (προς θάλασσαν της Gates13. ment7. While studying the Vene- αγίας Ειρήνης), built by Mar- In this case Porta S. Marci tian quarter limits dynamics, D. cianus. Works were not finished must correspond to the Bahçe Jacoby find out that new gaining successfully. But the question is Kapisi (The Garden Gates) – next at 1189 must have been made to appropriate: was or was not the one in the East. The problem is the East from Venetian quarter project of saint Eirene of Perama in the fact, that Porta S. Marci and to the West from Pisan one. church renewal connected with were mentioned only once in the the promise to grant a church in But from the very beginning chart of 1229. It is known only Constantinople to the German of its existence Venetian quar- that they were situated 77 feet knights? Besides, Bertha von ter at East was bordered with to the East from Porta Ebraica14. Zulcbach, German spouse of the Hebraica – the region of the Their name is certainly Latin Manuel Comnenus, was rebap- compact settlement of Constan- and it is unclear were the Gates tised in eastern orthodox ritual tinople Jews. Hebraica was liq- old one with the new name, or th in the name of Eirene. And the uidated in the middle of 11 cen- they were opened by Latins af- church of Eirene of Perama is tury by removing all the Jews ter the 120415. It was situated ap- 8 the only trustful marker of the across the Golden Horn to Pera . proximately in the basement of German quarter location. So, too And so German and French em- modern Galata bridge. boli were located in the borders much of coincidences. But Alexander van Millingen of former Jew quarter of Con- Venetians’ and other Latin states that Bahçe Kapisi are the stantinople. dwellers’ of Hebraica interests same Gates as Porta Neoriou overpassed on the wharves of A lot of years after the em- and one more – Gates of Hi- that region. Hebraica adjoined bolus Alemannorum liquidation canatissa was situated between memory about it preserved Constantinople sea walls at least the Perama Gates and Porta and the chart of 1207, concern- near to Porta Ebraica and Porta Neoriou16. Gates of Hicanatissa ing transfer of a few holdings, S. Marci, situated somewhat marked Amalfi quarter. indicated: “The property, once more eastward. Porta Ebraica being of Alemanni” lies in front pointed the eastern border of If the original borders of of the church of Eirene of Pera- Venetian quarter from 1082 till Venetian quarter were close ma9. This church stood at the 1189. And Porta S. Marci were to Hebraica, so the wharves of edge of Pisan quarter behind mentioned inside it at 1229 р.11 Saint Marcianus and Kuzugala the sea wall of Constantinople, Naturally they were situated given to Venetians here at 114817 at the seashore of the Golden to the West from Pisan quarter were once also the part of He- Horn10. The chart of 1207 also borders. Porta Ebraica is mostly braica. So Porta Ebraica was the underlined – foris muri. Niceta identified as Istanbul Gates of only way to enter them from the Choniat (Manuelis Comneni. the fish bazaar – Balik-Pazari Ka- city. It is obvious that both Vene- VII, 3) listed building projects of pisi (Porta Piscaria)12. Alexander tians and Germans had use this emperor Manuel and specified van Millingen well-reasonably gates for their needs.
73 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Organization of the embolus capital. Considerable number was conditioned by the alliance Alemannorum has to be dated among them were Jews and they between the Holy Roman Em- to the time of the marriage of had quite another place to stay – pire and Byzantium. Naturally Byzantine prince Manuel Com- Pera. And church had to be built the open conflict among them nenos and Bertha von Sulzbach, not for them as well. in the time of the Third Cru- sister of German king Conrad sade really could cause the em- Conrad promised to emperor wife, in 1146 or to the period of bolus elimination24. But there are Manuel military help in one of the Second crusade18. Then king some problems with it. At one the letters in Gesta Friderici (I, Conrad three times visited Con- hand the conflict had not yet 25): “Concerning five hundreds stantinople (September 1147, started in June, when elimina- solders, asked by Your Nobil- beginning of 1148 and winter tion took place. That time Fred- ity, We are responding to You, 1148-1149). During the last visit erick had been still in Hungary, that We will give not only five Conrad had a negotiations with on July 2 he was arrived at Bran- hundreds but will send also Manuel and confirmed Byzan- ichevo, the first Byzantine -for two or three thousands, if it is tine claims over Southern Italy19. tification on the crusaders way necessary”22. According to Otto and everything went according Organization of embolus had of Freising, when Manuel was to previous agreements. On the undoubtedly economical and already crowned, first of all he other hand in June negotiations political aspects. Plus in the renovated confederation with of Isaac Angelos with Salah ad- case of German church existing Conrad against Sicilian king Din were held25. The same time, there20 embolus could be spir- Roger being in war with both June 20th, after the neutralization itual centre for German solders Empires (Chronica sive Historia of Theodore Mankapha plot, in Byzantine army. Scholars de Duabus Civitatibus, VII, 28). Isaac put under arrest Freder- mostly never considered embo- In few years the Byzantine ick’s ambassadors ahead with lus to have some connection to military detachment of Germanoi Archbishop of Munster. Freder- militaries21. But German chroni- appeared in Corfu involved in ick had to inquire about it while cler Otto of Freising speaks not actions contra Sicilian garrisons staying at Philippopolis, but we about merchant for shure. King (Nicetae Choniatae Historia know nothing about his reaction Conrad wrote in his first let- Byzantina. Manuelis Comneni. on the embolus loss. In Janu- ter to emperor John Comnenus II,6)23. Altogether these evidenc- ary 1190 emperor Isaac asked about “Militibus quoque imperii es show us a picture of German for peace and the conflict was nostri, Alemannis scilicet, qui aput detachment, sent by Conrad to arranged. Sources keep silence te sunt…”. The same people are the service of Manuel Comne- about renewal of German em- meant under “caballariis nobilita- nus. They should be the main bolus, as they hadn’t notice it’s tis” and “hominibus imperii nostri, users of newly created embolus loss. May be it wasn’t very im- Teutonicis videlicet, qui Constan- Alemannorum and possibly a portant for Frederick? tinopoli morantur” (Gesta Fri- German church there. derici. I, 25). On the other hand The close economical rela- sources witness only about a few It is obvious now that exist- tions between southern German German merchants in Byzantine ing of the embolus Alemannorum merchants and Venice made
74 History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople • OLEG LUGOVYI them actually use the one and (τό ξενοδοχείο). Greek term never tried to recover the prop- the same infrastructure26. Espe- for it was known for Italian au- erty after 1204, though Germans cially actual it became after the thors29, but wasn’t widespread dwelled their even later31. peace was concluded at Ven- as fondaco. The term fondaco in a History of Embolus Francige- ice at 1177 by Frederick Barba- sense of juridically separated on narum seems not to be an object rossa and the Pope Alexander the base of international agree- of investigation at all. First of all III. Venice was connected with ments trading quarter was the we have to consider the mean- th the transalpine lands by stable most widespread in 12 century ing of it’s name. Who were Fran- roads. Bernhardus Teotonicus and was used as for Christian cigeni of medieval Greek texts? was characterized as one the quarters in the Muslim coun- They could be South Italian Nor- richest men in Venice by Gerard tries (Alexandria had the Pisan, mans being mostly in the war Rösch and a very important per- Venetian, Genovese, Barce- with Byzantium, but one can be son in the German-Venice trade lonese, Florentine and Marseille sure, that trade prospered dur- 27 history . At last, 1228 is the year fondacos), as for the locations of ing calm years. of the first mention of German stranger merchants and goods emporium at the Venice territory inside the Western European The biggest actor in this trade – Fondaco dei Tedesci (fonticum world (Genovese fondaco in Cas- was the city of Amalfi. It’s mer- comunis Venetiarum, ubi Teutonici tilian city of Almeria from the chants were the first who ob- hospitantur)28, granted by the Re- 1146)30. So German fondaco in tained the quarter in Constan- tinople32. It was marked by the public of S. Marcus to German Venice had the same functions Gates of Hikanatissa and was merchants being too numerous. as German embolus in Constan- bordered to Pisan quarter33. So tinople and at the same vector of It is worth noticing that gen- Amalfitan quarter must have economical relations, but much erally the structure of Italian been located in the same Hebrai- closer to Germany. Fondaco was very similar to the ca region. It did exists in 11th cen- Byzantine emboli in two possi- So German merchants and tury, but the date of it’s ending ble senses of the word (build- other travelers frequently and is unclear. Though some schol- ing complex, separated from traditionally used Venetian in- ars consider the best time for other city territory and granted frastructure for their journeys it’s elimination to be 1147 – the to some political partner for eco- to Constantinople, including the most sever conflict between Byz- nomical use – μητάτον; store period of German embolus exist- antine emperor and the Sicilian premises and the victualling- ence in 1148-1189. Venetian and kingdom, Amalfi suzerain from house, trading place at the same German emboli were bordered 1073. Was Amalfitan property time without any juridical sta- on each other. It is possible that given to Germans and French- tus, embolus as it is). Italian word interpenetration of their infra- men? Or that were amalfitans, fondaco origins from Greek τό structures had already begun vassals of Normans of South- πανδοχείον meaning the tav- before 1189. So integration of ern Italy known also as Franks ern from the Ancient time of any both the emboli was geopolitical- in Byzantium, who gave the kind. Sometimes it’s functions ly and economically provided. name of Francigeni to embolus? It were the same as that of hospice That can explain, why Germans could be. But the case of French
75 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA kingdom and it’s subjects on the frontation, mutual suspicions, frequent in Montpellier39. Mont- Mediterranean shore mustn’t be but both authors tried to be op- pellier had begun to strengthen disregarded. timistical in their description. their positions in Levant already Crusades hadn’t receive Byzan- before the time of Crusades. Wil- If the French king had con- tine help in expected size, but liam of Malmesbury (De Regum nection to this embolus, it might anyway this visit of the autumn have been organized during the Anglorum. IV, 388) said that of 1147 is the best and only pos- same Second Crusade. Odo of Ascalon citizens gave up their sible moment for French embolus Deuil, French historiographer of city namely to Raymond of Tou- to born (if it was really French). that campaign, mentions meet- louse because Montpellier was ing of Louis VII with ambas- Granting of the separated at his possession and they knew sadors of Byzantine emperor quarter to French merchants quite well virtues of Montpel- in Regensburg in 1146. They also was based in economical lier merchants. Guillaume count read out the letter concerning conjuncture. After the Maurita- of Montpellier followed Ray- conditions of French army stay nian pirate base in Fraхinetum mond’s army and had a lot to do in Byzantium. As traditional (not far from Saint-Tropez) de- with it. emperor Manuel demanded struction in 972, Occitanian mer- Guillaume VIII, count of from the French king to swear chants received save roads to Montpellier in 1172-1202, made that he would return to Byzan- the Mediterranean sea38. Main- more then usual to heighten his tium all former Byzantine cities ly they were merchants from city in the international field. conquered by Muslims. Also Marseille, Arles, Saint-Gilles He put the trading treaty with he stressed that Empire itself in Provence and Narbonne in Pisan consuls in 1178, the same was also making a war against Languedoc. The last city was with the bishop and viscount of 34 Seljuks . Odo further speaks connected by the busy road with Agde in 118540. At last Montpel- that emperor’s legates made a Toulouse and further by Ga- lier merchants altogether with lot of such promises to Louis that ronne – till Bordeaux. their colleagues from Marseille, were not kept35. Namely: “con- But the most common Greek Barcelona and Saint-Gilles re- venient market, comfortable counteragents in Occitania were ceived privilege of free trade exchange and other that seems merchants from the young city and consulate in Levant at the useful for ours”36. K.N. Ciggaar of Montpellier. Greek ambas- city of Tyre41. The privilege was underlines that arrangements of sadors went to Paris in 1160-s given by Conrad of Montfer- 1146 were the first official con- through Montpellier, Saint- rat for their help in his struggle tact between Byzantium and Gilles and Chartres. At the against Salakh-ad-Din who cap- France on the state level after the same years rabbi Benjamin from tured Jerusalem the same year. significant pause37. Tudela made visit to Montpellier Some new liberties were granted There are reports of John and characterized it as a com- to “hominibus Montis Pessulani” Cinnamos and Odo of Deuil fortable trading point. He quali- also by the chart of the Jerusa- about visit of the king Louis to fied dwellers of the Greek land lem king Guy of Lusignan given Constantinople in autumn of and generally Eastern Mediter- to Marseilles under Saint-John 1147. Though there were con- ranean among the merchants d’Acre October 25, 119042.
76 History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople • OLEG LUGOVYI
The heightening of Montpel- years after Alfonse marriage abbacy not far from Montpellier. lier in the international trade with Sancha) and was the same Nevertheless her daughter be- coincided with the reign of Ma- embassy that carried French came the Pedro of Aragon wife. nuel Comnenus. He died in 1180 princess Agnes back to Constan- Montpellier in K.N. Ciggaar and in 1189 the embolus Francige- tinople. She was fiancée for the opinion had to gain significant narum was liquidated. Could Manuel’s son and heir Alex. So benefits from dynastic alliance there be some diplomatic aspect marriage of Eudokia was impos- of such a level48. Possibility of unseen from Byzantine docu- sible not because of Alfonse but such alliance itself approved im- ments. The Libre dels feyts writ- thanks to international context. portance of Montpellier in the ten by James (Jaime) the king of The count of Provence had two western vector of Constantino- Aragon (1218-1276), or may be suzerains – the Aragon king and ple policy. the emperor of Holy Rome. At somebody of his retinues before But not less important is the the time Frederick’s positions his death, is the most competent preterition of Byzantine authors in Provence became stronger source on this question. King concerning this failure of em- and Manuel was his enemy. But James was the grandson of Byz- peror diplomacy. Mission was 43 Montpellier served the port for antine princes Eudokia – the aimed on Aragon or Provence, Aragon and was out of the Holy niece of the emperor Manuel not on the one of its smallest Roman Empire borders45. and possibly the daughter of vassals. The happening took 44 his brother sebastokrator Isaac Guillaume VIII, count of place not long before the death (James himself considered her to Montpellier, Alfonse vassal and of Manuel plunging Constan- be Manuel’s daughter). She was relative46, famous for his wide tinople to a chaos of two revo- promised to the Aragon king Al- and bold international policy, lutions – 1183 and 1185. The fonse II, but by the time she ar- enforced Byzantine ambassa- universal empire was unable to rived to Aragon dominions Al- dors to give Eudokia for him. give adequate answer for the fonse abandoned the marriage, Local historian А. Germain even Montpellier insult under these because he already had affi- supposed count of Montpel- circumstances. So Eudokia was anced Castilian princess Sancha. lier to dream about Byzantine forgotten. Guillaume broke his 47 German scientist Winfred crown . King James underlined marriage with Eudokia in 1187 Hecht turned to Pisan annals, the great support received by – two years before the French composed by a contemporary ju- Guillaume by Montpellier coun- embolus liquidation. So we can rist Bernardo Marangone (died cil consisting of knights and suppose that the liquidation was c. 1188), and proved that possi- reach city patricians, who saw undercover and the only possi- ble fiancé of Eudokia was not Al- economical perspective of this ble Isaac Angelus reaction on his fonse II but his younger brother alliance. cousin divorce and confinement. Other supposing that the embo- Raymond Berenger the count of Eudokia gained glory among lus Francigenarum was first of all Provence. Annals of Marangone the Provencal troubadours, but the Montpellier embolus. helped to ascertain some new her marriage was not happy. She facts. Byzantine embassy came didn’t give a hair to Guillaume But there are still a lot of to the French South in 1178 (two and finished her days in Agnan questions. The count of Mont-
77 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
pellier was Aragonese vassal, Saint Marcus republic in a mo- not French. Are there connection ment when Frederick Barbaros- of the Francigeni with Amalfit- sa army approaching threatened ans? What is the connection of emperor by open conflict. embolus Francigenarum, espe- On the contrary embolus cially if being of Montpellier, Francigenarum was trading in- with the Campus Prouincialium stitution first of all and so it et Hyspanorum, divided between gave harbor to merchants and the Latin empire and Venice by goods from southern French order of Robert de Courtenay of cities actually being at the time February 20, 122449? vassals of the Aragon kingdom, Thereby we can certify that not France. The main users of possibility of emboli Alemanno- the embolus in that case were rum et Francigenarum organiza- merchants from Montpellier tion appeared to be in 1140-s as playing the leading role in Oc- a result of the new economical citania trade of the 12th century. situation and diplomatic actions Liquidation of this embolus was in the time of the Second Cru- caused not only by the hostile sade. New emboli were situated relations between emperor Isaac between the Venetian and Pisan and king Louis but also dynastic quarters on the ground known conflict between Guillaume VIII before as Hebraica and Amalfit- of Montpellier and the Comneni an quarter. These emboli have family, to whom the Angeli were existed through the 40 years or the closest relatives. Also it is something longer. Embolus Ale- possible that Francigeni are Ital- mannorum gave harbor not only ian Normans and their embolus is to merchants, but may be even the same as Amalfitan embolus. more – to German warriors who In that case France must not be came on Constantinople em- the subject of investigation here peror service. Period of embolus at all. existing witnessed few political conflicts between two empires and this never promoted stable and intensive use of this insti- tution. Sea routs of the German merchants lay through Venice already since the 10th century and this made for final transfer of the German quarter to the
78 History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople • OLEG LUGOVYI
NOTES 37 Ciggaar 1996,164, 171. 1 Tafel and Thomas 1856, 1:206-11. New publication: Pozzo and 38 Симеонова 2006, 89. Ravegnani 1993, 4:101-10; see also: Dölger 1995, 299, Reg. 1590. 39 Adler 1907, 3. 2 Brown 1920, 68-88; Соколов 1953, 156-85; Magdalino 2000, 223. 40 Germain 1851, 1: lxv; 180-1. 3 Heyd 1885, 1:263-264; Schaube 1906, 249; Nicol 1988, 116; Pozzo and 41 Méry and Guindon 1842, 190-2; Germain 1851, 1: lxvi; Germain Ravegnani 1993, 4:102-3. 1851, 2: 1-2. 4 Ciggaar 1996, 200. 42 Méry and Guindon 1842, 194-5; Germain 1851, 2: 1-2. 5 Jacoby 2001, 158, n. 32. 43 Forster 2006, cap. ii. 6 Brand 1968, 199. 44 Stiernon 1965, 236. 7 Jacoby 2001, 158-9. 45 Hecht 1968,161-9. 8 Jacoby 1996, 174. 46 Germain 1851, 1: xxxv; Ададуров 2002, 115-6. 9 Tafel and Thomas 1856, 2:4-8. 47 Germain 1851, 1: xliii. 10 It is essential, that while building the church oikonomos Marcian 48 Ciggaar 1996, 165. «pushed back» the sea (Mango 2001, 19). 49 Tafel and Thomas 1856, 2: 255. 11 Brown 1920, 78. 12 Brown 1920, 78. 13 Millingen 1899, 216-7. 14 Tafel and Thomas 1856, 2:270-2. 15 Millingen 1899, 219. 16 Millingen 1899, 219. 17 Jacoby 2001, 157. 18 Adolf Schaube seems to be the first to suppose this: Schaube 1906, 249. 19 Berry 1969, 510-511. 20 Though many are in doubt: Janin 1946, 175; Janin 1969, 575; Jacoby 2001, 158. 21 Heyd 1885, 1:225-6, 263-4; 1886, 2:728-9; Janin 1946, 175 22 The same letter asw published in MGH DD 9, 226-228. 23 Migne, PG 139, col. 425. 24 Brand 1968, 199 25 Lilie 1993, 240-241; Dölger 1995, 299-300, Reg. 1591. 26 Луговой 2010, 249-57. 27 Rösch 1985, 132-5. 28 Simonsfeld 1887, Urkunde 2, 1-2. Simonsfeld also points out the opinion of archivist Milesio from the beginning of 18th century, who considered the Fondaco dei Tedeschi to be founded before 1200 (Simonsfeld 1887, 8). 29 For example sinochagia of the Grado patriarchy in the Chronica pa- triarcharum Gradensium (MGH, SS. rer. Langobard. 1:394). 30 Constable 2001, 145-156. 31 Tafel and Thomas 1856, 2:53; Jacoby 2001, 159, 162; Луговий 2010, 249-57. 32 Симеонова 2006, 169. 33 Millingen 1899, 219. 34 Lilie 1993, 150. 35 Ciggaar 1996, 164. 36 Migne, PL, 185: 1212
79 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
REFERENCES Mango, C. 2001. ″The Shoreline of Constantinople in the Fourth Century.″ In Byzantine Constantinople: monuments, topography Adler M.N., trans. 1907. The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. London: and everyday life, edited by N. Negipoğlu, 17-28. The medieval Oxford University Press. Mediterranean 33. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill. Berry, V.G. 1969. ″The Second Crusade.″ In A History of the Crusades. Méry, L., and F. Guindon. 1842. Histoire analytique et Chronologique des Vol.1. The First Hundred Years, edited by M.W. Baldwin. 2nd ed., Actes et des Délibérationes du corps et du Conseil de la Municipalité de 463-512. Madison; London: University of Wisconsin Press. Marseille depuis le X siècle jusqua nos jours. Vol.1. Marseille. Brand, Ch. M. 1968. Byzantium Confronts the West. 1180-1204. Cambridge, Millingen, A. van. 1899. Byzantine Constantinople. The Walls of the City and Mass.: Harvard University Press. Adjoining Historical Sites. London: John Murray. Brown, H.F. 1920. ″The Venetians and the Venetian Quarter in Nicol, D.M. 1988. Byzantium and Venice: a study in diplomatic and cultural Constantinople to the Close of the Twelfth Century.″JHS 40: 68-88. relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ciggaar, Kr.N. 1996. Western Travellers to Constantinople. The West and Pozzo, M. and G. Ravegnani, ed. 1993. Pacta Veneta. Vol. 4. I trattati con Byzantium, 962-1204: Cultural and Political Relations. Leiden: Brill. Bisanzio, 992-1198. Venezia: il Cardo. Constable, O.R. 2001. ″Funduq, Fondaco, and Khān in the Wake of Rösch, G. 1985. Venezia e l’Impero, 962-1250. I rapporti politici, commerciali Christian Commerce and e di traffico nel periodo imperiale Germanico, translated by C. Vinci- Crusade.″ In The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Orlando. Roma: Il Veltro. Muslim World, edited by A.E. Laiou and R.P. Mottahedeh, 145- Schaube, A. 1906. Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Völker des 56. Dumbarton Oaks: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Mittelmeergebiets bis zum Ende der Kreuzzüge. München; Berlin: R. Collection. Oldenburg. Dölger, Fr. 1995. Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des Oströmischen Reiches. Simonsfeld, H. 1887. Der Fondaco dei Tedeschi in Venedig und die Deutsch- Vol. 2. 2nd ed. Munich: Beck. Venetianischen Handelsbeziehungen. Stuttgart: Verlag der J.G. Germain, A. 1851. Histoire de la commune de Montpellier depuis ses origines Cotta’schen Buchhandlung. jusqu’a son incorporation définitive a la monarchie Française. 3 vols. Stiernon, L. 1965. ″Notes de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines. Montpellier. Sébaste et Gambros.″ RÉByz 23: 222-43. Hecht, W. 1968. ″Zur Geschichte der «Kaiserin» von Montpellier, Forster, J. trans. 2006, 9 March. ″The Chronicle of James I, King of Aragon Eudoxia Komnena.″ RÉByz 26: 161-9. Surnamed The Conqueror″ The library of Iberian resources Heyd, W. 1885-1886. Histoire du commerce du Levant au Moyen-âge. 2 vols. online. http://libro.uca.edu/chronicleofjames/chronicle.htm Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz. (19 September 2015)
Jacoby, D. 1996. ″Les Juifs: protection, divisions, ségrégation.″ In Tafel, G.L.Fr. and G.M. Thomas, eds. 1856. Urkunden zur Älteren Handels Constantinople 1054-1261, edited by A. Ducellier and M. Balard, und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig mit Besonderer auf Byzanz 171-82. Paris: Édition Autrement. und die Levante. I Thiel (814-1205). II Thiel (1205-1255). Wien.
Jacoby, D. 1998. ″The Jewish Community of Constantinople from the Ададуров, В. 2002. Історія Франції. Королівська держава та Komnenan to the Palaiologan Period.″ Византийский временник створення нації (від початків до кінця ХVIII століття). Львів: 55 (80), part 2: 31-41. Видавництво УКУ.
Jacoby, D. 2001. ″The Venetian Quarter of Constantinople from 1082 Луговий, О.М. 2010. ″Найманці німецького походження у to 1261. Topographical Considerations.″ In Novum Millenium. візантійській армії ХІ-ХІІІ століть.″ Libra 1: 30-58. Studies on Byzantine History and Culture dedicated to Paul Speck. Симеонова, Л. 2006. Пътуване към Константинопол. Търговия и 19 December 1999. edited by C. Sode and S. Takács, 153-170. комуникации в Средиземноморския свят (края на IХ – 70-те Aldershot: Ashgate. години на ХI в.). София: Парадигма. Janin, R. 1946. ″Les sanctuaires des colonies latines à Constantinople.″ Соколов, Н.П. 1953. ″Венецианская доля в византийском RÉByz 4: 163-77. «наследстве».″ Византийский временник, 6: 156-85. Janin, R. 1969. La géographie ecclésiastique de l’Empire Byzantin. Vol. 3 Les églises et les monastéres. 2nd ed. Paris: Institut Français d’Études Byzantines.
Lilie, R.-J. 1993. Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096-1204, translated by J.C. Morris and J.E. Ridings. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Magdalino, P. 2000. ″The Maritime Neighborhoods of Constantinople: Commercial and Residential Functions, Sixth to Twelfth Centuries.″ DOP 54: 209-226.
80 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD)
I r i n a N a s t a s i
1. Introductory remarks Tomis is the ancient name of in the same place. But, besides Constanta, the largest port on the main public open space – the the Romanian coast of the Black agora or forum of the city - there Sea (Fig. 1). In the frame of LI- were other plazas or squares MEN Project Constanța is being strongly connected to the com- promoted as an important mod- mercial and public life of Tomis, ern Cultural Port, having deep which became indicators of ur- ABSTRACT ancient roots in the city’s his- ban decay in the late Antiquity, tory. Having in mind the main due to slowly being invaded by This study focuses on the objectives of this mutual project, private structures. And since archaeological information achieved I have chosen this subject while they are part of the street net- so far on the public open spaces in also asking myself: What part work they can only be analyzed Roman and Early Byzantine times. of the city constitutes the land- in relation with the known an- 3 possible open spaces (plazas) and mark of Cultural Constanța? cient street sections. the main public area are analysed The first answer that came to in the larger context of the street my mind was Ovidius Square network of ancient Tomis. One of (Fig. 2), a large open place were the main aspects stressed in this many cultural events have been study is the conservative attitude organized in the last years and towards the urban planning in where the main culture provider ancient Tomis – the orthogonal in Constanța has its premises – layout established in Hellenistic Museum for National History times was preserved in the and Archaeology. But where
peninsular area until the Early was the central public open Fig 1. Constanța (Ancient Tomis) on the Western Byzantine period. space in antiquity? More or less shore of the Black Sea
81 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 2. Ovid Square marked on a Google Earth view over the peninsula of Constanța
2. Tomis in antiquity the city area, initially limited 3. Ancient streets Tomis was an ancient Greek only to the Tomitan peninsula, in Tomis. General colony, founded by Milesian was enlarged by the construc- remarks colonists in the 6th century BC. tion of a new fortification wall. In the Roman period, actually In time it gradually took over the Another enlargement of the in- until the end of the 6th century features specific to a Roman city, habited area happened in the 5th AD, the peninsula of Constanța but the Greek traditions contin- century, when there will be in- seems to have kept the same pat- ued to exist at material, cultural, tegrated by the extension of the tern of urban organization of the administrative, linguistic etc. precinct and the western district intra muros space as in the Helle- level. Staying in the shadows of of the Roman-Byzantine city. nistic period: long streets of dif- its Northern neighbor, Histria, a Finding ancient Tomis is a ferent widths (main streets are 4 more important centre in the Ar- hard quest for archaeologists to 5 m wide and secondary ones chaic, Classic and Hellenistic Pe- due to various damages it suf- are approximately 2 m wide) riods, Tomis finally developed to fered and due to the fact that the drew a regular orthogonal street what was to be the capital city of modern city overlaps the ancient network. A systematic research Scythia province in the Late Em- one, making the urban archaeol- carried on in the 70’s close to the pire. In the Early Empire Tomis ogy almost impossible. How- city’s cathedral, in the place con- increased its inhabited intra mu- ever, the puzzle pieces uncov- ventionally called Cathedral’s ros area, and enriched its urban ered so far allow us to constitute Park, two main streets, used dur- structure with new monumental a general image on the urban ing long periods of time, as well buildings. In the 3rd century BC, structure of this city. as buildings from different peri-
82 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD) • IRINA NASTASI ods (Greek, Roman) with identi- Fig. 3. Cathedral Park: a. Streets cal orientation discovered there, a and b as they are preserved today; b. Streets a and b on an show that the same spatial orga- excavation plan. nization was preserved from the Hellenistic period at least until the end of the 5th century AD1, if not until the end of the 6th centu- ry AD2, as we will notice below (streets a and b, Fig. 3). Another archaeological exca- vation carried on in Constanța, about 300 m NW from the Ca- thedral Park showed the same results3: orthogonal space orga- nization on axes oriented NW- SE and NE – SW, which divided the intra muros area into rectan- gular lots. A wide street was un- covered there, and a paved area seems to indicate an intersection, therefore another street perpen- dicular on the first one (– streets c and c1, Fig. 4). This street was still functional in the 6th century AD, pointing to a conservation of the orthogonal plan until this period. In other different parts of Constanța other streets have proved to have the same orien- lenistic period, until at least at tation on these two main axes: th d4, e and n5, and probably the the end of the 6 century AD, of main street that enters the city course after going through peri- through the Main Gate6 - street odical repairs or reconstructions. h (Fig. 4). This is a typical phenomenon for some Greek colonies7 that grad- These excavations are par- ticularly important for the urban ually morphed into Roman and topography of Tomis, because then Byzantine cities. See for in- they state the functioning of stance other maritime port-cities a plan established in the Hel- next to Tomis like Callatis (now-
83 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Ancient streets discovered in several places of modern Constanța
adays Mangalia), and Histria. example is given by street α› in Callatis knew the same type of Domus district9. cadastral organization on same Tomis though constitutes a axes as Tomis, initiated in the 4th special case due to the gradual -3rd centuries BC and also used it increase of its inhabited intra 8 in later times . In Histria the situ- muros area. Along with this ation was slightly different. Due extension of the fortified area, to morphological changes and a different orientation of the several destructions caused by newly established streets also invasions (no strange thing tak- appeared. They seem to have ing into account that Histria was been established in relation with so close to the empire’s borders) the extra muros main roads and that forced the reorientation of the general morphology of the some facilities and the reorga- terrain. The first extension is nization of the street network presumed to have taken place in some parts of the city. How- somewhere in the 2nd century ever, some Hellenistic streets AD, after the Hellenistic fortifi- have been reconditioned and cation was dismantled. Unfortu- used until the end of the city, in nately no excavation report has the Late antique period. Such an been published so far for none
84 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD) • IRINA NASTASI of the places where this wall was same fate. Therefore, starting basilica along with its annexes, registered to have appeared. with this date the orthogonal implanted in the city plan at the There are only theories com- system in the peninsula is ad- beginning of the Byzantine pe- prised in other general studies10. joined by a new city part orga- riod, changed the neighboring The same situation stands for nized on different oriented axis, streets’ and structures’ orienta- the Hellenistic wall, but based which will be preserved in both tion according to the strict Chris- on some indications Ovidius has phases of the roman-byzantine tian rules. In the extended part given in his writings researchers fortification. of the city the street network have agreed that the Hellenistic tends to change its pattern to a Besides the archaeological wall has functioned at least un- less organized one, at least in the proof, which is the most consis- til the 1st cent. AD and the ar- vicinity of the city gates, where tent, there is also an epigraphic chaeological findings suggest its the main streets’ trajectories cre- reference to the streets of Tomis. location on the Northern side of ate the impression of an open- This middle 3rd century AD in- nowadays Ovidiu Square. ing fan (streets g, i and j, Fig. 4). scription mentions the activities The most common orientation In this new part of the city of a benefactor who „decorated of streets’ axes in this part of the there are still Early Roman his pretious town (Tomis) with city is N-S and E-V. streets with the same orientation large streets” (ISM II, 102). There- Therefore, Tomis’ specific fea- as the ones in the hippodamic fore, by the middle of the 3rd cen- tures regarding its street network layout, and this can be explained tury AD a new intervention in the can be synthetized as follows: by the fact that there was an extra street network of Tomis can be muros inhabited area related to • orthogonal systematization noted. We cannot conclude if the the Hellenistic wall, which kept plan applied in the Hellenis- inscription proves the construc- the same orientation as the intra tic period; tion of new streets, or only, and muros network, at least for some most probably, the restoration • preservation of this plan in time. But, over this limit (Early of the already existing ones. The most of the old part of the Roman wall) there are streets term used to describe the streets town until the end of the ur- with a different orientation, that of Tomis in this inscription is ban life of Tomis; seem to align to a different plan, εὐρυάγυια, and it is also known the one of the late part of the city • the breakage of the Hellenis- from another inscription from confined by the roman-byzan- tic pattern in the area newly Tomis, but referring to other city tine wall. This change was ap- included inside the Roman- - Neapolis in Syria (ISM II, 188). plied when the roman-byzantine Byzantine fortification, with fortification was built, late 3rd - As a conclusion it can be structures on N-S and E-V early 4th cent AD. Part of the road stated that in the peninsula of orientation axes; that went from Tomis to Histria Tomis the street network has its • Late Antique “contamina- was also included in the intra origins in the Hellenistic orthog- tions”, represented by streets muros area and transformed into onal plan, which is continuously or lanes implanted in the a main urban street. Probably being used even in the Late An- Hellenistic layout on differ- the road to Callatis shared the tiquity, with few changes – a ent axes than the old ones;
85 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
• the change in the layout of As in the case of the street net- A) Important and monumen- the most traditional and con- work the epigraphic informa- tal public or official buildings servatory part of the city, tion is almost missing. There are were discovered on almost each brought by the implantation only indirect references to the side of this area: of a district oriented N-S and existence of an agora in Hellenis- • In the Southern part there was E-V, despite the traditional tic times (ISM II, 5). Ovid men- a large commercial complex, tioning the cold winds that were NW-SE and NE-SW struc- built at the beginning of the so unbearable inside the city as tures; this might be related 4th century AD and was func- well could indicate a large open with the Christian Basilica tional until the 6th century space where this could have whose orientation influenced AD, generically known un- been felt. Nowadays the windi- the layout of the adjacent der the name Mosaic floored est part of the city is the main structures; edifice11. This complex, built square in the Old City, Ovid on three levels, by terracing 4. The main public open Square. the cliff in front of the an- space (Fig. 5) The archaeological proof that cient port, was provided on As for the public open spac- indirectly suggests the location of the second terrace, in front of es, meaning the agora or forum, the agora of the city in the Eastern the vaulted storerooms with a squares and small plazas, the half of nowadays Ovid Square rather generous public space archaeological information sug- focuses mainly on the following (approx. 1000 square meters). gest that they existed in Tomis. aspects: It is important to notice that
Fig 5. Tomis: the main public open space and 3 probable smaller plazas
86 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD) • IRINA NASTASI
even in the 4th century AD the heating facilities, faces the Hellenistic orthogonal plan Eastern side of Ovid Square. was used – when the mosaic Its aspect suggests an impor- floored building was raised tant complex either public or it was included in this urban official. layout, having the same orien- B) Besides these buildings tation as earlier constructions. another sign this could have • A large room paved with been an open public space geometric polychrome mo- is the large number of water saic surely belonged to an sources which are to be found important building, public or in this area. Tomis had two maybe the property of an of- sources of water situated in its ficial of the city. It also fits the rural territory. The water was main layout of the old city. brought to the city via ceramic • Another part of an impos- ing building was uncovered on the eastern side of Ovid Square, built in opus mixtum, probably at the beginning of the Byzantine period, also functional in the 6th century AD. Upon its discovery it was interpreted as another bath complex due to the heating system it disposed of (part of the praefurnium was uncovered)12. In recent years a newer interpreta- tion suggests that it might be the bishop’s palace, based mainly on the proximity of a Christian basilica which functioned in the 5th-6th cen- turies AD. In any case, it was Fig. 6. One of the an important building, either water galleries with public or official. several openings/ wells placed in the • Another part of an opus main open space of mixtum building, also with the ancient city
87 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA tubuli. Inside the city no cisterns one side of this area. Therefore tic times the agora was probably were discovered, but a complex another rule was followed: the situated to the south-east of this network of galleries where the facilitation of vehicles’ access in area (meaning much closer to water was preserved and could the main square of the city13. the center of the Hellenistic city). be used by the inhabitants. In The existence of an agora is the Ovid Square there were at 5. Other plazas attested in the Hellenistic period least 5 places (wells) were the (Fig. 5/1,2,3) by an epigraphic mention, in an water could have been achieved inscription from the end of the 5.1 Besides this main square, form the underground galleries 2nd - beginning of the 1st century other smaller plazas are known (Fig. 6). BC (ISM II, 5). It is hard to know to have functioned in Tomis in C) In the same time, this if the same space was kept in the roman-byzantine times. One space follows Vitruvius’ topo- the roman and byzantine times. of these smaller plazas was situ- graphical indications, accord- The traditionalism regarding the ated on the middle terrace of the ing to which in a maritime port street network, which remained Mosaic floored building, in front city the forum should be placed the same in most of the cases, of the vaulted storerooms situat- close to the harbor area. Also, suggests that the place of the ed there (Fig. 7). Paved with stone the largest street in ancient To- main square was also kept. Still slabs it was 100 m long, starting mis, the main street that enters the fact that the Hellenistic forti- from the stairs that came from the city through the main gate, fication wall was too close to this the upper level, to the street that coming from Histria, passes on space suggests that in Hellenis- went down the slope towards the
Fig 7. A smaller square (no.1) situated in front of the vaulted storerooms of the Mosaic floored edifice
88 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD) • IRINA NASTASI harbor. It was probably the place some streets were also blocked next to the apse of the small where en-gros sells were per- in order to extend the living Christian basilica indicates18. formed. It was built at the begin- space and new constructions are There are no images or any other 14 ning of the 4th century AD, along placed in large public areas . detailed information about this with the whole complex. It func- At Histria, the interior space of place, nowadays preserved un- tioned as a public open space un- housing was extended by block- der a residential district. Since th ing certain streets or lanes. An- til the last part of the 5 century the excavation trenches could other example is the oven built AD when almost half of it (the not have been enlarged due to north-eastern half) was invaded at the intersection of two main 15 the vicinity of modern struc- by annexes of the storerooms. streets . At Argamum the street tures, one could not know for Judging by the structural differ- located between the two late Ro- sure if this paved place was part ences between them they were man edifices was blocked by a of a public open space organized private structures. The annexes construction dated in the first th 16 between the two basilicas that were attached to the frontal wall part of the 7 century . There- functioned here or it was part of of the storage rooms, in at least fore, opposed to a strict delimi- an annex of this basilica with no two different phases, and have tation of public and commercial slowly invaded the space which areas, the phenomenon of public public access whatsoever. space invasion tends to trans- was initially destined for the As a conclusion, we can state form the urban space into a dis- square. There was also a public that gradually, the open public organized structure. fountain in the SE of this square spaces or parts of the west pon- which could provide sufficient 5.2 A large Roman-Byzantine tic cities’ streets, part of the Hel- drinking water through under- street, along with strong and lenistic urban plan or not, were impressive opus mixtum walls ground galleries. The fountain overlapped by private structures was included inside one of the of what probably was a public or blocked, without taking into annexes. Because of modern building17, indicate the presence account the initial urban plan- buildings that have disturbed of a public open space or at least ning rules which were followed the stratigraphy and the ruins of a public source of drinkable wa- earlier. In Scythia this situa- the Mosaic floored edifice we are ter, as the publisher of this ex- tion was identified at Tomis at not able to state a definitive opin- cavation suggested back then. the end of the 5th and in the 6th ion about the chronology of this In 2012, two ancient wells were 19 phenomenon. Even in this situa- uncovered not far from the pre- century AD, at Histria in the th tion, it is important to mark this vious excavation, indicating that last quarter of the 6 century, at 20 21 invasion of public space in Late this could actually be another Argamum and Tropaeum at th antique Tomis because it proves small square in Tomis, as it was the end if 5 – first part of the a change in perception of public presumed before. 6th century AD, and it represents space, as well as in the symme- 5.3 In the western part of the an example of alteration of the try and general aesthetics that city, the newest district of Tomis, urban perception22 in the last characterise this building. On the seems to also have had a small period of urban existence of the other hand, in the same period, square, as the stone pavement above mentioned cities.
89 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Rădulescu and Scorpan 1975, 38. Alexandru, N., R. Constantin, and M. Ionescu 2012. “Callatis – 2 Rădulescu et alii 1973, 344. stratigrafie, topografie și urbanism.” Pontica 45:437-63. 3 Papuc et alii 2001, 108-10. Aricescu, A. 1972. “Despre zidul de apărare al Tomisului în vremea lui 4 Papuc et alii 2006. Ovidius.” Pontica 5:439-46. 5 Nastasi 2014, 191-92. Aricescu, A. 1977. “Armata în Dobrogea romană.” Bucureşti: Editura 6 Rădulescu 1991. Militară. 7 Karagiorgou 2001, 37-38, 73-4. Barnea, I. 1977. “Cetatea Tropaeum Traiani în lumina ultimelor săpături 8 Alexandru et alii 2012, 441. arheologice.” Pontica 10:261-71. 9 Bounegru and Lungu 2003-2005, 175. Bucovală, M. 1998. “Raport preliminar privind cercetările arheologice 10 Aricescu 1972, 439-46; 1977, 155-56; Rădulescu 1995-1996; Bucovală cu caracter de salvare din Constanța, strada Sulmona, nr. 7”, 1998; Buzoianu, Bărbulescu 2012, 33, 71-2, n. 468. Pontica 31:171-200. 11 Rădulescu 1970, 55. Bounegru, O. and V. Lungu 2003-2005. ”Histria. Cercetări recente în 12 Papuc 2005, 63. cartierul Domus.” Studii și Cercetări de Istorie Veche și Arheologie 54-56:167-78. 13 Livius 1.48.5-7; 9.30.9, apud KAISER 2011, 29, n.103. 14 Munteanu 2011b, 241, 248. Buzoianu, L. and M. Bărbulescu 2012. ”Tomis. Comentariu istoric și arheologic.” Constanța: Ex Ponto. 15 Munteanu 2011a, 33, 38. 16 Topoleanu 1999, 201. Custurea, G. and I. Nastasi 2013. ”The End of Urban Life on the Dobroudjan Shore of the Black Sea in the 7th Century AD”. 17 The structures uncovered in 1994 during an excavation on no. 7 Sul- In: Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Links to the mona Street, Bucovală 1998. Maritime Routes of the East, edited by F. Karagianni, 320-31. 18 Rădulescu 1966, 27. Thessalonike.
19 Munteanu 2011a, 33. Kaiser, A. 2011. Roman Urban Street Networks, Routledge Studies in 20 Topoleanu 1999, 201. Archaeology 2, New York-London: Routledge.
21 Barnea 1977, 267-8. Karagiourgou, O. 2001. Urbanism and Economy in Late Antique Thessaly 22 Custurea and Nastasi 2013, 324. (3rd – 7th century A.D.). The Archaeological Evidence. PhD thesis, Oxford University.
Munteanu, Fl. 2011a. “Contribuții la topografia Histriei romane târzii. I.”, Studii și Cercetări de Istorie Veche și Arheologie 62(1-2):23-44.
Munteanu, Fl. 2011b, ”Contribuții la topografia Histriei romane târzii. II.” Studii și Cercetări de Istorie Veche și Arheologie 62(3- 4):233-49.
Nastasi, I. 2014. “Elemente de infrastructură tomitană: observații preliminare asupra rețeleinstradale în perioada romană și în cea bizantină timpurie.” Pontica 47:187-202.
Papuc, Gh. 2005. Aprovizionarea cu apă a cetăţii Tomis în epoca romană şi romană târzie. Constanţa: Ex Ponto.
Papuc, Gh., Tr. Cliane, G. Talmațchi, I.-C. Dobrinescu, and C. Băjenaru 2001. “Constanța, jud. Constanța. [Tomis]. Punct: str. Arhiepiscopiei nr. 23.” Cronica Cercetărilor Arheologice din România 2001. Campania 2000:108-10.
Papuc, Gh., V. Voinea, and G. Neagu 2006. “Constanța, jud. Constanța. [Tomis]. Punct: str. Brâncoveanu.” on-line excavation report - http://cronica.cimec.ro/detaliu.asp?k=3639&d=Constanta-str- Brancoveanu-2006.
Papuc, Gh. et alii 2009, “Constanța, jud. Constanța. [Tomis]. Punct: Str. Mihai Viteazu f.n. (sediu OCPI Constanța).” Cronica Cercetărilor Arheologice din România 2009. Campania 2008:290 - 92.
90 Public Open Space in the City-Port of Tomis (4th-6th cent. AD) • IRINA NASTASI
Rădulescu, A. 1966. Monumente romano-bizantine din sectorul de Vest al cetăţii Tomis. Constanța: Muzeul Regional de Arheologie Dobrogea.
Rădulescu, A. 1970. “Date tehnice despre edificiul cu mozaic din Constanța.” Buletinul Monumentelor Istorice 39:52-6.
Rădulescu, A. 1991. “Recherches archéologiques récentes dans la périmêtre de la cité de Tomi.” Etudes Byzantines et Post-Byzantines 2:23-45.
Rădulescu, A. 1995-1996. “Zidul de apărare al Tomisului, de epocă târzie, în reconstituirea sa actuală.” Pontica 28-29:83-93.
Rădulescu, A., C. Scorpan, Gh.Papuc, E. Coman, and C. Stravru 1973. “Recente cercetări arheologice la Tomis (1971, 1972).” Pontica 6:333-50.
Rădulescu, A., C. Scorpan 1975. “Rezultate preliminare ale săpăturilor arheologice din Tomis (Parcul catedralei).” Pontica 8:9-54.
Topoleanu, Fl. 1999. “Argamum. Sector Bazilica II (1981-1994). Considerații preliminare privind locuirea romană târzie”, Materiale și Cercetări de Arheologie 1:191-201.
91
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi
N i n o I n a i s h v i l i
ABSTRACT The given paper deals with the sixth century BC can be observed. review of principle archaeological Kobuleti-Pichvnari was the most sites of the South-eastern Black advanced urban colonial settlement Sea littoral. Archaeological in the Classical and Hellenistic study carried out at these sites periods. Due to their strategic revealed that the coast line and locations Gonio-Apsarus gained the surrounding area have been particular importance in the populated since the Early Bronze Roman period and city-fortress Age. All settlements are located of Petra in the Early Byzantine at the mouth of the rivers; this time. Physical geography of the played an important role in their South -eastern part of the Black development since the mouth of Sea littoral did much to make it a the rivers was used as harbours. part of the Pontic world and thus Appearance of Greek colonies in part of the Greek, Roman and these areas from the end of the Byzantine spheres.
93 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 1. Map of the Georgian The article deals with the re- and Hellenistic periods. Due to south-western Black view of principle archaeological their strategic locations Gonio- Sea coast with main archaeological sites. sites of the South-eastern Black Apsarus gained particular im- Sea littoral (Fig. 1). Archeologi- portance in the Roman period cal study of these sites revealed and city-fortress of Petra in the that the coast line and the sur- Early Byzantine period. Physical rounding area have been popu- geography of the South-eastern lated since the Early Bronze Age. part of the Black Sea littoral did All settlements are located at the much to make it a part of the mouth of the rivers; this played Pontic world and thus part of an important role in their de- the Greek, Roman and Byzan- velopment since the mouth of tine spheres. the rivers was used as harbours. Batumi Fortress Appearance of Greek colonies in these areas from the end of There are only few references the sixth century BC can be ob- about ancient Batumi in literary served. Kobuleti-Pichvnari was sources. We come across with the most advanced urban colo- the earliest literary evidence nial settlement in the Classical about Batumi in Aristotle’s Me-
94 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI teorology, where Batumi is men- logical excavations were carried lenistic, Late Roman and Middle tioned as τα καλούμενα βαθέα out in this area. Defensive walls Ages and lost its importance in that means the so called Deeps. In and cultural layers of Batumi the 18th century when the har- Greek-Roman sources the Koro- Fortress were preserved in a bour moved south towards nat- listskali River, which joins the very poor condition because of ural bay of Batumi.2 sea near Batumi is called the the man-made destruction of the The actual ruins of the for- Bathys River. Pliny the Elder environment. points that Colchian tribes lived tress occupy an area of around near the Bathys River. Hereby Archaeological research re- 20 m x 20 m (Fig. 2). The walls he also mentions a city of Ma- vealed that the hill which pre- of the fortress were repaired and tium. According to the point of serves the ruins of the fortress reconstructed numerous times view of some scholars, Pliny’s was a site of the oldest settle- in different periods. The oldest Matium can be related to Aris- ment discovered on the territory construction layer of Batumi For- totle’s Bathea. In Tabula Peutin- of Batumi. The site was actively tress dated to the Early Middle geriana (A Roman Road Map), used in Archaic, Classical, Hel- Ages, however the typical Early compiled in the fourth century, Portus Altus, which is the Latin equivalent of Greek Bathys Li- men meaning a deep harbor, is mentioned on the place of Batu- mi. Batumi did have one of the deepest and most convenient harbours among the ancient cit- ies lying on the East coast of the Black Sea.1 Due to the limited evidence of written sources archaeologi- cal research of Batumi Fortress was of great importance in terms of study ancient history of Batu- mi. Batumi Fortress, nowadays referred to as Tamar’s Fortress after the name of the Georgian Queen Tamar (1184-1213), is lo- cated where the River Korolist- skali (ancient Bathys) flows into the Black Sea. The fortress was erected on a high, natural hill on Fig 2. Batumi the coast. In the 1960s archaeo- Fortress. Plan.
95 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Byzantine mixed structure with ras, Chian amphorae with bulg- Bronze-Early Iron Age from the the alternation of stone and brick ing neck type, Samian, Thasian, villages Gantiadi and Zemo Jo- layers can be noticed only in Lesbian, Mendean as well as cho; fully preserved fourth cen- some places of the fortress. Rect- amphoras with so called “tum- tury BC amphora of Herakleia angular planning of Batumi For- blershaped” feet can be noted. Pontike with englyphic stamp tress is irrelevant to the hill relief, Among the other imported and Late Roman brown-clay but typical for the Roman and wares East Greek banded ceram- amphora; also a great number Early Byzantine fortification. The ics and small number of pieces of coins of Antique and Middle tower at the north-east corner of of Attick black gloss pottery ages.5 the wall-circuit and wide rect- was found. Fragments of local According to the archaeo- angular tower-like projections pitchers, brown-clay and Sino- logical data Batumi settlement in the south-west and south-east pean amphorae, louteria and used to be the oldest political, corners of the fortress also dated tiles dominate in the Late An- economic and trade centre of the to the Early Middle Ages. Such tique period layers. Fragments valley of the river Korolistskali. projections are typical for the of bricks, tiles, amphorae and This urban settlement was main- sixth-ninth centuries Byzantine other pottery belong to the Early ly focused on the service of the fortresses. The closest analogues Middle Age. Middle Byzantine ships going along its coast and of these projections exist in the glazed ware, Ottoman period undoubtedly used to stop in the fortress of Sebastopolis, which faience and glazed pottery, ce- harbor.6 was built in Justinian’s time.3 ramic pipes and metal items are distinguished in the layers of the According to the analyses of Gonio -Apsarus Late Middle Ages. the written sources and archae- Archaeological Site ological data scholars identify The archaeological survey In accordance with the ancient Batumi Fortress with Losorium in the surrounding of Batumi written sources (Pliny, Arrian, fortress constructed by Emperor revealed the remains of other Tabula Peutingeriana) Apsarus Justinian in Lazica to protect the ancient settlements of the same used to be the most important limits of the Byzantine Empire to- period in the villages Gantiadi, fortress of Pontic limes, defender gether with other fortresses built Zemo Jocho and Makhvilauri. of the Roman Empire’s limits or reconstructed by him on the From the monuments of the Mid- in the Eastern Black Sea littoral, 4 south-east coast of the Black Sea. dle Ages the remains of the for- on the territory of ancient Col- tress at the source of the river Ko- The ancient cultural layers of chis. It used to exist in different rolistskali which used to control the Batumi settlement dated to intensity from the first century the old pass road, must be noted. the eight-seventh centuries BC AD including Ottoman period. included a lot of local pottery, For the history of Batumi ac- During Adrian’s time five -co metal ware and other items. cidental discoveries in the vicini- horts (approximately 1200-1400 From the imported artifacts of ties of Batumi kept at the Akh- Roman soldiers) were stationed the Archaic, Classical and Hel- vlediani State Museum are very here. This was a huge part of the lenistic periods the fragments of important. Among them are: Roman frontier auxiliary forces Early Chian decorated ampho- hoards of bronze items of Late- located in Eastern Pontos.7
96 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI
Apsarus Fortress perfectly be distinguished in the history preserved until nowadays rep- of Gonio-Apsarus: Roman (first- resents one of the rare survived first half of the forth centuries examples of the Roman-Early AD), Early Byzantine (sixth cen- Byzantine fortification (Fig. 3). tury) and Ottoman. Pre-Antique, It is located 8 km far to the South Classical, Hellenistic and Mid- from Batumi, in Gonio, close at dle Byzantine period layers have the mouth of the river Chorokhi been poorly revealed and inves- (old Akampsis). An unusual tigated so far, however literary large size of Apsarus Fortress, testimony and few archaeologi- which well correspond with the cal artifacts provide the basis for garrison mentioned by Arrian the assumptions about existence was conditioned by its strategic of the colonial settlement here. location: the fortress protected Roman and Byzantine authors the outlets of Chorokhi and indicated that Apsarus used to Ajaristskali river valleys to the be a populous city in the past. Its Black Sea. During the ancient times the routes of the greatest importance which connected South-eastern coast of the Black Sea to the hinterland of Asia Minor used to go through these valleys. Besides, the fortress surrounded by high mountains from the east, protected the coastal and sea routes. Current- ly the fortress is located about 500 m far from the seashore, but it is assumed that one of the branches of the Chorokhi river, which is swamped now and which used to flow into the sea close at the fortress, used to function as a harbor.8 Systematic archeological excavations of Gonio-Apsarus have been carrying out since Fig 3. Gonio- 1995. Based on the archaeologi- Apsarus. Plan of cal data three main periods can the Fortress
97 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA foundation was related with the the Roman-Early Byzantine pe- including one hoard of Roman myth of the Argonauts. It was riod constructions such as prin- coins of the 3rd century AD. believed that Medea’s brother cipia, barracks, bathhouses, wa- Among the numerous Roman Apsyrtus was killed and buried ter cistern, sewerage and water coins drachms and didrachms there. Apsyrtus tomb used to be supply systems. During the Ot- of Ceasarea of Cappadocia and the main shrine of the local com- toman period a mosque, a bath- copper coins of Trapezus and munity.9 house and an inner fortification Sinop of the second-third centu- in the south-western part of the 13 The fortress has a huge ries could be mentioned. There wall-circuit were constructed. slightly elongated rectangular are no archaeological evidences In some cases these construc- shape (245 X 195 m) with the of the second half of the fourth tions were built over the Roman area of 4.78 ha. The fortress has and the fifth centuries which and Byzantine buildings. 5-7 meter high impressive walls indicates that the fortress was faced of large hewn blocks laid The oldest site on the terri- abandoned by that time. In the in more or less regular courses. tory of Gonio-Apsarus is repre- sixth century AD, i.e. in the pe- The fortress had 22 rectangular, sented with so called Dune of riod of Justinian the fortress was square and U-shape towers ar- textile-ware settlement dated actively used. A large number ranged at some intervals along back to the eight-seventh cen- of amphorae, pottery and glass the walls and in the corners. tury BC. Few archeological ar- ware fragments, coins belong 14 There were four gateways, one tifacts of Classical and Hellenis- to this period. The materials on each side, in the central part tic period include accidentally of the Middle Byzantine period of the respective wall. The main found Colchian amphora, the have not been revealed so far. arched gateway, flanked from jug and grave goods from some The latest cultural layer here both sides with two rectangular pit burials excavated outside the is linked to the presence of the towers is arranged on the west, fortress in 2000. Funeral inven- Ottoman garrison and is repre- i.e. is facing the sea. tory included pottery jug, silver sented by the numerous epoch earrings and glass beads.11 relevant materials, out of which The fortress has experi- pottery, glazed ware and ceram- enced several stages of con- Three main cultural layers ic pipes, Ottoman and European struction and repair. The first were revealed on the territory coins must be underlined. construction stage occurred in of the fortress: Roman (1st-3rd c. the first-third centuries AD. In AD), Early-Byzantine (6th c. AD) Besides the materials dis- the sixth century the fortress and Ottoman (16th-19th centu- covered in the archaeological was restored and some towers ries). Cultural layers of the Ro- contexts, three hoards of the added or reconstructed. In the man period contain particularly first-third centuries AD found 16th century, when Ottomans rich and diverse materials. Am- by chance in the surroundings captured the fortress, they re- phorae, red gloss pottery, con- of Gonio are of the great im- stored the decayed parts of its struction ceramics, glass ware,12 portance. The scholars called wall circuit and added mer- metal items and jewelry have the hoards after the name of lons.10 Archaeological excava- been found here as well as nu- the villages they were found in tions revealed the remains of merous numismatic artifacts – Gonio, Makho and Kapandibi
98 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI
Hoards. They include: jewelry rosette) are connected with the Petra-Tsikhisdziri (gold plaited chains, bracelets, Colchis artistic-cultural world. Archaeological Site brooches, buckles and pen- The buckles seem to be of local At about 18-20 km far to the dants, gold and amber beads), origin since they can be linked to north of Batumi along the sea the items connected with clothes a wide group of artifacts of the coast in the village of Tsihisdziri (buttons), gold and silver ves- first-third centuries discovered one of the most important ar- sels, ornamented appliqués and in Georgia. Scholars assumed chaeological sites of the Eastern plaques, a head of the standard that some artifacts from these Black Sea Littoral is located. Dif- and a gold-floral funeral wreath. hoards had been the items from ferent archaeological sites and The artifacts of these hoards rich tombs of the local elite in- artifacts have been discovered demonstrate different artistic habited in the surroundings of here. Most of the scholars iden- 16 and stylistic peculiarities. From Apsaros. tified remains of the Tsikhisdziri the collections Dioscuros gold Roman burials, very impor- fort with the famous Byzantine figurine is one of the remark- tant in terms of studying the city-fortress of Petra. able items, which served a cult acculturation processes in the or ritual function. Among the Most accounts of Petra – city- south-eastern Black sea littoral gold artifacts Gonio roundel of fortress of Lazica and an episco- were excavated close to Gonio Sarmatian Animal Style with the pal see – have been preserved in fortress in the villages of Makho representation of beasts fighting Byzantine historical sources of (close to the site assumed to be th th dated to the 1st-2nd centuries AD the 6 -9 cc (Novellae Justiniani, the place where the hoard was is unique. Both artifacts were Procopius’ Wars and On Build- found) and Zanakidzeebi. The imported to Apsaros.15 ings and Notitia Episcopatuum). grave goods included a gold dia- According to the written sources From the typological and dem with the images of twisted a city was built by the order of artistic-stylistic view point the snakes and solar symbol, ceram- Emperor Justinian I (527-565) on decorative rectangular or cres- ics, glass vessels and metal ware, the southern border of Lazica, cent-shaped gold buckles with silver adornments, fibulae, silver near the sea, on the place of an chains ending in small discs rings with gems, coins. Accord- insignificant settlement. The -Em of the Gonio and Kapandibi ing to the coins, the major part peror stated that he permitted Hoards belong to one group of of which is represented with the city to be named after him gold jewelry. The buckles are drachms of Caesarea of Cappa- – Iustiniana. Petra was the place decorated with stones, glass docia, the burials dated to the of the main battlefields between paste inlay, granules and re- third-beginning of the fourth Byzantines and Iranians during lief figures. Supposedly, they centuries AD. These new sites the war in the sixth century. Ac- were used as a hair or garment discovered in the environs of cording to Procopius, in 550 the decoration. Stylistically they the Apsaros Fortress during the Byzantines razed the walls of are close to the samples of Col- recent years gave particular in- the fortress to the ground so as chian goldsmithery of the Early dication about the level of pen- not to have any troubles from antique Age and the symbols of etration of Roman culture into the enemy. In later Byzantine images on them (a rider, birds, the hinterland.17 sources (sixth-ninth centuries)
99 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Petra is mentioned as the centre A(pollionaris) and are consid- terms of closing the routes along of bishopric in Lazica under the ered to be initials of two Roman the narrow coastline strip to the Constantinople Patriarchate.18 legions located in Cappadocia. central regions of Colchis as- sumed that Romans had small In the first decade of the Other scholars find more accept- fort here before the foundation 20th century during construc- able interpretation of the stamp of the city of Petra by Byzan- tion works on the Tsikhisdziri as VEXILLATIO FASIANA. The tines19. coastline, a lot of interesting stamped brick could be dated antique artifacts were found ac- to the second-fourth centuries. So called Tsikhisdziri Hoard cidentally, among them is a Ro- Arrian says nothing of any Ro- comprising of the precious ar- man stamped brick with letters man military presence here in tifacts (gold jewelry, silver and bronze vessels, beads, coins) “VEXFA”. There are two inter- 132 AD, though discovery of found by chance in the environs pretations of this stamp. Accord- the stamped brick, Roman coins of Tsikhisdziri dated to the sec- ing to one version the letters are found by chance in the environs ond-third cc AD. The hoard had interpreted as VEX(illationis le- of Tsikhisdziri and the strategic been kept in the Hermitage since gionum XII) F(ulminatae et XV) importance of the site itself in 1907. It has been plausibly inter- preted as the content of a rich burial of the third century AD. If the assumption is correct then the gem bearing portrait of Lu- cius Verus could be a diplomatic gift presented to the local elite representative.20 In 1962-65 archaeological ex- cavations conducted on the ter- ritory of the Tsikhisdziri fortress revealed that the remains of the acropolis of Petra were located on two hills (Fig. 4). Two peri- ods in wall construction can be distinguished: the early Byz- antine and Ottoman periods. In the north-eastern part of the citadel a gate of the early Byzan- tine period has been discovered. On the wall to the north of the gate, a Maltese cross made of Fig 4. Acropolis of Petra. Layout of the Fortress ceramic tiles has been revealed. and buildings. The Ottomans covered it with
100 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI lime mortar. The citadel and the tury and assume that it was the tower were connected with dou- Petra cathedral. In their opinion, ble-wall, probably a proteichisma. this explains its size, by which The main entrance was made in the church can be distinguished the wall connected the north- from other contemporary basili- ern and southern hills and was cas in Western Georgia.22 flanked by two small rectangu- The citadel was equipped lar towers. This part of Petra for- with a bath-house composed of tress was constructed in the time five different functional sections of Justinian.21 arranged in enfilade. The ba- The Middle Byzantine pe- silica and the bath-house consti- riod (10th-14th cc) is compara- tute an architectural ensemble.23 tively poorly represented. The After the bath-house was closed single nave chapel and the re- a wine-cellar functioned there, mains of the storage revealed presumably in the Middle Byz- on its northern part belong to antine period. Contemporary to this period. According to the ar- the basilica and bathhouse are cheological data the church was cisterns and well. To this period functioned in the 10th-14th cc. and belong the fragments of differ- it was erected over the ruins of ent types of amphorae, red-pol- the sixth century basilica. ished jugs, red-slip pottery, jugs, pots, bricks and tiles and glass The basilica of Petra is a size- ware (vessels, lamps).24 able building. All the scholars date the basilica to the sixth cen- In 1964 the proto-colonial and
Fig 5. General plan of the Late Roman- Early Byzantine urban settlement north to the acropolis of Petra.
101 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA colonial settlement was excavat- carried out. Fieldworks con- portant role for the city, as Petra ed on the hill to North-East of Pe- firmed scholars’ opinion that the was a significant Byzantine hub. tra acropolis. It contained layers urban settlement of Petra was Byzantine strategos John Tzi- from the late-bronze, early-iron, situated in the North of the for- bus established control of trade through a monopoly here26. Classical, Hellenistic, Late-An- tress and was stretched along the tique and Early Medieval Ages25. shore for about 1 km distance The fieldwork on the - ter (Fig. 5). It is assumed that the city ritory of urban settlement re- In 1983-88 at about 500 m far used to extend to the mouth of vealed two bath-houses dated to the North of acropolis, in the the river Dekhva that must have to the fourth century AD, a villa narrow lowland coastline area been used as a harbor. The har- and a church of early-Byzantine archaeological excavations were bor must have played a very im- period. Among the typical Late Roman bath-houses (Fig. 6) one was for public use and the other, comparatively small, for private use.27 The villa is the unity of dif- ferent chambers with various purposes (Fig. 7). Its dominant part is an area which is extended from south to north and gives the impression of an inner yard. From the north it is connected Fig 6. Urban to a bath extending from west settlement of to east. “The inner yard” on its Petra. Plan of the southwest and southeast parts bathhouse. has the outward square tower- like constructions. A small cha- pel with an apse on its east end is built on the inner yard from east side. The bath-house in the north part of the building is consists of six rooms with ac- cess from one room to another following the principle: apodi- terium, frigidarium, tepidarium and caldarium. It seems that the Fig 7. Urban villa had the stone wall circuit. settlement of Petra. Layout of 22 different size pithoi put in the the villa. ground were discovered in the
102 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI area inside the boundaries of the wall circuit. Excavations at the bath-house revealed the interior marble decorations. On one of the marble slabs of the mosaic floor there is a scratched Greek inscription which reads: “Κυριε Βοητει” (Fig. 8). The building dated to the sixth century AD.28
On the territory of urban Fig 8. Inscription settlement the remains of the on the marble. church were revealed consisting of three different layers (Fig. 9). Initially there was a small single nave chapel; in the second con- struction period a comparatively bigger church was constructed which had additional buildings to the north-east and south-east parts, and was equipped with a gate to the west. The next stage saw an expansion of the church, through additional building to the north, south and west. The burials arranged there during Fig 9. Urban settlement of the functioning of the bigger Petra. Layout of church appeared within the the church. boundaries of these added con- structions. 11 pit-burials have been excavated on the church (totally 315 pit burials were nificant colonial settlement on territory. The style of burial was discovered). Pottery, imported the coastal area of Tsikhisdziri, Christian. The church and buri- ware (amphorae, attic painted about which no literary evi- als are dated to the sixth-seventh and black gloss pottery, poly- dence has survived. 29 centuries AD . chrome glass vessels and beads), An impressive number of On the territory of urban local metal (gold, silver, bronze) the coins (about 200) discov- settlement of the Late Roman- jewelry and coins were among ered through the excavations as Early Byzantine periods a burial the grave goods. The discovery well as accidentally by the lo- ground of Classical and Hel- of the necropolis once again cal inhabitants along the coast lenistic periods were revealed confirms the existence of the sig- is particularly interesting. The
103 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
collection include Greek, Ro- By the early Bronze Age, man, Parthian, Sassanian, Byz- coastal lowland at Pichvnari antine, Arabic and Ottoman began to be developed. In this coins. Byzantine coins represent context, the peat-covered settle- the biggest number of the items ment at Ispani near Pichvnari (including solids of Justinian I has yielded especially interest- and Constantine X Ducas). Ten ing material. Agriculture, cattle- Byzantine lead seals of the sixth- breeding, metallurgy, and dif- eleventh cc. belong to the unique ferent brunches of manufacture finds.30 production advanced in that period.31 Kobuleti-Pichvnari Major settlements began at Archaeological Site Pichvnari in the Middle Bronze The Kobuleti-Pichvnari ar- Age. They situated along the chaeological site occupying an banks of the rivers Ochkham- area of 100 ha, lies on the South- uri and Choloki. Most impor- eastern Black Sea coast at the tant and well studied settlement mouth of the river Choloki some known as Namcheduri hillock 28 km north of Batumi. Sites of located on the right bank of the various periods have been dis- River Ochkhamuri, a tributary covered and studied at Pich- of the Choloki. Namcheduri was Fig 10. Kobuleti-Pichvnari vnari and its environs since the archaeological site. typical of the dwelling-hillocks General plan. 1950s (Fig. 10). of Colchis and was inhabited
104 Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi • NINO INAISHVILI long before the arrival of Greeks. clay altar with several compart- tory and culture of the eastern The earliest level there is dated ments dedicated to a bull cult Black Sea region, particularly around the middle of the sec- and fertility deity were found. the much discussed nature of ond millennium BC. The hillock Later this area was used as a Greek colonization of the Black seems to have been inhabited mass cemetery.35 Sea littoral.37 There is some dis- continually down to the second Pichvnari became progres- agreement among the scholars century BC and beyond. Field- sively more important from as to whether the evident differ- work has shown that the princi- the Early Classical period, and ences between the more or less pal economic activity was farm- in the Classical and Hellenistic contemporary cemeteries are the ing. Apart from arable farming, 38 periods it was one of the major result of ethnic distinctions or viticulture played an important colonial urban settlements of the the result of socio-economic dif- role, as did animal husbandry. 39 eastern Black Sea littoral, with ferentiation. Fishing was a major activity close trading, economic and cul- According to Prof. D.Braund’ thanks to proximity to rivers and tural relations with other centres opinion Pichvnari burial grounds the sea.32 The material brought of the Classical world, though indicate the fundamental chang- to light at Pichvnari site can help no direct written evidence has es in burial practice in Colchis us to reconstruct the various survived about Pichvnari.36 through the sixth and fifth cen- trades and crafts practiced in turies BC. While the burials at the eastern part of the Black Sea Three major cemetery areas, Pichvnari site were largely indi- in antiquity. The Choloki-Och- directly related to the urban vidual inhumations, many ear- khamuri basin was, by the pre- settlement, have been brought to Classical period, a major centre light. Lying to the west, across lier burials excavated in Colchis if iron and bronze metallurgy the river Choloki, these cemeter- were collective cremation-buri- for the Pontic region.33 ies together occupy an area of up als. ‘Charon’s obol’ had no place to 20 ha. The North, or Colchian in traditional burial practice in Eighth-seventh centuries BC Cemetery is situated on a natu- Colchis. Burial contents includ- dune settlements appeared along ral elevation called Napurvala ing lekythoi, aryballoi, and strig- the shore line to the west of the by local residents, and has ap- ils suggest the coexistence of the Pichvnari site. Within these were parently local burials of the fifth culture of the gymnasium with found altars built of horn-shaped century. About 250m away the a local culture. By the end of the stands arranged in tiers or plat- West, or ‘Greek’ Cemetery con- fifth century, a developed taste forms for offerings, a reflection of tains many burials of the fifth- for Greek artefacts can be ob- the spiritual world of Colchis in fourth centuries. To the south served. Greek letters penetrated the Early Iron Age. As elsewhere lies the South, or Hellenistic into the hinterland of Colchis. these settlements came to an end Cemetery. Up to date about 1000 The case of Pichvnari indicates in the sixth century BC. 34 pit burials have been discovered that in the sixth century BC pro- A shrine-altar of the Late in Pichvnari so far. Remains of to-colonial relations hardened Bronze – Early Iron Age was a rich and diverse material cul- into settlements in which Greek found in this area. Here numer- ture facilitate study of a number and Colchian cultures interacted ous clay phalli and kernos-like of urgent problems of the his- and amalgamated.40
105 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 5-41; Braund 2012, 219-22. Braund, D. 1994. Georgia in antiquity. Oxford.
2 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 42-57. Braund, D. 2012. “Ancient Batumi, Apsarus and the Kingdom of Iberia: 3 Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86; Mania and Natsvlishvili 2013, 279. Geography and Recent Archaeology”. In Batumi. Past and Present. 4 Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86. 2, Proceedings of the International Conference, 219-228. Batumi 5 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 59-125. Ebralidze, T. 2005. Samkhret-dasavlet saqartvelos zghvispireti gvianelinistursa 6 Braund 2012, 219-22. da romaul khanashi. Batumi. 7 Lekvinadze 1969, 75-93; Plontke-Lüning 2003, 7-16. Inaishvili, I. and W. Seibt. 2006. “Byzantinishe Siegel Aus Petra in 8 Lekvinadze 1961, 225-42; Braund 1994, 182-6. Westgeorgien”, Studies in Sygillography 9: 1-9. 9 Braund 2012, 222-4. Inaishvili, A. 1974. “Petra-tsikhisdzishi 1962-1965 tslebshi chatarebuli 10 Lekvinadze 1961, 225-42; Mania and Natsvlishvili 2013, 276-9. gatkhrebis shedegebi”, Samkhret-dasavlet sakartvelos dzeglebi IV: 102-53. 11 Plontke-Lüning et al. 2000, 94-6,132-3. 12 Khalvashi 2002, 10-41; Ebralidze 2005, 17-93; Kakhidze and Sha- Inaishvili, N. 1993. Tsikhisdziris akh.ts. I-VI saukuneebis arkeologiuri likadze 2009, 54-77. dzeglebi. Tbilisi. 13 Varshalomidze 2009, 10-63. Inaishvili, N. 2009. “Petras saepiskoposo katedra”, In Bizantinologia 14 Mamuladze et. all. 2009, 405-18; Inaishvili and Khalvashi 2011, 265-79. sakartveloshi 2, edited by N. Makharadze and M. Giorgadze, 275- 88. Tbilisi 15 Lordkipanidze et al. 1980, 52-77; Kakhidze and Mamuladze 2014, 173-5, 177-8; Mikeladze 2013, 377-80. Inaishvili, N. and M. Khalvashi. 2011. “Byzantine Amphorae from 16 Lordkipanidze et al. 1980, 52-77; Mikeladze 2013, 377-80. Southwestern Georgia”. In Production and Trade of Amphorae in the Black Sea. Acts of the International Round Table, edited by Ch. 17 Kakhidze and Shalikadze 2015, 104-31; Kakhidze and Mamuladze Tzonchev, T. Stoyanov, A. Bozkova, 265-270. Sofia. 2014, 173-5, 178. 18 Inaishvili 1974, 102-18. Inaishvili, N. and N. Vashakidze. 2010. “Typology and Chronology of Greek, Roman and Early Byzantine Amphorae from Petra- 19 Lekvinadze 1967, 505-10; Braund 1994, 187-9. Tsikhisdziri”. In Production and trade of amphorae in the Black Sea, 20 Inaishvili 1993, 17-44; Braund 1994, 187. Proceedings of the International Conference, Batumi-Trabzon, edited 21 Inaishvili 1974, 118-30; Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86 ; Mania and Natsv- by D. Kassab-Tezgor, N. Inaishvili, 151-2. Istanbul. lishvili 2013, 279-80. Inaishvili, N. and G. Tavamaishvili. 2010. “Arqeologiuri gatkhrebi 22 Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86; Khoshtaria 2013, 367-71. tsikhisdzirshi 1988 tsels”. In Transactions of Batumi. 9: 163-72. 23 Inaishvili 1974, 141-5 ; Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86. Batumi: Niko Berdzenishvili Institute of Ministry of education and Science of Georgia. 24 Inaishvili 1993, 51-80 ; Inaishvili and Vashakidze 2010, 151, 2; 25 Inaishvili 1974, 149-52. Kakhidze, A. 2007. Pichvnari. II. Results of Excavations ((1967-1987). The Classical World in the Eastern Black Sea area. The fifth Century BC 26 Braund 1994, 293-4. Greek necropolis at Pichvnari. Batumi-Oxford. 27 Inaishvili 1993, 44-51. Kakhidze, A. and E. Kakhidze. 2014. Pichvnari. V. Results of Excavations 28 Inaishvili and Tavamaishvili 2010, 163-72. (1967-2012). Greek colonization in the Eastern Black Sea Area: The 29 Inaishvili 2009, 275-88. Pichvnari Fourth Century BC Greek Necropolis. Batumi-Oxford. 30 Inaishvili 1993, 98-113; Mikeladze 2013, 380-3. Kakhidze, A. and D. Khakhutaishvili. 1989. Masalebi batumis dzveli 31 Vickers and Kakhidze 2004, 143. istoriisatvis. I. samkhret-dasavlet saqartvelos dzeglebi. 18. Tbilisi. 32 Mikeladze and Khakhutaishvili 1985. Kakhidze, A. and N. Vashakidze. 2010. Pichvnari. III. Results of Excavations 33 Vickers and Kakhidze 2004, 215-23. (1965-2004). The Hellenistic World and Colchis. Types of Burials and 34 Tavamaishvili 2012. Burial customs in South-Western Georgia in the Hellenistic Period. 35 Kakhidze and Vashakidze 2010, 127. Batumi-Oxford. 36 Vickers and Kakhidze 2001, 65. Kakhidze, E. and S. Mamuladze S. 2014. “Batumi, Ajara, Georgia”. Roman 37 See the publications of the results of the archaeological excavations art and Civilization - A Common Language in Antiquity. Catalogue of Pichvnari burial grounds: Vickers and Kakhidze 2001; Vickers of the itinerant exhibition, edited by M. Iacob, 151- 186. and Kakhidze 2004; Kakhidze 2007; Kakhidze and Vashakidze 2010; Kakhidze, A. and T. Shalikadze. 2009. Minis natsarmi samxret-dasavlet Kakhidze and Kakhidze 2014; Vickers and Kakhidze, 2014. saqartvelos zgvispiretidan. Batumi. 38 Kakhidze 2007. Kakhidze, A. and T. Shalikadze. 2015. “Khelvachauris mutsipalitetis sof. 39 Braund 1994, 112-4. makhos 2013 tslis arqeologiuri gatkhrebis angarishi”. In Ajara: 40 Braund 1994, 114-8. Past and Modernity, edited by A. Kakhidze, 104-131. Batumi.
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Khalvashi, M. 2002. Keramikuli tara gonio-afsarosidan. Batumi.
Khoshtaria, D. 2013. ‘The Basilica at Petra (Tsikhisdziri)”. In: Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, 367-376. Thessalonike,.
Lekvinadze, V. 1961, “Materialy po istorii i arkhitekture Apsarskoy kreposti”. VV 20: 225-242.
Lekvinadze, V 1967. “Rimskiy kirpich so shtampom iz Tsikhisdziri”. Soobshcheniya Akademii Nauk Gruzinskoy SSR, 47.2, 505-10.
Lekvinadze, V. 1969. “Pontiyskiy limes”, VDI 2, 75-93.
Lekvinadze, V. 1974. “O postroykakh Yustiniana v zapadnoy Gruzii”, VV 34: 169-86.
Lordkipanidze et al. 1980. Lordkipanidze, O., Mikeladze, T., Khakhoutaishvili, D., Le trésor de Gonio. Tbilisi.
Mania, I. and N. Natsvlishvili. 2013. “Littoral Fortifications in South- West Georgia”. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, 276-87. Thessalonike.
Mamuladze, S., M. Khalvashi and E. Kakhidze. 2009. “Gonio-apsarosi bizantiur khanashi“, Bizantinologia Sakartveloshi 2: 405-18.
Mikeladze, K. 2013. “Artifacts from Gonio and Tsikhisdziri”. In: Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, 377-388. Thessalonike.
Mikeladze, T. and D. Khakhutaishvili. 1985. Drevne-kolkhidskoe poselenie Namcheduri. Tbilisi.
Plontke-Lüning, A., N. Fellmuth and A. Geyer. 2000. “Arbeiten in der Nordwestecke der Festung, Nordlich der Festung und im Bereich des modernen Friedhofs“. In Gonio-Apsarus 3: 87-133. Tbilisi.
Plontke-Lüning, A. 2003. “Apsaros: Quellen und Geschichte”. In Neue Forshungen in Apsaros (2000-2002), edited by A. Geyer, 7-16. Tbilisi.
Tavamaishvili, G. 2012. Dzveli sadgomebi samkhret-dasavlet saqartvelos akhalshavzghvur terasaze. Tbilisi.
Varshalomidze, I. 2009. Monetebi gonio-apsarosidan. Batumi.
Vickers, M. and A. Kakhidze 2001. “The British-Georgian Excavation at Pichvnari 1998: the “Greek” and “Colchian” Cemeteries”. Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara 51: 65-90.
Vickers M. and A. Kakhidze. 2004. Pichvnari I. Results of Excavations (1998-2002). Greeks and Colchians on the East Coast of the Black Sea. Batumi-Oxford.
Vickers, M. and A. Kakhidze. 2014. Pichvnari. VI. Results of Excavations (2003-2007) Greeks and Colchians on the East Coast of the Black Sea. Batumi-Oxford.
107
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean
Z e y n ep K i Z i l t a n – U fuk K o c a b a ş
ABSTRACT Rescue excavations been the stage of meeting, clashes, conducted at Yenikapı quarter of and convivencia for the oriental Istanbul proper by the Istanbul and occidental civilisations, Archaeological Museums from various cultures, assumed a 2004 to 2013 have brought to variety of names like Nea Roma, light the Theodosian Harbour, an Constantinopolis, Constantiniyya, important port on the Marmara Dar al-saadet, Asitane, Deraliyye, coastline of the city. In addition to Tsarigrad, Istinpolin and Islambol. thousands of artefacts uncovered The rescue excavations at Yenikapı an assembly of thirty-seven sunken have been the most comprehensive medieval shipwrecks datable to one in Istanbul in the recent the fifth-eleventh centuries, which years and have cast light onto the constitutes the largest assembly Theodosian Harbour and ancient of medieval ships uncovered at a history of Istanbul proposing new single site. Istanbul, which has perspectives.
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Theodosian Harbour building a mole at this deep The harbour served the Em- cove at the mouth of the Lykos pire from the fourth to the sev- Theodosian Harbour, one (Bayrampaşa) Creek. There is a enth century and lost most of its of the most important ports variety of ideas and proposals function when Egypt was con- of the Byzantine Empire, was founded at a cove penetrat- for the name and establishment quered by the Muslim Arabs in ing deeply into the land on the of the harbour in the Byzan- 641, thus terminating the ship- Propontic (Marmara) coastline tine period. The “Eleutherian ment of grains. This is evinced of the city Presence of store- Harbour” mentioned to have with the facts that amphorae of houses like the Horrea Theo- been located at the same place the East Mediterranean, Egypt dosiana located at the eastern as the “Theodosian Harbour” and Palestine origin dating end suggests that this harbour is claimed to be its predeces- to the fourth-seventh centu- was a large one where grains sor and accepted to have been ries are numerous in quantity and other merchandise were founded in the reign of Con- whereas finds of the seventh- brought in by ships from Al- stantine I. Sources from the eighth centuries are few3. How- exandria and elsewhere1. The sixth-ninth centuries mention ever, the harbour started to fill harbour was probably estab- the harbour as “Kaisarios Har- up in the west with the silt and lished in the reign of Emperor bour” named after the nearby rubble brought in by the Lykos Theodosius I (AD 379-395) by quarter of the city2 (Fig. 1). Creek but the eastern side re-
Fig 1. Konstantinopolis and the Theodosian Harbour
110 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ mained in use for some more Rescue Excavations at time by the smaller ships and Yenikapı fishing boats. About the end Rescue excavations were ini- of the twelfth century most of tiated in 2004 at the site of Mar- the harbour was silted; thus it maray railway and metro sta- could serve only small fishing tions at Yenikapı by the Istanbul boats and coasters. In the sec- Archaeological Museums Di- ond half of the thirteenth cen- rectorate (Fig. 2). The site mea- tury Jews occupied with leather suring 58,000 sq. m. was exca- tanning were settled there; fol- vated at five zones6. Excavations lowing the Ottoman conquest at Marmaray Zone 1 started at of the city the site was entirely about 3 m above the sea level; filled and served as vegetable the first remains uncovered be- 4 gardens . Petrus Gyllius (1490- longed to the first years of the 1555), who visited Istanbul in Turkish Republic and Ottoman Fig 2. Rescue excavations the mid-sixteenth century, tells period (Fig. 3). Beneath them, at Yenikapı about the Theodosian Har- bour5. The site of the harbour was filled with the rubble excavated during the construction of the Laleli Mosque in the reign of Sultan Mustafa III (1757-1774) and sold to Rum and Arme- nian citizens; parts of the forti- fications in the area were pulled down during the construction of the railroad in the nineteenth century. The construction of the coastal highway in the twentieth century gave the area its pres- ent day look. As mentioned in the accounts of travellers the harbour was protected with a breakwater, which extended from the Davutpaşa Pier in the west curving eastward and northeastward.
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Fig 3. Porcelain bowl, at -1 m level were numerous re- 6.30 m below the modern sea th th 18 -19 c. mains of processed wood and level. The finds belong to the rope fragments and thus it was Pottery Neolithic period and decided to expand the excava- are of utmost importance for tions. Extended rescue excava- the prehistory of the region7. tions uncovered a great part of The excavations were contin- the Theodosian Harbour, which ued until -10 m level where the was the the largest commercial Miocene strata came to light. transportation centre of Kon- The cultural deposit of 13 m stantinopolis from the fourth thickness contained strata of to the eleventh century. At the Ottoman, Byzantine and - Neo bottom of the harbour deposit lithic periods; artefacts from the is a prehistoric cultural layer at Archaic, Classical and Helle-
112 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ nistic periods were also found. Excavations were carried out in wet land under sea level com- prising sand, mud and swampy formations. Despite the diffi- culty of conducting excavations at such a site these conditions helped preserve especially the organic remains.
Ottoman Period Excavations in the south of Zone 1 at Yenikapı brought to light an Ottoman period -com plex of buildings with multi- ple rooms, built with irregular stones partly with mud mortar and partly with khurasan mor- tar, and much later with con- Byzantine Period Fig 4. Water-wheel from the crete, and a cistern probably Ottoman period of the twentieth century at its Byzantine remains uncov- western end. In the Ottoman ered can be categorised into two strata were two water-wheels main headings as the architec- (noriahs) and numerous water tural remains and ship and pier wells of possibly the eighteenth remains unearthed in the har- century, whose walls were re- bour deposit below the modern inforced with timber and partly sea level. destroyed by later buildings. Architectural Finds In the Ottoman period the area Excavations at Insula was called “Langa Bostanı (lit- 100 erally, vegetable gardens of Langa)” as mentioned in the Architectural remains un- accounts of travellers. Water- covered at Insula 100 located wheels in the upper strata were in the west of the site led us to used for irrigating the fields important evidence regarding and gardens and clearly indi- the construction of the harbour cate the use of the site as veg- (Fig. 5). Remains uncovered in- etable gardens in the Ottoman clude sea walls, piers built with period (Fig. 4). large blocks, beginning part of
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the mole, and part of the harbour were uncovered around it. Both fortifications. Rectangular holes the masonry technique and the cut into the large blocks of the coins suggest a date in the fourth north-south pier should have century for this wall; thus, it been used for mooring the ships. may belong to the Constantinian The extant length of the pier is walls of the city9. 25 m and its width is 2.80 m; it was built on sandy bottom8. The Church Remains sea bottom descended eastward The church uncovered in from the pier and about 30 stone the northwest part of Yenikapı anchors were uncovered there. excavation site was built in the Part of the Theodosian fortifica- twelfth-thirteenth centuries. It tion walls built with alternating measures 9.50 x 11.45 m; it had rows of ashlars and bricks was a single apse in the first phase uncovered on the western border of use but an aisle was built of the harbour. The walls make a with simple stone masonry to corner in the southwest and con- the north and south sides mak- tinue eastward. Right beneath the ing the church into a three- corner is a wall of 4.40 m width, apsed one (Fig. 6). No flooring built with ashlars and khurasan was attested in any of the three mortar, whose 54 m length was aisles. A total of twenty-two Fig 5. Architectural remains uncovered at Insula 100 in the followed; bronze coins from the graves were uncovered inside west part of the harbour reign of Constantine I (324-337) and outside the church. Two of
114 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ the graves had double burials making up the total of individu- als buried as 24. Finds from the church and its vicinity are dated to the thirteenth century. One of the L-shaped rooms measuring 1.90 x 0.92 m contained a storage jar suggesting that these rooms served for storage purposes. Fig 6. Church remains Piers
One of the structures of the khurasan mortar and broken Theodosian Harbour is the stones inside. The pillars built piers, which add up to twenty at intervals were connected in number (Fig. 7). Two of the with arches. Dendrochronologi- piers were built with stones cal analyses on the timber pieces whereas the rest are of timber. of this pier and artefacts from Samples taken from the posts around indicate a date at the of these north-south piers were end of the eighth or early ninth analysed dendrochronologically century for its construction. The and it was seen that the piers northwestern pier is damaged to started to be built in the early a great extent. Remains uncov- fifth century. One of the stone ered indicate it was also built piers is located in the northeast Fig 7. Remains of with timber moulds. wooden piers and the other in the northwest of the Metro excavation area. The northeastern pier extends in the southwest-northeast orienta- tion and has five pillars placed at intervals. The southwestern- most pillar is pentagon in form while the remaining four are rectangular. The total length de- termined for the pillars is 32.50 m. The timber attested in their foundations should have served as moulds. The pier rose on top of the moulds; it was built with marble and limestone blocks on the periphery and filled with
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Dendrochronological analy- have anything that will make it to-one drawings, examination, ses were conducted on samples superior to us”. Thus, this ban- evaluation and construction taken from the timber pier in In- ning would also encompass ser- techniques (Fig. 9). The first data sula 100 and it was seen that it vices in addition to products. obtained indicate details point- was in use between 527-610 and The Epanagoge in the last quarter ing to transition period construc- it was repaired in 539 and 591. of the tenth century writes that tion with both shell-first and “those that teach shipbuilding frame-first techniques (Fig. 10). Shipwrecks art to the barbarians will be pun- Some wrecks of Yenikapı dating The thirty-seven shipwreck ished with death penalty”. relatively earlier have planking uncovered at Yenikapı reveal the For the time being, as the joined with pegged or unpegged rich variety of marine transpor- excavations at Yenikapı have mortise and tenon joints. Most of tation of the Byzantine Empire been just completed, ship ex- the ships feature dowels joining (Fig. 8). Byzantine authors men- perts of the Istanbul University the planking strakes. The third tion sea vessels with names like continue their work on 27 of group includes the ships with naus, ploion, xylon, holkas, kara- the shipwrecks including one- no edge-joinery in the planking. bion without giving any details. Small sailing boats like sandalia, agraria, kondurai were used for food transportation in coastal seafaring with nearby regions; ships called strongyla and pam- phyloi were used for overseas commerce whereas the navy used narrow and slender ships called dromones, khelandia, pam- phyloi and ousiaka. Ships uncov- ered at the Theodosian Harbour, which presents us with a mo- ment frozen in time, cast light onto the development of ship- building traditions in the Medi- terranean. The terms neorion and exartysis indicate dockyards and shipbuilding sites in the Byz- antine period. Leo VI’s laws in- clude one that banned teaching foreigners the art of shipbuild- ing. This law was based on the principle of “the enemy must not
116 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ
Yenikapı wrecks can be catego- types of timber used. Long, nar- rised into two groups with re- row hulls built of light timber spect to purpose of use. The first would have provided galleys group includes the merchant- with the high speed and ma- men of various sizes dating to the noeuvrability required11. Lift- fifth-eleventh centuries. Galleys ing, documentation and conser- constitute the second group10. vation of four of the six galleys uncovered (YK 13, YK 16, YK 25, Galleys and YK 36) was undertaken by These first archaeological the IU team. These oared ves- examples of Byzantine period sels may be connected with the galleys are easily distinguished galea mentioned in Byzantine from merchantmen by their texts; the singlebanked scout long, slender hulls, thwarts for ships that lead the way for the Fig 8. IU experts working on oarsmen, oar-ports, and the principal Byzantine navy war- shipwreck Yenikapı 35
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Fig 9. Studies on ships called dromons12. Although ses. Surviving pieces include shipbuilding the study of the galleys is not yet the keel, keelson, a fragment of complete, preliminary evidence the stem, most of the frame sys- shows that all four galleys have tem, two stringers, two wales, dowels joining the plank edges and planking. There are evenly while planks within a strake are spaced notches for the oarsmen’s joined with long S-shaped scarfs. thwarts on the wale. Planking YK 16, which is thought to be was joined in strakes with S- a galea-type vessel used in the shaped scarfs, and strakes are Byzantine navy, was un- edge-joined with widely spaced covered at a level of dowels with intervals ranging −1.30/−1.80 m. Its from 0.7 m to more than 2 m. Sci- extant length is entific studies and conservation 13 22.50 m and are in progress . width is Merchantmen 2.40 m (Fig. 11a). It is Typical merchantmen of the dated to Byzantine Empire were rela- AD 720– tively small vessels with a pair 890 by of quarter rudders at the stern, radio- lateen sails, shallow keels, and
Fig 10. Digital drawing of carbon curving stems and sternposts, YK12 wreck analy- which gave a round look to the
118 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ
hull. This was a standard de- when compared with other Fig 11. Galleys, merchantmen, and coasters identified in the course of scription for sailing ships across ships from the site15. It was un- excavations the Mediterranean until the end covered at a level of −0.69 m, of the 13th century14. The Yenikapı lying in a north-west – south- wrecks provide the archaeologi- east orientation. The wreck con- tained large amounts of baked- cal evidence to support it. clay brick fragments and mortar YK 3 (Fig. 11b) is considered residue. Its extant length is 9.12 a medium-sized merchantman m and width is 2.28 m. The YK
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3 wreck is dated by radiocarbon is rabbeted to receive the gar- go consisting of bricks, tiles, and analyses to AD 668–987. IAM board, which was fastened using marble needed for construction experts were able to date stamps iron nails. The bottom planking work in Constantinople. on some of the bricks recovered was edgefastened with dowels. YK 12 was excavated togeth- to the 5th–6th centuries AD. The The first wale on the starboard er with its cargo of amphorae obvious disparity in these dat- side was fastened to the bottom (Fig. 11c)18, a separate compart- ing methods will be explored planking with dowels, but there ment at the stern contained per- with additional radiocarbon is no trace of dowels on the up- sonal belongings, probably of dates and the use of dendro- per edge of the wale. The floor the captain. The ship was uncov- chronological dating. Detailed timbers were fastened to the ered at a level of −1.30 m, lying work on the ship’s construction keel with iron nails hammered in an east–west orientation. Its techniques is currently being from the inside. Floor timbers preserved length is 7 m, while 16 conducted by Ayşegül Çetiner . and planking were fastened the bottom is 2.3 m at the wid- In contrast to most of the wrecks with treenails hammered from est point. It is dated to the 9th uncovered at Yenikapı, YK 3 the inboard and iron nails ham- century based on a coin find, was found lying on its starboard mered from the exterior of the while the radiocarbon analyses side, rather than its bottom; as planking, most commonly with on three samples give a date a result, the starboard side has two nails and one treenail at range of AD 672–876. Surviv- survived from the keel to the each plank-frame junction. The ing parts of the vessel include first wale, while the port side is wale was fastened to the floor the keel, lower stem and stern- absent. The keel, 11 starboard timbers and futtocks with iron posts, 17 strakes of planking, 25 planking strakes, 1 wale, 26 nails17. A bulkhead is situated on frames, a mast-step, 43 ceiling floor timbers and 13 futtocks, frame no. 19, toward the stern, planks, two wales, and part of and eight strakes of ceiling in where the ceiling ends. This the bulwarks. All of the extant the hold have survived. The defines a stern compartment planking has dowel edgefasten- timbers were extremely soft and which may have been used by ers. The first wale to starboard disintegrating. Damage by Tere- the captain or the crew for stor- was aligned with the bottom do navalis is especially prevalent age. Similar bulkheads are also planking using dowels. The keel on the wale, which suggests that seen on YK 21 and YK 29. Mar- has survived in its entirety with it remained exposed under wa- ble fragments uncovered in situ keyed hook-scarfs used to join it ter for some time. An important between the floor timbers of YK to the stem and sternpost. Plank- feature seen on this ship is the 3 cast light on the route of the ing samples were found to be thick ceiling in the hold. Ceiling vessel. YK 3 may be linked with chestnut (Castanea sativa). Planks has often been poorly preserved Marmara (Proconnesos) Island, within a strake were joined with and fragmentary on wrecks of which was an important source S-shaped scarfs. Ceiling planks this period found in the Medi- for marble. That the vessel’s were laid overlapping each oth- terranean, but it is possible to ceiling planks are quite thick, er and fixed to the floor timbers study it in detail on some of the 20–40 mm suggesting that its using iron nails. The mast-step wrecks from Yenikapı. The keel cargo was heavy, such as a car- of ash (Fraxinus sp.) is positioned
120 Fig 12. Yenikapı, Neolithic period burial
121 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA very close to the centre of the that the vessel sank in a sum- floors would have facilitated its vessel. A lidded, portable cook- mer kaçak storm. It is possible sailing in shallow waters, while ing stove, a cooking pot, tankard to suggest a similar explanation its wider bow would have im- and jugs, glass goblet fragments, for the sinking of other vessels proved steering against strong and two amphorae placed in the uncovered in the same sediment waves, as seen in the design of bottom of the private compart- deposit. According to the results some Black Sea vessels today20. ment are of great importance for of reconstruction studies con- Digital drawings were complet- they may indicate the home port ducted by Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş, ed and building technology was and identity of the captain and YK 12 was a coaster about 9.60 studied by Işıl Özsait-Kocabaş his mate. Crimean amphorae m long and 2.60 m wide19. It had for her doctoral dissertation at of the 9th century constitute the a single mast and contempo- the IU Department of Conser- cargo and point to a connection rary iconographic evidence sug- vation of Marine Archaeologi- between YK 12 and the Black gests a lateen sail—although a cal Objects21. The waterlogged Sea. Cherries found in a basket, square sail cannot be excluded. timbers of the wreck have been also in the stern, reveal the sea- It was likely steered with a pair impregnated with a 45% solu- son when the vessel sank. Cher- of quarter rudders, typical of the tion of PEG 2000; the conserva- ries ripen in June and July in the period, although no remains or tion process will be completed Marmara region and this find direct indication of such was re- by freeze-drying in 2015 and the thus corroborates the suggestion covered. Its hull form with flat vessel will be prepared for exhi-
13. Yenikapı 12 wreck is displayed with the reconstruction of its find condition at Marmaray- Yenikapı station
122 Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean • Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABAŞ bition. Furthermore, a replica of m, provided us with the first YK 12 will be built as part of the and very important evidence LIMEN project, of which IU is a for Anatolian archaeology. Foot- partner, within the framework prints of Pottery Neolithic hu- of the EU Black Sea Joint Op- mans were preserved on clay erational Programme; it will be ground and filled with creek launched in 2016. sand. These footprints add up to 2,080 in quantity and the small- Neolithic Period est is 15.9 cm long, the biggest is At -6.30 m level in the west of 28.9 cm long. the Zone 1 at Yenikapı the Neo- Three types of burials were lithic stratum containing rows of attested at the Yenikapı Neolith- stones yielding a plan, burnt mud ic settlement. The first group is brick fragments, and handmade the individuals buried directly pottery was reached. Architec- in a pit dug in the earth. The sec- tural and small finds from this ond type has only one example; stratum closely resemble those bones of a none-adult individual from the neighbouring cultures were placed in a medium-sized of Fikirtepe and Yarımburgaz, vessel as e secondary burial. The the well-known Neolithic cul- third type is the cremation at- tures of the Marmara Region tested in three variations. Four and especially Istanbul22. Most graves contained the remains of of the extant architecture was eight individuals, five of which rectangular while the rest round. were adults. Three of the adults Rectangular or square rooms were women and the fourth was usually measure 5 x 5 m, 3 x 3 m a man. These graves are distin- or even smaller. Carrier elements guished with the use of timber were of timber. In the creek bed planks (Fig. 12). in the basin located to the east of the architectural remains were Yenikapı excavations have a total of 198 trees. Mostly the taken their place among the ar- trees were along the east side of chaeological discoveries of the the creek and their trunks along century and a museum to be es- with their roots have been pre- tablished will perpetuate it. The served. Analyses on the roots in- unusual construction history of dicated that these were actually this hub station will always be oak and maple trees. remembered with its many fac- ets (Fig. 13). An area of about 8 x 20 m on the creek bed, at the level of -8.10
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NOTES REFERENCES
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The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea on the Basis of the Testimony of the Early Christian Amphoras
E u g e n i a G e r o u s i
2, LRA 13 and LRA 3 amphoras, research on the subject of amphoras as well as the production of other produced in workshops located types, the parallel distribution and along the Black Sea coastline import of these types noted over and found in Greek territory has Abstract an extended geographical area demonstrated that Pontic amphoras The early Byzantine amphoras, including the frontier fonts and are far more consistently present used as carrying means of fortified cities of the western shores on Mediterranean sites than had commercial products and of the Black Sea and the Lower previously been assumed. The distributed in huge quantities Danube, have been interpreted as Pontic wine amphoras found in the over a wide geographical region, the result, inter alia, of the State Stoa of Attalos in Athens, which provide important evidence for providing supplies for urban and also include the so-called Sinopean the commercial relations between military populations (Annona carrot amphoras, were made the Aegean and the Black Sea. militaris). The excavations in mainly on the southern shore of the Among the few known cases of Novae, an important frontier font Black Sea, at Sinope and Herakleia, amphoras workshops that are on Lower Danube, have revealed and at Chersonesos on the northern excavated in the Aegean, the numerous amphoras produced coast. Shipwrecks like the one ones of Kos are of exceptional mainly on Chios and Cos, while in discovered off the cape of Plaka importance since they are found in Chersonesos, in the northern Black in Crimea are another important several places along the long shore Sea region, as also in many sites source of information concerning lines, in Halasarna, Kardamaina, of the eastern Crimea, amphoras the trafficking of products and the Mastichari and Kephalos. The from Crete mainly of the TRC 4 commercial relations between the mass production of LRA 1, LRA type. In recent years significant Aegean and the Black Sea.
127 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The archaeological impor- tant increase in archaeological tance of the amphoras lies on studies dealing with early byz- the evidence they provide for antine pottery and especially the commercial relations be- amphoras. The identification of tween the centres of production local productions, imports and and the places where they were rarely of pottery workshops led imported. They were used as to a better understanding of the carrying means of commercial organization of trade and ex- products and were distributed change relationships as well as the network of the sea routes in huge quantities over a wide in the Aegean, Black Sea and geographical region. In the re- generally the eastern Mediterra- cent years-since the decade of nean. In this paper, I will briefly 1970- there has been an impor- present a number of character- istic examples of places of pro- duction and distribution that eloquently reflect commercial relations between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the early- Byzantine period. Among the few known cases of amphorae workshops that were excavated in the Aegean, the ones of Kos are of excep- tional importance. The island of Kos, located close to the south west shores of Asia Minor, has been an important commercial crossroads and cultural cen- tre since ancient times as also a production centre in Hellenis- tic times for its famous ampho- ras with double rolled hands. The excavation conducted by the University of Athens at the Proto-Byzantine settlement of Fig 1. A characteristic Halasarna (modern Kardamai- example of the type 1 Late Roman Amphora na) has proved both the import 1 (LRA 1). and the local production of the
128 The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea • EUGENIA GEROUSI cylindrical amphoras with cor- terpreted as the result, inter alia, rugated decoration known as of the state providing supplies LRA 1. LRA 1 were the most for urban and military popula- common and widely distributed tions (Annona). amphoras from the 5th century Some of the amphoras found onwards in the Mediterranean in Halasarna bear painted and and beyond, from the Black Sea incised inscriptions (dipinti and to South Sinai and from Syria to Graffiti). The dipinti on ampho- South Britain and their main use ras of LRA 2 are rare, while the was to carry wine and second- examples of incised graffiti are arily maybe oil (Fig. 1). The mass more numerous. A character- production of LRA 1 amphoras istic example is that of around at Halasarna is dated relatively 120 amphoras that were found late from the second half of the in Tomi6, west of the contempo- 6th to the first half of the 7th. It rary port of Constanza, during is ascertained that there was at Halasarna also a huge produc- the excavation of an important tion of another type of ampho- Roman building with mosaics ras, the LRA 132, the late version of LRA 2 during the second half/ end of the 6th c. The main use of LRA 2, which is the second most common and widely distributed type of amphoras in the Mediter- ranean from the 5th c. onwards, was to carry oil and secondarily wine (Fig. 2); the same was also true for its late version 13. The parallel distribution and im- port of these types of amphora has been repeatedly noted over an extended geographical area including: the coast of Asia Mi- nor, the Aegean islands, and at the ports, frontier forts and forti- fied cities of the western shores of the Black Sea and the Lower Fig 2. A characteristic example of the type 3 Danube ,-like Dinogetia, To- Late Roman Amphora mis,4 Sucidava.5 It has been in- 2 (LRA 2).
129 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 3. Examples of dipinti and graffiti on amphoras.
which have both dipinti and merce, conducted mainly by graffiti written in Greek,- usu men who spoke it. Among these ally Ν,ξ and θ. These illegible inscriptions, many bear crosses, and abbreviated inscriptions Christograms and relevant reli- are all written after the firing of gious content, which probable the ceramic and therefore are relates to the religion of the peo- connected with the distribution ple involved in the commerce, and second use of the ampho- but could also indicate the in- ras (Fig. 3). The use of the Greek volvement of the Church in the 7 language by all people involved Commerce. in the production and distribu- Recent excavations on the tion of the amphoras, in order island of Kos have revealed ad- to declare control, capacity or ditional pottery workshops situ- ownership, probably denotes ated along the long shore-lines, the domination of greek as the in Kardamaina, in Mastichari, in ”common” language of com- Kephalos8, specializing mainly
130 The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea • EUGENIA GEROUSI in the production of various standardized. The activity of numerous fragments of ampho- types of commercial amphoras. this ceramic workshop from the ras in the different excavation This mass production, which Hellenistic era until at least the layers -mainly LR2-, along with contains among others the new 4th c. is closely associated with its predecessors were produced type of byzantine globular am- the existence of the port, which mainly on Chios and Cos and phora, imitations of Ephesian greatly facilitated the exporta- possibly in other unidentified amphoras (LRA 3) dated prob- tion of these products. centers of the Aegean (Fig. 4). ably to the 8th/beginning of the At the small island of Lipsi Amphoras of the LR 2 type ant ninth c., has allowed research- in the Dodecanese Complex the its many variants appear fre- ers to support the idea that the excavation brought recently to quently in the levels of the late island participated in the provi- th th light also a pottery workshop 4 -late 6 century in Moesia I sion system supplying the army with four kilns, four storage ar- and Moesia II and Scythia. It is (Annona militaris) and the capi- eas and some intact amphoras probably significant in this- re tal, especially in the 7th c., after among large quantities of pot- spect that, in 536, the quaestura the loss of the east provinces of sherds.10 They imitate the com- exercitus was created, uniting Syria and Palestine. monest early byzantine ampho- the provinces of Moesia II and As already mentioned the ra type LRA1 with considerable Scythia with Caria, the Cyclades identification of workshops or clumsiness, suggesting there- and Cyprus. The purpose of this pottery kilns and the publica- fore a later date for their manu- reorganization was to facilitate tion of at least a selection of the facture, around the 7th c. The the supply of the Annona mili- vessel types found in them in small, rough but rugged ampho- taris to the frontier garrisons on the Aegean is still rare. From the rae with a capacity of 9,5 liters, the Lower Danube. relatively recent finds let me fo- probably conveyed the wine of Well dated contexts in the cus on two examples from areas, this small island of Lipsi to other Northern Black Sea region, like which until recently were not areas, even to rich centres. Chersonesos, based on stratig- known as production centres of As already mentioned above, raphy and coins have revealed amphoras. the parallel distribution and im- Cretan amphoras which were A pottery workshop which port of LRA 1 and 2 amphoras common in this region from produced an early version of has been repeatedly noted at the the second quarter of the 6th c to LRA 2 amphora was recently ports, frontier forts and fortified circa 650-670 AD. Panticapeum, brought to light in Dilesi on the cities along the western shores Phanagoria, Kitei are among the east coast of Boeotia.9 The work- of the Black Sea and the Lower many sites of the eastern Crimea shop dated in the 4th c. AD pro- Danube. For example one such where life continued until their duced a type of carrot amphora important frontier fort on Lower abandonment in the late 6th c.12 that was exported to the roman Danube proved to be Novae.11 The basic type for the Northern military sites in the northern The finds of pottery in the mili- Black sea region seems to be parts of Europe along with an tary camp of Novae (Moesia TRC 4 with its variants which is early type of LRA 2, at a time Secunda, south bank of the Dan- to be dated from the end of the when its type has not yet been ube, northern Bulgaria) include 5th c throughout the 6th and 7th c.
131 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Several types of amphoras found in the excavations of Novae.
132 The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea • EUGENIA GEROUSI
In the course of the last years, shore of the Black Sea, at Sinope Fig 5. Sinopian carrot amphoras from the there has been significant re- and Herakleia, on the north- Athenian Agora. search on the subject of amphoras ern coast, at Chersonesos and produced in workshops located its territory, and rarely on the along the Black Sea coastline and eastern, Colchian shore. From found in Greek territory. a chronological point of view, The detailed study of the they cover a long period of time pottery discovered at the Villa from Hellenistic to late Roman 14 of Dionysus of Knossos by John period. According to Opait, Hayes13 and the recent research the so-called Sinopean carrot undertaken by Andrei Opait in amphora with its subtypes oc- the Stoa of Attalos in Athens, cur also among the Athenian demonstrated that Pontic am- finds from the third quarter of phoras are far more consistently the 4th c onwards and mainly in present on Mediterranean sites the 5th c (Fig. 5). The excavation than had previously been as- at Demirci has uncovered one sumed. These wine amphoras of the workshops that produced were made on the southern this type, which was well known
133 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA all over the Black Sea area. In ad- Plaka have close parallels in the coarse pottery, without any spe- dition a number of shipwrecks archaeological assemblages from cial decoration, and their gener- carrying that type have been the Crimean and southern Rus- al shapes, against other pottery identified off Sinope. Neverthe- sian settlements and cities dated kinds did not change dramati- less, perhaps more remarkable is from the third quarter of the 6th cally through time. Their dating the appearance in the Athenian to the first quarter of the 7th c. In demands to take into account Agora of the Sinopean imitation addition to the two main groups, the historical and archaeologi- of LRA 1 dated in the 5th c.; it other smaller groups of ampho- cal information of the sites they seems to have been distributed ras or isolated samples have were found. The progress on all over the eastern Medittera- been attributed to different pro- their study has offered much nean where sinopean wine was duction centers. In any case each to the knowledge over the sea- widely exported. cargo seem to have contained borne commerce which took amphoras of multiple origins, a Shipwrecks are an important place in the Mediterranean Sea feature that may be common in source of information concern- of the early-byzantine period by th th 15 ing the trafficking of products the late 6 -7 c. merchants and navigators who and the commercial relations, This is also the case of an- acted independently or on be- despite the fact that underwater other well-known shipwreck, half of the state and the supply research is both costly and time- that of Yassi Ada dating from of its citizens and army. consuming. the early 7th c. and excavated between 1961 and 1964.16 The One shipwreck discovered recent archaeometric analysis, off the cape of Plaka carried two namely ceramic petrography, main types of amphoras, LRA focusing on a limited sample 1 and “carrot” amphoras, and drawn from among the LR 1 can be dated between the sec- amphoras, has shown a fabric ond quarter of the 6th and the diversity, with perhaps as many third quarter of the 7th c. Pre- as ten fabrics falling into three liminary results of petrographic distinct groups. Although these and chemical analyses show that fabrics or groups cannot yet be the two types of amphoras do linked with certainty to indi- not correspond to a single pro- vidual production centers, their duction. Among the reference mineralogical differences point samples from Cypriot and Asia to a variety of areas that may in- Minor workshops, Plaka’s main clude Cilicia as well as other re- group of LRA1 shows a fairly gions, like northwest Syria and good match with amphoras from Cyprus. Rhosos/Arsuz, in south- eastern Turkey and this site was sug- The archaeological value of gested as the origin of part of the the amphoras was not always cargo. The carrot amphorae from given, since they belong to the
134 The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea • EUGENIA GEROUSI
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Diamanti 2010b; Diamanti 2010a. Barnea, I.1966. “L’ incendie de la cité de Dinogetia au Vie siècle.” Dacia 2 Diamanti 2010b, 80-7, 207-8. N.S.10: 237-59. 3 Barnea 1966, 244-5, 254. Biernacki, A.B. and E. Klenina, 2010. “Trade Relations between the 4 Radulescu 1973, 193-207. lower Danube region and Mediterranean in the Late Roman period: the ceramic evidence from Novae” (Moesia Secunda), In 5 Tudor 1945-47, 174. S. Menchelli, S. Santoro, M. Pasquinucci and G. Guiducci (eds), 6 Radulescu 1973, 193-207; Scorpan 1976, 178. LRCW3. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae 7 Diamanti 2010a, 88-92, 209. in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2185, II, 983 – 992. 8 Didioumi 2014. Oxford, Archaeopress. 9 Gerousi 2014. Diamanti, Ch. 2010a. Local production and import of amphoras at Halasarna 10 Papavassiliou et al. 2014. of Kos island (5th – 6th c.). Athens. 11 Klenina 2010; Biernacki and Klenina 2-10; Klenina 2014. Diamanti, Ch. 2010b. “Local Late Roman / Early Byzantine amphoras from 12 Sazanov 2014. Halasarna on Kos.” In Κεραμική της Ύστερης Αρχαιότητας από 13 Hayes 1983. τον Ελλαδικό χώρο (3ος-7ος αι. μ.Χ.), Πρακτικά επιστημονικής 14 Opait 2010. συνάντησης (Θεσσαλονίκη, 12-16 Νοεμβρίου 2006) edited by D. Papanikola-Bakirtzi and D. Kousoulakou, 143-52. Thessaloniki: 15 Waksman et al. 2014. Publications of the Archaeological Institute of Macedonian and 16 Leidwanger 2014. Thracian Studies 8.
Didioumi, S. 2014. “Local Pottery production in the island of Cos, Greece from the early Byzantine period. A preliminary report”. In N. Poulou-Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, I, 169- 180. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Gerousi, E. 2014. “A late Roman workshop at Dilesi in Boeotia”, In N. Poulou-Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, I, 193-202. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Hayes, J. W. 1983. “The villa Dionysos excavations, Knossos: the pottery.” BSA 7: 97-169.
Klenina, E. 2010. “Trade Relations between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea Region in the 3rd-6th centuries A.D. in the light of ceramic artifacts.” In S. Menchelli, S. Santoro, M. Pasquinucci and G. Guiducci (eds), LRCW3. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2185, II, 1005-14. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Klenina, E. 2014. “Trade relations of Novae (Moesia II) according to ceramic evidence from an assemblage of the late 5th – early 6th century.” In N. Poulou-Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, II, 931- 42. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Leidwanger, J. 2014. “A preliminary archaeometric analysis of the Late Roman 1 amphoras from the cargo of the seventh-century Yassiada shipwreck, Turkey.” In N. Poulou-Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares,
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Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, II, 897-906. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Opait, A. 2010. “Pontic Wine in the Athenian Market.” In Κεραμική της Ύστερης Αρχαιότητας από τον Ελλαδικό χώρο (3ος-7ος αι. μ.Χ.), Πρακτικά επιστημονικής συνάντησης (Θεσσαλονίκη, 12-16 Νοεμβρίου 2006) edited by D. Papanikola-Bakirtzi and D. Kousoulakou, 108- 130. Thessaloniki: Publications of the Archaeological Institute of Macedonian and Thracian Studies 8.
Papavassiliou, E., K. Sarantidis and E. Papanikolaou. 2014. “A Ceramic workshop of the early byzantine period on the island of Lipsi in the Dodecanese (Greece): A preliminary approach”. In N. Poulou-Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, I, 159-168. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Rădulescu, A. 1973. “Amfore cu inscripţii de la edificiul roman cu mosaic din Tomis.” Pontica 6: 193-207
Sazanov, A. 2014. “Cretan Amphorae from the Northern Black Sea Region: contexts, chronology, typology”, In N. Poulou- Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, I, 399-409. Oxford, Archaeopress.
Scorpan, C. 1976. “Origini şi linii evolutive in ceramic romano – bizantină (sec. IV-VII) din spaţiul Mediteranean şi Pontic.” Pontica 9: 155-85.
Tudor, D. 1945-47. “Sucidava III. Quatrième (1942), cinquième (1943) et sixième (1945) campagnes de fouilles et de recherches archéologiques dans la forteresse de Celei, Département de Romanaţi.” Dacia 11-12: 145-208.
Waksman, S.Y., Y. Morozova, S. Zelenko and M. Colak. 2014. “Archaeological and archaeometric investigations of the amphorae of the amphorae cargo of a late roman shipwreck sunk near the cape of Plaka (Crimea, Ukraine)” In N. Poulou- Papadimitriou, E. Nodarou and V. Kilikoglou (eds), LRCW4. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British Archaeological Report, International Series, 2616, II, 919-929. Oxford, Archaeopress.
136 Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire dans les Documents Épigraphiques et Iconographiques
L i v i a B u z o i a n u
Introduction référence sont les trois corpora d’inscriptions de la Scythie Mi- La question du commerce et neure - Inscriptions grecques et de la navigation dans la Mer Noir, latines de Scythie Mineure; vol. I. avec un accent particulier sur les Histria et ses alentours (éd. D.M. côtes ouest-pontiques a été traitée Pippidi) ; vol. II. Tomis et son terri- à partir de différents points de toire (éd. I. Stoian); vol. III. Callatis vue: géographiques, historiques, et son territoire (éd. A. Avram). économiques. Les recherches ont L’ordre thématique que nous porté sur la configuration des avons adopté, même s’il n’épuise RÉSUMÉ côtes, les emplacements possibles pas le sujet, donne au moins la L’article met à profit, d’un des ports, les types de navires, les mesure de sa complexité. point de vue thématique, les catégories professionnelles, les informations provenant de diverses importations, les routes commer- A. Les sources sources (littéraires, épigraphiques, ciales etc. littéraires les iconographiques) concernant le Nous nous proposons une plus connues sont commerce et la navigation. Y sont présentation des informations deux discours de analysées avec prédilection des relatives au commerce et à la Démosthène, informations épigraphiques de navigation dans trois des co- Histria, Tomis et Callatis relatives lonies pontiques – Histria, To- Contre Léptinès et Contre La- aux ports, institutions spécifiques, mis et Callatis. La présentation critos et un passage des Histoires catégories professionnelles et sélective vise les informations de Polybe. Constamment l’objet associations, instruments de littéraires, épigraphiques et ico- de commerce est représenté par mesure, divinité marines. nographiques. Les matériaux de le blé (σῖτος) et le vin οἶνος :
137 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA on apportait à Athènes des grains des régions du on faisait des échanges réciproques (rapportés aux Pont et, en échange, on transportait vers le Pont conditions économiques et politiques de la zone). diverses sortes de vin. Πρὸς μὲν γὰρ τὰς ἀναγκαίας τοῦ βίου χρείας « Ἴστε γὰρ δήπου τοῦθ’, ὅτι πλείστῳ τῶν τά τε θρέμματα καὶ τὸ τῶν εἰς τὰς δουλείας πάντων ἀνθρῴπων ἡμεῖς ἐπεισάκτῳ σίτῳ ἀγομένων σωμάτων πλῆθος οἱ κατὰ τὸν Πόντον χρώμεθα. πρὸς τοίνυν ἅπαντα τὸν ἐκ τῶν ἡμῖν τόποι παρασκευάζουσι δαψιλέστατον ἄλλων ἐμπορίων ἀϕικνούμενον ὁ ἐκ τοῦ καὶ χρησιμώτατον ὁμολογουμένως˙ πρὸς δὲ Πόντου σῖτος εἰσπλέων ἐστίν. εἰκότως˙ οὐ γὰρ περιουσίαν μέλι, κηρόν, τάριχος ἀϕθόνως μόνον διὰ τὸ τὸν τόπον τοῦτον σῖτον ἔχειν ἡμῖν χορηγοῦσιν. δέχονταί γε μὴν τῶν ἐκ τοῖς πλεῖστον τοῦτο γίγνεται, ἀλλὰ καὶ διὰ τὸ κύριον παρ᾽ἡμῖν τόποις περιττευόντων ἔλαιον καὶ πᾶν ὄντα τὸν Λεύκων̉ αὐτοῦ τοῖς ἄγουσιν Ἀθήναζε οἴνου γένος˙σίτῳ 15 δ᾽ἀμείβονται, ποτὲ μὲν ἀτέλειαν δεδωκέναι, καὶ κηρύττειν πρώτους εὐκαίρως διδόντες ποτὲ δὲ λαμβάνοντες. γεμίζεσθαι τοὺς ὡς ὑμᾶς πλέοντας. ἔχων γὰρ (Polybe, IV. 38. 4, 5.) ἐκεῖνος ἑαυτῷ καὶ τοῖς παισὶ τὴν ἀτέλειαν ἅπασι δέδωκεν ὑμῖν ». B. Sources épigraphiques (Démosthène, Πρὸς Λέπτινην, [466], 31) B.1. La présence des ports
« Ὑμεῖς δ̉, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, ἐνθυμεῖσθε La présence des ports est confirmée par πρὸς ὑμᾶς αὐτούς, εἴ τινας πώποτ᾽ἴστε ἢ les sources épigraphiques. Plusieurs inscrip- ἠκούσατε οἶνον Ἀθήναζε ἐκ τοῦ Πόντου tions d’Histria et Callatis (ISM I 10, 25, 28, 32, κατ᾽ἐμπορίαν εἰσάγοντας, ἄλλως τε καὶ Κῷον. 48, 65 ; ISM III 13) font la mention expresse du πᾶν γὰρ δήπου τοὐναντίον εἰς τὸν Πόντον droit “d’entrer et de sortir du port en temps de οἶνος εἰσάγεται ἐκ τῶν τόπων τῶν περὶ ἡμᾶς, guerre et en temps de paix”, accordé aux évé- ἐκ Πεπαρήθου καὶ Κῶ καὶ Θάσιος καὶ Μενδαῖος rgètes et à leurs descendants “sans qu’ils soient καὶ ἐξ ἄλλων πόλεων παντοδαπός˙ ἐκ δὲ τοῦ exposés aux représailles et sans nulle conven- Πόντου ἕτερά ἐστιν ἃ εἰσάγεται δεῦρο ». tion spéciale” : δεδόσϑαι δὲ αὐτῶι καὶ ἐγγόνοις προξενίαν, πολιτείαν, ἰσοτέλειαν καὶ εἴσπλουν (Démosthène, Πρὸς Λάκριτον, [935], 35) καὶ ἔκπλουν καὶ εἰράνας καὶ πολέμου ἀσυλεὶ καὶ ἀσπονδεί (ISM III 13). Plus rigoureux, Polybe fait la distinction entre les biens nécessaires à la vie (αἱ ἀνάγκαιαι Le droit d’entrer et de sortir du port dans toutes χρεῖαι τοῦ βίου) et les biens en plus, de luxe (αἱ les circonstances suppose aussi le droit d’importer περιουσίαι). Parmi les premiers sont nommés des marchandises dans des conditions de pleine les troupeaux, et spécialement les moutons (τὰ sécurité. ϑρέμματα) et les esclaves (αἱ δουλεῖαι). Dans la À Histria une inscription du IIe s. ap. J.-C. est deuxième catégorie sont inclus le miel (τὸ μέλι), la dédiée à un grand prêtre et pontarque qui a sur- cire (ὁ κηρός) et le poisson salé ( ὁ τάριχος). Vers veillé les réparations du port (προνοησάμενον le Pont on transportait de l’huile (ἔλαιον) et toutes δέ καὶ τῆς κατασκευῆς τοῦ λιμένος) et qui a ac- sortes de vins (πᾶν γένος οἶνου). Pour les grains, compli aussi la fonction de contrôleur des finances
138 Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire • LIVIA BUZOIANU publiques (λογιστεύσαντα μετὰ πάσης πίστεως sa bravoure, les Apolloniates ont décidé d’ériger δημοσία; ISM II 178, 179). une statue en bronze qui représente Hégésagoras en tenue militaire sur la proue d’un navire (καὶ Une inscription de Callatis de tout début du Ier εἰκόνι χαλκῆι ἐν ὅπλοις ἐπ᾽ἐμβόλου). Ainsi, s. ap. J.-C. fait la mention explicite du port et des nous sommes informés sur les capacités des villes actions d’un particulier qui “a équipé à ses frais un pontiques de construire et d’équiper des navires ; navire de guerre ; il a protégé le port et les côtes chacune des villes mentionnées disposait d’une de la guerre et a fait don du navire à la cité” (ISM flotte de guerre (spécialement préparée en ce but, III 43). ou, plus probablement, les mêmes navires étaient ------utilisés, selon les circonstances, comme navires [τ]οῦ λιμένος[- - - - -] de guerre ou comme navires commerciaux). En- ναῦν μακρὰν κατασκευαξάμ[ενος] fin, la représentation des navires sur les- monu ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων τόν τε λιμένα κ[αὶ τὰς] ments apparaît comme une pratique habituelle 4 [ἀ]κτὰς ἀπολεμήτους ἐτήρησε[ν] [κα]ὶ τὸ πλοῖον ἐδωρήσατο τᾷ πόλε[ι]˙ chez les Grecs.
Les circonstances des actions du bénéficiaire B. 2. Les institutions du décret nous échappent. Elles sont dressées probablement contre les pirates dont la présence Les institutions destinées aux problèmes était encore marquée sur la côte occidentale du des ports et du commerce maritime sont moins Pont Euxin. On doit retenir aussi les deux termes présentes dans les inscriptions de la zone. Sur « ναῦς μακρά» et «πλοῖον» utilisés dans le même ναύαρχος αὐτοκράτωρ – voir plus haut, ISM I texte ; ils sont synonymes (cf. ISM I 64 πλοῖά τε 64 ; on retient qu’il s’agit d’une magistrature ex- μακρά) et désignent, selon l’éditeur du corpus cal- traordinaire apparue dans les conditions d’un latien, “un navire de ligne correspondant à la navis conflit armé. On en trouve une parallèle dans le longa des textes latins” (ISM III, p. 320). caractère également exceptionnel d’une autre ma- gistrature – celle de στρατηγός ἐπὶ τῆς χώρας Nous en trouvons des informations complètes αὐτοκράτωρ (ISM I 15). dans le décret accordé par Apollonie du Pont pour l’histrien Hégésagoras, fils du Monimos (ISM I 64 Une inscription de Tomis (ISM II 2) fait la = IGB I2 388 ; IIe s. av. J.-C.). Le titulaire du décret mention expresse des ἄρχοντες ἐν τῶ(ι) λιμένι, est amiral muni de pleins pouvoirs (ναύαρχος magistrats qui avaient en charge l’administration αὐτοκράτωρ). Pendant la guerre en cours entre du port ; ils représentaient un collège différent de Apollonie du Pont et Messambria les Histriens celui des agoranomes qui administraient le mar- ont envoyé au secours des Apolloniates des longs ché. Leur mention sur l’épigraphe tomitaine est navires et des militaires (πλοῖά τε μακρά καὶ normale puisque les biens de la ville provenaient στρατιώτας) pour protéger la ville, le territoire en grande mesure du bon fonctionnement du et les ports (τήν τε πόλιν καὶ τὴν χώραν καὶ port. En période de crise ils pouvaient prévenir τοὺς λιμένας). Hégésagoras se fait remarquer en les difficultés de la ville en avançant les biens ou capturant un navire de l’ennemi et son équipage les sommes nécessaires aux diverses mesures de (πλοῖον αὔτανδρον ἔλαβε). Pour récompenser protection.
139 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Une inscription de Callatis guaient vers la ville d’Ol- caractère chrétien de la stèle fait allusion à la loi qui traitait bia (πάντων τε τῆς πόλεως et sur l’origine juive du mar- du partage des risques dans les ἐμπόρων τῶν εἰς Ὀλβίαν chand. affaires de prêt maritime (ISM πόλιν πλεόντων προνόων). Nous retenons ici la présence III 36) : la loi en cause prévoyait, L’inscription soutient les in- des Alexandrins à Tomis, bien semble-t-il, la limitation de la formations sur le commerce attestée en temps par la céra- responsabilité du transporteur entre les villes de l’Ouest et mique, les divinités, les asso- en cas de force majeure, le risque du Nord du Pont Euxin ain- ciations ethniques (οἶκος τῶν étant assumé par le créditeur si que la qualité de port de Ἀλεξανδρέων ; voir plus loin). (voir la discussion en entier et transit/ou port d’escale pour la bibliographie dans ISM III, p. Tyras. Le terme ἔμπορος est recon- 304-307). Même à Callatis sont nu aussi dans deux inscriptions Deux autres inscriptions connus les tribunaux maritimes fragmentaires de IIe-IIIe s. ap. s’inscrivent dans la série des et la catégorie des εἰσαγογεῖς J.-C. (ISM II 320 et ISM II 403, la documents qui attestent la pré- (ISM III 38, 39). Le dernier première probablement au ca- sence des Bithyniens dans les terme désigne les magistrats ractère funéraire, la deuxième villes du Pont Euxi: qui introduisaient en justice les un album de noms). • l’inscription pour Stratokles causes des affaires maritimes. de la Prousia sur Hippios : Il s’agit d’une magistrature or- B. 3. 2. Les armateurs Στρατοκλεὺς Προυσιεὺς ἀπὸ dinaire (annuelle) attestée aus- (ναύκληροι) [Ὑππίου…ἔμ]πορος (ISM II si dans d’autres villes grecques 248 ; IIe s. ap. J.-C.); (Athènes, Éphèse, Lampsaque, La mention spéciale du terme Amorgos, Temnos et Clazo- • l’inscription gravée sur un apparaît sur quelques inscrip- mènes ; voir ISM III l. c.). sarcophage en calcaire fait tions de Tomis et de Callatis: la mention du Μητρόδωρος • sur une stèle en marbre de IIe B. 3. Les catégories Γαίου Προυσιεὺς ἀπὸ s. ap. J.-C. on trouve le nom professionnelles Ὑππίου ἔμπορος qui “a vécu de Théocritos fils du Theo- décemment 58 années” (ISM critos, armateur surnommé B. 3. 1. Les commerçants II 462 ; IIe-IIIe s. ap. J.-C.) ; aussi “le roi” (ναύκληρος ὁ (ἔμποροι). καὶ βασιλεῦς). Les images • ISM II 463 (=IGLR 28 ; IVe s. qui accompagnent l’inscrip- La catégorie des ἔμποροι est ap. J.-C. fait la mention de tion représentent un homme mieux attestée à Tomis. En - sui “until, fils de Seppon - mar debout, dans la partie supé- vant l’ordre de catalogue (ISM chand de vin, originaire rieure de la stèle, et un na- II) on retient : d’Alexandrie” (…Σέππονος vire, au-dessous (ISM II 186); • ISM II 5: le bénéficiaire du οἰνέμπορος Ἀλεξανδρίας). décret est Nylos de Tyras Selon les symboles gravés • sur un autel en calcaire une qui “prenait soin de tous sur la pierre (le rameau de femme au nom grec - Epipha- les commerçants de notre palme et la pentagramme ou nia-, présente son curriculum ville [Tomis] qui navi- pentalpha) on a opiné sur le vitae: elle est née d’une mère
140 Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire • LIVIA BUZOIANU
athénienne et d’un père ori- et du Caesar Marc Aurèle. presque coniques (env. 0,40 m ginaire d’Hérmione. Elle a Constituée en grande mesure le diamètre et env. 0,475 en pro- beaucoup voyagé par mer par des commerçants, dans fondeur). L’inscription est très parce que son père et son l’association des Alexandrins probablement une dédicace du époux étaient armateurs sont inclus aussi des arma- magistrat (ἀγορανόμος) chargé (ἔπλευσα ϑάλατταν ἦν γὰρ teurs. de mesurer et de vérifier la - ca ὲμοὶ γενέτης καὶ γαμέτης pacité des vases (ISM II 388; IIIe Deux monuments différents ναύκληροι ; ISM II 375); s. ap. J.-C.). de Tomis se réfèrent au col- • toujours à Tomis, une ins- lège des armateurs : une dédi- La deuxième pièce c’est un cription fragmentaire de IIe- cace pour Marc Aurèle honoré parallélépipède en marbre (0,42 IIIe s. ap. J.-C. fait la mention comme Caesar et fils de l’em- x 0,22 m) ayant une concavité d’un ναύκληρος anonyme pereur Antonin le Pieux est éri- sur la face supérieure. Tous les (ISM II 291); gée par ὁ οἶκος τῶν ἐν Τόμει côtés portent l’inscription de Flavius Serbandus περίβλεπτος • sur un inscription fragmen- ναυκλήρων (ISM II 60). κόμης καὶ ἄρχων (spectabilis co- taire de Callatis de Ier s. av. Le deuxième monument est mes et dux; ISM II 390, Ve s. ap. J.-C. on a essayé une possible consacré à la déesse Hestia par J.C.). reconstitution des termes un donateur de l’association des [τῶν ν]αυκλά[ρων] (l. 6) et armateurs (ϕιλότιμος τοῦ οἴκου C. Inscriptions votives τὰ ϕορτία τῶν ἐμπόρ[ων]; τῶν ναυκλήρων ; ISM II 132; IIe et iconographie ISM III 39, l. 12-13). s. ap. J.-C.). Le grand nombre d’associa- Nous avons en vue les divi- B. 3. 3. Les associations tions d’armateurs attestées et nités marines et du commerce (οἶκος; collegia) les armateurs individuels sont présentes dans les textes épigra- explicables pour une ville com- phiques ou dans l’iconographie Les inscriptions de Tomis merciale comme Tomis. des trois villes pontiques Histria, font l’épreuve de l’existence des Tomis et Callatis. associations ethniques et profes- B. 4. Auxilia/Instrumenta Parmi les divinités marines sionnelles : Poséidon (Ποσειδῶν) le dieu Dans la catégorie des auxilia • l’inscription votive mise traditionnel des Ioniens, occupe ou instrumenta nous avons inclus par Karpion fils d’Anou- une place importante. Son nom les objets à destination métrolo- bios au nom de l’association est accompagné de diverses épi- gique: un dimodium (διμόδια) des Alexandrins (οἶκος τῶν clèses : Ἑλικώνιος (Histria, ISM I et une balance de vérification Ἀλεξανδρέων) pour Sarapis 143; Tomis, ISM II 151), Ταύρειος (ἐξάγιον). et les dieux honorés dans le (Histria, ISM I 57), Ἀσϕαλεύς/ même temple (ISM II 153); Le premier c’est un bloc en Ασϕάλειος (ISM III 48, 49). La le monument est bien daté marbre, sous la forme d’une table divinité bénéficie d’associations de 160 ap. J.-C., au temps de (τράπεζα) qui maintient sur la religieuses - Ταυριασταί (His- l’empereur Antonin le Pieux face supérieure deux concavités tria, ISM I 57, 60, 61) de prêtre
141 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
(Histria I 143: ἱερεύς διὰ βίου), Histria du côté d’Apollonie du s. av. J.-C.). L’inscription d’His- de fêtes - Ταυρέα (Histria, ISM Pont (ISM I 112; IIIe s. av. J.-C.); tria s’inscrit parmi les rares at- I 60); le nom du dieu se retrouve une autre épigraphe est une testations du culte dans la zone dans le nom du mois Ταυρεών dédicace personnelle adressée pontique (sont incluses ici les (Histria, ISM I 26). À Histria aux Διόσκοροι (ISM I 123; IIe- dédicaces à Ἀϕροδίτη Εὔπλοια l’association de Ταυριασταί Ier s. av. J.-C.). Dans la troisième et Ἀϕροδίτη Ποντία à Olbia, et consacre une inscription et une inscription les dieux ont des at- à Ἀϕροδ ίτη Ναυαρχίς à Pantica- statue à la divinité (ISM I 143: tributs civiques : ils détiennent paeum). τὸν τελαμῶνα καὶ τὸ ἄγαλμα pour la quatrième fois l’épony- Un statut différent a le dieu τοῖς συνμύσταις ἀνέϑηκα). mie de la cité dans un moment Hermès (Ἑρμῆς). Sur les monu- de crise économique du IIIe s. Les Dioscures (Διόσκουροι) ments il est représenté avec ses ap. J.-C. (ISM I 142: ἱερωμένων sont invoqués à Tomis dans multiples attributs et en - com Διοσκόρων τὸ δ᾽). leur qualité de fondateurs de pagnie des diverses divinités. la ville (κτίσται τῆς πόλεως ; Même un dieu marin, Pon- C’est pourquoi il est difficile de ISM II 122). L’inscription est tos (Πόντος) est attesté à Tomis séparer son rôle de maître ou de placée sur le socle d’un groupe comme acolyte de la Fortune protecteur des activités commer- statuaire qui représente l’un dans le célèbre groupe statuaire ciales. Nous retenons ici les ins- des deux Dioscures, Castor Fortuna et Pontos, protecteurs criptions où le nom du dieu est ou Pollux, près d’un cheval. de la navigation en mer Noire expressément invoqué: L’image des Dioscures dans et protecteurs aussi de la cité de • deux dédicaces à Histria pour l’acception de κτίσται apparaît Tomis. Dans le groupe invoqué Ἑρμῆς Ἀγοραῖος dressées sur les monnaies tomitaines le dieu porte sur la tête la cou- par deux ἀγοράνομοι à la fin comme emblème de la ville ronne murale, attribut consacré de leur magistrature (ISM I (παράσημον τῆς π όλεως ). An- de la déesse, et s’appuie sur la 175, 176 ; IIe s. ap. J.-C.); nuellement on consacre des sa- proue d’un navire. Dans cette crifices à Cybèle (Μήτηρ ϑεῶν) association la Fortune a emprun- • l’inscription oraculaire de et aux Dioscures pour le salut té des attributs de son acolyte et Callatis: Hermès appa- de la ville (ISM II 2: ὑπὲρ τῆς on peut accepter pour elle aussi raît dans la suite des ϑεοί τοῦ δήμου σωτηρίας). La nou- une hypostase marine. Dans ce ἀγοραῖοι (avec Thémis, Zeus, velle acception s’ajoute à leur cas, l’identification avec Aphro- Aphrodite) pour qui l’oracle attribut primaire de divinités dite Marine (Ἀϕροδίτη Ποντία) recommande des sacrifices qui protègent la navigation. semble véridique. (ISM III 49). À Histria, trois inscriptions Ἀϕροδίτη Ποντία bénéficiait Il faut aussi ajouter deux at- et plusieurs reliefs votifs dé- avec certitude d’un culte à His- testations du dieu à Tomis: l’ins- montrent l’importance et l’am- tria,: sur la base d’une statue une cription Ἕρμεος (pour Ἕρμαιος) pleur du culte. Les Dioscures invocation spéciale est adres- placée au-dessus de l’entrée du sont invoqués en leur qualité sée “à Aphrodite Pontia qui magasin no. 1 de l’Édifice à mo- de ϑεοὶ σωτῆρες dans une ex- exauce les souhaits” (Ἀϕροδίτηι saïque (ISM II 387) et la tête ailée pédition navale qui engageait Ποντίᾳ ἐπηκόωι; ISM I 173; IIe d’une statue en marbre trouvée
142 Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire • LIVIA BUZOIANU dans le même complexe. Les deux personnages près d›une d’autres, particulières: des caté- deux pièces constietuent un ar- proue de navire; c›est un na- gories spéciales de magistrats gument pour le fonctionnement vire de pêche qui indique, (à Tomis et à Callatis), la préé- commercial de l’édifice à - mo paraît-il, l’occupation d’un minence de Histria à l’époque saïque de Tomis. des personnages (ISM III de son autonomie dans des ac- 165 ; IIe s. av. J.-C.); D. L’iconographie des tions qui engageaient la flotte, navires sur divers • les images des navires sur la présence des armateurs et des monuments les parois des églises en associations professionnelles et e ethniques (à Tomis). La plupart Nous avons déjà signalé la craie de Basarabi (XI s. ap. des documents épigraphiques présence des navires ou des J.-C.) dénotent l’influence ou parties des navires sur quelques même la présence d’une po- provient de Tomis. Cette situa- monuments. Elle indique soit pulation d’origine nordique tion correspond au rôle de plus l’occupation des individus (dans (vikings ?). La possible iden- en plus important que la ville le cas de Théocritos fils de Théo- tification ethnique a comme acquiert à la fin de la période critos armateur; ISM II 186), soit élément d’appui l’existence hellénistique et surtout pendant la nature des divinités (dans le de la voie commerciale entre toute l’époque romaine. groupe statuaire Fortuna et Pon- les Pays Scandinaves et tos). A cette série on ajoute : Constantinople. • une stèle funéraire de Tomis Conclusions à deux registres décoratifs: le Cavalier Thrace et l’image Les matériaux passés en re-
d’un navire avec deux person- vue couvrent une longue pé- nages (orants). L’inscription riode de temps, à partir de est adressée au Héros Mani- l’époque de l’autonomie des mazos et les deux images font villes grecques jusqu’au début épreuve du syncrétisme reli- du Moyen Age. Les plus nom- gieux entre les Dioscures (re- breux appartiennent aux pre- présentés par le navire) et le miers siècles chrétiens. Si les Cavalier Thrace (ISM II 126 ; sources littéraires ont un carac- Ier s. ap. J.-C.); tère plus général, les informa- tions épigraphiques offrent des • autel funéraire trouvé dans le informations plus nuancées. territoire histrien; l›image du Elles mettent en évidence des navire sur une des facettes caractéristiques communes – de l’autel se réfère probable- telles que la présence des ports, ment à l’occupation du dé- l’existence d’une flotte propre, funt (ISM I 353); le culte des divinités marines, la • stèle en marbre, provenant pratique des représentations de de Callatis; le relief présente navires sur les monuments -, et
143 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PLATE 1
ISM II, 122 ISM II, 462
ISM II, 248 ISM II, 463
144 Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire • LIVIA BUZOIANU
PLATE 2
ISM II, 375
ISM II, 388 ISM II, 60
ISM II, 390
145 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PLATE 3
ISM II, 126 ISM III, 165
ISM II, 186 Basarbi : I’image d’un navire (XI e s.)
146 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue
N i k o l a o s D. S i o mk o s
During the Post-Byzantine the seventeenth century, placed period Constantinople receives in the portico of the Patriarchal a great number of icons, which church4. are presently kept in the Ecu- On the other hand, the menical Patriarchate collection, icon of Saint Andrew (Fig. 1), as well as in various orthodox ABSTRACT which originates from the Saint churches in the city. Focusing The present paper explores George cathedral in Therapia on the variety of this material, the artistic origin of some Post- (Tarabya), is an excellent Cre- the present paper aims at ex- Byzantine icons, which are tan work, practically unknown ploring the artistic origin of presently kept in the Ecumenical to the scholarship5. The upper some of these icons, which are Patriarchate collection, as well part of the icon forms an arc either already known or recent- as in various orthodox churches comparable to those crowning ly presented works1, in order to in the city, in order to reach the icons of Archangel Michael reach some conclusions regard- some conclusions regarding from Enoria Spilias and Saint ing their circulation. their circulation. Most of the Nicolas from Gonia monastery 6 icons are works of the Cretan The Cretan school icons in in Crete , both attributed to the the Ecumenical Patriarchate of renowned Cretan painter An- school, although icons from the Constantinople form an inter- dreas Ritzos or his workshop7. Epirote School, Cyprus, Athos or esting group of works; charac- The portrait features of Saint Thessaloniki, the painters from teristic examples are the well- Andrew, the expression and Linotopi and Moldovan artists known icon of the Dormition modelling of the face and the have also been noted. Was it really of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, linear rendering of the hair and intended for these icons to be sent dated in the fifteenth century2, beard associate this icon with directly to Constantinople as soon and the recently published icon works dating from the second as they were created or they arrived of Saint George3, dated in the half of the fifteenth century. there at a later period? end of sixteenth–beginning of More precisely, we consider
147 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
that the image of Saint John the Theologian on the enthroned Christ icon in Patmos, signed work of Andreas Ritzos8 and the Gonia monastery icon connect the Saint Andrew icon to the same artist or his workshop9. An equally important work of the Cretan school is the icon representing the Apostles Peter and Paul holding a model of a church (Fig. 2), which comes from the Saviour monastery in Pringepos (Büyükada)10. Cu- riously enough, this excellent icon after its initial publication in the late 1980s -merely an il- lustration, accompanied by the icon’s provenance and chronol- ogy-11 has never been discussed. The iconographic type of the leader apostles holding a church was created in fifteenth century Cretan painting and repeated in some later icons and frescoes12. The icon in the Patriarchate is the only known example featur- ing the Virgin Platytera on the sanctuary’s apse. Regarding the proposed seventeenth century chronology, we consider it too advanced. On stylistic terms, many of its features, such as the modelling of the faces and the rendering of the drapery, are common in Cretan paint- ing13, suggesting a chronology
Fig 1. Ecumenical Patriarchate. around the first half of the six- Icon of Saint Andrew teenth century.
148 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Fig 3. Chalki, Hagia Triada. Icon of the Virgin Pausolype
Fig 2. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Icon of the Apostles Peter and Paul holding a model of a church
The recently published bilat- solype dating from the begin- the Crucifixion on the icon’s eral icon from the Hagia Triada ning of the fourteenth century, back side, the last quarter of church in Chalki is of particular has been attached to a larger the fourteenth century14. How- interest to the present discus- painted frame, decorated with ever, we think that the actual sion. As already suggested, the Christological scenes (Fig. 3), image of the Virgin must be a central icon of the Virgin Pau- which dates from, similarly to repaint most probably from the
149 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Chalki, Hagia Triada. Icon of the Virgin Pausolype, detail
Fig 5. Chalki, Hagia Triada. Icons of Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin Hodegetria
sixteenth century (Fig. 4), due ciated with the Cretan school. to stylistic similarities with the The unpublished Apocalypse sixteenth century icons of Christ icon (Fig. 6) from the church of Pantocrator and Virgin Hode- Virgin Kafatiani in Galata16 is getria (Fig. 5) on the iconostasis apparently a copy of the famous of the same church15. Should Patmian icon of Thomas Bathas, this be the case and the central dating from 159617, despite the image of the Virgin Pausolype over-paintings along its sides. was repainted in Chalki when Moreover, it is quite probable the despotic icons of the iconos- that under the silver revetment tasis were also created, then we of another icon from the iconos- have an indirect indication for tasis of Virgin Eleousa (Fig. 7) in the presence in Constantinople Pringepos (Büyükada)18 an im- of artists employing the Cretan portant Cretan school work is to school’s manners. be found. The icons mentioned above The Patriarchate of Constan- are not the only examples asso- tinople also possesses, quite
150 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Fig 7. Pringepos (Büyükada), Virgin Eleousa. Icon of the Virgin Hodegetria
surprisingly, two icons from Cyprus. The first one represents Archangel Michael Tharenos19 (Fig. 8) and originates from the Princes’ Islands20. The epithet Tharenos refers to the Archan- gel Michael monastery in Thari, Rhodes21. However, the icon in the Patriarchate seems to be a work of Cypriot-renaissance (or Italo-byzantine) style of ex- Fig 6. Galata, Virgin Kafatiani. Apocalypse icon ceptional quality. It dates from
151 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA around 1500 and its artist must icon can be placed with some be linked with two other works certainty in the middle of the in Cyprus: the Archangel Mi- sixteenth century. chael icons in the churches of The icon of the Virgin 22 Panaghia Podithou and Saint Hodegetria27 (Fig. 10), 23 Nikolaos in Paphos respec- has, until recently, tively. The second Cypriot icon been viewed as a is a quite damaged Vita Icon of Palaiologan work; Saint John Lampadistis24 (Fig. according to Sotiri- 9), a local Cypriot saint. Only ou it originates three other Vita Icons of this from Mount saint have been preserved, all in Athos28. In a Cyprus; two of them date from previous study, the thirteenth century25 and the however, we third one the seventeenth26. In argued that the stylistic terms, the Patriarchate icon features
Fig 8. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Icon of Archangel Michael Tharenos
Fig 9. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Vita Icon of Saint John Lampadistis
152 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Fig 10. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Icon of the Virgin Hodegetria
153 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
similarities with two sixteenth century icons from the church of Hypapante in Thessaloniki29; it is the icon of Christ and the icon of Saint Demetrius, now in the Byzantine Christian Museum in Athens30. The Hypapante’s bema doors also belong to the above set of three icons. Numerous ex- ternal features, such as their di- mensions, the decorative vegetal motif on the frame and the relief haloes, connect the three icons Fig 11. Ecumenical mentioned above. In addition, Patriarchate. Icon icon of Archangel Michael elements of style and technique could imply the attribution of the icon to the circle of the Frangos Katelanos, the famous Theban artist of the Epirote School, and consequently the mid-sixteenth century chronology. A different provenance may be proposed for the icon of Archangel Michael31 (Fig. 11) and the Vita Icon of Saint Niko- laos32 (Fig. 12), both from Saint Demetrius cathedral in Pring- epos (Büyükada). The icon of Archangel Michael bears ex- tended over-painting, mainly on the lower part, which partly covers the dedicatory inscrip- tion: ΔΕΥCIC ΤΟΥ ΔΟΥΛΟΥ ΤΟΥ Θ(ΕΟ)Υ ΜΑ/Κ[...], while on the icon of Saint Nikolaos Fig 12. one can easily read the donors’ Ecumenical names: ΔΕΗCIC του δούλου Patriarchate. Vita icon of ΤΟΥ Θ(ΕΟ)Υ ΝΗΚΟΛΑ Saint Nikolaos Κ(ΑΙ) CΤΑΒΡΑΚΗC Κ(ΑΙ)
154 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Fig 13. Serbian church. Fig 14. Serbian church. Fig 15. Serbian church. Destroyed icon of the Virgin Hodegetria Destroyed icon of Christ Pantocrator Destroyed icon of Saint Nikolaos
ΜΑΝΟΛΗ Κ(ΑΙ) ΤΟ ΤΕ/ΚΝΟ Moldovan artist. A recently deci- ing the existence of painting in ΑΥΤΟΥ. Stylistic and techni- phered inscription revealed that Constantinople during the Post- cal elements demonstrate simi- the icons were commissioned by Byzantine period39. Regarding larities between these icons the voivode of Moldavia, Ştefan the bilateral icon’s front side, the and works, such as the bema Lăcustă36. The Serbian church general design of Christ’ image doors from the katholikon of icons were very similar to those and the frame’s relief ornament the Makryalexis monastery (ca. of Urisiu de Jos in Transylva- are very close to a mid-sixteenth 1593), and the icons of Saint nia, also the work of a Moldo- century icon from Veroia40, al- George from Palatitsa (ca. 1570) van painter. Both the icons of though it is difficult to draw and Virgin Hodegetria from Kli- the Serbian church and those in reliable conclusions, given the donia (1620), which have been Transylvania were painted in heavy over-paintings41. On the attributed to Nikolaos and Mi- 1539. contrary, the two representa- chael33; both artists belonged to A bilateral icon in the Ecu- tions of Saint George could be at- a productive group of painters menical Patriarchate collection tributed to a single anonymous from Linotopi34, a village on Mt with Christ Pantocrator on the painter, whose activity can be Grammos, Kastoria. front side and Saint George on placed around 1700. However, The three, destroyed in 1955, the back37 (Fig. 16), as well as an- what do we really know about despotic icons (Fig. 13-15) of other icon of Saint George38 (Fig. their provenance? Over the last the Serbian church in Constan- 17), are among the works that decades, an important number tinople, known as Virgin of caused the argument between of icons from Athos that can Belgrade35, were executed by a Pallas and Chatzidakis concern- straightforwardly be assigned to
155 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
icon of the Virgin Hodegetria, a work of the Epirote School, we can trace its initial provenance to a church in Thessaloniki. In other cases, we know that icons reached Constantinople together with other relics after the aban- donment of a monastery, e.g. the icons from Saint John monastery Fig 16. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Bilateral icon of in Sozopol, which arrived at Ka- Christ Pantocrator and Saint mariotissa monastery, Chalki, George in 162944. The origin of the Cre- tan icons, on the other hand, remains uncertain. They might this artist or his workshop have although icons from the Epirote had been either commissioned been published42, thus indicat- School, Cyprus, Athos or Thes- and subsequently transported to ing an Athonite provenance of saloniki, the painters from Li- Constantinople or painted there, the Constantinople icons. Nev- notopi and Moldovan artists if we assume that icon painters ertheless, icons by this artist/ have also been noted. Bearing in did travel. But, as they are main- workshop have been identified mind that Constantinople and ly individual icons, i.e. not be- also in Thessaloniki43. Were the Ecumenical Patriarchate had longing to any set, it is difficult these examples special orders always been the centre of the to verify if they were initially from Athos, destinated for the Orthodox Church, the variety of commissioned for an iconostasis the icons’ provenance is not at numerous dependencies (meto- of a Constantinopolitan church. chia) of Athos in the city, or their all surprising. Even if they were directly sent to presence in Thessaloniki indi- Was it really intended for Constantinople, the reconstruc- cates a local provenance? So, al- these icons to be sent directly to tion or renovation of churches though it is now certain that the Constantinople as soon as they through the ages did not allow Saint George icons come either were created or they arrived the survival of evidence associ- from Athos or Thessaloniki and there at a later period? For some ated with their initial location not Post-Byzantine Constanti- of them it is certain that they within the churches; moreover, nople, their exact provenance were directly forwarded to Con- sometimes even the data regard- remains uncertain. stantinople; this is the case for ing the building history of the The icons discussed above the Moldovan icons, for which, church itself are lacking alto- offer new information from on the basis of the inscription gether, thus making any conclu- which conclusions regarding and the fact that they form a set sion impossible. their provenance and circula- for the iconostasis, we can infer As icons have an important tion can be drawn. Most of them that they were sent to the Ser- role in a church, in worship and are works of the Cretan school, bian church. For others, like the personal devotion, they can eas-
156 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
ily circulate at any time. In the case of Constantinople some of them could easily have ar- rived at a later period as gifts, or to be used in a monastery’s new dependency, or even be employed in the production of myron, which takes place only in Constantinople. Providing a definite answer is a risky task. As for attributing any produc- tion during the Post-Byzantine period to Constantinople itself, it is difficult, at least for the time being, to conclude, although new material comes to light late- ly. We hope that future research on this material will enable safer conclusions.
Fig 17. Ecumenical Patriarchate. Icon of Saint George
157 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES 14 Millas 2000, 220-1; Evans 2004, 167-9 no 90 (A.-M. Weyl Carr); Vas- silaki 2010, 71-3 (A.-M. Weyl Carr). 1 Georgios Sotiriou (1937) was the first to study some of the most im- portant icons in the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Lat- 15 Millas 2000, 216-7. These two icons form a set with the Saint Niko- er, some of them were re-evaluated in the dispute between Dimitri- laos and Saint George icons (Millas 2000, 219, 222-3), as well as with os Pallas (1966, 1971, 1975-6) and Manolis Chatzidakis (1969, 1972) two unpublished icons of Saint John and Abraham’s Hospitality, all on the subject of Post-Byzantine painting in Constantinople. Over in Hagia Triada church in Chalki. the last decades, new material from the Patriarchate was presented in the studies of Athansios Paliouras (1989) and Maria Kazamia- 16 Millas 2002, 95. Tsernou (2013), as well as in several publications concerning recent 17 Chatzidakis 1977, 110-2 no 63, pl. 46-7, 118. Only one other work, restorations in orthodox churches (Hekimoglou 2004; Kazamia- which copies the Bathas icon is known, always in Patmos, dated in Tsernou 2006, 2009). However, an important number of recently 1626 (Chatzidakis 1977, 165, no 140, pl. 65). restored icons have been published as mere illustrations with no commentary, in the albums of Alexandros Kariotoglou (n.d.) and 18 Millas 2000, 329. Akylas Millas (2000, 2002, 2006). 19 0.64 x 0.48 m. 2 The icon measures 0.55 x 0.63 m. According to Sotiriou (1937, 31- 20 Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2000, 396; Hadjichristodou- 2, pl. 21; see also Paliouras 1989, 108-10, fig. 94; Millas 2000, 218; lou forthcoming. Ioannidaki-Dostoglou 1987, 113-5, with previous bibliography; Mil- las 2006, 1:88-9), the icon comes from the Holy Trinity monastery on 21 The epithet Tharenos appears for the first time on the frescoes of the island of Chalki. The icon can be classified within a large group Saint Nikolaos in Maritsa, Rhodes in 1434/5 (Mastrochristos 2012, of Cretan school’s works, which share the same subject, as well as- 134-37, fig. 39-40). certain iconographic characteristics implying a common prototype (Chatzidakis 1974, 189-90; Ioannidaki-Dostoglou 1987). 22 Michailidou 2000, 294, no 25 (Ch. Hadjichristodoulou, S. Perdikis).
3 0.91 x 0.63 m. Kazamia-Tsernou 2013, 274-5, no 20. 23 Papageorgiou 1996, fig. 103.
4 The composition repeats the widely adopted type of the dragon- 24 1.20 x 0.55 m. Hekimoglou 2004, 28-9; Millas 2006, 1:110. Hadji- slayer on horseback, which was created in the fifteenth century christodoulou, 2012. (Vassilaki 2009), and presents important similarities with an icon 25 Both icons come from Saint John Lampadistis monastery in Ka- in the Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine studies in Venice lopanayotis (Michailidou 2000, 250, no 4, 252 no 5 (Ch. Hadjichristo- (fifteenth-sixteenth century), although some stylistic features sug- doulou); Mitsani 2010). gest a later date (Kazamia-Tsernou 2013, 274-5, no 20). 26 This icon from Pelendri is ascribed to the painter Theophylaktos 5 Hekimoglou 2004, 30-1; Millas 2006, 1:86-7. Palpi (Papaioakeim 2005, 137). 6 Borboudakis 1993, 514 no 159, 518-9 no 164. 27 The icons measures 0.94 x 0.70 m. 7 Moreover, it shares approximately the same dimensions (0.85 x 0.53 28 Sotiriou 1937, 26-7, pl. 12; Paliouras 1989, 99, fig. 83 ; Kariotoglou m.) with the Archangel’s icon (0.89 x 0.66 m.), if we take into con- n.d., no pagination; Millas 2006, 1:90. sideration that some centimetres are missing from the right side of Saint Andrew’s icon. 29 Siomkos 2006 with previous bibliography.
8 Chatzidakis 1977, 60, no 9, pl. 15. For the work and activity of An- 30 These two icons had already been associated with each other by A. dreas Ritzos see Chatzidakis and Drakopoulou 1997, 324-32. Tourta (2002, 287-8).
9 Tsigaridas (1996-1997, 116), formulates the hypothesis that the Go- 31 Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2000, 352. nia monastery icons are linked with Theophanes the Cretan work, and consequently they could either probably be his earlier works 32 The icon measures 1.08 x 0.82 m. Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination in Crete or that they could equally reveal his apprenticeship in the Millas 2000, 442-3; Hekimoglou 2004, 46-7; Millas 2006, 1:105. workshop of Andreas Ritzos. 33 Papazotos 1987, 631-2, pl. 123.2, 124.1; Tourta 2001, fig. 5-6, 11, 15.
10 0.91 x 0.57 m. 34 See Tourta 1991 ; Chouliaras 2009, 27-32, 37-8, 285-372, 506; 11 Paliouras 1989, 107, fig. 91. Karampedidi 2009; Skavara 2011.
12 See Chatzidaki 1993, 76-81 no 16; Davidov-Temerinski 2000; Gioles 35 Old photos of the Virgin Hodegetria, Christ Pantocrator and Saint 2004, 277-8; Vocotopoulos 2005, 222-4; Semoglou 2007; Stavropou- Nikolaos icons are given by Millas (2006, 2:206-8). lou 2009. 36 Sabados 2000-1, with previous bibliography.
13 E.g. the icon of the enthroned Virgin with Christological scenes and 37 1.15 x 0.83 m. Sotiriou 1937, 28, pl. 14-5; Paliouras 1989, 110, fig. 95-6; saints on the frame in the Benaki Museum, c.a. 1500 (Vassilaki 2010, Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2006, 1:106-7. 210 no 53 (A. Drandaki), with the previous bibliography) and the frescoes of Theophanes the Cretan in the katholikon of Stavronikita 38 0.95 x 0.53 m. Sotiriou 1937, 28-9, pl. 16 ; Kariotoglou n.d., 42 ; Millas monastery, 1545/6 (Chatzidakis 1986, fig. 115, 116, 128, 142). 2006, 1:100-1.
158 Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue • NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
39 Pallas 1966, 1971, 1975-6; Chatzidakis 1969, 1972. REFERENCES 40 Papazotos 1987, 633, pl. 125.2; Petkos and Karagianni 2007, 34. Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 1998. Εικόνες του Βυζαντινού Μουσείου Αθηνών. Athens. 41 According to Sotiriou the Christ Pantocrator side dates from after the end of the sixteenth century. Baltoyianni, Ch. 1985. Εικόνες. Συλλογή Δημητρίου Οικονομοπούλου. Athens. 42 E.g. the icon of Saints Theodore Tyron and Theodore Stratilates, a pair of Deisis and enthroned Virgin icons, and six icons of Saints Borboudakis, M., ed. 1993. Εικόνες της Κρητικής Σχολής: από τον Andrew, Procopius, Constantine and Helen, Panteleimon and De- Χάνδακα ως τη Μόσχα και την Αγία Πετρούπολη. Athens. metrius, dated in 1710, all in Zographou monastery (Enef 1994, fig. 411, 417-8, 441, 443-5; Kuriakoudis 2005, fig. 61), the icon of Saints Chatzidaki, N., 1993. Από τον Χάνδακα στη Βενετία. Ελληνικές εικόνες Peter and Paul holding a church in Pantocrator monastery (Ka- στην Ιταλία, 15ος-16ος αιώνας. Athens. lamartzi-Katsarou 1998, 258, 261, fig. 142), the icon of Saints George and Demetrius in the Docheiariou monastery (Kuriakoudis 2005, Chatzidakis, M. 1969. “Η ζωγραφική στην Πόλη μετά την Άλωση.” fig. 60), three icons of Saint Ypatios, Christ Pantocrator and Mary Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 5:186. Magdalene with Saint Simon of Simonopetra in Simonopetra mon- Chatzidakis, M. 1972. “Περί Σχολής Κωνσταντινουπόλεως ολίγα.” astery (Kissas 1991, 190-1, fig. 119-20, 122, 124) and two icons of the Archaelogikon Deltion 27, Α΄ Μελέτες: 123-137. Virgin with the apostles Peter and Paul, and the Virgin with child in Karakallou monastery (Strati 2011, 305-8, fig. 156, 323-4, fig. 166). Chatzidakis, M. 1974. “Les débuts de l’école crétoise et la question de l’école dite italogrecque.” In Μνημόσυνον Σοφίας Αντωνιάδη, 43 E.g. the Virgin Glykofiloussa, the Three Hierarchs and a pair of en- 169-211. Venise. throned Christ and enthroned Virgin icons, all from Thessaloniki, now in the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens (Acheimas- Chatzidakis, M. 1977. Εικόνες της Πάτμου : ζητήματα βυζαντινής και tou-Potamianou 1998, 268, no 89, 270, no 90, 272, no 91, 274, no 92; μεταβυζαντινής ζωγραφικής. Athens. Tourta 2010, 223-4, fig. 8, fig. 11), five icons in the Museum of Byz- antine Civilization of Thessaloniki; the Lust Supper and Saint Ste- Chatzidakis, M. 1986, Ο κρητικός ζωγράφος Θεοφάνης. Η τελευταία phen (Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, Papanikola-Bakirtzi and Tourta φάση της τέχνης του στις τοιχογραφίες της Ιεράς Μονής 1994, 24, no 5, 38 no 22; Staikos 2008, 70-1, no 31 (N. Bonovas), who Σταυρονικήτα. Mount Athos. dates the Last Supper icon in the sixteenth-seventeenth century), the Crucifixion (Hadjitryphonos and Ćurčić 2009, 332, no 67 (G. Papa- Chatzidakis, M., and E. Drakopoulou. 1997. Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά zotou); Tourta 2010, 226, fig. 16), two icons of the Kykkos Virgin and την Άλωση (1450-1830), Τόμος 2 (Καβαλλάρος-Ψαθόπουλος). one similar in the Georgiou collection in Zurich (Tourta 2001,163-4 Athens. fig. 5, 7-8), two icons in the Ecclesiastical Museum of Thessaloniki; Chouliaras, I. P. 2009. Η εντοίχια θρησκευτική ζωγραφική του 16ου και Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin Hodegetria, where is dated in the 17ου αιώνα στο Δυτικό Ζαγόρι. Athens. first half of the seventeenth century (Skaltsa, Tzonos, Nitsiou and Mamouri 2007, 100, no 2/4, 122, no 2.3/11), the icon of Saints Deme- Davidov-Temerinski, A. 2000. “Edifice idéal ou réel? Le modèle de trius and Gregory Palamas in Vlatadon monastery (Tourta 1994, 38) 1’église que les apôtres Pierre et Paul tiennent ensemble.” Cahiers and an unpublished icon of the Virgin Hodegetria in Goumenissa, Balkaniques 31 : 39-56. near Thessaloniki. Enef, Μ. 1994. Mount Athos, Zograph Monastery. Sofia. 44 Papadopoulos-Kerameus 1900, 669; For the history of Saints John monastery also see Kamperidis 1993; Lekkou 1999, 94-114. Evans, H. C., ed. 2004. Byzantium: Faith and Power (1261–1557). New York, New Haven, Conn., and London.
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Kariotoglou, A. no date. Constantinople. The Patriarchal Cathedrals. Athens. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, A. 1900. “Η εν τω νησίω Σωζοπόλεως βασιλική μονή Ιωάννου του Προδρόμου και η τύχη της Kazamia-Tsernou, M. I. 2006. “The icons of the church”. In Istanbul: βιβλιοθήκης αυτής”, Vizantiiski Vremennik 7: 661-695. St. Demetrios Church in Ayvansaray. Restoration of the Icons and Iconostas, edited by E. Hekimoglou, 48-93. Thessaloniki. Papageorgiou, A. 1996. Ιερά Μητρόπολις Πάφου. Ιστορία και τέχνη. 1950 χρόνια από την ίδρυσή της. Nicosia. Kazamia-Tsernou, M. I. 2009. “The icons of the church”. In Büyükada; Papaioakeim, K. 2005. “Portable icons”. In The churches of Pelendria. Saint Demetrios Cathedral Church. Restoration of the Icons and History – Architecture – Art, edited by A. Τsagaris, 126-144. Iconostas, edited by E. Hekimoglou, 44-121. Thessaloniki. Nicosia.
Kazamia-Tsernou, M. I. 2013. “About the icons of the Patriarchal church” Papazotos, Th. 1987. “Η ζωγραφική της πενταετίας 1565-70 στη In The Patriarchal Church of Saint George. Architecture, History, Βέροια”. In Aμητός: τιμητικός τόμος για τον καθηγητή Μανόλη Icons, edited by E.Hekimoglou, 206-289 Thessaloniki. Ανδρόνικο. Vol. II, 629-633. Thessaloniki.
Kissas, S. 1991. “Εικόνες”. In Σιμωνόπετρα - Άγιον Όρος, edited by S. Petkos, A. S., and F. Karagianni, eds. 2007. Βυζαντινό Μουσείο Βέροιας. Papadopoulos, 187-191. Athens. Veroia. Sabados, M. I. 2000-1. “Le don du voïvode Ştefan Lăcustă de Moldavie Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, E., D. Papanikola-Bakirtzi, and A. Tourta. à l’église des Serbes de Constantinople », Ζograf 28 : 139-142. 1994. Βυζαντινοί Θησαυροί της Θεσσαλονίκης. Το ταξίδι της επιστροφής. Athens. Semoglou, A. 2007. “Το ομοίωμα της Εκκλησίας του Χριστού στη Σύναξη των Αποστόλων Πέτρου και Παύλου και η διαδικασία Kuriakoudis, E. 2005. “Φορητές και χάρτινες εικόνες, της «μετουσίωσης»”. In ΑΙΜΟΣ 3o Σεμινάριο, Προπλάσματα εικονογραφημένα χειρόγραφα”. In Ο Άγιος Δημήτριος στην στη Μεσαιωνική Αρχιτεκτονική (Βυζάντιο, ΝΑ Ευρώπη, τέχνη του Αγίου Όρους, edited by A. Ntouros, N. Toutos, G. Ανατολία), edited by I. D. Varalis, 67-77. Thessaloniki. Fousteris, 85-152. Thessaloniki. Siomkos, N. 2006. “Εικόνες από το αρχικό τέμπλο του ναού της Lekkou, P. K. 1999. Οι μονές της Βόρειας και της Ανατολικής Θράκης. Υπαπαντής στη Θεσσαλονίκη. Ανασύνθεση ενός συνόλου Thessaloniki. του 16ου αιώνα.” Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 27: 321-334. Mastrochristos, N. 2012. “Ο ναός του Αγίου Νικολάου στα Μαριτσά (1434/5). Όψεις της παλαιολόγειας τέχνης του 15ου αιώνα Skaltsa M., P. Tzonos, P. Nitsiou, and E. Mamouri, eds. 2007. The Ecclesiastical Museum of the Holy Metropolis of Thessaloniki. στην Ιπποτοκρατούμενη Ρόδο.” Δωδεκάνησος Η΄:75-188. Orthodox Theology: Icons and Symbols. Thessaloniki.
Michailidou, L., ed. 2000. Ιερά Μητρόπολις Μόρφου, 2000 χρόνια Skavara, M. P. 2011. Το έργο των Λινοτοπιτών ζωγράφων Μιχαήλ Τέχνης και Αγιότητος. Nicosia. και Κωνσταντίνου στην Επισκοπή Δρυϊνουπόλεως Βορείου Ηπείρου. Συμβολή στη μελέτη της μνημειακής ζωγραφικής του Millas, A. 2000. The Princes Islands. A Retrospective Journey. Athens. 17ου αιώνα. Ioannina.
Millas, A. 2002. Πέρα. Το σταυροδρόμι της Ρωμιοσύνης. Athens. Sotiriou, G. A. 1937. Κειμήλια του Οικουμενικού Πατριαρχείου. Πατριαρχικός ναός και Σκευοφυλάκιον. Athens. Millas, A. 2006. Κωνσταντίνου Πόλις. Η εντός των τειχών Ορθοδοξία. 2 vols. Athens. Spanou, Ch., ed. 2002. Η κατά Κίτιον αγιογραφική τέχνη. Larnaca.
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Staikos, K. S. ed. 2008. Από τη Σάρκωση του Λόγου στη Θέωση του Ανθρώπου. Βυζαντινές και μεταβυζαντινές εικόνες από την Ελλάδα. Athens.
Stavropoulou, A. 2009. “Une version de la Traditio Legis sur une icone italo-cretoise.” In Βενετοκρατούμενος Ελληνισμός: Άνθρωποι, χώρος, ιδέες (13ος-18ος αι.) Πρακτικά Διεθνούς Επιστημονικού Συνεδρίου, (Venise, 3-7 December 2007), edited by Ch. Maltezou, A. Tzavara, and D. Vlassi, 725-739. Venise.
Strati, A. 2011. “Εικόνες του πρώτου μισού του 18ου αιώνα”. In Εικόνες Iεράς Μονής Καρακάλλου, edited by E. N. Tsigaridas, 247-326. Mount Athos.
Tourta, Α. 1991. Oι ναοί του Αγίου Νικολάου στη Βίτσα και του Αγίου Μηνά στο Μονοδένδρι. Προσέγγιση στο έργο των ζωγράφων από το Λινοτόπι. Athens.
Tourta, A. 1994. Σκευφυλάκιο Ιεράς Μονής Βλατάδων. Athens.
Tourta, A. 2001. “Η Παναγία του Κύκκου σε μεταβυζαντινές εικόνες της Θεσσαλονίκης. Παραλλαγές ενός εικονογραφικού τύπου.” Πρακτικά Συνεδρίου «Η Ιερά Mονή Κύκκου στη βυζαντινή και μεταβυζαντινή Αρχαιολογία και τέχνη», 161- 179. Nicosia.
Τourta, A. 2001. “Εικόνες ζωγράφων από το Λινοτόπι (16ος-17ος. αιώνας). Νέα στοιχεία και διαπιστώσεις για τη δραστηριότητά τους.” Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 22: 341-356.
Τourta, Α. 2002. “Εικόνες του Φράγγου Κατελάνου στη Θεσσαλονίκη”. In Ζητήματα Μεταβυζαντινής Ζωγραφικής στη μνήμη του Μανόλη Χατζηδάκη. Πρακτικά Επιστημονικού Διημέρου 28-29 Μαΐου 1999, edited by E. Drakopoulou, 287-305. Athens.
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Vassilaki, M. 2009. “An Icon of Saint George killing the Dragon by the Painter Angelos: A New Acquisition in the Benaki Museum”. In The Painter Angelos and Icon-Painting in Venetian Crete, 153-167. London. (Originally published in Πεπραγμένα ΣΤ’ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, vol. Β΄, Chania 1991, 41-49).
Vassilaki, M., ed. 2010. Χειρ Αγγέλου Ένας ζωγράφος εικόνων στη Βενετοκρατούμενη Κρήτη. Athens.
Vocotopoulos, P. L. 2005. “Η εικόνα του Νικόλαου Ρίτζου στο Σεράγεβο. Εικονογραφικές παρατηρήσεις”, Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 26: 207-226.
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Some Notes on the Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese
D eme t r i o s A thanasoulis
Sporadic elements betray only imitators and remained a unique distant relations through third- hybrid and the most conspicuous party models with the capital. building of this conservative In the Peloponnese, the Peloponnesian idiom, which, absence of official architecture finally, faded away in favor of the from the major urban, Helladic School. commercial, and administrative Despite the centralized center of the Peloponnese, character of the Byzantine state Corinth, leaves a hard-to-fill void and the unique architectural in restoring the architectural production of the empire’s history of the region. It seems capital in terms of both quality that Constantinople’s infiltration and quantity, one is surprised into the local idiom was greater at the atavistic attachment of ABSTRACT than what was previously the Aegean and Greece to local In Byzantine architectural believed, but many links in building tradition, which was production of the periphery, the the chain connecting the two dictated by concrete restrictions influence of Constantinople was traditions have simply been lost. such as limited financial uneven and rather sporadic. Characteristic is the case of the resources, the technical skills In the Aegean Islands and Constantinopolitan five-dome of building workshops, and the specifically in the Cyclades, the arrangement of Palaia Episkopi available construction materials, local building tradition more of Nikli, a church built by local and yet which proved strong and or less developed unaffected. masons. Episkopi found no self-sufficient.
163 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ings. Of course, the percentage of preservation of architectural production in the periphery is comparable. Of total monumen- tal reserve, only churches offer a minimally sufficient number of examples2. The loss of information we can draw from the written sourc- es is even greater, given that the Byzantine administrative ar- chives have been destroyed and whatever information we have is Fig 1A. Paros, derived from other sources such Katapoliani. Ground as historical texts and ekphraseis. Plan (S. Voyadjis). Thus, any approach which involves architectural produc- tion in Byzantium is subject to concrete limitations and is high- ly insecure, especially when we are called upon to examine ques- tions of reciprocal influences. During the period when Byzantine architecture was be- Fig 1B. Paros, ing formed between the 4th and Katapoliani, th interior from W. 7 century as an uninterrupted continuation of the common Roman building tradition, and Byzantine architecture in the perial capital of Constantinople, although the mainland Greek periphery of the empire, particu- which is literally insignificant, provinces were still subject to larly in the Peloponnese and the is generally acknowledged to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Aegean, as well as Constanti- make approaching the subject Rome, the entire Hellas and Ae- nople’s contribution to its evolu- fragmentary and in many cases gean area belonged to the sphere tion, has long occupied special- even futile. The largest city in of influence of Constantinop- ists in the field1. all of Medieval Ecumene and olitan architecture. The impact However, the percentage of most important artistic centre of Constantinople is normally surviving Byzantine architectur- in the world has lost the over- found in church typology and al remains preserved in the im- whelming majority of its build- architectural decoration. The re-
164 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS
lation to construction elements was implemented with build- Fig 2. Lechaion, Leonides’ Basilica, aerial view (K. Xenikakis). was more limited, given that ing materials and construction in this area, building materials methods, stylistic and struc- available in each place and lo- tural features indigenous to the cal building traditions played a Cyclades. The vaults of porous decisive role. Let us now look at voussoirs alternating in color to two characteristic examples. ensure the elegance of the inte- Fig 3. Chios, katholikon of Nea Mone. In the Aegean, at the em- rior space during the period it blematic Katapoliani on Paros remained without wall decora- (Fig. 1A-B)3, a daring archi- tion are remarkable. The large tectural design consisting of a windows were formed by stone domed cross-shaped vaulted voussoirs with the characteristic basilica and recalling the Justini- surrounding brick course on the anian architecture of the capital4 arches5.
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constantinoPolitan features in the middle Byzantine architecture of naXos In the Peloponnese, in anoth- er landmark of Byzantine archi- tecture, the three-aisle timber- roofed basilica of St. Leonides in Lechaion (Fig. 2)6, Corinth’s western port, the metropolitan
0 1 2 3 4 5 m see of Greece under the Pope, recalls architecture in Constan- tinople: not only its bold plan, enormous dimensions, architec- tural decoration and sculpture, but also its construction ele- ments such as opus mixtum with alternating courses of brick and fig. 1. naxos, metochi. church of the holy apostles. Plan and longitudinal section (K. Aslanidis) stonework, the plastering of the façades with the imitation of the ashlar system, and the vaulting with pure brickwork. During the difficult transi- Fig 4A. Metochi, tional period between the 7th Hagioi Apostoloi. th Plan and Section and 9 century, Byzantine ar- 0 1 2 3 4 5 m (K. Aslanidis). chitecture assumed its medi- fig. 2. Naxos, metochi. church of the holy apostles. Plan (representation) (K. Aslanidis) 23
Fig 4B. Metochi, Hagioi Apostoloi from SW.
166 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS eval character. One of its main complex vaulting such as cross- betray the technical insecurity of evolutionary characteristics was in-square churches, were built craftsmen. However, in the- sec the development of local mani- with simple means and obvi- ond half of the 10th century par- festations which have been con- ous design shortcomings and ticularly, churches improved at ventionally called “schools”7 or uncertainty about the means of the level of construction, while sometimes “idioms” in reference execution, especially of more developing their architectural to small-scale architectural enti- demanding constructions like vocabulary and decorative rep- ties. These local expressions pro- domes and vaults10. Generally ertoire. The nature of these indi- duced important buildings in speaking, Early Byzantine mod- vidual elements is to be sought the 9th and 10th centuries, given els were reproduced in combina- in the local tradition, primarily that the recovery of Byzantium tion with elements of the anony- the Roman and Early Byzantine, increased architectural produc- mous architectural tradition. which provided elements that tion and simultaneously al- local craftsmen creatively trans- The picture we have in the Ae- lowed the erection of ambitious formed. gean area is comparable: inward- buildings, resulting in a larger turning, small buildings, chiefly A similar picture is present- number of masons’ workshops basilicas and single-aisle church- ed in the Cyclades and Aegean and the development of crafts- es, with only a very few transi- Islands generally: after the re- men’s technical skills8. tional cross-in-square churches, capture of Crete in 961, the pro- Within this framework of which were built with available duction of church architecture schools, the imperial architec- construction materials and rudi- increased and developed, repro- ture of Constantinople, whose mentary technical skills11. Con- ducing old models of the local quality corresponded to the stantinopolitan influences are architecture13. wealth being amassed in the not documented in the architec- In Middle Byzantine architec- capital, held a leading position. ture of the transitional period. tural production of the periph- During the transitional centu- The consolidation of Byzan- ery, the presence of the School of ries in southern Greece and the tine rule in southern Greece and Constantinople was uneven and Peloponnese in particular, which the Peloponnese after the suc- rather sporadic. The main means apart from the economic crisis cessful campaigns against the of dispersing its great building which was afflicting the empire Slavs in 783 and 805, and primar- tradition was through inviting was also experiencing the settle- ily the recovery experienced by architects and craftsmen from ment of large Slav populations the empire after 843, under the the capital, who erected build- in its rural regions, the develop- rule of the Macedonian dynasty, ings with all the design, stylis- ment of a local idiom called the led to increased building produc- tic, and construction elements of “Pre-Helladic School” has been tion. The Pre-Helladic School in Constantinople. These were the ascertained9. It produced low- the Peloponnese developed and so-called “implanted” monu- technology, low-cost buildings. acquired distinctive architectural ments like the church of Virgin Single-aisle churches and three- characteristics12. These build- Veljusa (1080) in the northern aisled timber-roofed basilicas, ings had a primarily conserva- part of Macedonia14. In the Ae- and more rarely buildings with tive character and continued to gean, the only testified case of an
167 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
4-B)18. Its plan, the domed simple tetrastyle cross-in-square church is typical for the Aegean islands, while the Constantinopolitan variant of the complex cross- in-square, known also in the other provinces of the Empire, remained completely unknown there19. The arrangement of cha- pels in the side compartments of Fig 5. Naxos, Hagios Mamas from SW. the narthex and the upper story of the exonarthex connects this monument with the tradition of planning and building subsidiary chapels as integral components of the architectural character of the primary church20. However, this was a practice which devel- oped not only in Constantinople but in the Byzantine Empire gen- erally21. The rare for the Cyclades Fig 6. Santorini, brickwork decoration consisting Episkopi from NE. of brick crosses and ceramic ro- settes is reminiscent of a clumsy implanted Constantinopolitan of ashlar masonry in the plaster imitation of provincial proto- monument was the katholikon preserved on byzantine churches types, away from the facade of Nea Mone, Chios (Fig. 3)15. of several Aegean, such as the decoration of the Constantinop- Its erection would henceforth Hagios Georgios Marathou, a olitan School. The awkward plas- determine the development of domed single nave church on tic arrangement of the facades Chiot church construction. The Naxos, betray only distant rela- with arches not corresponding gate of the castle at Palio Pyli tions (through third-party mod- to the interior articulation of the building, betrays the craftsman’s on Kos has also been associated els) with the school in the capi- 17 lack of understanding of the ele- with the byzantine Capital16. tal . Correspondingly, another church on Naxos, Hagioi Apos- ment he saw and imitated. In- In the Aegean Islands and toloi in Metochi, also presents deed, their configuration in two specifically in the Cyclades, the elements which are not inscribed zones recalls Asia Minor mod- local building tradition more or in the Cycladic idiom but they els, and not their original imple- less developed unaffected. Spo- can barely and only indirectly be mentation in Constantinopolitan radic elements like the imitation linked with Constantinople (Fig. church architecture22. However,
168 Fig 7. Mystras, Hodegetria from NE. the Constantinopolitan articula- vaults of this domed simple tet- Although it was built with impe- tion of the facades employing rastyle cross-in-square church rial sponsorship, and typologi- the “triumphal arch” system23 of are built of porous voussoirs; cally this rare octastyle cross-in- blind arches is adopted in three it has a large cylindrical dome square church is not connected churches on islands with closer with eight windows, and lit by with the island tradition, its mod- relations with the capital: Ha- large dilobe and trilobe win- els are not to be found in the cap- gios Stephanos in Mantamados, dows whose arches were sur- ital, since it applied all the sty- Lesbos24, Metamorphosis in Ka- rounded by a projecting band listic and construction elements lamoti, Chios25 and Panagia in of brick. These characteristic de- of the Aegean idiom. The two Potami, Samos26. tails appear to confirm the opin- satellite chapels of the church are ion of K. Aslanidis that its model proved to be later additions29. In the Cyclades, even in mon- was the emblematic Early Chris- Here too, as at the famous Mon- uments where high aspirations tian Katapoliani on neighboring astery of Episkopi on Sikinos30, are expressed and which are re- Paros. Moreover, delving into and the church of Hagios Geor- moved from the restrictions of the achievements of the glorious gios Diasorites on Naxos31, the the local idiom, the models did Justinianian past were basic con- use of projecting brick course not come from Constantinople, stants in Byzantine architecture. surrounding the window arches which proved to be hopelessly is a constant characteristic of the distant as concerned building This basically autochthonous local building tradition. traditions. The example of Ha- architectural production is fur- gios Mamas in Potamia, Naxos ther confirmed in the church of Returning now to the Pelo- is characteristic (Fig. 5)27. The Episkopi on Santorini (Fig. 6)28. ponnese, we find that the influ-
169 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
with the capital and the activity of imperial officials in the region due to their poor state of preser- vation and problematic dating33. Moreover, the absence of buildings of official architecture from the major urban, commer- Fig 8. Corinth, cial, and administrative center of Church in Kraneion the Peloponnese, Corinth, leaves Basilica, Plan (Ch. Bouras). a hard-to-fill void in restoring the architectural history of the region34. The majority of the ar- chaeologically investigated Co- rinthian byzantine churches are humble structures. Indicative for the loss of the major medi- eval buildings is the case of the middle byzantine phase of the basilica of Kraneion (Fig. 8)35,
Fig 9. Corinth. which had been converted into Acrocorinth Castle. a peculiar domed church, an un- Central Gate of the known architectural type in the inner wall. Peloponnese which could also be connected with Constantino- ence of Constantinople on the during the Middle Byzantine pe- politan tradition by reason of 36 architecture of the region was riod following the Reconquista of the daring size of its dome . The sporadic, while no instance of an the beginning of 9th c. with its ad- significance of the lost secular ar- implanted Constantinopolitan ministrative and ecclesiastical re- chitecture of Corinth can also be building has to date been identi- organization and the growth of understood by the examination fied. The first building we can se- missionary activity with holy fig- of the Acrocorinth (Fig. 9), the curely characterize as such dates ures like Hosios Nikon ho Meta- imposing fortified citadel of this 37 to much later, to Paleologan noeite and Hagios Petros bishop provincial capital . The middle times. This is the church of the of Argos, implanted architecture byzantine fortifications of the Hodegetria in Mystras, which is not substantiated. The erec- Peloponnesian castle could also be connected with contempora- would also mark the architecture tion of important buildings like neous structures in Constanti- of the Despotate of Morea (Fig. the cathedral of Lacedaimonia, nople and its hinterland. 7)32. In any case, despite the in- strongly influential for the local tense interest shown by the byz- architectural tradition, cannot According to the existing antine capital in the Peloponnese for the time being be associated monumental reserve of the re-
170 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS gion, there are recognizable fea- tures in Peloponnesian churches which, as in the Aegean, prob- ably attest to an indirect rela- tion to models in the capital. For instance, there is the Panagia of 38 Steiri (Fig. 10) , a typical monu- Fig 10. Corinthia, ment of the local school of the Panagia Steiri cross-in-square with atrophied from N. west arm variant, where the ga- ble wall of the north arm of the cross, perforated by large win- dows, might have drawn not directly from the Constantinop- olitan architecture but from in- termediary monuments-bearers of the tradition of the capital, such as the katholikon of the monastery of Hosios Loukas of Steiri, Phocis, where the walls are pierced with series of large 39 windows . Fig 11. Elis, Nonetheless, the local school’s Francavilla. The Dome from NE. osmosis with the capital’s main construction and stylistic fea- by three “foreign” elements: (1) tures in a peripheral monument the sketchy implementation of dating to the 11th century, Fran- cavilla in Elis (Fig. 11), proves opus mixtum with alternating that Constantinople’s infiltra- courses of brick and rough-cut tion into the local idiom was porous stone; (2) the cylindri- much greater than what was cal dome, pierced by eight large previously believed, but many windows—a rare combination links in the chain connecting the that oddly recalls the dome of two traditions have simply been the church of Hagios Mamas lost40. The building, a cross-in- on Naxos, a contemporaneous square with atrophied west arm building, we saw above, and church, while displaying all the (3) the wide use of concealed typical features of the Pelopon- course technique41. In fact, this nesian School, was enhanced is the earliest example of appli-
171 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 12A. Phocis, Hosios Loukas, katholikon from SW.
Fig 12B. Phocis, Hosios Loukas, Katholikon interior. cation of this type of masonry betrays originality in the archi- ladic School of architecture was in southern Greece, and indeed tectural composition. flourishing in the neighboring regions of Attica and Boeotia43. the earliest case of its combining The buildings referred to with a dentil band surrounding above belonged to the Pelopon- In fact, we believe that Con- the arches of the windows, thus nesian architectural idiom42, stantinople was present in the interrupting the continuity of which dominated the region in leading—and contemporane- the joints of the masonry and the the 10th and 11th centuries, the ous—monuments of these two window arches, a feature which same era when the famous Hel- local expressions of the Greek
172 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS peninsula: in the “helladic” mo- nastic complex of Hosios Lou- kas in Phocis and particularly its katholikon (Fig. 12A-B), and in the “peloponnesian” church of Palaia Episkopi of Nikli in Te- gea (Fig. 13A-C)44. In the case of both monuments, the Constanti- nopolitan architect worked with local building workshops, and the results produced, were strik- Fig 13A. Palaia Episkopi, Tegea, ingly different. Plan. An original octagon domed church with complex vaulting was implemented in the katho- likon of Hosios Loukas monas- tery. Its impressive interior with the central unified space was in- tensified by the rich mural deco- ration consisting of mosaics and polychrome marble slabs and the diffuse light from literally perforated walls. The masonry of the building betrays the im- Fig 13B. Palaia plication of local masons. Episkopi, Tegea from SE. At Palaia Episkopi of Nikli, a conservative local variant of the “transitional” cross-in-square church was applied on unusu- ally large dimensions, with vaults resting on walls instead of col- umns, without even passages to the west corner bays. It was com- bined with a five-dome vaulting Fig 13C. Palaia system, since, apart the central Episkopi, Tegea, dome, small domes covered the South façade four corner bays. The architectur- restored, (D. Athanasoulis al configuration divided the space after a K. Siountri’s into three relatively autonomous drawing).
173 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The five-dome arrangement, which lends Episkopi its gran- deur, became popular when it was applied to the famous Nea Ekklesia, built by Basil I in 880 at the imperial palace in Con- stantinople (Fig. 14)47. As Palaia Episkopi, the Nea (Ekklesia) had a multiple dedication as well. Soon, it became the model for five-dome churches throughout the empire. Palaia Episkopi is the sole example of a five-dome church in Middle Byzantine Hel- ladic architecture. In addition to its hybrid archi- tectural composition, the original way of application of construc- tion and stylistic elements, all Fig 14. Nea Ekklesia, aisles, suggesting more than one belonging to the local building Constantinople. dedication for the church, an as- 15th c. engraving detail. tradition, such as the extremely sumption which is reinforced by extensive use of reticulate revet- the placement of the small domes ment friezes, covering the upper on the corner compartments. parts of gable walls, the apses The applied ground plan is and the domes, also reflects -ad not unknown in the Pelopon- vanced views and an inspired nese. It is identical with the Kok- architect. The monument’s large kine Ekklesia in Mazi, a 9-10th dimensions and the hybrid com- century building45 and it is also bination of the Peloponnesian associated with a popular varia- architectural idiom with a pre- tion of the cross-in square type eminent and emblematic Con- with atrophied the west arm of stantinopolitan feature—of the the cruciform core, mentioned imperial court, no less—namely already above. This plan is im- the five-dome vaulting of Nea plemented in many of the re- Ekklesia, lend the building sym- gion’s churches during the 10th bolic content and connect it with and 11th centuries, and has been a founder who deliberately min- associated with the activity of gled these elements, underscor- Hosios Nikon ho Metanoeite46. ing the link between the Pelo-
174 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS
Fig 15. Hagia Mone in Areia, Nauplion from N. ponnese and Constantinople in Peloponnesian idiom, which, fi- skills of building workshops, and a region which had been cut off nally, faded away in favor of the the available construction materi- with the tribulations of the Slavic Helladic School. als, and yet which proved strong invasion and whose full integra- In conclusion, despite the cen- and self-sufficient. Indeed, while tion under control of the empire’s tralized character of the Byzan- the Cycladic and Peloponnesian center was still a relevant issue. tine state and the unique architec- idiom did not transcend their However, in contrast with tural production of the empire’s provincial character, the Hel- Hosios Loukas, which marked capital in terms of both quality ladic School produced buildings, the evolution of the Helladic and quantity, one is surprised such as the katholikon of the Ha- School, becoming also a proto- at the atavistic attachment of the gia Mone, Areia, Nauplion (Fig. 48 type of many churches in the Aegean and Greece, the “Katotika 15) , of comparable quality to Helladic peninsula, the contem- Mere” - the “Low Parts” of the those of Constantinople. poraneous Episkopi found no Empire- to local building tradi- imitators and remained a unique tion, which was dictated by con- hybrid and the most conspicu- crete restrictions such as limited ous building of this conservative financial resources, the technical
175 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES 37 Athanasoulis 2009, 40-73. 1 Cf. Vocotopoulos 1981. 38 Orlandos 1935, 81-85. Athanasoulis 2014. 2 See the analytical list of monuments of the Aegean islands and sea- 39 See below fig. 12A-B. Stikas 1970, 207-208. shores: Atlas 2014. 40 Athanasoulis 2006, 225-51 and passim. 3 Jewell and Hasluck 1920. 41 Vocotopoulos 1979. 4 Mitsani 2006 with further bibliography. Indirect contact with the 42 Cf. supra n. 12. Constantinopolitan architecture and links with peripheral centers 43 Millet 1916. have also been suggested: Ćurčić 2010, 236. 44 Orlandos 1973, 141-163. Athanasoulis 2015. 5 Orlandos 1965, fig. 21. 45 Athanasoulis 2006, 213-24. 6 Pallas 1990 with earlier bibliography. Sanders 2005, 437-440. Atha- nasoulis 2013, 199, with further bibliography. 46 Athanasoulis and Kappas 2015. 7 Vocotopoulos 1992, 199-213. 47 Magdalino 1987. Theis 2005, 30-9. 8 Vocotopoulos 1989. Ćurčić 2010, 263-340. 48 Bouras and Boura 2002, 81-5. 9 Vocotopoulos 1992, 201-5. 10 Bouras 2001, 49, 62. Cf. Athanasoulis 2006, 511, 518-21 and passim. 11 Aslanidis 2014, 374-393. 12 Athanasoulis 2006, 518-21 and passim. Athanasoulis and Kappas 2015, 90-1 with relevant bibliography. 13 Bouras 1992, 126-7. Cf. Aslanidis 2014, 379-80, 394. 14 Velenis 1997, 54. 15 Bouras 1981 with further bibliography. Cf. also Ousterhout R. 1992 and Voyadjis 2009 with previous bibliography. 16 Tsouris 2001. 17 Aslanidis 2010, 25-8. For this pseudomasonry see Mamaloukos 2010. 80-2. 18 Aslanidis 2010, 22-5. 19 Bouras 1999, 15. 20 Babić 1969. Ćurčić 1977. 21 Athanasoulis 2006, 337-9. 22 Kappas 2008. 1:318-20. See Çanli Kilisse in Cappadocia (Ousterhout 2005, 71-2). Cf. also St. John at Episkopi of Mylopotamos on Crete (Theocharopoulou 2015, 70). 23 For the term: Ćurčić 1978, 21. 24 Tsitimaki 2015. 25 Bouras 1999, 9-10. 26 Kappas 2008, 2:261-5. 27 Aslanidis 2014. 191-200, 358-61, 378 with further bibliography. 28 Orlandos 1951. Aslanidis 2015. 29 Aslanidis 2015, 110. 30 Franz A. et al. 1969. fig. 5. 31 Aslanidis 2014, 349. 32 Velenis 1984. 169, 196-7, 275-6. 33 Vocotopoulos 1978. 34 Athanasoulis 2013, 206. 35 Bouras and Boura 2002, 194-5, with previous bibliography. 36 Cf. for example the articulation second phase of the katholikon of the Chora Monastery: Ćurčić 2010, 358, fig. 381(B).
176 Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese • D. ATHANASOULIS
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Aslanidis, K. 2014. Βυζαντινή ναοδομία στη Νάξο. Η μετεξέλιξη από Ćurčić, S. 1978. “Articulation of Church Facades During the First Half of την παλαιοχριστιανική στη μεσοβυζαντινή αρχιτεκτονική. the Fourteenth Century”. In L’ art byzantin au debut du XIVe siècle, Ph.D. diss.: University of Patras. Symposium de Gračanica 1973. 17-27. Beograd.
Aslanidis, K. 2015. “Επανεξέταση της αρχιτεκτονικής του ναού της Ćurčić, S. 2010. Architecture in the Balkans, From Diocletian to Süleyman Επισκοπής Σαντορίνης”. In Αφιέρωμα στον Ακαδημαϊκό the Magnificent. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Παναγιώτη Βοκοτόπουλο, edited by V. Katsaros and A. Tourta: Franz, A., H. Thompson and J. Travlos. 1969. “The “Temple of Apollo 107-114. Athens: Kapon editions. Pythios” on Sikinos”. AJA 73.4: 397-422.
Atlas of the Christian Monuments of the Aegean, from the Early Christian Jewell, H. and F. Hasluck. 1920. The Church of Our Lady of the Hundred Years to the Fall of Constantinople 2014, edited by N. Gkioles and Gates (Panagia Hekatontapyliani) in Paros. London. G. Pallis. Athens. General Secretariat of the Aegean and Island Policy. Kappas, M. 2008. Η εφαρμογή του σταυροειδούς εγγεγραμμένου στη μέση και την ύστερη βυζαντινή περίοδο. Το παράδειγμα Athanasoulis, D. 2006. “Η ναοδομία στην Επισκοπή Ωλένης κατά του απλού τετρακιόνιου / τετράστυλου. 2 vols. Ph.D. diss. την μέση και ύστερη βυζαντινή περίοδο”,. 2 vols. Ph.D. diss.: Thessalonike: Aristotle University of Thessalonike. Aristotle University of Thessalonike. Magdalino, P. 1987. “Observations on the Nea Ekklesia of Basil I”. JÖB Athanasoulis, D. 2009. The Castle of Acrocorinth and its Enhancement 37: 51-64. Project (2006-2009). Ancient Corinth. Mamaloukos. S. 2010. “Treatments of the Facades with Inscribed Athanasoulis, D. 2013. “Corinth”. In Ηeaven and Earth. Cities and and Painted Architectural Forms and Decorative Features Countryside in Byzantine Greece, edited by J. Albani and E. in Mid-Byzantine Architecture”. In Architecture of Byzantium Chalkia, 192-209. Athens. and Kievan Rus from the 9th to the 12th Centuries. Materials of the Athanasoulis, D. 2014. “Νέα στοιχεία για την Μονή Κοιμήσεως της International Seminar, November 17-21. 2009. Transactions of the Θεοτόκου στου Στείρη Κόρφου Κορινθίας”. In Χριστιανική State Hermitage Museum LIII, 74-88. St. Petersburg: The State Αρχαιολογική Εταιρεία. 34ο Συμπόσιο Βυζαντινής και Hermitage Publishers. Μεταβυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας και Τέχνης. 15-16. Athens. Millet, G. 1916. L’ école grecque dans l’ architecture byzantine, Paris.
Athanasoulis, D. 2015. “ Από την Τεγέα στο Νίκλι. Νέα στοιχεία Mitsani, A. 2006. “Το παλαιοχριστιανικό τέμπλο της Καταπολιανής για την πελοποννησιακή πρωτοβυζαντινή πόλη και το Πάρου”. Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 27: μεσαιωνικό κάστρο”. In Χριστιανική Αρχαιολογική Εταιρεία. 75-90. 35ο Συμπόσιο Βυζαντινής και Μεταβυζαντινής Αρχαιολογίας και Τέχνης. 17-18. Athens. Orlandos, A. 1935. “Βυζαντινοὶ ναοὶ τῆς Ἀνατολικῆς Κορινθίας”. Archeion ton Vyzantinon Mnimeion tes Ellados 1: 53-90. Athanasoulis, D. and M. Kappas 2015. Σταυροειδείς εγγεγραμμένοι ναοί με συνεπτυγμένο δυτικό σκέλος. In Αφιέρωμα στον Orlandos, A. 1951. “Η ‘Πισκοπή της Σαντορίνης”. Archeion ton Ακαδημαϊκό Παναγιώτη Βοκοτόπουλο, edited by V. Katsaros Vyzantinon Mnimeion tes Ellados 7: 178-214. and A. Tourta: 79-96. Athens: Kapon editions. Orlandos, A. 1965. “Ἡ πρόσφατος ἀναστήλωσις τῆς Καταπολιανῆς Babić, G. 1969. “Les chapelles annexes des églises byzantines. Fonction τῆς Πάρου - Πορίσματα ἐρευνῶν καὶ νέα εὑρήματα”. liturgique et programmes iconographiques”. Paris. Επετηρίς Εταιρείας Κυκλαδικών Μελετών 5: 9-52.
Bouras, Ch. 1981, H νέα Μονή της Χίου, Ιστορία και αρχιτεκτονική, Orlandos, A. 1973. “Παλαιοχριστιανικὰ καὶ βυζαντινὰ μνημεῖα Athens. Τεγέας - Νυκλίου”, Αρχείον των Βυζαντινών Μνημείων της Ελλάδος 12. Bouras, Ch. 1997. “Η βυζαντινή αρχιτεκτονική στα νησιά του Αιγαίου». In Το Αιγαίο. Επίκεντρο του ελληνικού πολιτισμού, edited by L. Ousterhout, R. 1992. “Originality in Byzantine Architecture: The Case of Papaioannou and D. Comini-Dialeti: 121-130. Athens. Nea Moni on Chios”. JSAH 51/1: 48–60.
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Sanders, G. 2005. “Archaeological Evidence for Early Christianity and the End of Hellenistic Religion in Corinth.” In Urban Religion in Roman Corinth, edited by D. N. Schowalter and S. J. Friesen, 419–42. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Theological Studies 53.
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Theis, L. 2005. Flankenräume im mittelbyzantinischen Kirchenbau. Wiesbaden.
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Tsitimaki, M. 2015. “Ο ναός του Αγίου Στεφάνου στον Παλιό Μανταμάδο Λέσβου. Μια πρώτη προσέγγιση”. In Αφιέρωμα στον Ακαδημαϊκό Παναγιώτη Βοκοτόπουλο, edited by V. Katsaros and A. Tourta: 47-56. Athens: Kapon editions.
Tsouris, K. 2001. “Το κάστρο στο Παλαιό Πυλί και ο όσιος Χριστόδουλος ο Λατρηνός”. In Ιστορία, Τέχνη και Αρχαιολογία της Κω, Α΄ Διεθνές Επιστημονικό Συνέδριο, Kos, Κως 2-4 Μαΐου 1997, edited by G. Kokkorou-Alevra, A. Lemou, E. Semantoni-Bournia: 365-78. Athens.
Velenis, G. 1984. Ερμηνεία του εξωτερικού διακόσμου στη βυζαντινή αρχιτεκτονική. 2 vols. Thessalonike.
Velenis, G. 1997. “Ἡ ἀρχιτεκτονικὴ Σχολὴ τῆς Μακεδονίας κατὰ τὴν μέση καὶ ὕστερη βυζαντινὴ περίοδο”. Σύναξη 80: 49-58.
Vocotopoulos, P. 1978. “Παρατηρήσεις στὴν λεγομένη βασιλική τοῦ Ἁγίου Νίκωνος”. In 1st International Congress of Peloponnesian Studies, Sparta, September 7-14, 1975, vol. 2: 273-282. Athens.
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178 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic1
A n g e l i k i K a t s i o t i
ABSTRACT This paper is a presentation Dodecanese and especially in of some typical aspects of the Rhodes, are sporadic, fragmentary relations between Constantinople and sometimes contradictory. and Rhodes from the Early From the early 14th to the early Christian period till the Ottoman 16th centuries, the island came conquest (1522/1523). During the under the rule of the Order of the Early Christian period, the city of Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Rhodes, despite its geographical During these two centuries (1309- position on the maritime trade 1522) Rhodes regained its former routes linking north and south, glory, becoming a nodal point of and even though the province was commerce between East and West, of strategic importance, appears and vice versa. In spatial terms, to have entered a period of decline. the city went through a period In the following Middle Byzantine of gradual transformation that period, any references in literary focused for its survival on the sources about the current current port, taking the form it conditions in the islands of the still retains today.
179 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The physical configuration, when the political decision was sions and social behaviour. Thus the fertility of the land, the geo- reached by the three city-states Christian inscriptions in basili- political and strategic position of Lindos, Kamiros, Ialyssos, to es- cas coexist with pagan themes in the island of Rhodes2 – all these tablish a settlement on the north- private homes: or they generate are some of the factors that over ern tip of the island, taking the new hybrids. The city of Rhodes time have influenced her histori- island’s name for its own. The (Fig 1), despite its geographical cal course. The position of the new city was organized along position on the maritime trade island on the subduction zone the lines of the Hippodamian routes linking the north to the of the African plate below the urban system, it was girdled south, seems in some sort of de- Eurasian plate and the conse- with strong fortifications and cline even though the province quent geological phenomenon of equipped with five safe harbours was of strategic importance. Rhodes emerging in the middle which play thereafter an impor- The results of excavations have of the sea is brilliantly caught tant role in the ostentation and shown that in the early Byzan- by the ancient poet Pindar, who her image. At its peak, in the Hel- tine years neither demographic praises Olympic champion Di- lenistic period, it became one of nor economic development agoras of Rhodes: a plot of land the most splendid of Greek cities. are demonstrable. Poverty and rising from the bottom of the foam- From her renown artistic work- the inferior quality of building shops3 ing sea, a land much-nourishing for came famous works of art materials ensured that mainte- such as the legendary Colossus, a men and kindly to flocks. Its mild nance in some phases of private bronze statue of the god Helios, weather and lots of sunshine houses was very cursory. The and the marble sculpture of the is also referred to in ancient possible public buildings, the Nike of Samothrace and that of myth: the sun-god Helios kissed interpretation of whose precise Laocoon in the snake’s coils. Rhodes, as a result of which use is risky, probably demon- the island was called “Bride In this paper, it is clear that strate the regional rather than of the Sun”. On this island so we will have to limit ourselves to central role that Rhodes played privileged in every way, human enumerate but a few examples, during the early Byzantine pe- presence and activity is testi- albeit typical ones, of the diverse riod, when it acted as a station fied first through archaeology in aspects of relations between Con- for the purpose of fleet trans- the Neolithic Era. Thanks to the stantinople and Rhodes, from the porting the annona, those cereals hard work of the Archaeological Early Christian period onwards, being crucial to the well-being of Service, the rescue excavations with selected bibliography. the Empire, on their way from of the last thirty years at ancient In the Early Byzantine era, Egypt to Constantinople. There Ialyssos have brought to light a the transformation taking place exists an opinion, often repeated new prehistoric settlement, com- gradually in the empire was in the scholarly literature4, on parable to those on Crete and expressed through the dual the prosperity of town based Santorini. influences of Christianity and on its strategic importance as a The starting point for the Hellenism, and their frequent stopover point for refuelling be- city’s development was the “syn- interrelationship. This inter- tween Constantinople and Asia oecisme” in 408/7 BC. That is play affected cultural expres- Minor, but this does not square
180 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic • ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
Fig 1. Rhodes, Medieval town, general view. with the rare mention Rhodes completion of the dome of Hagia lapsed, the Emperor Justin again gets in contemporary written Sophia by Justinian in 532/537. imported bricks from Rhodes sources, nor with the few surviv- According to the testimony of to repair it. It is interesting that ing inscriptions5, be they public the kouropalates Georgios Kodi- laboratory investigation shows or private in character. nos6, the order went out to that the materials employed in Even so, minor province not Rhodian workshops for bricks – the dome of Hagia Sophia have withstanding, Rhodes seems to large, light, but of high strength the same characteristics as that have contributed to the provi- and slender. A few years later in from the great basilica of the sion of building materials for the 562, when part of the dome col- city of Rhodes, which came to
181 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
light during the 1970s7. In the The record of the existence Miracles of Aghios Artemios (be- of diverse links between Rhodes fore 668), other commercial rela- and Constantinople offers plen- tions between Rhodes and Con- tiful evidence in other areas too. stantinople are also testified to The funerary inscription of one indirectly: such as the Rhodian Efthymia11 found in the early boatswain Georgios, ship and Christian cemetery of Skala in land-owner, often visited his son Kamiros is an indication, not in Constantinople8. seen before now, on the interest- ing topic of the coexistence and It is also interesting to observe migration of citizens of Constan- that Constantinople imported tinople to other parts of the Em- from Rhodes yet other small pire in the 5th and 6th centuries – items of material culture, also to Rhodes in this particular case. Fig 2. Constantinople, Saraçhane, mass produced, namely lamps. Early Byzantine lamp, 6th c. (J.W. Efthymia, on her tombstone, Some of the lamps classified as Hayes, Excavations at Saraçhane states her origin – a Konstanti- in Istanbul, v. 2, The pottery, Rhodian may be compared with nopolitissa, or a lady from Con- Princeton 1992, pl. 19, no 25). lamps of Constantinople found stantinople. Hers is one of the in Saraçhane9 (Fig. 2, 3). In my few known examples of funer- research into the whole Rhodian ary inscriptions of such persons corpus, I find that there are simi- outside Constantinople of this larities, if not matches, between date. It is just as interesting to the two centres of Constanti- find that this relocation went on nople and Rhodes. An exchange for some time and was not a ca- of moulds between one manu- sual matter: Fourteen years later facturing centre and another is the same tombstone was reused possible, as well as the chance for a member probably of the arrival of lamps in Rhodes. But if same family, but certainly of the one accepts that Constantinople same origin as the word Kon- imported bricks from Rhodes to stantinopolitissa is employed build the dome of Hagia Sophia, once more. it is quite possible that the same could be true for other con- The recovery in building ac- Fig 3. Rhodes, Early Byzantine lamp, cat. no. ΠΧ 2566, 6th c. temporary items, such as these tivity in the wider island zone, lamps. It is known moreover after the falling away in the that the local production of pot- erection of urban structures as tery of this period in Constanti- a result of the Arab raids, seems nople10 has not yet been proven particularly to have occupied by the discovery of workshop the central administration of facilities and wasters. the empire. However, the con-
182 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic • ANGELIKI KATSIOTI tinued ability of the Arabs from sis on those personalities of an- take the dangerous high-roads their strong foothold in Crete tiquity like the Rhodian schol- of Asia Minor rather than sail to still swoop down upon the ars, Apollonius and Timachides, along the coast through the is- islands throughout the 9th cen- apropos such as the history of lands18. Saints like Elias the tury seems, unsurprisingly, to the Colossus, and less on events Younger of Sicily, who, as if he have worked against creating of the day in Rhodes, then an had a contemporary Green Card conditions of stability. This is re- important commercial and ship- for the 9th century, travelled un- flected in the limited number of ping centre. In the same way hindered too and from in Byzan- monuments of this period. The the Byzantine historical sources, tine and Arab territories, even he recapture of Crete by Nikeforos such as the Chronicle of Theo- shunned, as it seems, the Dodec- Phocas in 961 contributed deci- phanes and the Breviarium of Pa- anese and Rhodes19. It therefore sively to the consolidation of the triarch Nicephorus, often focus appears that the cessation of the Byzantine presence around the on a specific event, usually of dispatch of the annona dramati- Aegean, which entered in the minor importance in the histori- cally affected the intermediate following centuries a stable and cal development of the era14. In stations much earlier than sus- prosperous period. this way, the island, with the rest pected: one such was Rhodes, of the Dodecanese, ‘vanishes’ where the Arab raids dealt a During the Middle Byzan- in these accounts, while in fact decisive blow. The islands were tine period, when looking into in the Arab-Byzantine struggle ‘removed’, not only in fact but the state of play in the islands in for supremacy in the Aegean, also psychologically, in the per- the Dodecanese and especially Rhodes was a primary objective ception of the Byzantines, who Rhodes had, one is immediately of great strategic importance. mentioned them mainly for their struck by the scarcity of substan- glorious past. tial references in the sources, In the perception of the Byz- which are sporadic, fragmentary antines all these islands, includ- Let us not forget though that and sometimes contradictory in ing Rhodes, took on a fuzzy, especially during the 11th and their substance12. These reports, far-off feeling: communications 12th centuries the existence of few enough in any earlier era, were difficult15, they were cut aristocratic houses associated become even rarer in the Middle off from the world, as if inex- with Rhodes – though they were Byzantine period. It is certainly ile. Also the Byzantines had usually rooted in Constantino- no coincidence that texts aimed not inherited from their Greek ple, where they exercised their at the educated classes in the ancestors the drive for overseas offices, which positions were 10th century, such as the Suidae traveling and adventure16. In the honorary. This is confirmed by Lexicon, or the writings of the lives of Saints of the Middle Byz- the family names preserved in emperor Constantinos Porphy- antine era, even the most well- inscriptions and on lead seals rogennetos, De administrando im- travelled ones like Nikon “the found in Rhodes – such as Ar- perio13 are couched for the most Metanoeite” of the 10th century menopoulos, Vardas, Alopos, part in myths and history rather avoid the Dodecanese17, while Pigonitis, Varaina, Katakalon, than in contemporary realities. others, like Hagios Gregorios and also partially reflected in In this, they place more empha- the Decapolite in 829, prefer to place names on the island. The
183 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
the inscription testifies, whose members lived and were bur- ied in Rhodes20. The family had links with Constantinople, as is reflected in the wall paintings of Fig 4. Rhodes, Medieval town, Funerary chapel great technical and artistic skill, of Armenopouloi, Wall the sort of thing that character- painting, Virgin Mary with izes the level of intellectual ma- child, late 12th c. turity of these donors. For their part, the island- ers, the clergy and the people, despite the political changes with their respective dynasties, looked fixedly towards Constan- tinople and its faltering empire, seeking to maintain ties with the central government. During the first decades of the 13th century, the historical and cultural envi- ronment21 in combination with the economic expansion made it possible for painters trained in the workshop tradition of the Empire of Nicaea, itself inherit- edfrom that of Constantinople, to travel from the major centres of the time to Rhodes. Here they undertook the frescoes of the Taxiarchis Michael in Thari and Fig 5. Rhodes, Apolakkia, Ag. oldest example to be noted is of Hagios Fanourios in the medi- Georgios Vardas, Wall painting, Virgin Mary Ακηδιωκτενή, 1289/90. that of Constantine the Rhodian, eval city of Rhodes. Conversely, who was a Councillor (Sekreton) in the once more troubled de- in the Palace in the 10th century. cades at the end of the 13th centu- In the city of Rhodes there are ry, it seems that it was local artists preserved the remains of a fu- who were active. In Rhodes, at nerary chapel with beautiful Hagios Georgios Vardas in Apo- frescoes dated to the late 12th lakkia in 1289/1290, a time when century (Fig. 4), the family foun- law and order had broken down dation of the Armenopouloi as in the Dodecanese, is recorded
184 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic • ANGELIKI KATSIOTI one of the earliest examples tutions of Europe brought to where the dedicatory inscrip- the organization the manner of tion of the church mentions the operation and the social struc- Emperor Andronicus II Palaiolo- turing of a western state. In spa- gos, known for the great effort he tial terms, the city in a gradual made to restore the empire, after transformation was extended its recapture from the Crusaders for survival’s sake so that it was in 1261. In the unusual epithet completely centred on the port, given to the Virgin Mary, name- taking the form it still has today. ly Ακηδιωκτενή (Fig. 5) is to be Despite measures designed detected a reference to an im- to promote mutual tolerance and portant monument of Constan- respect between the residents tinople near the aquaeductum of Rhodes with the Knights, a ακίδουκτος or ακέδουκτος22– second typical expression of whose name the donor incor- the loyalty felt by the islanders rectly remembers, as did thereaf- to the Byzantine Empire (the ter the faithful who congregated first being the church of Ha- in this small rural church in the gios Giorgos Vardas mentioned countryside of Rhodes. This ex- above) is the frescoed church of pression of allegiance to the capi- Fig 6. Rhodes, bilateral icon, Hagios Giorgios Pachymachio- tal at a particularly difficult time Hodegitria, mid 14th c. tis at Lindos, dated by inscrip- can be interpreted in the context tion to 1394/139523. Even though of the desire to preserve the co- the island as been already occu- hesion of the Orthodox Church pied for 80 years, the founders against the heterodox. mention in the inscription, in From the early 14th to early addition to the then Ecumeni- 16th centuries, the island came cal Patriarch Antonios, prob- under the rule of the Order of ably the name of the Byzantine the Knights of St. John of Jerusa- Emperor Manuel V Palaiologos. lem. During these two centuries This last on his accession to the (1309-1522) Rhodes regained its throne in 1390 had secured the former glory, becoming a nodal help of the Knights Hospital- point for the handling of com- lers. Signs such as these have mercial goods between East been interpreted as a desire not and West, and vice versa. At the merely to assert resistance to same time, the shared origin and the Latin church, but mostly to the close links among members state adherence to the orthodox of the multi-ethnic Order within doctrine and the national con- Fig 7. Rhodes, bilateral icon, the political and religious insti- science of the faithful. St Luke, mid 14th c.
185 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Constantinople which thanks to the economic prosperity rich Rhodians of the day had com- missioned from the best ateliers. They comprise the major dou- ble-sided icons, from the same iconostasis, of Christ Pantocra- tor with the Crucifixion, and of the Virgin and Child with the evangelist Luke (Fig. 6, 7), both works of the mid 14th century25. A little later in the third quarter of the same century, the Rhodi- ans brought from the capital the third double-sided icon showing the Virgin Hodegetria and Ha- gios Nikolaos (Fig. 8)26. Whether purchased by Rhodians or gifted as part of the large donation to the island made by the Emperor mentioned before, namely Man- uel V Palaiologos who, having
Fig 8. Rhodes, bilateral close relations with the Order, icon, St Nicholas, third visited Rhodes in 1390, all three quarter of 14th c. of these great icons are works of art of the highest quality, pio- neering for their day. It is not Characteristic of the perma- stantinople and threatened by impossible that they adorned nent interest of the islanders Bayezid: “explorantes de novis churches of the medieval city about the fate of Constantinople regni”. before ending up in the later is the testimony of the Italian The positive nature of churches within the marasia27 24 traveller Nicola de Martoni Rhodes-Constantinople rela- of Rhodes, after the island’s oc- contemporary with the dedica- tions during the period of the cupation by the Turks. Apart tory inscription. On his arrival Knights are certainly comple- from their sacred palladion, in Nisyros, there approached his mented by the precious artworks they were objects of imitation, ship a small boat with six Nisyr- treasured on the island and with as their reputation made them ians on board, who anxiously good fortune preserved to our models for indigenous artists, as asked about the empire recently days. These are the three major is shown by their close typologi- reduced to the area around Con- double-sided icons, works from cal affinity with the works of the
186 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic • ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
15th century located in Kos28 and Nissyros29(Fig. 9). Research has shown these were produced in Rhodian artistic workshops. The traveller mentioned above, that is Nicola de Martoni, supplements our knowledge of the relations between the island and the upper classes of Con- stantinople, writing that in 1394- 1395 the founder of the Hospice of St. Catherine in Rhodes (Fig. 10), Admiral of the Order Fr. Domenico d‘Alamania (1392- 1396), a person of great culture and social contribution, main- tained friendly relations with the Emperor Manuel Palaiologos in Constantinople, whence he Fig 9. Nissyros, purchased precious heirlooms Spiliani Monastery, bilateral icon, and relics for his private chapel, St Nicholas, c1400. “habuit in Constantinopoli ab im- peratore Constantinopolitano, qui est suus carus durabilis amicus, qui accepit de ecclesiis Constantinop- olitanis”30. The fall of Constanti- nople in 1453 in fact may have compelled artists to migrate from the Capital to the island of Rhodes, as happened with Crete. This was but for a short time, until 1523, when Rhodes was occupied by the Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent. But this is another story.
Fig 10. Rhodes, Medieval town, Hospice of St. Catherine.
187 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 I wish to warmly thank my colleague Flora Karagianni for her kind Acheimastou, M. 1966. Αμφιπρόσωπες εικόνες της Ρόδου. Η εικόνα της invitation to participate to the symposium. Οδηγήτριας και του Αγίου Νικολάου, Archaeologikon Deltion 2 For the history of Rhodes, see Papachristodoulou 1994; For the Early 21, Μελέτες, 62-85. Christian period specifically, see also Kollias 2000, 299–308; Kon- Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 1985. Βυζαντινή και Μεταβυζαντινή stantinopoulos and Kollias 1968, 260–5. τέχνη, Κατάλογος έκθεσης στο Παλαιό Πανεπιστήμιο, 85-8. 3 For an account concerning sculpture and workshops see Zimmer Athens. and Bairami 2008, Bairami 2012, with assembled bibliography. 4 For the belief in a gradually shrinking city and its transformation Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 2006. Στο Θάρι της Ρόδου. Ο ναός και οι into a small town, see Kasdagli 2010, 162. This last vision certainly τοιχογραφίες της Μονής του Ταξιάρχη Μιχαήλ. Athens. contrasts with the idea of rich private residences, a densely–packed Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 2009. Δύο αμφιπρόσωπες εικόνες του and wealthy city and so on, as expressed by Deligiannakis 2008, 210; Χριστού και της Παναγίας στη Ρόδο, Deltion tes Christianikes Deligiannakis 2007–2008, 3. Archaeologikes Etaireias 30: 199-214. 5 See the few surviving funerary inscriptions of this period, Mastro- christos2014, 153-170, with assembled bibliography. Bairami, K. 2012. Η μεγάλη ροδιακή πλαστική των ελληνιστικών και ρωμαϊκών χρόνων (unpublished Ph. Diss. University of Athens). 6 Γεώργιος Κωδινός, 140–1, ns 15–24, 144, ns 12-14): when Justinian was building the dome of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (532/37), Bazaiou-Barabas, Th. 1993. “Θαλάσσιοι δρόμοι: δυνατότητες και he ordered the clay bricks from Rhodes, which were famed for δυσκολίες της θαλασσινής επικοινωνίας σε βυζαντινά λόγια their solidity and lightness, “κουβικουλάριον Τρωίλον, τον έπαρχο κείμενα”. In Επικοινωνία στο Βυζάντιο. Πρακτικά Β´ Διεθνούς Θεόδωρον και τον κοιαίστωρα Βασιλίδην …….Βήσαλα μεγάλα, Συμποσίου (ΚΒΕ/EIE), edited by N. Moschonas, 435-444. κούφα, σπογγώδη και λεπτά και λευκά, ο σταθμός πέντε βησάλων Athens. ενός βησάλου ημέτερου”. 7 Cakmak, Erdik and Moropoulou 1997, 153–4, 157. Bitha, I. 2009. Σχόλια στην κτητορική επιγραφή του Αγίου Γεωργίου Παχυμαχιώτη στη Λίνδο της Ρόδου (1394-1395), Deltion tes 8 Deligiannakis 2008, 220–1. Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 30: 159-68. 9 Katsioti (forthcoming). Cheynet, J. C. 2000. Les reliques du Pape Clément, Transversalités 75: 10 Ricci 2012, 156. 171-80. 11 Mastrochristos 2014, 158-60, no 6. 12 See Koutrakou 2004, 403-20. Cakmak, A. S, M. Erdik, A. Moropoulou, 1997. A joint program for the protection of the Justinian Hagia Sophia, Proc. 4th 13 Porphyrogennetus, De Administrando, 84, 88. International Symposium on the Conservation of Monuments in the 14 Theophanes, 385; Nicephori Patriarci, 50-1. Mediterranean Basin (ed. A. Moropoulou, F. Zezza, E. Kollias, I. 15 See: Bazaiou-Barabas 1993, 435-44; Malamut 1988, 536-61. Papachristodoulou), Publ. Technical Chamber of Greece, v. 4, 16 See: Cheynet 2000, 171-3. Rhodes, 153-71. 17 Malamut 1993, 262-3. Deligiannakis, G. 2008. “The economy of the Dodecanese in late 18 Malamut 1993, 247-8. antiquity”. In Sailing in the Aegean. Readings on the economy 19 Malamut 1993, 256. and trade routes, edited by Ch. Papageorgiadou-Banis and A. 20 Katsioti and Archontopoulos 2000, 375-87. Giannikouri, Meletimata 53: 209-33. Athens. 21 For the artistic activity during the 13th c. in Rhodes, with special Kasdagli, A.-M. 2010. “Νομίσματα των μέσων χρόνων στην εκτός emphasis on the mural paintings of Taxiarchis Michael in Thari, Ha- των τειχών πόλη της Ρόδου”, Οβολός 9, Το νόμισμα στα gios Fanourios and Hagios Georgios Vardas, see: Kefala 2015. See νησιά του Αιγαίου, Πρακτικά συνεδρίου της Ε΄επιστημονικής also Acheimastou-Potamianou 2006. συνάντησης, edited by P. Tselekas, v. Β΄, 159-74. Athens. 22 Kefala 2015a, 201-24. Katsioti, A. and Th. Archontopoulos 2000. “Tο παρεκκλήσιο της 23 Bitha 2009, 159-68. οικογένειας των Aρμενόπουλων στη Pόδο του 12ου αιώνα”. 24 Tsirpanlis 1991, 36-7. In Pόδος 2400 χρόνια. H πόλη της Pόδου από την ίδρυσή της 25 Acheimastou-Potamianou 2009, 199-214. μέχρι την κατάληψή της από τους Tούρκους (1523), v. B´, 375- 87. Athens. 26 Acheimastou 1966, 62-85.Katsioti, 2010, 139-52. 27 Marasia is the term given to the inhabited centres that developed Katsioti, A. 2004. “Αμφίγραπτη παλαιολόγεια εικόνα από τη Νίσυρο”, around the walled city during the Turkish occupation (1522–1912), Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 25: 63-76. made up of the Greek communities who were forced to move out from the ‘Burgo’, the largely administrative centre of the Ottomans. Katsioti, A. 2010. “The double-sided icon of the Virgin Hodegetria and Saint Nicholas in Rhodes reconsidered. Its influence on the Art 28 Acheimastou-Potamianou, 1985, 85-8, fig. 88, 89. of the Dodecanese in the 15th century”. In Griechische Ikonen, 29 Katsioti 2004, 63-76. Byzantinische und nachbyzantinischeZeit, Symposium in Marburg 30 Tsirpanlis 1997, 734-5. von 26-29.6.2000, 139-152. Athens.
188 Rhodes-Constantinople, 6th Century to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic • ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
Katsioti, A. Forthcoming. The lamps of Late Antiquity from Rhodes (3rd-7th SOURCES century AD), BAR publications, forthcoming. Constantine Porphygennitus, De Administrando Imperio (edited by G. Kefala, K. 2015. Οι τοιχογραφίες του 13ου αιώνα στις εκκλησίες Moravcsik and R.J.H. Jenkins, Washington 1967). της Ρόδου, Athens (e-book, Ethniko Kentro Tekmiriosis in Georgios Codinus, Παρεκβολαί collaboration with Christianiki Archeologiki Etaireia). εκ της βίβλου του χρονικού περί των πατρίων της Κωνσταντινουπόλεως (edited by B.G. Niebuhri, Kefala, K. 2015a. “Μήτηρ Θεού η Ακηδιωκτενή: Ανάγνωση και Bonn, 1843). ερμηνεία μιας επιγραφής από τη Ρόδο”. In Δασκάλα, απόδοση Nicephori Patriarchi, Breviarium) (edited by C. de Boor, τιμής στην καθηγήτρια Μαίρη Παναγιωτίδη-Κεσίσογλου, 201- Ιστορία Σύντομος ( 1880). 24. Athens. Theophanes, Chronographia 1-2 (edited by C. de Boor, 1883-1885). Koutrakou, N. 2004. “The Distance and the Past: middle-byzantine perception of islands in the Dodecanese (7th-11th centuries)”. In Χάρις Χαίρε. Μελέτες στη μνήμη της Χάρης Κάντζια, 403-420. Athens.
Kollias, E. 2000. “H παλαιοχριστιανική και βυζαντινή Pόδος”. In Pόδος 2400 χρόνια, H πόλη της Pόδου από την ίδρυσή της μέχρι την κατάληψη από τους Tούρκους (1523), Διεθνές επιστημονικό συνέδριο, Pόδος 24-29 Oκτωβρίου 1993, v. B΄, 299-308. Athens.
Konstantinopoulos, G. and E. Kollias. 1968. “Παλαιοχριστιανικαί και βυζαντιναί έρευναι εις την Pόδον”, Archaeologika Analekta ex Athenon 10: 260-5.
Léon Le Grand. 1895. “Relation du pèlerinage à Jérusalem de Nicolas de Martoni, notaire italien (1394-1395), Revue de l Orient Latin 3: 566-669.
Malamut, E. 1988. Les Iles de l’Empire byzantine, VIIIe-XIIe siècles (Byzantina Sorbonensia 8), Paris.
Malamut, E. 1993. Sur la route des saints byzantins, Paris.
Mastrochristos, N. 2014. “Επιτύμβιες επιγραφές από τη συλλογή της Αρχαιολογικής Υπηρεσίας στη Ρόδο (4ος-7ος αι. μ.Χ.)”. In Σοφία άδολος, Τιμητικός τόμος για τον Ιωάννη Χρ. Παπαχριστοδούλου, 153-70. Rhodes.
Papachristodoulou, Chr. 1994. Ιστορία της Ρόδου από τους προϊστορικούς χρόνους έως την ενσωμάτωση της Δωδεκανήσου, Athens² .
Ricci, A. 2012. “Left behind: Small Sized Objects from the Middle Byzantine Monastic Complex of Satyros (Kücükyali, Istanbul)”, Byzas 15: 147-61.
Τsirpanlis, Z. 1991. Η Ρόδος και οι Νότιες Σποράδες στα χρόνια των Ιωαννιτών ιπποτών (14ος-16ος αι.). Rhodes.
Tsirpanlis, Z. 1997. “Γνωστά και άγνωστα ευαγή ιδρύματα στη μεσαιωνική πόλη της Ρόδου (14ος-16ος αιώνας)”. In Φιλερήμου Αγάπησις, Τιμητικός τόμος για την καθηγητή Αγαπητό Τσοπανάκη, 731-43. Rhodes.
Zimmer, G., K. Bairami, 2008. Ροδιακά εργαστήρια χαλκοπλαστικής. Athens.
Deligiannakis, G. 2007-2008. Μια άγνωστη πηγή για την πόλη της Ρόδου της ύστερης αρχαιότητας, Vyzantinos Domos 16: 29-33.
189
The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos During the Iconoclasm Era
C h a r a l a m p o s G. C h o t z a k o g l o u †N i ke K o r f i a t i s i n mem o r i a m
The author examines in his later compilation-, shared also the paper the role of Constantinople common rumor, that Iconoclasm as the administration centre and was never exercised there. Due to as the intermediary for further written sources of that era, as well commercial and cultural contacts as according to archaeological between Cyprus and territories evidence, the author arguments in the Euxeinos Pontos (e.g. that both places were under Bulgaria, Romania, Cherson, the constant byzantine control Georgia). Cherson and Cyprus and obeyed the iconoclastic were not only places of exile, policy, which was initiated in but, according to the Vita of St. Constantinople (726-787 and Steven the Younger - product of a 813-843).
191 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 1. Georgian monastery in Gialia , Cyprus.
During the early Christian prus and is being kept till now as archaeological finds demon- period Cyprus served as one of in the Kykkos Monastery4 on the strate, while the sea-routes of the the important trade posts in the Troodos mountains, a convent Black Sea territories allowed the maritime navigation from Con- with liturgical practices related settlement of Georgian monks in stantinople to Egypt and Syro- to Typika of famous Constanti- Cyprus, who resided in a middle Palestine and vice versa1. The nopolitan monasteries5. Further byzantine monastery near Pa- loss of Egypt and the conquest monastic foundations in Cyprus phos (Fig. 1)13, of Cypriot monks of Syro-Palestine by the Arabs were founded by Constantinop- of the Kykkos-monastery in led to the stronger dependence olitan officials or were connected Georgia14, Romania15 and Bul- of Cyprus to the byzantine capi- to Constantinople, as for example garia16 with important depen- tal, as it became the southern the monasteries of Machairas6, dencies (Metochia). In Bulgarian island-border between the Byz- the Monastery of St. John Chrys- territory Cypriot ceramics of the antine Empire and the Arabs2. ostomos in Koutzobentes7, the byzantine period were found in Recluse of the Holy Neophytos8 excavations17, while the icono- Constantinople served as in Tala near Paphos, the Monas- graphical type of the Holy Virgin the ideal city for the byzantine tery of St. George Mangkanon9 in Kykkotissa was spread in fres- periphery, including Cyprus. Lefkosia, Antiphonetes-monas- coes, engravings and icons up to The Cypriot capital of Lefkosia tery in Kalograia10, as well as the the post-byzantine period18. Cy- was crossed by the Mese Hodos Kamariotissa-monastery11. priot medieval pottery was also (Μέση Ὁδὸς) ending up to the found in Tauric Cherson (Fig. 2)19. church of Hagia Sophia3, while The Cypriot products were a copy of the Hodegetria icon transferred through Constanti- Cyprus and the Black Sea of St. Luke had been sent to Cy- nople to the Euxeinos Pontos12, and specially Cherson shared
192 The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos • CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU also the rumor, that they were power of the dragon (i.e. the byzan- very often used as places of ex- tine emperor), which did not obey his ile, as they both were at the bor- empty words … These places are the ders of the Byzantine Empire areas opposite to the Euxeinos Pon- to Barbarians or Arabs and the tos in the prefecture of Zechia, con- exiled persons were exposed to sisted by Cherson, (Cimmerian) Bos- dangers of attacks, raids and bad porus, Nikopsis, the places next to climate. Well known personali- Gothia-valley, the places around the ties as Timothy III., Patriarch of sea of South Italy, the places south Alexandria (5th c.) and the Pope of the Old-Rome, the metropolis of of Rome Martin I. (653-†655 in Calabria, Naples up to the river of exile)20 church-officials21, Em- Rome, the places south of Lykia and peror Justinian II. (695)22 and up to Pamphylia and Isauria and the numerous monks23 were exiled places, which can be reached by ship, in Cherson, while iconophile as Propontis, the island of Cyprus monks were exiled by the byz- and the territories opposite to it, up antine emperor to Cyprus24. to Tripolis, Tyros and Iope”26. In our paper we will focus to Although the medieval histo- the Iconoclastic period (726-787 rian had more written sources in and 813-843), since a notorious his disposal, than we do today, Fig 2. Glazed bowl (13th c.) with military saint, found in Cherson, hagiological text connects Cy- he had no access to the scientific probably from Cyprus. prus with Crimea and in general methods, which we use today. with the Black Sea. It regards How many of the Byzantines the Life of Steven the Younger had access to historical (715-765)25. The text describes data or even were able the persecutions of the byzantine to read historical emperor against the clergy and texts? On the oth- the iconophile monks, which led er hand, visit- St. Steven, according to his biog- ing the Church rapher, to gather the monks of services in city his Brotherhood and to propose churches and them to abandon their monas- monasteries, tery. Answering the question, the Byzan- where they should flee, Steven tines were lis- stated: “There are three areas of the tening to the (byzantine) Empire, which did not Matins every accepted this filthy (i.e. iconoclas- single day the tic) heresy. I advise you to flee there, version of the as there is no other place under the historical facts as
193 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA accepted by the official Church. life of this information lasted up tion28 of the victorious iconophile These texts, which were inserted to our days, in comparison to the side and the official Church, dat- in Synaxaria, Menologia, Typika pure historical texts, which were ed around the middle of the 9th and the Lives of the Saints, were partially copied or preserved in century, contains legendary in- offered in a simple language and libraries. formation and was characterized as “a notorious unreliable source”29. explained in the preaching, so Returning to the Life of Saint But the case does not end here. the Byzantines had not to know Steven the Younger, it seems This text was used itself as a “his- reading in order to understand that the majority of the Byz- torical source” to other contem- it28. The number of manuscripts, antine citizens was influenced poraneous and later hagiograph- which were copied in the mo- by the Vitas of saints that were ical texts, with result to multiply nastic scriptoria and spread this circulated, as well as by the ser- the references regarding Icono- information, was huge and the mons and preachings that were clasm. Therefore we read in the given by the clergy, according to Journey’s Description of the monk which, Southern Italy, Cyprus Epiphanius (middle of the 9th c.) and the Syro-palestine towns, that the territories of the Black as well as the Euxeinos Pontos, Sea resisted to Iconoclasm and were places that never experi- rejected it. Although we know enced Iconoclasm. today, based on the philological research, that the monk Epipha- The contemporary philologi- nius most possibly never visited cal research has in the last years Fig. 3. Geometric patterns Euxeinos Pontos and he received proven that the Life of St. Steven in St. Barbara-church, all his information from ancient Korobia, Cyprus. the Younger is a later compila- Greek geographical sources and hagiological texts, such as the Life of St. Steven the Younger, his text was widely accepted, it was distributed and was preserved in several manuscripts30. His text became itself a source for future byzantine writers, as Niketas Paphlagon31 and Symeon Meta- phrastes32. A similar text, which contains information on Euxeinos Pontos during the iconoclastic period is the Life of St. Joseph the Hym- nographer, written by the Deacon John33. John was based, among
194 The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos • CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU others, to the Life of St. Steven Constantinople37, they signed the the Younger, as the modern phil- Acts of the Synods and were un- ological research has proven, and der the direct control of the icono- he repeated the information of clast Church of Constantinople38. the iconoclastic Cherson34. Therefore, if they were express- ing any iconophile statement Therefore it is not peculiar to they would have been exiled. It read in several modern histori- is very characteristic that the un- cal texts that Cherson, Euxeinos named “bishop of Gotthia”, who Pontos and Cyprus rejected Icon- took part to the Synod of Hiereia oclasm, as they relied upon dif- (754)39 supported Iconoclasm. ferent hagiographical texts of the 9th c., which actually all repeated Further solid information on the compiled Vita of St. Steven. the iconoclastic Cherson derives from iconophile sources, which Nevertheless historical testi- had no reason to deceive their monies of these regions reveal recipients by presenting Cher- that they were under the con- son as an iconoclastic region. In tinuous byzantine authority and one letter of the notorious icono- remained loyal to the Emperor. phile Theodore Studites, dated Although the testimonies on probably in 821 and addressed Cherson during the early byz- to iconophile bishops exiled in antine period are not numerous, Cherson, Theodore is encourag- we can conclude, that at least ing them to keep their faith and since the 6th century the byzan- Fig. 4. Aniconic representations he informs them, that the icono- tine power was clearly exercised at the church in Agyia, clastic Emperor Leo V the Ar- Billoures, Cyprus. upon Cherson35. The Church of menian had died40. As it is well Constantinople was consisted known, the places of exile were during Iconoclasm by prelates under the military control of the and church officials loyal to emperor and his prefects41. the emperor, who exercised his policy, appointing their favorite Similar information of exiled In another letter, Theodore bishops and exiling their oppo- iconophiles in Cherson contains Studites regrets that even in Got- nents36. In this context we have also the Life of John of Gotthia, thia, Klimata and the Cimme- to keep in mind that the bishops where it is stated that an icono- rian Bosporus the orders of the of Cherson, Cimmerian Bospo- phile monk of the Kleisthenion iconoclast Emperor Constantine rus, Sougdaia and Gotthia were monastery was exiled in Cher- VI were obeyed and if any monk under the ecclesiastical jurisdic- son, after the emperor Constan- resisted, was sent to exile44. tion of the Constantinopolitan tine V. Kopronymos ordered to Patriarchate, were taking part in cut his nose42, as well as Anna At the same time we know the local Synods of the Church of Komnena43. that 841 Cherson was elevated
195 church in Jaleti (8th-9th c.)49 and in along with their Archbishop in Benisi (9th c.), which the modern order to settle down in the aban- research50 tends to re-date and doned suburbs of Constanti- classify them to the period of nople and revive them55, as well Iconoclasm. as the accusations of the Arabs, The image of a loyal byz- that Cypriots during that period antine territory to the emperor were spying in favor of Con- offers also Cyprus in the his- stantinople, a fact which caused torical sources. According to repeated Arab raids as punish- testimonies of Cypriot bishops, ment, demonstrate the loyalty as recorded in the Acts of the of Cypriots to the byzantine em- 56 VII Ecumenical Council (787), peror . The fact that iconophile iconoclastic activity appeared in monks were exiled to Cyprus as Cyprus51. The whole island was well as the testimony of St. John under the byzantine control, of Damascus, that the previous while the Peace Treaty between situation in the iconophile Cy- Fig. 5. Aniconic prus was overthrown, underline representation in Byzantines and Arabs foresaw St. Athanasia-church, the sharing of the Cypriot taxes the adoption of the Constantino- 57 Rizokarpason, Cyprus. and not the political sharing of politan iconoclastic policy . the island, as some researchers Furthermore the artistic evi- 52 willful interpret the Treaty . dence confirms the iconoclastic Byzantine sources and lead presence on the island of Cy- seals confirm the transfer of byz- prus. If Cyprus had rejected iconoclasm, we should expect to in a Byzantine “Thema”, reflect- antine officers and commanders find preserved painted churches ing its direct control of the byz- to Cyprus, who had to represent the official, imperial policy of and icons of that period, as we antine capital and the imperial Iconoclasm53. When Christians find in the Sinai monastery58, army45. In Cherson no byzantine fled from Syro-Palestine at the which escaped Iconoclasm. On painted church before the 11th beginning of the 9th c. because the contrary, not a single church century46 survived, which could of the Arabs, the byzantine em- with frescoes or icon, lead seal or give us an insight on the icono- peror Michael I. (813) allowed object of minor art in Cyprus can clast monumental art, except them to settle down in Cyprus be ascribed to that period; fur- cases of hermitages with the sin- providing them with financial thermore four partially painted gle representation of the cross47. assistance, a fact which proves churches and a dome adorned It seems that the situation was the undisturbed exercise of byz- with wall mosaics have been similar also in Georgia, where antine power in Cyprus54. In the identified and dated during the painted churches with aniconic same way the imperial order iconoclasm period. The church- decoration have been preserved, of transporting a considerable es of St. Barbara in Korobia (Fig. as Sion in Erco (8th c.)48, the number of Cypriots to Cyzicus 3)59, the church in Agyia near
196 The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos • CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
Billoures in Aigialousa (Fig. 4)60 the later compiled Church-texts texts and monuments dictates and St. Athanasia in Rizokarpa- and believed that Cyprus and that the official iconoclastic son (Fig. 5)61, all three situated the Black Sea resisted Icono- policy was exercised upon them today in the Turkish-occupied clasm, the modern research of without any recorded resistance. part of northern Cyprus, as well as the church of St. Paraskeue in Geroskepou (Fig. 6)62 near Pa- phos reveal painted decoration with aniconic motives. Further- more the basilica of the Apostle Barnabas, the founder of the Cy- priot Church in Engkome near Salamis preserves two central domes, which were renovated Fig. 6. Aniconic patterns in the eastern dome of th probably during the 9 century St. Paraskeue-church, and were decorated with reused Geroskepou, Cyprus. mosaics with aniconic orna- ments (Fig. 7a-b)63. Cyprus and the towns of the Euxeinos Pontos as parts of the byzantine periphery were strongly connected through Constantinople in their com- mercial relations, artistic influ- ences and consequently in dog- Fig 7a. Geometric mosaic matic issues. Remaining loyal to pattern in the western dome of Apostle Barnabas-church, Constantinople, the byzantine Egkome, Cyprus. capital, which was the mental and physical bridge connect- ing distant byzantine centers, was meaning to take part in the world distribution of their products, exchange of ideas and art and secure wealth and pro- tection from foreign invaders, which Church itself along with the Iconophiles could not guar- Fig 7b. Geometric mosaic pattern in the eastern dome antee. Although the Byzantines of Apostle Barnabas-church, themselves were influenced by Egkome, Cyprus.
197 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES 27 Albrecht 2013a, 111-2. 1 Chotzakoglou 2014, 171, 173-4. 28 Firstly written ca. 807/9 and compiled at the midth of the 9thc.: Brubaker and Haldon 2011, 236, 400 note 136. 2 Browning 2005, 240-1. 29 Brubaker and Haldon 2011, 300; Chotzakoglou 2011, 541; Albrecht 3 Richard 1962, 126 n. 4. 2013a, 114-6. 4 Constantinides 2002, 100-10; Chotzakoglou 2009, 43-50 with previ- 30 Albrecht 2013a, 113-4 and note 94. ous bibliography. 31 Albrecht 2013a, 114. 5 Constantinides, Διήγησις, 121. 32 Albrecht 2013a, 114. 6 Agathonos 2001, 26-7. 33 “Vita Josephi hymnography”, PG 105, 940-976. 7 Papacostas 2007, 25-156. 34 Albrecht 2013a, 115-6. 8 The Recluse was founded as a monastery under the efforts of the Bishop of Paphos, Basileios Kinnamos, who had strong ties with 35 Ajbabin 2013, 191-2, 207; Albrecht and Herdick 2013, 31-4. We do not Constantinople and the byzantine emperor: Asdracha 2005, 408; agree with the hypothesis of St. Albrecht and M. Herdick that in the Constantinides 2005, 420. 8th c. the southwestern part of the Crimea was governed as “condo- minium” by Byzantines and Chazars. The writers base their proposal 9 Papacostas 2012, 94. to the analogy, as they call it, that the power on Cyprus between 10 Chotzakoglou, entry “Aντιφωνητὴς” 46-47. the 7th c. and 965 was shared by Byzantines and Arabs (“condo- 11 Mango 1973, 127-32; Couroupou and Géhin 2001, 147-64. minium”), referring to the relevant Treaty of ca. 688. The mentioned Treaty refers to the sharing of taxes and not to sharing of political 12 Chotzakoglou 2014, 171, 173-4. power between Arabs and Byzantines. The related sources and the 13 Djobadze 1984, 196-209; Browning 2005, 290; Gagoshidze, Mindo- archaeological material discovered on the island do not support such rashvili and Gagoshidze 2014; Gagoshidze, Mindorashvili and Gag- a political system on Cyprus. Moreover the idea of “condominium” oshidze 2015. was invented in the 20th c. by the British colonialism and does not 14 Rev. Athanasios Kykkotes 1998. appear in byzantine sources. See also Chrysos 2003, 145-9; Vryonis 15 Gioran 1973, 48-56. 1995, 130-133; On the lead-seals testimonies of continuous byzantine presence on Cyprus see: Chotzakoglou 2005, 749-750. On the state 16 «Hγούμενος Μονής Βατσκόβου … ο αρχιμ. Μακάριος», Ekklesias- of research for Cherson regarding the proposed theory of “condo- tike Alitheia 13, Year XII., 29/5/1892; Antoniou 2002, 189-94. minium” and arguments against it see: Albrecht 2013b, 451-2, 458-9. 17 Manolova-Voykova 2013, 355; Eadem 2014 (in print). 36 Τhe case of St John of Gotthia, as described in his Vita, is very char- 18 Tatić-Djurić 1990, 212, fig. 13-14; Hristova 2000, 16. acteristic of such a case: Auzépy 2000, 324-31; Auzépy 2006, 69-86. 19 Glazed pottery from Cyprus: Sedikova 2013, 134; Zalleskaya 2011, 37 Albrecht 2013a, 113; Albrecht, Herdick and Schreg 2013, 479 and 118-130, 637 fig. 431. 485 (Quinisextum Council), 490. 20 Albrecht 2013, 105. 38 Auzépy 2006, 69-86; Ajbabin 2013, 192, 201-3, 207. 21 “Vita et Conversatio s.p.n. et confessoris Theodori abbatis monaste- 39 Vasilijevskij 1912, 416. rii studii a Michele monacho consripta” PG 99, 233-328; Neil 2006; 40 Fatouros 1992, Letter 435;Albrecht 2013a, 108. Albrecht 2013a, 105; Albrecht, Herdick and Schreg 2013, 485. 41 “The Prefect of the town exiles and confines to the island, which the 22 Mango 1990, 42, 101ff· Head 1972, 99ff· Stratos 1980, 103ff. emperor orders”: Zepos 1931, II., 743. 23 Regarding the monks Theodore (†655) and Euprepius (†667) see: 42 Albrecht 2013a, 112. Allen and Neil 1999, 207; Ajbabin 2013, 191. 43 Albrecht 2013a, 105. 24 Peeters 1911, 419· Sphyroera et all 2010, I., 189, 205. 44 “Vita et conversation s.p.n. et Confessoris Theodori abbatis monas- 25 Brubaker and Haldon 2011, 234-9, 300-302, 400. terii studii a Michaele monacho consripta”, PG 99, 233-328. 26 Τριῶν ὄντων τῶν καθ’ ἡμᾶς μερῶν τῶν μὴ κοινωνησάντων ταύτη 45 Zuckerman 1997, 214; Romančuk 2005, 692; Ajbabin 2013, 207. τῇ μιαρᾷ αἱρέσει… Οὐ γὰρ ὑπολείπεται ἄλλος τις τόπος, ὅστις ἐστὶν ὑπὸ τὴν ἐξουσίαν τοῦ δράκοντος, μὴ πειθαρχήσας τῇ αὐτοῦ 46 Plontke-Lüning 2013, 251-269; Ajbabin 2013, 219-225. On frescoes κενοφωνίᾳ … τὰ πρὸς τὸ ἄναντες τοῦ Εὔξεινου Πόντου … ἐπὶ from christian tombs see: Pillinger II. 309-317; Pillinger and Zubar τῆς πρεσβυτέρας Ρώμης τὸ κάταντες … ἥ τε Κυπρίων νῆσος, 2000-2001, 123-30. καὶ τὰ πρὸς ἀντικρύ, ἕως Τριπόλεως καὶ Τύρου καὶ Ἰώπης. Τὶ 47 Albrecht, Herdick and Schreg 2013, 475; Bemmann, Schneider et al. δὲ χρῆ λέγειν περὶ τῶν προέδρων τοῦ τε Ρώμης καὶ Ἀντιοχείας, 2013, 148, fig. 4. Ἱεροσολύμων καὶ Ἀλεξανδρείας, οἵτινες οὐ μόνον ἀπεβδελύξαντο 48 Skhirtladze 1997, 201-2; Mourelatos 2014, 109-10. καὶ ἀνεθεμάτισαν τὸ μυσαρὸν τῶν Εἰκονοκαυστῶν δόγμα, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐπιστολαῖς στηλιτευτικαῖς οὐκ ἐπαύσαντο καθυβρίζοντας 49 Skhirtladze 1997, 201-2. τὸν πρὸς τοῦτο ἐπινεύσαντα ἀσεβῆ βασιλέα, ἀποστάτην καὶ 50 Although Panayotidi-Kesisoglou 2014, 96 states that “…the Icono- αἱρεσιάρχην αὐτὸν ἀποκαλοῦντες…»: La vie d’Étienne le Jeune par clastic controversy … never affected the art in Georgia…”, the modern Étienne le Diacre (ed. M.-F. Auzépy), Aldershot, Hampshire 1997, research registers several painted churches of that period with ani- 125, 219-220· Auzépy 1999. conic decoration: Skhirtladze 1997, 201; Mourelatos 2014, 109-110.
198 The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos • CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
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Benediktos, (Archim. Paulos) Egglezakes. 1996. “Η Εκκλησία της Fatouros, G., ed. 1992. Theodori Studitae Epistulae (CFHB 31). Berolini - Κύπρου μέσα στην ορθόδοξη αυτοκρατορία (330-1191 μ.Χ.)”. Novi Eboraci In Διά την Εκκλησίαν της Κύπρου είκοσι Μελέται (4ος-20όs αι.), 71-104. Athens Foulias, Α. 2010. “Ανεικονικός διάκοσμος και μία πρώιμη βυζαντινή επιγραφή από τον ναό της Αγ. Αθανασίας στο Ριζοκάρπασο” Browning, R. 2005. “Η Κύπρος και οι Άραβες (Ζ΄-Η’ αι.)”. Ιστορία της Byzantina 30: 203-29 Κύπρου, Βυζαντινή Κύπρος, edited by Th. Papadopoullos, III: 235-91. Lefkosia. Gagoshidze I., D. Mindorashvili and G. Gagoshidze. 2014. Gialia, Georgian Monastery on Cyprus. Tbilisi. Brubaker, L. and J. Haldon. 2011. Byzantium in the Iconoclast era: ca. 680- 850: a history. Cambridge Gagoshidze I., Mindorashvili D. and G. Gagoshidze G. 2015. Georgian Monastery of Gialia on Cyprus Archaeological finds. Tbilisi. Charanis, P. 1961. “The Transfer of Population as a Policy in the Byzantine Empire” Comparative Studies in Society and History 3.2: Gioran, G. 1973. “Σχέσεις των ρουμανικών ηγεμονιών προς τα 140-54 κυπριακά μοναστήρια Κύκκου και Μαχαιρά” Byzantinisch- Neugriechische Jahrbücher: 48-56. Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2005. “Βυζαντινή Αρχιτεκτονική και Τέχνη”. In Βυζαντινὴ Κύπρος, edited by Th. Papadopoullos, (serie: Iστορία Head, C. 1972. Justinian II of Byzantium. Madison Wisconsin της Κύπρου), vol. IIΙ: 465-787. Lefkosia Hristova, Ι.Ν. 2000. Nikola Ivanov Obrazopisov 1829-1915. Samokov Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2006. “Christian Mosaics and Mural Paintings in the Occupied Areas of Cyprus: Preliminary Report on their Mango, C. 1973. “A Note on the Panagia Kamariotissa and some Condition”. In “Sweet Land…”, Lectures on the History and Culture imperial Foundations of the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries at of Cyprus, edited by J. Chrysostomides and Ch. Dendrinos, 101- Constantinople”, DOP 27:127-32 64. Surrey Mango, C., ed. 1990. Nicephoros, Patriarch of Constantinople. Short History, Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2009. “The Holy Virgin of Kykkos. Exploring the Washington transfigurations of the Icon and its symbolic meaning through the centuries”. In La Madonna delle Vittorie a Piazza Armerina, Manolova- Voykova, M. 2014. “Byzantine Glazed Pottery from the edited by M. K. Guida, 43-50. Napoli. Collection of the Archeological Museum in Balchik (Bulgaria)”. In Glazed Wares in the Black Sea and Mediterranean as a Source for the Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2010. “Η εντοίχια μνημειακή διακόσμηση Studies of Byzantine Civilization. Proceedings of the Symposium στους ναούς της Καρπασίας”. In Καρπασία, Πρακτικὰ Α΄ held in Chersonesos (in print) Επιστημονικού Συνεδρίου, edited by K. Papageorgiou, 1-40. Lemesos Manolova-Voykova, M. 2013. “Import of Middle Byzantine pottery to the Western Black sea coast: the case of two cities – Odessos Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2011. Review: “L. Brubaker, J. Haldon, Byzantium in and Anhialo”. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black the Iconoclast era: ca. 680-850: a history, Cambridge 2011”. Cypriot Sea. Links to the Maritime Routes of the East, Proceedings of the Studies 75: 537-48 International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, 353-66. Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2014. “Cyprus in the Sea-Routes of the Thessalonike Mediterranean”. In Olkas II. Sailing from and to Byzantium, edited Mourelatos, D. 2014. “The formation and evolution of monumental Ch. Chotzakoglou and Fl. Karagianni, 167-183. Athens painting in Georgia (6th-12th c.). The Role of Byzantine Art”. In Chotzakoglou, Ch. entry: “Αντιφωνητής”. Vol. III. Μεγάλη Ορθόδοξη Medieval Painting in Georgia, edited by M. Panayotidi-Kesisoglou Χριστιανικὴ Εγκυκλοπαιδεία, 46-47 and S. Kalopissi-Verti), 107-21. Athens
Chrysos, E. 2003. “Το βυζαντινό πρόσωπο της Κύπρου”. Ιn Κύπρος, Neil, B. 2006. Seventh Century Popes and Martyrs. The Political Hagiography τὸ πολιτιστικό της πρόσωπο διὰ μέσου τῶν αἰώνων, Acts of of Anastasius Bibliothecarius. Turnhout the Proceedings (Lefkosia, April 19-21 2001), coordinated by Io. Panayotidi-Kesisoglou, M. 2014. “Medieval Georgian and Byzantine Theocharides), 141-50. Lefkosia Painting: Introductory Remarks”. In Medieval Painting in Georgia, Constantinides, C. 2002. Η Διήγησις της θαυματουργής εικόνας της edited by M. Panayotidi-Kesisoglou and S. Kalopissi-Verti, 93- Θεοτόκου Ελεούσας του Κύκκου. Lefkosia 105. Athens
Constantinides, C. 2005. “Παιδεία και Γράμματα”. In Ιστορία της Papacostas, T. 2007. “The History and Architecture of the Monastery of Κύπρου, Βυζαντινὴ Κύπρος, edited by Th. Papadopoullos, 413- St. John Chrysostomos at Koutzovendis, Cyprus”, DOP 61: 25- 63. Lefkosia 156
Couroupou, M. and P. Géhin. 2001. “Nouveau documents chypriotes” Papacostas, T. 2012. “Byzantine Nicosia 650-1191”. In Historic Nicosia, RÉB 59 : 147-64 edited by D. Michaelides, 79-109. Lefkosia
Djobadze, W.Z. 1984. “Observations on the Georgian Monastery of Yalia Peeters, P. 1911. “S. Romain le Neomartyr († 1 Mai 780) d’ après un (Galia) in Cyprus” Oriens Christianus 68: 196-209 document Georgien” AnnBoll 30 : 419
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Pillinger, R. 1996. “Die Anfänge des Christentums auf der Taurischen Chersones (Krim) demonstriert am Beispiel von Pantikapaion/ Bospor/Kerс”. In Fremde Zeiten. Festschrift für J. Borchhardt, edited by F. Blakolmer et al.,II. 309-17. Wien
Pillinger, R. and V.M. Zubar. 2000-2001. “New Tombs with Early Christian Murals from the Necropolis of Tauric Chersonesus (Preliminary Note)” Talanta 32-33: 123-30
Plontke-Lüning, A. 2013. “Ein Herr vom Ėski Kermen?”. In Die Höhensiedlungen im Bergland der Krim, edited by St. Albrecht, F. Daim and M. Herdick, 251-269, Mainz
Prokopiou, H. 2006. “Τα μνημεία της πόλης και επαρχίας Λεμεσού κατά την παλαιοχριστιανική, πρωτοβυζαντινή και μεσοβυζαντινή περίοδο 324-1191”. In Λεμεσός, Ταξίδι στοὺς χρόνους μίας πόλης, edited by A. Maragkou and T. Kolotas, 113- 128. Lemesos
Richard, R. 1962. Chypre sous les Lusignans. Documents chypriotes des archives du Vatican (XIVe-XVe siècles). Paris.
Romančuk, A. 2005. Studien zur Geschichte und Archäologie des byzantinischen Cherson, (Colloquia Pontica 11) Auflag: Brill
Sedikova, L. 2013. “Tauric Chersonesos, Medieval city port”. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Links to the Maritime routes of the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, (Thessaloniki, 4-6/12/2013), 131-8. Thessalonike
Skhirtladze, Z. 1997. “Newly discovered Georgian Monumental Painting: Establishment of the System of Church Decoration” Oriens Christianus 81: 201-2
Sphyroera, S. et all, 2010. “Η Βυζαντινή Κύπρος”. Ιn Ιστορία της Κύπρου, Προϊστορία, Ἀρχαιότητα, Βυζαντινὴ περίοδος. vol. ΙΙΙ. Lefkosia
Stratos, A.N. 1980. Byzantium in the Seventh Century 5: Justinian II, Leontius and Tiberius 685-711. Amsterdam
Tatić-Djurić, M. 1990. “L’icone de la Vierge Kikkotissa” Epeterida Kentrou Meleton Hieras Mones Kykkou 1: 209-20
Vasilijevskij, V.G. 1912. “Žitie Ioanna Gotskogo” Trudy II.2
Vryonis, Sp. 1995. “Byzantine Cyprus”. In Κύπρος, ἀπὸ τὴν Προϊστορία στοὺς Νεώτερους Χρόνους, 127-34. Lefkosia
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201
Preservation of Yenikapı Shipwrecks
N a M i K K ı l ı ç
ABSTRACT Thirty-seven medieval process, EXOCIDE 1012 was shipwrecks, dating from the used against biological activity. 5th and to the 11th centuries, In order to determine the chemical were uncovered by the salvage and physical deterioration of the excavations under the supervision wood and wood species, samples of the Istanbul Archaeology were taken and analyzed. The Museums Directorate. The impregnation solution type conservation work on 31 of these was determined according to shipwrecks has been implemented data from these analyses. PEG by the Istanbul University’s (polyethylene glycol), freeze-drying Department of Conservation of and, Kauramin® (melamine Marine Archaeological Objects . formaldehyde) are applied to Following the removal of the the preservation of Yenikapı shipwrecks from excavation site, shipwrecks. they were transported to stainless steel tanks with capacities of 40 Keywords: Yenikapı ship- tons of water for the desalination wrecks, waterlogged wood, process. During the desalination preservation, conservation
203 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction nation followed by freeze dry- water in the timbers (Umax) was ing (lyophilisation). Kauramin® between 280–900%. Based on Thirty-seven shipwrecks, are was used in different concentra- this, classification of the woods dated between 5th-11th centuries, tions for conserving some tim- from Yenikapı Shipwrecks was were uncovered by the Istan- bers of Yenikapı Shipwrecks af- considered as Class I-II and con- bul Archaeological Museums ter the desalination process had during the rescue excavation at servation procedure was carried been completed4. Kauramin® is Yenikapı that started in 2004. The out based on this parameter. a form of melamine formalde- Istanbul Archaeological Muse- Fourier Transform Infrared Spec- hyde-based resin5. ums turned to Istanbul Univer- troscopy (FTIR) is used to deter- sity’s Department of Conserva- mine the chemical deterioration of Identification of 7 tion of Marine Archaeological Yenikapı Shipwreks . According degradation Objects to deal with thirty one to this analysis, chemical struc- of the shipwrecks1. Preservation Waterlogged wood is often tures of cellulose, hemicellulose methods for waterlogged wood classed according to the amount and lignin altered. of Yenikapı Shipwrecks are poly- of water is contains: Class I: over Desalination ethylene glycol (PEG), freeze- 400 percent water, Class II: 185- drying and Kauramin®. These 400 percent water and Class III: The salt inside the wood are also the general preservation less than 185 percent6. Wood crystallizes after evaporation. methods2. PEG, is a synthetic containing more than 200% wa- Crystallization of the salt may material that has the generalized ter is considered to be degraded. causes cracks and exfoliation8. Wood samples, not exceeding formula HO(CH2CH2O)nH,, is Following the removal of the used in molecular weights be- 1 – 1.5 g, were taken from the shipwrecks from excavation site, tween 400 and 4000 g/mol (n = Yenikapı Shipwrecks in order to they were transported to stain- 9 to 91).3 For conserving some determine the amount of water less steel tanks with capacities of timbers of Yenikapı Shipwrecks, in the woods (Fig. 1). According 40 tons of water for the desalina- PEG 2000 was used for impreg- to these analyses, the amount of tion process. In order to desali- nate the timbers once they were placed in the storage tanks, the water in the tanks is circulated and renewed with fresh water. Salt content of the woods has been reduced from 990 ppm to 40 ppm in Yenikapı Shipwrecks Project (Fig. 2). Desalination pro- cess of Yenikapı shipwrecks has been completed in stainless steel tank (Fig. 3). During the desalina-
Fig 1. Water tion process, EXOCIDE 1012 was content analysis. used against biological activity.
204 Preservation of Yenikapı Shipwrecks • NAMIK KILIÇ
Date Salt ratio (ppm) 03.07.2014 990 ppm 20.07.2014 780 ppm 29.07.2014 720 ppm 11.08.2014 680 ppm 19.08.2014 620 ppm 31.08.2014 580 ppm 04.09.2014 570 ppm 24.09.2014 490 ppm Fig 3. Stainless steel 05.10.2014 460 ppm desalination and 14.10.2014 390 ppm impregnation tank.
After 11.01.2015 the process was continued with distilled water. 20.10.2014 370 ppm 16.01.2015 240 ppm 28.01.2015 180 ppm 06.01.2015 130 ppm 16.02.2015 80 ppm 24.02.2015 70 ppm 04.03.2015 40 ppm
Fig 4. Cleaning Fig 2. Salt ratios of a desalination pool. the iron products.
Cleaning of iron degradation after conserva- Kauramin® (melamine formal- products tion treatment9. To avoid any dehyde) are applied to the pres- During the examinations be- damage on timbers during this ervation of Yenikapı shipwrecks. fore conservation, stains of iron process, corroded areas were Pre-impregnation with from iron nails were used dur- cleaned mechanically before polyethylene glycol and ing the assembly of ship com- cleaning with a solution of 5% vacuum freeze drying ponents and corrosion were disodium EDTA (ethylenedi- method observed. PEG was used in the aminetetraacetic acid), and 5% conservation process of ship- oxalic acid (Fig. 4). The timbers Before conservation treat- wreck is an electrolyte carrying were then subjected to a desali- ment, waterlogged woods must an effective ion that reacts with nation procedure. be kept wet for preventing from the iron was used on wood as- collapse and distortion. They Impregnation sembly elements. Following the may were recovered from saline reaction after the PEG impreg- The water in the wood is or freshwater environments, nation procedure, the oxidation replaced with an impregnant air-drying or dehydration of of the sulphur was shown to be for preventing from shrinkage waterlogged wood will cause catalyzed by iron species. This and warping10. PEG (polyethyl- potentially irreversible cellular reaction may results in wood ene glycol), freeze-drying and collapse11.
205 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PEG concentration is very the solution. The concentration sion of the water in the wood significant for preventing os- of PEG 2000 was increased by in- cells due to freeze is avoided motic collapse of waterlogged crements of 5% PEG (Fig. 5). The by pre-impregnation with PEG wood. In the beginning of the increment procedure was com- before lyophilisation (freeze- PEG treatment, PEG concentra- pleted when the PEG concentra- drying process). By the use of tion has to be chosen not very tion of the solution reach 45%. freeze-drying, water is removed high in order to avoid collapse The impregnation procedure without incurring either the force due to a large difference in os- was completed after analyses of its surface tension on delicate motic pressure is set up between have confirmed that PEG was structures or the drag of consoli- the water inside the wood and entirely absorbed by the wood. dant from the core to the surface the PEG solution outside12. For of the wood13. Also known as this reason, PEG 2000 impregna- Following the PEG impreg- sublimation, freeze-drier primar- tion process began initially with nation procedure, the process of ily reaches to the freezing point a 5% concentration in Yenikapı dehydration was performed by of PEG solution, and then elimi- shipwrecks project. During this a freeze-drier used for the first nates the solidified water in the process, a chemical material time in Turkey by the Istanbul timber through vaporization. called EXOCIDE 1012 was add- University scientists at the Ship Kauramin® ed at a ratio of 1/1000 to elimi- Conservation and Reconstruc- impregnation nate any bacterial formation in tion Laboratory (Fig. 6). Expan- Boxes used for treatment were covered with polyethylene film and Kauramin® solutions were prepared in 25% concentra- tion. An amount of 10% w/w tri- ethylene glycol was added to the Kauramin® to try to obtain a more flexible structure for the wood. Triethanolamine, in the amount Fig 5. Concentration of 0.5 % w/w, was added to the increased with circulation pump. solution as an alkaline buffer to prolong the life of the Kaura- min® solution14. Formaldehyde present in the Kauramin® solu- tion is very hazardous for hu- man health. In order to decrease the effects of free formaldehyde, Fig 6. Placing the urea at a ratio of 5% w/w is add- wood fragments ed to Kauramin® solutions. Urea from the Yenikapı Shipwrecks into the also increases the ability of the freeze-drier. solution to be absorbed into the
206 Preservation of Yenikapı Shipwrecks • NAMIK KILIÇ wood by decreasing the viscos- ity of the solution and produces a more durable resin by forming a urea-formaldehyde resin15. Kauramin® impregnated sam- ples were wrapped in cellulose paper immediately after they were removed from the solution. After the wood samples were Fig 7. Before wrapped in wet paper, they were Kauramin® method. wrapped in polyethylene and placed in an oven set to 50° C. The drying period of samples differed between nine to eleven days61.
Conclusion Dried samples were examined with visual analyses. As a result of these analyses, no shrink- Fig 8. After age or cracking on high deterio- Kauramin® method. (4288x2848) rated wood was observed. The Kauramin® method provided di- mensional stability for Yenikapı Shipwrecks. The method also Fig 9. Before pre- impregnation with provided dimensional stability polyethylene glycol and for timbers from Yenikapı Ship- vacuum freeze drying method wrecks. Loss of integrity was de- tected on low deteriorated, which is a hard, oak wood. Furthermore, Fig 10. After pre- the color of the all wood samples impregnation with polyethylene glycol and had faded (Fig. 7, 8). vacuum freeze drying method Surface-tension, shrinkage, cracks, and dimensional defor- mity were not observed follow- Acknowledgement tion and Restoration and İstanbul ing the pre-impregnation with University Scientific Research PEG and vacuum freeze drying I would like to thank Prof. Dr. method. The timbers seemed Ufuk Kocabaş, Yenikapı Ship- Projects Unit (Project numbers very natural even after the pro- wreck Project Team, Istanbul Uni- 13986, 2294, 3907, 7381 and 12765) cedure (Fig. 9, 10). versity Department of Conserva- for their help and support.
207 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Kocabaş 2015, 5. Cronyn, J. M. 1990. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation, London.
2 Kocabaş 2015, 5. Giachi, G., C. Capretti, N. Macchioni, B. Pizzo, I.D. Donato 2010. “A 3 Giacchi, Cabretti, Macchioni, Pizzo, Donato 2011. Methodological Approach in the Evaluation of the Efficacy of 4 Mortensen 2009, 7. Treatments for the Dimensional Stabilisation of Waterlogged Archaeological Wood”. Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (1): 91-101. 5 Kılıç 2011, 86. 6 Hoffmann, itköpperW 1999, 163. Giorgi, R., D. Chelazzi, P. Baglioni 2005. “Nanoparticles of Calcium Hydroxide for Wood Conservation The Deacidification of the 7 Smith 2003, 22. Vasa Warship”, Langmuir 21: 10743-10748. 8 Özden, Kılıç, Özsait-Kocabaş, Kılıç 2012, 58. Hoffmann, P., M. Wittköpper 1999. The Kauramin Method for Stabilizing 9 Smith 2003, 23. Waterlogged Wood. Proceedings of the 7th ICOM-CC Working 10 Giorgi, Chelazzi, Baglioni 2005: 10743-10748. Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, edited 11 Watson 2004, 171. by C. Bonnot-Dicconne, X. Hiron and P. Hoffmann: 163-166. 12 Smith 2003, 23. Kılıç, N. 2011. Kauramin Tests For Yenikapı 12 Shipwreck Hull. 13 Mortensen 2009, 7. Shipwrecks Chemistry and Preservation of Waterlogged Wooden Shipwrecks, Ed. Ek, M., Royal Institute of Technology, 186. 14 Cronyn 1990, 259. ® 15 Hoffmann, itköpperW 1999, 164. Kılıç, N. and A.G. Kılıç 2013 “Kauramin Tests for Yenikapı Shipwrecks”, Proceedings of the 12th ICOM-CC Group on Wet 16 Wittköpper 1998. Organic Archaeological Materials, 48. Istanbul. 17 Kılıç 2013, 48. Kocabas, U. 2015. “The Yenikapı Byzantine-Era Shipwrecks, Istanbul, Turkey: a preliminary report and inventory of the 27 wrecks studied by Istanbul University”, IJNA, 44.1: 5–38.
Mortensen, N.M. 2009, Stabilization of Polyethylene glycol in Archaeological Wood, Denmark. Technical University of Denmark, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Danish Polymer Centre.
Özden Ö., N. Kılıç, H. Özsait Kocabaş and A.G. Kılıç 2012. “Chemical Characterisation Of Waterlogged Woods In Yenikapı 12 By Ft-Ir Analyzes”, Chemistry for Cultural Heritage, Turkey, 9-12 July 2012, 58.
Smith, C., W. 2003. Archaeological Conservation Using Polymers Practical Applications for Organic Artifact Stabilization, Texas: A&M University Press.
Watson, J. 2004. “The Freeze-Drying of Wet and Waterlogged Materials from Archaeological Excavations”, Physics Education, 39 (2):171- 176.
Wittköpper, M. 1998. Current development in the preservation of archaeological wet wood with melamine/amino resins at the Römisch – Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 28:637-64.
208 From Underwater to Museum: Presenting Underwater Cultural Heritage
A. G ö k ç e K ı l ı ç
ABSTRACT Underwater cultural heritage study and enjoyment . Missions encompasses all cultural heritage of museums which display that lie or have lain underwater underwater cultural heritage and underwater cultural heritage are same. They must attract and includes shipwrecks and their educate the visitors, and make remains. For underwater cultural a significant contribution to heritage, UNESCO recommends protection of underwater cultural in situ preservation as the first heritage. Displaying challenges option. On the other hand, allow of the shipwreck is combining museum exhibition under suitable optimum passive conservation conditions . There are museums in conditions with effective displaying various countries around the world techniques due to being organic where wrecks and their remains artifacts and their size. discovered underwater or from the hinterland are exhibited. Keywords: Underwater cul- According to ICOM, the aims tural heritage, shipwrecks, of the museum are education, exhibition.
209 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction tutions must not preclude reas- to the public, which acquires, sembly to allow further research. conserves, researches, commu- ICOMOS (International Coun- Underwater cultural heritage is nicates and exhibits the tangible cil on Monuments and Sites) ap- not to be traded as items of com- and intangible heritage of hu- proved the regulation on the mercial value’ the importance Protection and Management of manity and its environment for of exhibiting these monuments Underwater Cultural Heritage at the purposes of education, study in the correct way was empha- 3 the General Assembly that was and enjoyment’ . sized1. For underwater cultural held in Sofia in 1996. By saying One of the essential functions heritage, UNESCO recommends ‘The project archive, which in- of a museum is the appropriate in situ preservation as the first cludes underwater cultural heri- displaying of objects: a key fac- option. On the other hand, it al- tage removed during investiga- tor in its description as a muse- lows museum exhibition under tion and a copy of all supporting 4 suitable conditions2. There are um . In modern museums, both documentation, must be deposit- museums in various countries technological means and tradi- ed in an institution that can pro- around the world where artifacts tional methods are utilized, in vide for public access and per- discovered underwater or from order to ensure the best display manent curation of the archive. the hinterland are exhibited. of collections. Arrangements for deposition of the archive should be agreed ICOM (International Coun- In situ Preservation before investigation commences, cil of Museums) described the For underwater cultural heri- and should be set out in the proj- term ‘museum’ in the regulation tage, UNESCO recommends ect design. The archive should accepted in Vienna in 2007. Ac- in situ preservation that means be prepared in accordance with cording to the regulation, muse- the preservation of underwater current professional standards. ums were defined as ‘A museum cultural heritage in its original The scientific integrity of the is a non-profit, permanent in- location, as the first option. Al- project archive must be assured; stitution in the service of soci- though this recommendation, deposition in a number of insti- ety and its development, open it does not mean a rejection of land-based museums5 (Fig. 1). Finally, displaying underwa- ter cultural heritage in museums is a necessity in case remains are threatened by any factors.
Exhibition in Museum Displaying artifacts in show- Fig 1. Protection cage cases made of glass or plexiglass. for the phoenician It is the most common method shipwreck from the 7th century BC Mazarrón II, used in museums. Underwater Spain (Unesco.org). cultural museums generally use
210 From Underwater to Museum: Presenting Underwater Cultural Heritage • A. GÖKÇE KILIÇ showcases for small boats or display. Scaled models of settle- small sized remains (Fig. 2). ment areas; buildings, ships, cit- ies, and vehicles are produced to In cases where it is not possi- enhance the sense of realism for ble to exhibit the original wreck, the visitors8 (Fig. 5). a visual display related to object is used, together with posters Museum Architecture and light panels on the walls of the exhibition areas. With 3D The methods of display can lenticular printing, it is now pos- be diversified in parallel with sible to use images that provide the diversity of the collections, an effect of depth or animation which in turn results in aban- when observed from different donment of collective exhibition angles6 (Fig. 3). of different collections and orga- nization of appropriate places Replica method is used when and buildings for objects. Archi- it is not possible to display tecture, lights, exhibition items Fig 2. Paddle and bow are on display original shipwreck. In this case, and design of colors gained in Showcase, National Museum of Denmark, Denmark (G. Kilic). the regulations relevant to the importance in parallel to the copyright must be taken into ac- increase of interactive presenta- 7 count . tions and modernization of mu- Reconstructions are used in seum buildings in 20th century. case unity of a shipwreck that is Either an old building can damaged, and where some parts be restored and transformed are missing (Fig. 4). into museums or a new build- The purpose of a model is to ing, designed as a museum, can reinforce the appearance of the be built. If a new building is to
Fig 3. Photographs of Yenikapi Shipwrecks were displayed in Exhibition of Medieval Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea, Rahmi M. Koç Museum, 2013 (G. Kilic).
211 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Whether a new building is designed or an old building is restored and turned into muse- um, the materials used for con- struction should not be of type that produces by-products that can damage the exhibits13. Fig 4. Reconstruction In addition, suitable light- of a Viking Ship, ing, heat and humidity values Viking Ship Museum, Denmark (G. Kilic). should be taken into consider- ation when designing the archi- tecture of a museum.
Conclusion Museums have a crucial role on inform public about cultural heritage. Museums should con- serve the artifact while display Fig 5. Models of Viking Ships, Viking them and also tell the story of Ship Museum, the object to the visitors. Proper Denmark (G. Kilic). light, heat, light and humidity values must be provided for the objects in museums. Museum be designed, the first question If an old building is to be re- architecture becomes significant that must be asked, is ‘what can stored and used as a museum, for shipwreck museum due to the architecture add to the mu- attention should be paid to the being organic artifacts and their seum?’9. preservation of the authentic- ity of design, materials, work- size. Museums must attract the Museum architecture is de- manship and the location of visitors. Also, they should make fined as the art of designing and the building. Proper light, heat, a significant contribution to the building a place which incorpo- light and humidity values must knowledge of underwater cul- rates specific museum functions be provided for the objects and tural heritage. such as displaying, preserving, security measures should be studying, administering and Acknowledgement taken. It is possible to add new greeting the visitors10. In addi- structures to old buildings in I would like to thank Prof. tion, all museum projects should cases where the old buildings Dr. Ufuk Kocabaş for his help be welcoming in their design the are not physically adequate. In and support. disabled persons, thus museums this case, the passages between serving to all visitors can be de- buildings are provided through signed11. curtain walls12.
212 From Underwater to Museum: Presenting Underwater Cultural Heritage • A. GÖKÇE KILIÇ
NOTES REFERENCES 1 UNESCO 2001. Craddock A., B. 1994. Construction Materials for Storage and Exhibition, 2 ICOM 2007. Care of Collection, Ed. S. Knell, Routledge, 129-134. 3 ICOMOS 1996 Desvallées A., Mairesse F. 2010. Key Concepts of Museology, Ed. A. 4 UNESCO 2001. Desvallées, F. Mairesse. 5 ICOM 2007. Erbay F. 2009. Müze Yönetimini Kurumsallaştırma Çabası, Ed. N. Bulduk, 6 Hein 2004. Institution of Architecture Foundation 7 UNESCO 2001. Erbay M. 2011. Müzelerde Sergileme ve Sunum Tekniklerinin Planlanması, 8 Germen, et al. 2011, 44. Beta Publishing. 9 Erbay 2009, 469. Germen M., Kulaksız C., Çetin O., C. 2010. Sayısal Fotoğraf Baskı 10 Erbay 2011, 94-102. Teknikleri, Ed, H. Eryılmaz, Anadolu University, Eskişehir. 11 Tzortzi 2007, 72. Hein G., E. 2004. John Dewey and Museum Education, Curator: The 12 Desvallées, Mairesse 2010, 23. Museum Journal, 47 (4), 413-427. 13 Rodgers 2005. ICOM. 2007. Museum Definition, 21st General Assembly, Austria.
14 Padfield, Larsen 2004, 131-133. ICOMOS. 1996. Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater 15 Craddock 1994, 129-134. Cultural Heritage, 11th ICOMOS General Assembly, Bulgaria.
Padfield T., Larsen P., K. 2004. How to Design Museums witha Naturally Stable Climate Source, Studies in Conservation, Maney Publishing, 131-137.
Rodgers, P. 2005. Managing Access at the Museum: Disability & Institutional Boundaries, University of Toronto, Museum Studies Program.
Tzortzi K. 2007. Museum Building Design and Exhibition Layout: patterns of interaction, 6th International Space Syntax Symposium.
UNESCO. 2001. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Paris.
213
Sustainable Cultural Routes in Istanbul: The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities1
A l e s s a n d r a R i c c i , B a r ı ş A l t a n
ABSTRACT The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark is an a cistern, as well as traces of urban archaeology project located settlement spanning the first half of on the Asian side of Istanbul’s the fourteenth century. Greater Municipality. Although The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark is a the ArkeoPark covers a relatively project focusing on archaeological medium-sized area corresponding inquiry as well as on public to some 4,500/5,000 sq. m, it engagement. Within the scope of represents the largest surviving its public engagement activities, a archaeological area on the Asian specific element will be presented side of Istanbul. Investigations here: work carried out within at the site and research currently the EU LIMEN project aimed at support identification of the devising more sustainable visitor remains with the Middle Byzantine activities for the site. A suburban period monastic complex built by cultural route linking the site patriarch Ignatios between 867 and with the nearby archipelago of 877 CE. Ongoing excavations are the Princes’ Islands and the bringing to light the second half establishment of a bike route of the ninth-century ecclesiastical represent the focus of this building that has survived above contribution.
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The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark: displayed few urban features. tion, was designed and built its surroundings and In antiquity, however, the an- during the second half of the archaeology cient remains were much closer ninth century at the will of a While work currently carried to the sea of Marmara, within prominent figure of the Middle out at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark close visual range of the Princes’ Byzantine period: the patriarch covers a broad variety of activi- Islands, and were part of the ex- Ignatios, son of the deposed ties—ranging from excavation, tended physical landscape form- emperor Michael the First Rang- study and conservation of the ing Byzantine Constantinople’s abes (r. 811–813 CE), who after finds to cultural programs and hinterland. Today Küçükyalı is his father’s dethronement was educational activities aimed at a tranquil yet densely populated evirated and exiled to the Princ- fostering public archaeology— neighborhood, part of Istanbul’s es’ Islands, where he became a this presentation will focus greater metropolitan area, and monk. From the Princes’ Islands on a particular theme. Specifi- treasuring the largest surviving Ignatios ascended to the patri- cally, we wish to present work archaeological space in the city’s archal seat twice, and the ha- carried out thus far within the Asian side. In antiquity the re- giographical text composed by framework of the EU LIMEN mains forming the complex at David Niketas Paphlago implies project and aimed at determin- Küçükyalı extended well beyond that he built the monastery dur- ing whether the creation of a the current boundaries of the ing his second tenure as patri- 3 cultural route including the ArkeoPark and likely engaged arch . Ignatios likely spent time Küçükyalı Arkeo-Park would with a surrounding network of at the monastery and, according be beneficial to the enhance- suburban residences, agricul- to the same hagiographical text, ment of visitation to the site in tural estates, roads, cemeteries, was also buried there in a small the short and long term. small harbors and more. These chapel added to the southeast of suburban qualities continued the monastic church in 867 CE4. The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark well into the Ottoman and Early We know that the church was covers a medium-sized (ca. Republican periods, until a few dedicated to St. Michael and that 4,500/5,000 sq. m) archaeologi- decades ago, when this area be- the monastery took the name of cal and natural space tucked in came an integral part of Istan- Satyros, or Anatellon (or, The Ris- between modern buildings in bul’s urban landscape 2. ing One). the Çınar neighborhood, dis- trict of Küçükyalı, Municipality Archaeological investiga- In the late Byzantine period, of Maltepe, on the Asian side of tions and research are provid- the complex maintained some Istanbul’s Greater Municipal- ing new data for the identifica- forms of life, which came to a ity (Fig. 1). Several of the local tion of the site. The complex at rather sudden end around the inhabitants recall a time, just Küçükyalı is currently identified middle of the fourteenth century several decades ago, when the as a large-sized and monumen- when Ottoman troops took over neighborhood was less devel- tal suburban monastery built in this region. However, no traces oped and the physical landscape the Middle Byzantine period. of violent conflict have thus far surrounding the archaeologi- The monastery, a place of isola- been detected in the area. Fur- cal area appeared greener and tion, solitude and contempla- thermore, archaeological inves-
216 The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities • ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARIŞ ALTAN tigations at the site have not yet detected evidence of Ottoman period occupation5. The surviving remains at the site center around a rectangular- in-plan platform that was cre- ated in antiquity by means of massive earth removal and on a slightly southward-sloping ter- rain, with large, monumental and buttressed retaining walls built to support the platform6. The earth fill and the monumen- tal retaining walls are still visible. The lower level of the platform, completely underground in an- tiquity, was occupied in part by a cistern (Fig. 2). The western and larger portion of the cistern was originally covered by four rows of parallel brick domes, for a to- tal of twenty-eight domes resting either on piers or columns and that must have collapsed long ago7. As a result of the collapse, the cistern’s floor was filled by some 2.5/3 m. of earth and de- bris, leaving this portion of the cistern as an open-air space that is now entirely green. Some of the cultural activities run by the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark take place Fig 1. General plan of the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark with indication of public access in this scenic setting. The eastern to the site (S. Tunali for KYAP 2015) portion of the cistern, smaller in size than its western counterpart, conserves its original roofing sys- tem, dominated at the center by a monumental brick dome rest- ing on four massive stone and
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Fig 2. The cistern at the brick piers. Lateral corridors Küçükyalı ArkeoPark frame the dome into a square (KYAP 2015) and are marked by barrel vaults and groin vaults at the corners. Once in this space visitors may also observe the feeding channel that brought water, most likely from the area of Samandıra (an- cient Byzantine period Damatrys). Samandıra is located on a plateau where ancient water springs and water channels have been iden- tified. The cistern is firmly- im pressed in the memory of genera- tions of Küçükyalı’s inhabitants as a mysterious cave replete with tunnels and other fantastic sights. A “real” inhabitant of Küçükyalı usually refers to the cistern as the mağra in Turkish, or the cave8. A newly completed walkway through the northern area of the platform provides views of the ancient extension of the complex to the north of the platform (Fig. 3). This is a reminder of the fact that the complex extended well beyond the platform, particular- ly on its northern, western and southern sides. On the northern side, remains of building foun- dations have been excavated in part. The newly discovered walls show connections to the platform’s retaining walls and similar building techniques. The walkway is pleasantly framed
Fig 3. General plan of the Byzantine period architectural within the ancient remains, and features at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark (KYAP 2015) three monumental, historic mas-
218 The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities • ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARIŞ ALTAN tic trees form a small recreation- al space for local inhabitants and visitors. Remains of the ancient access ramp leading up to the platform from the north were excavated during the 2010 sea- son. The ramp leans against the Fig 4. The funerary platform’s walls, which on this chapel unearthed side may have been marked by a at the southeastern long arcade, or arcaded portico. corner of the church (KYAP 2002) Once on the platform, it is possible to observe the remains of a church above the uncol- lapsed eastern portion of the cistern. Though preserved only to a maximum height of 1.20 m. Fig 5. Aerial view from the floor level, the church of the Küçükyalı is currently being excavated and ArkeoPark from the east during the 2015 reveals walls built of solid brick excavation season and mortar. There also appears (KYAP 2015) to be a physical correlation be- tween the cistern and the church, thus supporting a hypothesis ings with side compartments that the two architectural fea- and a compact square plan that tures were built concurrently. matured during the iconoclastic The church preserves faint traces period. Architectural details and of its narthex, excavated during the decoration of the building the 2014 season. This discov- point to a dating in the second ery determined the length of half of the ninth century. Ar- the building at 29.5 m, while its chaeology confirmed the use of north-south axis extends over the site through the first decades circa 21 m. The ecclesiastical of the fourteenth century, with building presents three apses, hardly any major architectural with a central dome resting on interventions after the ninth cen- four massive piers forming an tury 9. At the southeastern side of octagonal central space. The like- the church, archaeological inves- lihood is strong indeed that the tigations brought to light the re- church at Küçükyalı is represen- mains of a funerary chapel (Fig. tative of the cross-domed build- 4), which was likely to have been
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added not long after completion of the church. Its location ap- pears to match the description provided by the hagiographical text, which mentions the location of patriarch Ignatios’ burial10. Even if other parts of the monastery have not survived, its cistern, the platform with the church and the likely monastic Fig 6. Mock excavation for elementary school tower revealed by excavations children on the site’s on the southeastern corner of the platform (KYAP 2015) platform provide us with a rare set of information about monas- tic life and architecture for Byz- antine Constantinople and its vicinity (Fig. 5).
A Sustainable Urban ArkeoPark The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark is a project focusing on archaeo- logical inquiry as well as on public engagement. This means that the results of archaeological research are shared with the lo- cal community and other inter- ested parties. Excavations take place on a yearly basis for a peri- od of about two or three months and are followed by study, con- servation and publication of the finds. An interdisciplinary team of specialists, students and vol- unteers works on these delicate activities. Fig 7. One of the artisanal markets carried out within the EU LIMEN project inside the While archaeological work Byzantine period cistern (KYAP 2014) at Küçükyalı progresses, the
220 The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities • ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARIŞ ALTAN
ArkeoPark Project also em- is hardly noticeable today. Yet a ally confined to specific areas in phasizes public engagement11. view from the top of the minaret the Historic Peninsula and in the Through educational activities, of Çınar Camii reveals the prox- Beyoğlu region. Data recently a children’s club and a wide imity of the islands forming the published by the Ministry of range of on site cultural events- archipelago of the Princes’ Is- Culture and Tourism might help ranging from free guided tours of lands: Proti (modern Kınalıada) visualize the areas of “tourism the site to open-air concerts and and Halki (modern Heybeliada) concentration.” The Sultanah- movie screenings the ArkeoPark at close visual range, with the met area appears to concentrate shares its archaeological discov- larger masses of Prinkipos (mod- the highest numbers of visitors eries while also fostering learn- ern Büyükada) to the south. It is —the Topkapı Palace Museum ing and stewardship (Fig. 6). The on these islands that Ignatios as with 3,400,000 visitors and the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark Project en- well as his father, the deposed Hagia Sophia Museum with capsulates a small yet important emperor Michael the First Rang- 3,275,000 visitors— while the piece of Istanbul’s heritage, in abes, and his family were scat- Beyoğlu region and the Princes’ which the green space, its ecology tered in different monasteries Islands fall behind with much and the archaeological remains and on different islands. Hence, smaller numbers. The average balance nature and history. Our there appears to be a historical length of stay in Istanbul for the Project aims at better understand- link between the islands and the year 2014 was 4.13 days for do- ing, preserving and representing site at Küçükyalı. mestic tourists and 1.88 days for this balance in a long-lasting way foreign tourists12 (Turkish Minis- At present, the Princes’ Is- while making the space available try of Culture and Tourism). lands represent together with to the local community and out- the Bosphorus one of the two The location of the Küçükyalı side visitors (Fig. 7). main tourist attractions outside ArkeoPark provides us with Sustainable Cultural the historic peninsula. The is- a variety of options to create Routes lands offer an oasis of silence cultural routes for Istanbul. It and nature as all motorized ve- is possible to draw the atten- Presently, the site of Küçükyalı hicles are banned along with tion of local and foreign visitors is located at a distance of circa the construction of tall build- who look for alternative cultural 700 m. from the modern sea- ings. Horse-drawn carriages destinations to the Asian side shore, but it was at least 250 and bicycles represent the main of Istanbul and to develop the m. further inland as recently mode of transportation, while Küçükyalı ArkeoPark as a focal as the 1960s. As some photo- wooden Victorian-style cottages point for a variety of cultural graphs and descriptions of the and summer residences line the routes13. period indicate, the site at that islands’ streets. point had sandy beaches dotted Within the framework of the by rocks and ancient remains. Although there appears to LIMEN Project at the Küçükyalı However, the current built envi- be a rising demand for cultural ArkeoPark, we organized two ronment precludes observation tourism in the city of Istanbul, it meetings (October 10, 2014, of the complex in its broader set- is important to stress that mass and February 28, 2014) on sus- ting, and the presence of the sea and cultural tourism are gener- tainable cultural routes for the
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ArkeoPark and its vicinities14 • How important are numbers Walls and upper areas of the (Cultural Route Meetings). This when considering sustain- Golden Horn). ability in cultural tourism? was with the purpose of coordi- 2) Vicinities of Istanbul: nating with the Cultural Routes • Can a single monument such Asian Side and Islands (includ- Society—a legal body based in as the complex at Küçükyalı ing the archaeological site at Antalya linked to the Society of draw visitors’ attention and Küçükyalı, the bike road link- European Cultural Routes and become part of a cultural ing the site to the seashore and working predominantly on ru- route? the Princes’ Islands. Possible fu- ral cultural routes—in order to ture additions may include the During the first meeting held develop a vision for urban and archaeological areas at Dragos, at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark on near-urban cultural routes in Is- Samandıra and Aydos [Fig. 8]). October 10, 2014, we focused on tanbul 15 (Cultural Routes Soci- the potential for creating urban 3) Vicinities of Istanbul: ety). Four main questions were and rural cultural routes. In the European Side (focusing on the addressed during the meetings: second meeting, held on Febru- Anastasian Long Walls and the • Can we encourage visitors ary 28, 2015, in collaboration aqueducts in the vicinities of to seek alternative cultural with the Princes’ Islands City Çatalca). routes in the city of Istanbul? Council, we collectively defined Alternative Sustainable three cultural routes for Istanbul • Are there significant num- Cultural Routes for and its vicinities. bers of visitors in Istanbul Istanbul Focusing on the who are seeking alternative 1) Istanbul Urban Route (a Küçükyalı ArkeoPark cultural routes? zigzag along Istanbul’s Land The newly built public trans- port infrastructure, including the Marmaray (a rail transporta- tion project under the Bospho- rus strait along the Sea of Mar- mara going from Halkalı on the European side to Gebze on the Asian side) and the Kadıköy– Kartal metro line, makes the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark much eas- ier to reach by public transpor- tation. We strongly believe that within a megapolis the size of Istanbul, public transportation Fig 8 Plan of the can be one of the main means of proposed “Vicinities movement for tourists as well as of Istanbul: Asian Side and Islands” cultural residents. Public transportation route (KYAP 2015) helps visitors save time, allows
222 The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities • ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARIŞ ALTAN
a more direct and hands-on ex- ly form of transportation. In the Fig 9. Plan of the approved perience with the city and is a city of Istanbul, urban bike lanes bike route (KYAP 2015) more environmentally sustain- have greatly increased over the able form of movement than au- past years. Within the frame- tomobiles or buses. The “Vicini- work of the LIMEN Project, a ties of Istanbul: Asian Side and bike lane will be implemented in Islands” route adds public sea order to re-establish the associa- transport as another appealing tion of the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark Fig 10. Meeting at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark for public means of transport for visitors with the nearby shore of the Sea presentation and discussion of and tourists16. of Marmara. This bike lane will the bike route (KYAP 2015) As mentioned above, it is now much faster and easier to reach the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark via pub- lic transportation. The Küçükyalı station on the Kadıköy–Kartal metro line is located only about 10 minutes walking distance from the site. One of the two main sea hubs on the Asian side of Istanbul, the Bostancı port, is within walking distance of the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark. Bicycles represent a sustain- able and environmentally friend-
223 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA originate from the existing bike Plan (SMP) since October 2014 sites will be enhanced by the us- lane on the Marmara shore, con- within the framework of an age of environmentally friendly necting Kadıköy to Kartal, and ISTKA (Istanbul Development forms of movement such as will represent an important Agency) grant, “A Sustainable urban bike lanes and public component of the sustainable Urban Archaeology Experience: transportation inclusive of sea cultural tourism route for the The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark.” Prof. transportation. We also feel Asian side of Istanbul. Nuran Zeren Gülersoy and her that public archaeology activi- team worked in collaboration ties carried out at the Küçükyalı In order to assess the feasi- and dialogue with the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark together with the bility of such a bike route, we ArkeoPark team. The boundar- launched a “bike night” event newly completed Visitors’ and ies of the SMP were approved at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark. Community Center represent an by the Turkish Ministry of Cul- On the warm summer evening added value for visitors. More- ture and Tourism in February of August 12, 2015, we hosted a over, the local community at 2015. Subsequently, the director gathering for the neighborhood Küçükyalı will continue to play of the Istanbul Archaeological and cyclists on the Byzantine pe- an important role in steward- Museums, Zeynep S. Kızıltan, riod platform at the archaeologi- ship of the site. The success of was officially appointed as the cal site (Fig. 9). At the meeting the cultural route will also be Site Manager by the Ministry of we presented, discussed and re- enhanced by stewardship under Culture and Tourism in August ceived constructive feedback on the auspices of the local authori- 2015. The preliminary draft of the bike lane project. At the same ties and the local Maltepe mu- the SMP was handed to the Min- time a group of volunteers pro- nicipality. istry in September 201518. vided the audience with training and advice on how to use urban One of the main components bike lanes in the city of Istanbul. of the SMP is the creation and The meeting proved successful implementation of sustainable and, with the support of the lo- cultural routes that will include cal Maltepe municipality, the the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark. bike lane project was finalized (Fig. 10). At the time of writing Conclusions this contribution, the new bike Our research and prelimi- lane was in the process of re- nary implementation indicates ceiving final approval from the that the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark Istanbul Greater Municipality17. has potential to become a core point for a sustainable cultural Site Management Plan route, one that should include and Cultural Routes the Princes’ Islands in order to A group of experts from dif- add meaningful historical value ferent fields have been working to the visitor experience. At the on drafting a Site Management same time, the ecology of the
224 The Küçükyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities • ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARIŞ ALTAN
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Activities at the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark are carried out through per- Council of Europe, 2015. “Cultural routes management: from theory to mission granted by the General Directorate for Antiquities and practice”. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Monuments of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Ms. Zeynep S. Kızıltan, Director of the Istanbul Archaeological Muse- Cultural Route Meetings. 9 presentations at the first meeting and 8 ums, is in charge of operations, with Dr. Alessandra Ricci serving presentations at the meeting were made by experts on culture, as the scientific coordinator. The authors wish to thank the Gen- cultural tourism. eral Directorate for permission to carry out work at the site; Ms. Culture Routes Society. The Society was established in July 2012 in Kızıltan and her staff, including Ms. Asuman Denker among others; order to protect Turkey’s existing culture routes, to promote the Prof. Dr. Irşadi Aksun at the VPDR Office at Koç University, for his establishment of new routes, and to set best-practice standards unconditional support of the EU LIMEN project; and Ms. Meltem for their development. (http://cultureroutesinturkey.com) Işanlar for her indefatigable contribution to our work. Last but not least, sincere thanks go to the entire team of the Küçükyalı Arke- Gülersoy N. Z., 2015. Küçükyalı ArkeoPark Alan Yönetim Planı (Taslak)/ oPark project. Küçükyalı ArkeoPark Site Management Plan (Draft), with A. Ricci, H. Akarca, O. Kargül, submitted to the Turkish Ministry of 2 Ricci 2015 Culture and Tourism and to the Turkish General Directorate of 3 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 496D.7-497A.4 , 11. 25-30, pp. 14-15. Cultural Heritage and Museums, Istanbul, 1- 149 4 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 365A.1-12; 76.20-27, pp. 108-109. McKercher, B. and Du Cross, H. 2002. Cultural Tourism: The Partnership 5 Ricci 2012, 147-156 between Tourism and Cultural Heritage Management. New 6 Ricci 2015, 181 York: The Haworth Press.
7 Ricci 1998 Platform for Commuting with Bike. The only existing web and mobile 8 Ricci, Bilgin, Polat, Metin, Ekși 2015, 1 application on bike routes in Istanbul was created by Platform 9 Ricci 2012, Ricci 2015 for Commuting with Bike. (http://bisikletliulasim.com/harita. html) 10 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 365A.1-12; 76.20-27,pp.108-109. 11 Ricci, Yilmaz, In Press Ricci A., 1998. “The road from Baghdad to Constantinople and the case of the Bryas Palace Istanbul”, Byzantium in the Ninth Century: 12 Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism Dead or Alive?, L. Brubaker ed., Aldershot, 131- 149 13 McKercher, Du Cross Ricci A., 2012. Left behind: small sized objects from the Middle Byzantine 14 Cultural Route Meetings Monastic Complex of Satyros (Küçükyalı, Istanbul),” Byzantine 15 Cultural Routes Society Small Finds in Archaeological Contexts, B. Böhlendorf-Aslan, A. 16 Council of Europe Ricci eds., BYZAS, 15, 147-162 17 Platform for Commuting with Bike Ricci A. 2015. Contesti funerari bizantini e loro archeologia a Küçükyalı 18 Gülersoy 2015, 127 (Istanbul: considerazionipreliminari/Küçükyalı’da Bizans mezar kontekstleri ve arkeolojisi: ilk değerlendirmeler,” Journal of Archaeology and Art/ Arkeoloji ve Sanat, 148, 177-190
Ricci A., Bilgin I., Polat B., Metin A.B., Ekși E., 2015. Geçmișten Geleceğe Miras. Küçükyalı ArkeoPark. Kültürel Miras Eğitim Kitapçığı (8- 12 yaş)/ Heritage from Past to Future. The Küçükyalı ArkeoPark. A Cultural Heritage Educational Booklet (8-12 years), Istanbul
Ricci A., Yilmaz A., In Press. Urban archaeology and community engagement: the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark, Heritage Tourism Destinations: Preservation, Communication and Development, M. Alvarez, A. Yuksel and F. Go eds. Oxon (In Press)
Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. “Accommodation Statistics: Ministry Licensed Establishments”. (http://www.kultur.gov.tr/ EN,47833/ministry-licenced-establishments.html)
Vita Ignatii 2013, Nicetas David, The Life of Patriarch Ignatius. Text and Translation by A. Smithies, with Notes by J. M. Duffy, Washington, D.C.
225
Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth
G e o r g i a -A n n a K a n a k i
ABSTRACT This essay deals with the on the facilitation of access to impacts of cultural tourism monuments and sites, both on society and examines its concerning their connectability potentials for growth. First of to the public transport network all, the vital role of cultural and their accessibility by disabled tourism in destination branding persons. The important issue of is described, as it contributes to authenticity versus staged events is the creation of national identities raised, as the current trend within and develops attraction “icons” for tourism is to provide the visitor national governments. Moreover, with authentic experiences. Lastly, the economic impact of cultural the role of new technologies such tourism is analysed, especially in as virtual reality or QR codes, the case of developing countries outdoor activities, museum nights, or countries with a weakened themed walks and temporary economy. Emphasis is given on exhibitions is described. The last environmental issues that must part of the essay briefly outlines be taken into consideration for the EU policies within the field of the preservation of historical cultural tourism and emphasizes sites and monuments, as well as on the role of city-ports and for the maximization of cultural the importance of international tourism’s economic impact. collaboration for the promotion of Furthermore, the essay emphasizes tourism in general.
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“Europe must offer sustainable tage, such as folklore, religious and high-quality tourism, playing practices etc2. Cultural tourism on its comparative advantages, in has been practised since an- particular the diversity of its coun- tiquity, for example in ancient tryside and extraordinary cultural Greece and during the Roman wealth.” era, when people travelled in or- With this statement, the Com- der to participate in events such mission communication “Europe, as the Olympic Games, religious the world’s No 1 tourist destina- feasts, festivals or to visit histori- tion - a new political framework cal sites. An ancient example of for tourism in Europe” confirms cultural tourism is the case of the significant role of cultural tour- Pausanias, who travelled across ism. Europe is indeed a key cultur- Greece during the 2nd century al tourism destination, with a large A.D. This could be considered as number of major sites and a strong a primary form of cultural tour- flow of international and domestic ism, and his works about each visitors. It is estimated that cul- region he visited could be the tural tourism accounts for around beginning of tourist guides. 40% of all European tourism. Impacts of cultural What is meant by tourism in general “Cultural Tourism”? Tourism in general has an im- The World Tourism Organ- pact on numerous sectors in our isation (UNWTO) defines cultur- society. Destination branding, al tourism as follows: “Cultural economy, environment, employ- tourism includes movements ment and new technologies are of persons for essentially cul- only a few fields that are direct- tural motivations such as study ly linked to tourism and more tours, performing arts and other specifically to cultural tourism. cultural tours, travel to festivals However, attractions also serve and other cultural events, visit a variety of different purposes, to sites and monuments, travel some unrelated to tourism. For to study nature, folklore or art example, attractions often have or pilgrimages”1. This means an explicit educational purpose, that cultural tourism includes are often central to the protec- not only visits to archaeological tion, or in fact creation, of cultur- and historical sites and muse- al identities, and can contribute ums but also coming in contact to the conservation and protec- with the intangible cultural heri- tion of many historic sites3.
228 Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth • GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI
Destination branding provides employment for the on the natural or urban environ- local population but is also a ment, issues such as the use of Cultural tourism is the most source of income for the country renewable energy sources (solar important factor for destina- in general. energy, wind power etc), waste tion branding. For example, the management and traffic must be Coliseum in Rome or the Par- Apart from the indirect posi- taken into serious consideration. thenon in Athens, the Big Ben in tive impact of cultural tourism As many countries possessing a London and the Eiffel tower in on a tourist destination, there rich cultural heritage are blessed Paris are monuments of cultural are other significant factors, with sunny weather conditions, heritage that are intrinsically which contribute to the increase the use of solar energy is a vital linked to the image of the cities of tourism receipts. For example, step towards the environmental- where they are located, creating the pricing of the entrance fees friendly management of cultural attraction “icons” for national to museums and archaeological sites. Moreover, recycling the governments. Strengthening the and historical sites are closely increased amount of waste due image of the hosting cities and linked to the specific income of to augmented tourism flows is countries leads to an increase the attraction. For the pricing also vital for the sustainability of of tourist flows to characteristic of the entrance fees to places of places of cultural interest as well monuments, museums etc, thus cultural interest, the principle of as for the city in general where contributing to an increase of “the polluter pays” must be tak- the monuments or museums are tourism revenues. en into consideration, as many historical sites and monuments located. Economic impact are endangered by the increas- Increased tourism flows in In the field of economy, cul- ing flow of tourists. By this way, major cities also lead to traffic tural tourism provides oppor- entrance fees should reflect not congestion. Thus it is essential tunities for all countries, espe- only the economic cost of the to divert traffic from the most cially for developing countries provision but also social costs, as visited sites and build or ad- or countries with a weakened well as preservation, restoration just the already existing urban economy. In developed areas, and maintenance costs of the at- mass transportation system to heritage and cultural attractions tractions, so as to contribute to the major monuments/muse- include -apart from archaeo- the self-financing of the cultural ums. Inevitably this will also logical and historical sites- art institutions and the increase of increase the city residents’ life museums, plays, orchestral and their revenues. quality and decrease the pollu- other musical performances. In tion caused by the traffic in gen- Environmental impact less developed areas, heritage eral. A good example of traffic and cultural attractions may in- As mentioned above, the management is the unification clude traditional religious prac- management of places of cultur- of the archaeological sites in tices, handicrafts and cultural al interest is strongly linked to Athens’ city centre and the ban- performance4. Both categories environmental issues. In order ning of car traffic within the of countries can benefit from to promote cultural tourism and area. The archaeological sites cultural tourism that not only outweigh its negative impacts are accessible by the metro sys-
229 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA tem and tourists enjoy a stroll in other people and other cultures. to or are about to visit. E-muse- the tranquil surroundings of the This means that the promo- ums and e-libraries provide es- sites, undisturbed by sounds tion of the intangible cultural sential information for the po- and car gases. heritage such as songs, dances tential visitor. Good examples or feasts of every kind requires for this is the “Europeana Por- Caring for disabled authenticity. Defining authentic- tal”7, a multimedia library, mu- people ity, one would describe it as the seum and archive incorporated Visiting historical sites and ideal situation where both the into one website, offering direct learning about a place’s history host community and the visitor access to digitised books, audio should be a privilege for every- see the experience as authentic5. and film material, photos, paint- one. However, it is not unusual The current trend in tourism is ings, maps, manuscripts, news- to see open-air archaeological providing the visitor with posi- papers and archival documents sites that cannot be accessed by tive experiences that he or she that compile Europe’s cultural wheelchair users or adults with is bound to share with his or heritage. her friends at home, who could babies in prams. Equipping cul- But also traditional museums be prompted to visit the coun- tural sites with ramps or spe- have a great profit from the use try themselves. Unfortunately, cially designed lifts is crucial of new technologies. For exam- for making them accessible to many times visitors are met by ple, numerous European muse- 6 everyone in an inclusive soci- staged events , often organized ums use the QR code technology ety. Caring for disabled people by their travel agency, that are so the visitor can scan the code also reflects a country’s attitude in total lack of authenticity (e.g. on his or hers cell phone and get towards vulnerable population bouzouki nights with Greek further information about the groups, contributing to the im- dancing arranged exclusively object they are looking at. age a that tourist acquires when for tourists). Thus it is crucial visiting a foreign country. It is for tourists to be provided with Interactive media is also an obvious that making sites acces- genuine experiences (e.g. culi- asset for museums nowadays, sible to everyone is an invest- nary or musical) which have the as the visitor has the opportu- ment, as more people will be able potential of acting as one of the nity to interact with the exposed to visit the particular places and most decisive factors for visiting object. This makes the museum contribute to their prosperity. a particular place. more exciting for the tourist who in the opposite case eas- Authenticity Use of new technologies ily gets bored by only reading dusty tags of objects placed be- Another important issue that The use of new technologies hind windowpanes. arises when it comes to cultural such as the internet, virtual re- tourism is the authenticity of ality and QR codes play a vital Reaching out to the younger what the tourist experiences. role for the growth of cultural population is also of great im- Tourists are more and more tourism. Nowadays most people portance for museums, histori- looking for true experiences, for inform themselves via internet cal sites etc. In order to acquaint meeting and getting to know about the destination they want children with cultural tourism, it
230 Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth • GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI is essential for museums, histor- in an open-air museum that cov- ical sites etc to create activities ers the historical period from for this particular group of visi- the Stone Age to the Viking Age. tors. Role playing and virtual This could be an innovative idea tours are appreciated especially for Mediterranean countries by younger visitors. A recent that, in contrast to Scandinavia, example in Greece is the Ther- have the privilege of enjoying mopylae’s Innovative Centre of a mild climate throughout the Historical Information, an inter- year, thus combating the season- active museum at the homony- ality of tourism. mous historical site, where the Museum nights are frequent- children play roles and have the ly arranged in numerous cities opportunity to discover all as- throughout Europe. These nights pects of the Greco-Persian wars. aim not only at promoting tour- An example of a virtual reality ism but also at acquainting the museum is the “Hellenic Cos- local residents with their city’s mos Cultural Centre” that offers cultural heritage. It is an oppor- virtual reality tours to its visitors tunity for the local population and arranges special entertain- to discover its city’s museums ment programmes for children. by providing free or reduced en- trance to museums or other plac- The role of outdoor es of cultural interest at hours activities, museum when most people have free time. nights and themed walks Themed walks can also be Outdoor activities play an es- arranged in most cities. In Ath- sential role especially in the case ens, for example, such themed of open air historical sites and walks are frequently arranged, in cities with historical build- especially for local residents ings and monuments. The ar- who have the chance to discover rangement of outdoor activities hidden secrets in their own city. is essential for giving the tourist Such themed walks could be ar- an interesting and inclusive ex- ranged more frequently for tour- perience while visiting histori- ists visiting cities with a cultural cal sites. For example, the Lejre heritage, who are bound to be open-air museum in Denmark is interested in discovering cor- a place where visitors are invited ners of the city relevant to sub- to participate in activities such jects that they are interested in, as treasure-hunting, paddling, e.g. poetry, religion or even the making stone-ground cakes etc underground sewage system!
231 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Exhibitions nance of the country’s historical sites and for the employment of Temporary exhibitions are a enough authorised guides and well-known marketing tool for security staff. tourist attractions such as- mu seums. Exhibitions attract tour- Opening hours, especially ists who have already visited the during high season, should be museum’s permanent collection extended, in order to facilitate but also visitors who may be tourists whose time in most especially interested in a par- cases is limited. It is also impor- ticular temporary exhibition. A tant for the sites to provide the recent successful example of an visitor with information about exhibition that attracted a great the duration of the tour, so that number of visitors to Greece’s they are able to adjust their time National Archaeological Mu- to their benefit. A good idea is seum, was the exhibition about to provide guided tours with a the Antikythera shipwreck and shorter or a longer duration, so the famous “Antikythera mecha- the tourist has the possibility nism” that increased the tourist to choose which tour he or she flow by 81%.8 wants to participate in.
The importance of Specific aspects of funding and staffing cultural tourism For the realisation of the above European cultural routes mentioned activities, adequate funding and staffing is required. Promoting cultural tourism Sadly, many historical sites and has always been a priority for the monuments –especially open-air European continent. The project ones- give the visitor the impres- “European Cultural Routes” sion of being neglected and left to was launched by the Council of their fate. Lack of adequate fund- Europe in 1987, aiming to dem- ing and staff contribute to this onstrate, by means of a journey image, leaving the visitor with a through space and time, how feeling of disappointment, hav- the heritage of the different ing travelled so far in order to countries and cultures of Europe see a neglected site. Therefore it contributes to a shared cultural is of uttermost importance that heritage. The Cultural Routes the competent authorities in each put into practice the fundamen- country allocate enough funding tal principles of the Council of for the operation and mainte- Europe: human rights, cultural
232 Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth • GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI democracy, cultural diversity time. As road communication of tourists travelling from far- and identity, dialogue, mutual was very difficult for the travel- away countries to Europe and exchange and enrichment across ler who wished to visit a far off more specifically to the Mediter- boundaries and centuries.9 place, travel by sea was a fast ranean, it is vital for neighbour- The European Union coop- and convenient way to travel, ing countries to cooperate with- erates actively with the Council making use of the trading routes in the field of cultural tourism. of Europe, the European Travel in the Mediterranean. The tourist who travels across the globe to experience the cul- Commission, the World Tour- Today, the role of city-ports is tural heritage of a country will ism Organisation and other also of great importance, taking most likely be interested in vis- international partners, contrib- into consideration the growth iting cultural monuments in a uting to the further develop- of cruise tourism worldwide. In neighbouring country if given ment of Pan-European Thematic the Mediterranean and the Black the chance. Thus countries with Tourism Routes. At the time be- Sea, major city-ports are located ing, there are 26 trans-national in the vicinity of archaeological shared sea borders could benefit itineraries connecting several and historical sites, contributing from combined tourist packages cities, villages, rural communi- to the growth of cultural tourism that include cultural visits to ties across the continent and both in the city ports and in the more than one country. representing Europe as a single mainland. Thus infrastructure is 10 Conclusion tourism destination. a vital element for the develop- The Organization of the ment of cultural tourism, with Every country has its own cul- Black Sea Economic Coopera- the connection of harbours with ture that it is proud of and aims tion (BSEC) also strives for the national roads, railways etc. at attracting tourists to visit its promotion of cultural tourism monuments, museums, histori- City-ports are also impor- cal sites and experience its tradi- within the frame of the Working tant in terms of daily excursions tions. For the realisation of this Groups on Cooperation in Tour- from neighbouring countries, ism and Culture, by ensuring goal, many sectors must be com- for example Greece and Turkey, sustainable tourism develop- bined for a maximum effect. It is whose ports can be visited dur- ment enabling economic expan- important to remember that even ing one-day excursions, con- sion while preserving natural when financial resources are- re tributing to the acquaintance of and cultural heritage, promot- stricted, there is always poten- tourists with the cultural heri- ing new tourism packages for tial to develop cultural tourism tage of each country and leading the BSEC Region, joint market- by making the sites, museums to economic prosperity for the ing campaigns etc. etc attractive and interesting for home and the destination port. the visitor. The exchange of best Cultural tourism and Promoting tourist packages practices and ideas, along with city-ports that stretch over several coun- the strengthening of internation- City-ports have always played tries’ borders is a key element al cooperation, present a chance an essential role in cultural tour- for the marketing of city-ports. for all countries to develop their ism from antiquity to present Taking into account the number cultural heritage and identity.
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NOTES REFERENCES 1 World Tourism Organization, 1985, 131. Christou, E. 2005. Heritage and cultural tourism: A marketing-focused 2 According to the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intan- approach. In the International Cultural Tourism: Management, gible Cultural Heritage, the intangible cultural heritage (ICH) – or Implications and Cases, edited by Sigala, M. & Leslie, D. London: living heritage – is the mainspring of humanity’s cultural diversity Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. and its maintenance a guarantee for continuing creativity. Cooper C., Wanhill S., Fletcher J., Gilbert D., and Fyall A. 2005. Tourism: 3 Cooper et all. 2005, 346. principles and practice, 3rd ed., Harlow: Financial Times Prentice 4 Christou 2005, 5. Hall. 5 Cooper et all. 2005, 374. Council of Europe. 2014. “Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural 6 MacCannell 1973, 589-603. Routes”. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/ routes/default_en.asp (8 September2015) 7 http://www.europeana.eu/portal/ 8 In his interview, Kakavas (2014, 24 November) speaks of an increase European Commission. 2014. “Cultural Tourism”. http://ec.europa.eu/ of 81 % in tourist flow to the National Archaeological Museum dur- enterprise/sectors/tourism/cultural-routes/index_en.htm#h2-1 ing the summer months. (8 September 2015) 9 Council of Europe. 2014, “Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural Kakavas, G. 2013, 24 November. “Ο πολιτισμός είναι η σανίδα Routes”. σωτηρίας”. Το Παρόν της Κυριακής (2013). http://www. 10 European Commission. 2014. “Cultural Tourism”. paron.gr/v3/article_print.php?id=85850&colid=&catid=60& dt=2013-11-24%200:0:0 (8 September 2015).
MacCannell, D. 1973 Staged authenticity: Arrangements of social space in tourist settings. American Journal of Sociology, 79 (3).
World Tourism Organization. 1985. The Role of Recreation Management in the Development of Active Holidays and Special Interest Tourism and the Consequent Enrichment of the Holiday Experience. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
234 Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects: How High is Culture in the European Agenda?
V a s s i l i k i S otiropoulou
Europe 2020 Strategy As Jose Manuel BARROSO, European Com- mission President (2004-2014) stresses in the Pref- ace of the Communication from the Commission on Europe 2020, “European leaders have a common analysis on the lessons to be drawn from the crisis. We also share a common sense of urgency on the chal- lenges ahead. Now we jointly need to make it happen. Europe has many strengths. We have a talented workforce, we have a powerful tech- nological and industrial base. We have an in- ternal market and a single currency that have successfully helped us resist the worst. We have a tried and tested social market economy. We must have confidence in our ability to set an ambitious agenda for ourselves and then gear our efforts to delivering it”.
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The Europe 2020 strategy is about delivering In order to achieve these goals, the Europe 2020 growth that is: strategy is focused on five ambitious goals in the a) smart, through more effective investments in areas of: employment, innovation, education, pov- education, research and innovation; erty reduction and climate/energy. b) sustainable, thanks to a decisive move to- Table 1 is trying to give an overview of the ar- wards a low carbon economy; and c) inclu- eas of EU activities and the programmes adopted sive, with a strong emphasis on job creation for their implementation. and poverty reduction. But what do these three terms refer to? Thematic Priorities: Smart growth means improving the EU’s per- In order to contribute to the Union strategy for formance in: education (encouraging people to smart, sustainable and inclusive growth as well as learn, study and update their skills), research/ the Fund-specific missions pursuant to their Trea- innovation (creating new products/services that ty-based objectives, including economic, social generate growth and jobs and help address social and territorial cohesion, each European Structural challenges) and digital society (using information and Investment Fund (ESIF) shall support 11 spe- and communication technologies) cific thematic objectives. Thematic objectives shall be translated into priorities (known as investment Sustainable growth on the other hand sup- priorities) that are specific to each of the ESI Funds ports the shift towards a resource efficient, low- and are set out in the Fund- specific rules. carbon economy, that makes efficient, sustainable use of resources, protecting the environment, 1. strengthening research, technological de- reducing emissions and preventing biodiversity velopment and innovation; loss, developing new green technologies and 2. enhancing access to, and use and quality production methods introducing efficient smart of, ICT; electricity grids, harnessing EU-scale networks to give our businesses (especially small manu- 3. enhancing the competitiveness of SMEs, facturing firms) an additional competitive- ad of the agricultural sector (for the EAFRD) vantage, improving the business environment, and of the fishery and aquaculture sector in particular for SMEs and helping consumers (for the EMFF); make well-informed choices. 4. supporting the shift towards a low-carbon Last but not least, the term Inclusive growth re- economy in all sectors; fers to the initiatives for raising Europe’s employ- 5. promoting climate change adaptation, ment rate i.e. more and better jobs, especially for risk prevention and management; women, young people and older workers helping 6. preserving and protecting the environ- people of all ages anticipate and manage change ment and promoting resource efficiency; through investment in skills & training. Also, the term “inclusive growth” refers to modernising la- 7. promoting sustainable transport and re- bour markets and welfare system and ensuring that moving bottlenecks in key network infra- the benefits of growth reach all parts of the EU. structures;
236 Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects • VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU
Table 1 Areas of EU activities Programmes
HORIZON 2020 COSME, ERASMUS+, SMART AND INCLUSIVE GROWTH CUSTOMS 2020 COMPETITIVENESS FOR GROWTH AND JOBS CONNECTING EUROPE FACILITY, (47% of the overall budget) EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL INNOVATION (EASI), GALILEO 2014-2020, PERICLES 2020, HERCULE III, FISCALIS 2020
EUROPEAN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT FUND (ERDF) 2014-2020, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND EUROPEAN SOCIAL FUND 2014-2020 (ESF), TERRITORIAL COHESION COHESION FUND 2014-2020, INTERREG EUROPE
COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY 2014-2020 (CAP - PILLAR I) EUROPEAN AGRICULTURAL FUND FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT (EARDF, CAP - PILLAR II) PRESERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES EUROPEAN MARITIME AND FISHERIES FUND (EMFF)
ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE ACTION (LIFE)
ASYLUM, MIGRATION AND INTEGRATION FUND INTERNAL SECURITY FUND (POLICE COMPONENT) SECURITY AND CITIZENSHIP INTERNAL SECURITY FUND (BORDER COMPONENT), JUSTICE (2% of the overall budget) RIGHTS, EQUALITY AND CITIZENSHIP PROGRAMME, EUROPE FOR CITIZENS HEALTH FOR GROWTH, CONSUMERS CREATIVE EUROPE
INSTRUMENT FOR PRE-ACCESSION ASSISTANCE (IPA) EUROPEAN NEIGHBOURHOOD INSTRUMENT (ENI)
PARTNERSHIP INSTRUMENT (PI) GLOBAL EUROPE DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION INSTRUMENT (DCI) (6% of the overall budget) INSTRUMENT FOR STABILITY AND PEACE (IFS) EUROPEAN INSTRUMENT FOR DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS (EIDHR) UNION CIVIL PROTECTION MECHANISM INSTRUMENT FOR NUCLEAR SAFETY CO-OPERATION (INSC)
237 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
8. promoting sustainable and quality em- achieve the EU’s strategic objectives of prosperity, soli- ployment and supporting labour mobility; darity and security”, and have led the Commission to develop a common cultural agenda and new 9. promoting social inclusion, combating partnerships and methods for cooperation with poverty and any discrimination; Member States, civil society and third countries. 10. investing in education, training and voca- As a result, in May 2007 the European Commis- tional training for skills and lifelong learning; sion issued the “Communication from the Com- 11. enhancing institutional capacity of public mission to the European Parliament, the Council, authorities and stakeholders and efficient the European Economic and Social Committee public administration. and the Committee of the Regions on a European agenda for culture in a globalizing world”, pro- As seen in table 2 above, as well as in the the- posing objectives for a new EU agenda for culture. matic priorities list that follows, culture is not a priority per se. Cultural projects and initiatives for EUROPEAN AGENDA FOR CULTURE the promotion and study of cultural issues can be Resolution of the Council, 16 Nov. 2007 the financed through a number of Programmes that European Agenda for Culture is perceived as an are designed to contribute to the targets of Europe important step towards further developing coop- 2020 for jobs and growth and satisfy Europe’s eration in the cultural field and increasing the co- commitments to international agreements, such as herence and visibility of European action in this the United Nations Convention on the Protection field, while at the same time strengthening the and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Ex- transversal role of culture. Its Strategic Objectives pressions. The main Programmes through which focus on the following three topics: cultural projects can be supported are seen in the • promotion of cultural diversity and in- table above coloured in light yellow. tercultural dialogue; However, in recent years, Member States have • promotion of culture as a catalyst for explored new forms of flexible cooperation in- or creativity in the framework of the Lis- der to work together more closely in the pursuit of bon Strategy for growth, employment, shared objectives in the field of culture. A number innovation and competitiveness; of European institutions such as the Council, the European Parliament and the Social Committee and • promotion of culture as a vital element the Committee of the Regions, have recognised the in the Union’s international relation; importance of culture and intercultural dialogue, that are further specified intoSpecific Objectives the role of civil society and of local and regional that refer to three main categories of topics to be ad- authorities and called for strengthened coopera- dressed i.e. a) Promotion of cultural diversity and tion in their reports and recommendations. Regular intercultural dialogue, b) promotion of culture as a ministerial conferences have also contributed to ex- catalyst of creativity and c) culture as a vital element changes of best practices and dialogue on policies. of international relations. Each one of the Specific These experiences contributed to the acknowl- Objectives will address a predetermined number edgement that “culture is indispensable feature to and nature of themes as shown in the table below:
238 Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects • VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU
Table 2 “Specific Objectives”
PROMOTION OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PROMOTING CULTURE AS A INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE : CATALYST OF CREATIVITY:
• mobility of artists and other professionals in the culture field, • synergies between culture and education: encouraging art education and active participation • promoting cultural heritage: mobility of collections, in cultural activities for developing creativity and digitisation, improving public access to different forms of innovation, cultural and linguistic expressions, • managerial, business and entrepreneurial training • promoting intercultural dialogue as a sustainable process capacities specifically tailored to professionals in the contributing to European identity, citizenship and social cultural and creative fields, cohesion, • favourable environment for the development of • intercultural competences of citizens; cultural and creative industries, including the audio-visual sector, thus maximizing their potential, in particular that of SMEs
CULTURE AS A VITAL ELEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS:
• enhancing the role of culture in the EU’s external relations and development policy, • promoting the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, • fostering intercultural dialogue (EU m-s and third countries, • encouraging further cooperation between cultural institutions of EU m-s, including cultural institutes, in third countries and with their counterparts in those countries;
The Work Plan for Culture 2015-2018 The European Commission’s role is to help ad- dress common challenges, such as the impact of While individual EU Member States remain the digitisation, changing models of cultural gov- responsible for their own culture sector policies, ernance and the need to support the innovation the 2015-18 Work Plan for Culture, adopted by EU potential of the cultural and creative sectors. Culture Ministers in December 2014, recognises the importance of cultural heritage and sets out CREATIVE EUROPE four main priorities for European cooperation in Creative Europe is the European Commission’s cultural policy making: framework programme for support to the culture • Accessible and inclusive culture, and audiovisual sectors.
• Cultural heritage, Following on from the previous Culture Pro- gramme and MEDIA programme, “Creative Eu- • Cultural and creative sectors: creative rope” will support: economy and innovation, and • Culture sector initiatives, such as those pro- • Promotion of cultural diversity, culture moting cross-border cooperation, platforms, in EU external relations, and mobility. networking, and literary translation;
239 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
• Audiovisual sector initiatives, such as technologies in both the distribution and those promoting the development, dis- promotion of the works. tribution, or access to audiovisual works; Networks helping the cultural and creative sec- • A cross-sectoral strand, including a tor to operate competitively and transnationally Guarantee Facility and transnational 1. Strengthening the cultural and creative policy cooperation. sectors by providing their workforce The programme consists of two sub-pro- with specific skills and experience,- ad- grammes one of which is meant to promote the aptation to digital technologies; culture sector (CULTURE sub-programme) while 2. Enabling the cultural and creative work- the other addresses the needs for support to the force to cooperate internationally and audiovisual sector (MEDIA sub programme). to expand their careers and influence in Available Budget: €1.46 billion (9% higher than Europe and beyond; the previous programmes). It is worth mentioning 3. Strengthening European cultural and at this point, that a financial guarantee facility of creative organisations/international net- up to €750 million for small businesses active in working that can create new profession- the sector will also be established in 2016. al opportunities.
Culture sub-programme Establishing platforms to promote emerging Cooperation between cultural and creative artists/ stimulating European programming for organisations from different countries cultural and artistic works 1. Fostering the mobility and visibility of This priority will support two types of projects: creators and artists - in particular those 1. Small scale cooperation projects (project lacking international exposure leader and at least two other partners) 2. Stimulating a genuine Europe-wide pro- 2. Large scale cooperation projects (project gramming of cultural and artistic activi- leader and at least five other partners) ties, with the view of facilitating access The maximum duration for all projects is 48 to non-national European cultural works months. via international touring, events, exhibi- tions and festivals, etc. Initiatives to translate and promote literary works across the European Union which will 3. Contributing to audience development support: and providing visibility to Europe’s val- 1. Translation and publication of a “pack- ues and different cultures age” of works of fiction from and into As an example of what kind of initiatives will eligible languages as well as the be co-financed through the “Culture” sub-pro- 2. Promotion of the translated “package”, gramme, please see the following call notice that including the appropriate use of digital refers to European cooperation projects. For the
240 Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects • VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU provision of detailed information and guidance Creative Europe Desks at: to potential applicants, national Creative Europe http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-europe/ Desks offer advice and support through a team of tools/creative-desks_en.htm national/local contact persons.
Call notice: ‘Support to European cooperation projects’ (adopted on 05/08/2015) Transnational mobility: What is entailed here is the transnational mobility of artists and profes- sionals, as well as the transnational circulation of cultural and creative works, the aim of which is to promote cultural exchanges, intercultural dia- logue, understanding for cultural diversity and social inclusion. Audience development: Audience develop- ment means bringing people and culture closer to- gether. It aims to directly engage people and com- munities in experiencing, enjoying and valuing arts and culture. Audience development is about doing something together with audiences, rather than doing something for them. Capacity building: Capacity building refers to provision of support to cultural operators to fur- ther develop their skills and internationalise their careers in order to facilitate access to professional opportunities as well as to create the conditions for greater transnational circulation of cultural and creative works and for cross-border networking. Deadline: 07/10/2015 – 12:00 (Brussels time)
More Information More information on the opportunities avail- able under the Culture sub-programme is avail- able on the site of the Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/creative-europe/fund- ing/cooperation-projects-2016_en
241
From Ancient Divers to Modern Diving Industry and its Effect on Cultural Tourism
F. S a n c a r U ğ u r y o l , V o l k a n D e m i r
Introduction Divers, who made a start on ma- Sea, which surrounds the ¾ rine and societal development of the world is an important life indeed took an important place source for mankind. Through- in cultural tourism. Divers, cur- out history, civilizations had set- rently total number of which tled on coastal zones both utiliz- exceeds 30 million worldwide ing what the sea offers and took elucidated archaeological un- ABSTRACT the advantage of its strategical derwater wealth and brought in through objects or visual media Since time immemorial, position. In our day, although which transmits intercultural mankind has preferred coastal coastal zones form only 20% 2 zones for living. Man made a lot of terrestrial landscape, 50% of communication. use of the sea; initial quests in the the world’s population live on coastlines with 200 km width.1 The early history of sea was for nutritive purposes diving and they also utilised underwater Men’s relation with the sea initi- for trade and strategical reasons. ated by curiosity or cleaning and Archaeological researches nutrition purposes, improved This paper is a preliminary show us breath holding divers day by day discovering sea and are the first underwater explor- investigation on mankind’s underwater. As a result of these ers and they harvested food, underwater history since ancient exploration efforts, many activ- pearl and sponges around 4500- times and on the impact of divers’ ity areas like marine transporta- 3200 BC.3 In the Trojan wars on cultural tourism. tion, marine cousine and marine breath hold divers were used to tourism revealed, and marine sabotage ships between 1194- Keywords: Diving, Scuba, culture took an important place 1984 BC. The first equipment Underwater, Diving tourism in intersocietal communication. recorded for diving is a goat-
243 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
be under water and how to dive. That was the beginning of recre- ational diving industry. Diving industry stands on 3 major E’s. Education, Equipment, Experience. Dive pros train peo- ple and customers are certified as “new divers” & “baby divers”. Even if you dive as a free diver, performing skin diving you still Fig 1. Stone panel from rest he needs to be guided by a the north-west palace of need specialized equipment that Delian diver. Maybe that is the Ashurnasirpal II. British means equipment must be pro- Museum. toughest duty for divers ever duced, rented or sold as well as since. To be able to reach down maintenance, care or repair for to Hirakitos knowledge depth. industry. Recreational scuba div- Nowadays, people on coastal ing and snorkelling contribute regions probably has some busi- about $11 billion to the US gross ness branches about ornament domestic product.5 To be able to selling, commercial diving on keep divers in action, dive pros harbours etc. On the other hand offer experiences conduct dive researches shows us some evi- trips and tours, there is also ad- dences underwater used as war ditional E’s such as “explore instrument from ancient times something” and “entertain peo- to modern days. ple”. Nowadays the most impor- skin balloon at 900 BC.4 Assyr- tant additional E is environment. Recent time ian’s probably used these bal- Dive professionals and partici- loons for swimming rather than Especially during world pants of diving society must also an air reserve. Nevertheless, it war 2 frogmen effectively used care for environment. Otherwise, is believed that these balloons underwater to destroy the en- there is no place for diving. For were the first buoyancy devices emy forces. At the same period this reason big clean-up days are organized and millions of people (Fig. 1). Then we follow traces Jacques-Yves Cousteau invented worldwide make a network to of Delian divers who have very scuba. With this new technology share their experiences. unique place in Ancient Greek which is very simple when com- philosophy. Yuripidis gave Hi- pared to old complex systems, Eco friendly divers’ motto is rakitos’s book to Sokrates. And diving expanded its range to “leave only bubbles, take only after a while asked what he more people named Scuba and pictures”. Under the lights of thought about it. Sokrates an- divers still using it. After war last researches even that motto is swered: he understood half of it those trained person started to wrong. Especially for closed en- and to be able to understand the teach what they learnt. How to vironments such as cavern, cave
244 From Ancient Divers to Modern Diving Industry • F. SANCAR UĞURYOL, VOLKAN DEMİR tunnels inside the wrecks which tourism with new technologies. are very common habitats at Ae- It is easy built virtual museum gean and Black Sea coastal zone. and via internet these treasures Scientific searches show that become visible to even non div- residual bubbles use air inside ers. Diving and underwater in- closed habitats can cause defor- dustry is billion dollar market mation on underwater flora. For and scuba diving is one of the that reason if divers penetrate useful tool for connecting peo- closed zones suggested technique ple and cultures. is to use Rebreathers (Fig. 2). No bubbles go out when diver exhale Result means no risk to damage. These From early on, diving was technologies starts new tourism one of the most important marine trends about underwater. activity, acting as a transition el- There are historical sunken ement between sea & marine dis- cities worldwide, like Kekova- coveries and cultural tourism. Turkey. Unfortunately, it is for- Common properties of sea- bidden for scuba diving. Permis- food prepared by people, using sion for scuba diving should be decorative objects like seashells given for this kind of shallow from underwater in our daily sunken historical cities that will lives, and usage of objects and help eco-cultural tourism devel- discoveries found out by divers opment. Under the supervision throughout many different sec- of well-trained guide divers, tors, demonstrate cultural inter- sunken city Kekova can be used actions obviously. as an open museum. If the group In our day, World’s most of divers use full face mask that beautiful places are dive sites. allows communication between Millions of divers get together divers, to guide diver even diver at the dive sites, and culturally to surface ground control. This interact with each other. They is like a guided tour at muse- Fig 2. Closed-circuit organize influential environ- ums. While touring, divers listen Rebreather System mental activities. Enhancements to the story of the location and in technological improvements the items. provide further opportunities to Some wrecks and items are the divers, enabling them as im- too deep to dive off limits for portant cultural ambassadors in scuba diving like Black Sea but the future as in the past. there is still a chance to use those hidden treasures for cultural
245 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 United Nations 2002. Bachrach, AJ. 1988. “Breathhold Diving”. In A Pictorial History of Diving 2 Musa and Dimmock 2013, 232. edited by A.J. Bachrach B.M. Desiderati andM.M. Matzen, 2-3. San Pedro: Best Publishing Company, Undersea and Hyperbaric 3 Edmonds 1981, 1-12; Bachrach et al. 1988, 2-3. Medical Society. 4 Davis 1962, 7-9. Davis, R.H. 1962. Deep diving and submarine operations. 7th edition. 5 Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA) 2014. London: St Catherine Press.
Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA). 2014. Fast Facts: Recreational Scuba Diving and Snorkelling. USA.
Edmonds, C., C. Lowry and J. Pennefather. 1981. Diving and Subaquatic Medicine. 2nd edition. Sydney: Diving Medical Centre Publication.
Musa, G., K. Dimmock. 2013. Scuba Diving Tourism. 1th edition. Routedge Press.
United Nations. 2002. UN Atlas of the Oceans. http://www.oceansatlas. org/
246 Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient History, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Opportunities
I r i n a U g r i n s k a
Many people regard Varna as Location All Roads Lead To Varna the sea capital of Bulgaria. But The city’s geographic loca- The geographic location de- Varna is more than warm sea and tion on the northern coast of fined the successful develop- green nature, beautiful beaches Black sea has a competitive ad- ment of the city for centuries. and mineral springs. Varna is vantage. also a symbol of both ancient history and modern culture. Varna is the: All these things make Varna a • biggest city on Bulgarian unique city and attractive tourist Black Sea coast destination. The purpose of this • biggest port in Bulgaria presentation is to show Varna as a crossing point of ancient histo- • bridge between East and ry, cultural heritage and tourism West Fig 1. Varna is the largest city and seaside resort on the opportunities (Fig. 1). Bulgarian Black Sea Coast
247 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
• Well developed sea and • 70% of the city population Tourism – Priority of Varna cargo transport determine (approx. 230 000 people) Nowadays Varna is a diverse the city as a crossing road falls into active working and dynamic city, a port of op- between East and West age (between 18 and 65 portunities with a huge potential. years) • Infrastructure: Port Varna, Tourism is a major branch. Varna international airport, three • 2.43% of the population has several good reasons for sus- railway stations, „Hemus“ lives in the villages tainable development of tourism: and „Cherno more“ high- • Unique combination of ways History nature – mineral springs, • The railway connection The roots of the city lie in beaches and forests; Varna-Ruse is a transport antiquity. For over 7000 years • Well developed tourist in- corridor between Danube its territory was a cradle of sev- frastructure – over 60 000 River, Black Sea and Cen- eral prominent civilizations. beds, around 1 million tral and Western Europe Thracians, Romans, Byzantines, tourists per year; Bulgarians, Slavs and Turks • Varna airport, only 8 km • Over 300 hotels total in leave a long lasting impact on away from the city cen- the area, over 90 of them the evolution of the city dur- tre, connects the Northern – 4 and 5-star; ing the centuries. The present Black Sea with 35 coun- • Colourful culture calen- day city of Varna is a successor tries and over 100 cities in dar – festivals, music con- to one of the oldest settlements the world certs, opera, theatre and in the Bulgarian lands – Odes- cinema events. Area sos which means -“town near • 237 km2 total area of Var- the water”, dating back from Resorts na region, 30% of which is 6th century B.C. Founded as a The world-2wide famous populated commercial colony at the place of an ancient Thracian village. resorts “Golden Sands”, “St. St. • 32 km coast line In the year 15 B.C. the prov- Constantine and Elena”, “Sunny • 5 km2 Varna lake ince of Moesia, which included Day”, “Riviera”, have attracted Odessos, finally became part followers of seaside tourism for Demographic Structure of the Roman Empire. In 395 decades. Our resorts offer multiple • Varna is the third largest the town became an important choice of tourism opportunities: city in Bulgaria port of the Eastern Roman Em- • Recreational sea tourism • 356 713 people (over half pire (Byzantine Empire) and • Balneal, wellness and spa a million during the sum- adopted Christianity as an of- • Cultural and congress mer season) ficial religion. In 1393 Varna tourism was conquered by the Ottoman • 4.72% of Bulgaria’s popu- • Rural and ecotourism army and was liberated on July lation 27 1878 as a result of the Russo- • Health tourism • Positive growth Turkish War (1877 – 1878). • Sports
248 Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient History, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Opportunities • I. UGRINSKA
Cruise Destination Archaeological Museum Varna is also a cruise des- The archaeological museum tination. Varna’s seaport is a is among the largest museums convenient bridge for the pas- in Bulgaria. Founded on the sengers from Western Europe, initiative of the Shkorpil broth- Russia, Ukraine, Middle and ers; first exposition - in 1906. Eastern Asia. The sea station It keeps the oldest processed which is part of port Varna has gold in the world - the unique two piers for cruise ships and a Varna treasure, discovered ac- small yacht port. In 2014 Varna Fig 2. Remains of ancient cidentally in 1972 during con- Roman Odessus welcomed 36 liners and 21 003 struction activities. Jewelry and passengers from all over the items with a total weight of 6.5 world for the third time next kg of 23.5 carats gold, were dis- year the city will host the inter- covered in a necropolis, dated national regatta “SCF Black Sea around 4400 to 4200 BC. The Tall Ships”, which will be held in necropolis has been defined by April - May 2016. experts as Europe’s richest of Culture Heritage the Late Chalcolithic period. The museum and its collections Varna offers various oppor- represent Bulgaria at numerous tunities for cultural tourism, national and international exhi- such as: bitions (Fig. 3). The Roman Thermal Cathedral Of The Holy Baths Assumption The Roman thermal baths are the fourth largest in Europe The Cathedral is one of Var- and the largest on the Balkans na’s most recognized symbols. - established in 2nd - 3rd century Its foundation stone is laid by during the heyday of Odessos. Alexander I Batemberg in Au- They are located in the south- gust 1880 and it is designed eastern part of Varna near the by the architect Maas from port. It is a place of interest for Odessa following the design historians, archaeologists and of the Peterhovski Temple in tourists. The Roman baths are Petersburg. The square of the converted into an open air mu- Cathedral temple is a starting seum. Now a summer it a stage point for many tourist routes Fig 3. The Archaeological Museum occupies an for theatrical performances and through the city and the near- ornate 19th-century concerts (Fig. 2). by areas (Fig. 4). former girls’ school
249 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Cathedral of the Holy from the Mediterranean, Asia and • International music, jazz Assumption South America are grown in the and theatre festivals “Var- garden. „Evksinograd“ is nowa- na Summer” days a government residence • International Folklore - the unique furniture from the Festival tsarist period has been preserved in the halls of the palace (Fig. 5). • International May Choir Competition The Stone Forest • European Music Festival The stone forest is a natural • Oldest international ballet phenomenon located about 18 competition in the world km west of Varna. It represents natural stone columns, reaching • “Golden Rose” national a height of up to 6 meters, scat- festival of feature films tered in a field. Has an attractive • International Film Festival group of forms of fossilized ani- “Love is Folly” mals and frozen waterfalls. Ac- • World Festival of Animat- cording to the prevailing theory, ed Film The Stone Forest was formed 50 million years ago when the area • International Print Biennial was part of the seabed (Fig. 6). Culture Centres Varna – City Of Festivals Varna is a centre of significant Varna is one of the centres cultural life with culture centres of the artistic and cultural life in and institutions, emblematic for Bulgaria. Some of the most pres- the city and the region. They tigious national and international have their own appearance, his- Fig 5. View of the events are held here. All around tory and contribution. Some of Evksinograd Palace the year more than 40 festivals them are: take place in the sea capital. Most of them have long-standing tradi- Stoyan Bachvarov tions. Seven festivals, which take Drama Theatre The Evksinograd Palace place in Varna, will receive Euro- In 1912 began the construc- The Evksinograd palace was pean quality certificates during tion of the National Theatre in built in 1882 on the design of Vi- an official ceremony in Brussels Varna. The building was finished ennese architect Rumpelmayer. in September 2015. The “Europe- in 1932. It stands opposite the ca- The establishment of the famous an festival” award for 2015/16 is thedral on the main pedestrian local park began in 1890. More a good opportunity for cross-cul- alley. This nice building is a home than 200 different plant species tural dialogue in the art sphere. both of the theatre and the Opera.
250 Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient History, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Opportunities • I. UGRINSKA
Open Air Theatre the country. Over 35 000 tourists A magnetic space with a have visited the center last year. pleasant artistic atmosphere. It Two additional tourist informa- is located in the heart of the sea tion centers are working during garden. In the Summer Theater the summer season - in “St. St. are held many national and in- Constantine and Helena” resort ternational events. One of them and at Varna airport (Fig. 7). is the oldest world famous Ballet Administrates the tourist site Competition. www.visit.varna.bg – awarded for BEST TOURIST WEB SITE Festival And FOR 2015. Congress Centre In June 2014 with the sup- Opposite the entrance to the port of the Union of guides we Sea Garden is one of the big- launched a new initiative - free gest cultural institutions in the walking tours for individual city – the Festival and Congress travelers who visit Varna. It Centre. The complex is a centre turned out as a very successfull of Bulgarian and international cultural events, congresses and symposia. Here are held most of the movie festivals.
Palace Of Culture And Sports It is a multipurpose build- ing, host of cultural and sport events, exhibitions and con- ferences. The palace has been recently reconstructed. It now has a new appearance and new seats added. Fig 6. The Stone Forest
Tourist Information Center The TIC is very important for the promotion of cultural tour- ism. TIC is located in the heart of the city - opposite the cathe- dral. It is the most visited TIC in Fig 7. Palace of Culture and Sports
251 Youth Councils and interna- tional youth organizations from across the continent. Varna – A Crossing Point Of Ancient History, Cultural Heri- tage And Tourism Opportuni- ties (Fig. 8) • History spanning 26 cen- turies • Home of the oldest pro- cessed gold in the world • Ancient Hellenic port • Thracian, Roman, Greek and medieval remains • Aladzha Monastery - me- Fig 8. Panorama from seaside service – in just 3 months over dieval rock mystery and 2000 tourists from different na- legends tionalities have benefited of this. • Renowned festival city VARNA – EUROPEAN YOUTH CAPITAL 2017 • Contemporary art and cul- ture center VARNA is very proud of be- ing recognized by the EU as Eu- • European Youth Capital ropean Youth capital for 2017. 2017 The European Youth Capital VARNA is a city where his- 2017 will encourage participa- tory, culture and tourism live in tion of young people through MUNICIPALITY OF VARNA perfect harmony. VARNA is a the promotion of new ideas and city of hospitality and through www.visit.varna.bg innovative projects. One of the its cultural diversity and its rich most important goals, which we cultural traditions we want to would like to achieve as a Eu- reinforce this image. ropean youth capital in 2017, is creating a favourable environ- ment for self-fulfilment in Varna for the young people. The Euro- pean Youth Forum is a platform of youth organizations in Eu- rope. It represents 99 National Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation and Local Tourism Development: Balance and Costing and the Role of the Stakeholders
I o a n n i s T s o u k a l i d i s , M e n e l a o s C hatziapostolidis
actions plans. and involves many intangible ABSTRACT For the conceptual design of parameters. Even if it requires People who are contributing a system, we have to analyse the highly qualified and experienced to the highlighting of the Cultural deficiency or needs and decode professionals, it is a great tool that Heritage at a place, including them into explicit qualitative and can be used wisely and deliver scientists as well as local people, quantitative customer requirements ultimate results. Particularly are usually finding themselves in as well as design requirements. the proposed methodology can conflict with local and other people Quality Function Deployment be used for the convergence of and decision makers who focus on (QFD) is a useful framework for Local Tourism Development and local economic development. That such quantitative decoding. Sustainability of Cultural Heritage conflict in most of the times is not We propose a model of a new Exploitation. without basis. version of the QFD methodology The ld-QFD tool is suggested In this article we examine how a for the design phase of local tourism to be part of a toolkit for making balance between Cultural Heritage development through quality strategic decisions for local Sustainability and Local Tourism analysis, the local development development. Development can occur. We analyse Quality Function Deployment (ld- the role of the Stakeholders at local, QFD), which is a functional tool to Keywords: Local Development, regional, national and European attain optimal solution at minimum Quality Function Deploy- level, the continuing / lifelong cost in terms of funds needed and ment, QFD, ld-QFD, Cultural learning of professionals and time for implementation. The use Heritage, Toolkit Solution, The inhabitants and also the need for of the QFD in the third sector Voice of the Customer, Engi- strategic decisions and extended of the economy is relatively new neering, Stakeholders
253 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction flicts between groups of people who are attracted by the identity with different interests. and branding of the place, at the Cultural Heritage is widely same time, in many cases, the considered as precious local as- Local tourism development parameters of the equilibrium set that could be exploited for can cause severe damages in (Fig. 1) between the groups of growth of the local economies1. monuments, due to lack of wise stakeholders are not identified. It includes both tangible and in- planning and absence of any tangible assets, covering a wide consideration for the future, not The first group of stakehold- area of interest from architecture to mention the respect to the ers includes the tourism profes- sionals4 who wish to benefit fi- to music, from poetry to dance, history and memories of the hu- manity2. nancially the maximum through from prehistoric rock-art to the- promotion of important monu- atre and from ancient technol- The basis of the problem ments, places, myths, etc. We call ogy to politics. The basis of the problem is this group The Professionals. The exploitation of existing that while cultural heritage at- The second group of stake- cultural heritage in many places tracts a lot of people3, including holders includes culture special- is connected with the planning not only those who are really ists who want sustainability of of local development strategies. interested in visiting historical the cultural assets, protection, Such strategies and their imple- places and monuments, but also preservation, respect to the mentation usually create con- less enthusiastic cultural tourists heritage, further studies, “more space to breath”, respect of the available carrying capacity. We call this group The Engineering. The third group of stake- holders includes tourists who want to live an “atmosphere”, to feel more, to touch, or to see unchanged situations, with no interventions, etc. We call this group The Customers. Fig. 1 The three groups In the equilibrium scheme of stakeholders at equilibrium the local authorities and the other political structures are not included, while they have a key role in planning of development strategies. The problem is similar to the
Fig. 2 The three bodies “three bodies” problem in Phys- equilibrium ics. While the two bodies problem
254 Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation • I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS can be considered in general as • Heavy investments and The results of applied solu- relatively easy to solve, the three quick growth. tions as categorized above, can bodies problem is almost unsolv- • Prevention of Investments, be either slow development with able in analytic forms, unstable Delays in exploitation of high protection of cultural assets 5 and chaotic , with need for con- Cultural Assets. or enormous development with tinues adjustment of the equilib- • Stepping on two boats: low protection of cultural assets rium parameters (if any). In Fig. 2 (1) Not having a solid (Fig. 3). we give a scheme of a three bod- and integrated strategy ies system in stable condition6. The proposed approach (Growth without connec- to the problem The use of resources of cul- tion to the cultural assets) tural heritage for local devel- and (2) Promotion of the We propose to approach the opment is an important factor cultural heritage without problem by analyzing the defi- of prosperity for the local com- connection to the tourism ciency or needs and wants and munities and the Regional and professionals decoding them into specific 7 National economies . However, • Growth without contin- quantitative customer necessities local development should be ues changes and adjust- as well as design requirements planned with respect to sustain- ment of The Profession- and parameters. That approach ability and with the contribu- als, without linkage with requires consideration of the con- tion of all stakeholders being the continuously changed tribution of all stakeholders. Fur- involved directly or indirectly. needs and wants of the thermore, the people in charge The procedure of planning in customers of applying that approach in the most cases can be found as more • Others planning of a strategy for local important that the plan itself, while it engages the participa- tion of those who will either implement the plan or will ex- perience the impact of such im- plementation8. The role of local, regional, national and European authorities is of high importance at that level.
The approach of common solutions The solutions and growth and investment plans at places with important existing cultural heritage, can be categorized in five groups. Fig. 3 Sustainability - Growth diagram (classical approach)
255 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
tourism development should (a) also very efficient for the third perform a detailed stakeholders’ sector of economy10. The tool analysis, (b) bring all stakehold- would have to be adjusted for ers together and accept conflicts, use in planning of local devel- (c) promote the tradeoffs, (d) opment strategies. We propose coach the stakeholders for cre- a model for that design phase ative participation in meetings of local tourism development with other stakeholders and (e) through quality analysis using a make decisions for strategy and new version of the methodology implementation with margins of QFD, the “local development for reviewing and adjusting pro- Quality Function Deployment” cedures. A useful utility for de- (ld-QFD). ld-QFD can become coding the needs and wants of a functional tool to attain opti- the customers, is the methodol- mal solutions at minimum cost ogy of Quality Function Deploy- in terms of time invested and ment (QFD), which is very suc- funds needed for the implemen- cessful and well described in the tation of the planned strategies. literature9. Design of the utility of The QFD tool is workable the model ld-QFD for tangible products and over ld-QFD is derived from the the last twenty years tested and original QFD which started and evolved in Japan11. It entered as a methodology in the USA about 15-20 years after Japan and now it is an important products and services development tool there and also in Europe12. QFD (and ld-QFD) is used for improving quality, reducing the number of new products13 that fail to succeed, reducing the cost for the development of products14 and reducing the time between the new product idea and the final product that is released to the market and im- proving the competitiveness of Fig. 4 House of Quality (van de Poel 2007, 22) the organisations15.
256 Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation • I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS
Furthermore, QFD promotes the cooperation of different work- ing teams (marketing, designing, manufacturing, etc.) and stake- holders.
QFD: Preliminary identification The idea behind QFD is to take into serious consideration the “Wants” of the customers Fig. 5 Fours stages QFD (Korayem and Iravani, 2008, fig. 14) or otherwise the Voice of the Customer and decode their de- mands into target values for the engineering characteristics of a product, maximising custom- ers’ satisfaction, by making the needful tradeoffs of several de- sign features of a product16. QFD is used in normal or ex- tended form17. The general for- mat is expressed by the House of Quality (HOQ), which is the basic design tool of QFD. HOQ (Fig. 4) provides the means for inter-functional planning and communications. ld-QFD approach is proposed Fig. 6 ld-QFD: two stages use of HOQ to be a two stages methodology18 using the HOQ (Fig. 6)19. The Voice of the Customer lated tradeoffs calculated, the expresses the needs and wants of second matrix will receive the The Customers20. Their related input of The Engineering that parameters are correlated in the will be correlated with the tour- first matrix (HOQ) with The En- ism product23. gineering21 (the characteristics) The results of the new cor- that also includes the parameters relation and analysis will give of the cultural heritage22. the output that will support the Once the correlation in the planning of a good strategy for HOQ is completed and the re- sustainable local development.
257 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Comments on the use ld-QFD is suggested to be safe environment; (8) Transcen- of ld-QFD model and used in testing mode in a pro- dental actions and use of Fuzzy highlight of possible tected environment, in parallel Logic26; (9) Mentality and Will- problems with other methodologies prior ingness for Continues Changing The proposed methodology to setting it for more extended and Life-long training; (10) Con- can contribute to improvement use in planning. tinues Cooperation with other areas / Networking. of planning local development The ld-QFD methodology strategies connected with cul- is an important utility that can The use of a toolkit solution, tural heritage and leads to the provide outstanding assistance as proposed, could support plan- needful compromises between to the planners and the decision ning and implementation of win- different groups of interests. makers, however this utility win strategies in the long term The use of QFD in the servic- should be used within a toolkit (Fig. 7) solution that will include: (1) es sector is relatively new, and Problems that QFD deals Stakeholders’ Analysis; (2) Ac- involves many intangible pa- with27, remain with the pro- tual Participation of the Stake- rameters, which makes it diffi- posed ld-QFD approach. cult to be widely used as highly holders; (3) ld-QFD24 tool; (4) skilled and experienced profes- Failure Mode Effects Analysis Conclusions - Discussion sionals should be involved. That (FMEA)25; (5) Decisions for local The use of the proposed makes the use of ld-QFD diffi- development as per the needs methodology of ld-QFD can cult, however its use is expected and wants of the customers, contribute sufficiently to the to compensate the strategy plan- with respect to the engineering convergence of Local Develop- ners with positive results of the (characteristics, carrying capac- ment planning and implemen- implementation of good action ity, etc.); (6) Tailored measuring tation of the related strategies plans of such strategies. models; (7) Experimentation in and Sustainability of Cultural Heritage, particularly as part of a comprehensive Toolkit. To gain positive results of the use of the ld-QFD methodology, high importance should be given at: (1) Excellent Definition of the Engineering Characteristics; (2) Tailored Design of the stages/ matrices of the HOQ; (3) Excel- lent Questionnaires28; (4) Good Sampling; (5) Objective valuing of the particulars / findings; (6) Excellent Professionals / ld -QFD Fig. 7 Sustainability - Growth diagram (toolkit ld-QFD approach) Analysts.
258 Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation • I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS
NOTES 19 Almannai, et al 2008 and Tsoukalidis, et al 2009 describe in detail how the mathematics and the correlation in each stage (matrix) 1 David Landes, as cited in Hezel 2009, 12 stated that the success of work, leading to tradeoffs and the weight of each characteristic. national economies is driven by cultural factors more than anything else. 20 The Customers are the third main group of stakeholders 2 Anon 2013, 14 in a UN Conference in Geneva stated that “tourism 21 The Engineering includes the second main group of stakeholders can cause considerable environmental and cultural heritage dam- 22 The parameters include among others, the documentation of the age”. monuments and other cultural assets and the carrying capacity. 3 Baycan and Girard 2011, 857 noted that 37% of global tourism has 23 The characteristics of the tourism product include The Professionals a cultural motivation. “Heritage visitors stay longer, visit twice as and other related parameters such as existing infrastructure. many places, and spend 2 ½ times more than other visitors” (Bay- 24 Well-designed sub-tools, Survey, Results, Sensitivity Analysis, Con- can and Girard 2011, 857). trol, Re-engineering. 4 Tourism Professionals include hoteliers, tourism agents, transporta- 25 Almannai et al 2008, 503 noted that mutual use of the QFD and the tion companies, taxi drivers, restaurants, tour guides, etc. FMEA technique would be needed in order to highlight any related 5 A chaotic system does not have integrability, it is too sensitive in the tradeoffs and areas of concern, that could require design and imple- initial conditions and its development in time cannot be predicted. mentation reviewing; Chen and Ko 2009, 646 are taking into account 6 The Professionals are represented by red color; The Engineering is a fuzzy FMEA as risk analysis of Design Requirements, in order to represented by blue color and The Customers are represented by reduce the design risk. green color. This coding remains in the next related schemes. 26 The use of Fuzzy Logic can address the ambiguity in the character- 7 Rami 2008, 37 states that “ culture has become a significant econom- istics (Kannan 2008, 321) ic factor” 27 Tsoukalidis et al 2009, 137-8 describes problems related to applying 8 Blasingame (2011, 10 June) stated in Forbes online that “A business QFD methodology and suggested solutions. plan is important, but planning is essential” 28 Questionnaires should be well designed and tested 9 Tsoukalidis et al 2009, 131 and Nalib and Maguad 2011, 691 10 The application of QFD methodology in the planning of new prod- ucts/services or the re-engineering of existing products/services, provides optimal results in terms of cost, better acceptance in the markets and time lapse between idea and entrance in the markets. QFD is one method of Total Quality Management (TQM) which is defined by Suhardi (2013, 2) as “planning and control activities which focus on quality assurance of products and services offered to customers. Total Quality Management can be defined as Total (overall); Quality (quality, degree / level of excellence of goods or services); Management (action, how to manage, control, direction)” 11 Ghiya, Bahill and Chapman (1999, 593) noted that QFD was devel- oped in the late 60s’ and nowadays it is used by most of the major corporations in Japan. 12 van de Poel 2007, 21 13 Where product/s we also include service/s 14 Hauser and Clausing (1988, 65) documented that preproduction and startup costs in Toyota were reduced by more than 60% be- tween 1977 when QFD was not applied and 1984 when QFD was well implemented. 15 (supra n. 14) 16 Franceschini and Rossetto 1995, 270 17 Well detailed, subject to existence of enough information from sur- veys, secondary market research, etc. particularly for the industrial production. Hauser and Clausing 1988, 73; Ghiya, Bahill and Chap- man 1999, 594 and Korayem and Iravani 2008, 480 presented ex- amples of applying four stages QFD (fig. 5). 18 ld-QFD will be tested as a two stages methodology, which is con- sidered sufficient at least for the premature period for the services sectors that involves the public sector in the planning of local devel- opment strategy.
259 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
REFERENCES Almannai, B., Greenough, R. and Kay, J. 2008. “A Decision Support Tool Based on QFD and FMEA for the Selection of Manufacturing Automation Technologies”. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing. 24:4: 501-07
Anon, 2013. “Sustainable tourism: Contribution to economic growth and sustainable development”. In: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2013-03-14 / 2013-03-15, Geneva, Switzerland: 1-20
Baycan, T. and Girard, L.F. 2011. “Heritage in Socio-Economic Development: Direct and Indirect Impacts”. In: ICOMOS 17th General Assembly, 2011-11-27 / 2011-12-02, Paris, France: 857-60
Blasingame, J. 2011, 10 June. The Difference Between a Business Plan and Planning. http://www.forbes.com/sites/jimblasingame/2011/06/10/ difference-between-business-plan-planning/ (accessed on 3 August 2015)
Chen, L.H., and Ko, W.C. 2009. “Fuzzy linear programming models for new product design using QFD with FMEA”. Applied Mathematical Modelling. 33:2: 633–47
Ghiya, K.K., Bahill, A.T., Chapman, W.L. 1999. “QFD: Validating Robustness”. Quality Engineering, 11:4: 593-611
Hauser, J.R. and Clausing, D. 1988. “The House of Quality”. Harvard Business Review, 66:3: 63-73
Hezel, F.X. 2009. “The Role of Culture in Economic Development”. Micronesian Counselor, 77: 1-20
Kannan, G. 2008. “Implementation of Fuzzy Quality Function Deployment in an Automobile Component to Improve the Quality Characteristics”. Quality Engineering. 20:3, 321-33
Korayem, M.H. and Iravani, A. 2008. “Improvement of 3P and 6R Mechanical Robots Reliability and Quality Applying FMEA and QFD Approaches”. Robotics & Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 24:3: 472-87
Rami, I. 2008. Understanding the Behaviour of Cultural Tourists; Towards a Classification of Dutch Cultural Tourists. NHTV Expertise Series. Breda, The Netherlands: NHTV.
Suhardi, A. R. 2013. “Quality Function Deployment to Improve Quality of Service”. Proceedings of the 2nd IBSM, International Conference on Business and Management. Bangkok
Talib, N. and Maguad, B.A. 2011. “Academic Management and Implementation of the QFD Approach”. Proceedings of ASBBS. 24:3: 689-702
Tsoukalidis, I., Karassavoglou, A., Mandilas, A. and Valsamidis, St. 2009, “Application of Quality Function Deployment on an Alternative Transportation System (Paratransit System)”. European Research Studies Journal. 12:2: 131-48 van de Poel, I. 2007. “Methodological problems in QFD and directions for future development”, Research in Engineering Design, 18:1: 21- 36
260 Cultural Routes of Kavala: “Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala”
B o s k o u C h r . E ff r o s y n i
ABSTRACT “A cultural route is a branded Muslim refugees and the second tourist product, a product of one by the Orthodox ones. The cultural tourism that is being first cultural route entitled formed based on a specific binding “Traces of Muslim refugees in element. It has a main subject, the city of Kavala” is proposed it covers a determined spatial to be followed on foot and it area and it acquires a “tourist covers a three hour distance from identity” with a brand name”. the Walls to Ibrahim Pasha’s Nowadays, it emerges as a Public Bath House including the major management tool for the visits to the sights. The second sustainable tourist development of cultural route entitled “Traces of an area. Christian Orthodox refugees in In this paper, two cultural the city of Kavala” is proposed routes are being proposed. Both to be followed by vehicle and routes focus on the traces of the estimated duration from the the refugees’ heritage that is neighborhood of Pentakosia to the left in the city of Kavala due to chapel of Panaghouda is about the exchange of populations in three hours including the visits to the 1920’s, the first one by the the sights.
261 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction Cultural Route 1: “Traces The route is proposed to be of Muslim refugees in the followed on foot and the esti- Cultural tourism is one of the city of Kavala” (Map 1) mated duration from the Walls oldest and broadly widespread to Ibrahim Pasha’s Public Bath forms of tourism that is continu- During the exchange of pop- House is about three hours in- ously increasing the last years. ulations by Lausanne Treaty, cluding the visits to the sights. Many tools have been planned for the Muslim population born The departure point is the Cus- the development of cultural tour- and living in the city of Kava- tom’s parking space and it in- la was obliged to abandon its ism of an area. Cultural routes cludes the following itinerary: are one of the widely used man- mother country. The main sub- agement tools for the sustainable ject of the route is the Muslim The Walls heritage that is left in Kavala tourist development of an area. Different historical phases, and can be traced by tourists They designate a determined ranging from ancient to modern nowadays. The proposed route touring in cultural and natural times, can be traced on the City could attract visitors from- de heritage monuments within a Sea and Inland Walls. During scendants of the Muslim refu- determined thematic, historic or the reign of Suleiman the Mag- gees or other visitors that are conceptual framework2. nificent and under the supervi- interested in knowing the heri- sion of Ibrahim Pasha the ruined In this paper two cultural tage remnants of these Muslims walls were restored (1520-1536) routes are being proposed. populations. and a new defensive compound was constructed between the two ports extending the settle- ment3. A few modernizing addi- tions took place in the following ottoman years (17th-19th centu- ries)4. In recent years the Ar- chaeological Service has made extensive restorations.
Ziounti’s House Built by the Ottoman mer- chant Ziounti in the second de- cade of the 20th c.,5 it is a sample of oriental classicism with Art Nou- veau influences. In 1925, it hosted the first Prefecture of Kavala and later various Municipal Services. Nowadays, it hosts, together with its neighboring house, the Map 1. Cultural Route 1: “Traces of Muslim refugees in the city of Kavala” 5th High School of Kavala.
262 “Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala” • B. CHR. EFFROSYNI
Mehmet Ali Pasajic’s House served at the crossroads of The- Divisions10. During World War Built by the Ottoman mer- odorou Poulidou and Mehmet II, it hosted the German Division chant and landowner Mehmet Ali streets, where in the Otto- of Seaplanes. Ali Pasajic in 1902-1907, it is a man era Hussein Bey’s Mosque was located. The mosque was Mohamed Ali’s Statue- characteristic sample of Otto- Mohamed Ali’s House- man classicism with Art Nou- demolished in the middle of Zeineb’s tomb veau influences. During the 1950s when a two-storey house 8 Mohamed Ali (1769-1849), 20th c. it hosted the Commercial has been built . the founder of the last King Dy- School, the Bulgarian Secret Ser- Hatzi Sakir Omer Bey’s House nasty of Egypt, was born in Kav- vice “Ohrana” (during World (now General’s House) ala. The Greeks of Egypt funded War II) and the Night High the creation of the bronze eques- School. Nowadays, it houses the It was the official residence of Sakir Omer Bey, an Ottoman trian statue of Mohamed Ali as a 5th High School of Kavala6. tobacco merchant. Built about gift to the people of Kavala. The Imaret of Mohamed Ali Pasha 1910, it combines Ottoman neo- statue was sculptured by the (Fig. 1) classical and Turkish baroque famous sculptor, Constantinos In the early 19th century Mo- elements on Constantinopolitan Dimitriadis in 1934 and was un- hamed Ali Pasha, the Vali of models9. After the exchange of veiled in 194911. Egypt, founded and supervised, populations, it served as a resi- as a donation to his hometown, dence of military officers and, the construction of the magnifi- since 1950, as a residence of the Fig. 1 Imaret of Mohamed Ali Pasha, cent complex of buildings (Kül- Generals of the Greek military Archive of Apotas Komninos. liye), an impressive religious, educational and charitable foun- dation7. A rare example of 19th century Ottoman Baroque, the complex included an elemen- tary school (Mekteb), two higher level colleges (Medreses), 61 rooms, two study halls, a library, a printing press, a mosque, a soup kitchen (Imaret), fountains and Turkish Baths. Nowadays it operates as a luxurious hotel through restoration.
Faucet (in the position of Hussein Bey’s Mosque) Faucet for the watering of the population of the old town pre-
263 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Mohamed Ali’s House was lows the layout of harem (place with paintings in the style of Ot- built in the last quarter of the for women) and selamlik (place toman Rococo. 18th c. Its typology follows the for men)12. Zeyneb Hanim13 was wide front traditional two-sto- buried in the Ottoman cemetery Kadi Ahmet Efendi’s Mosque (base of the mosque) rey house with hayiati on the of Kavala in the Liberty Square. th ground and the first floor. It fol- In 1968 Zeineb’s tomb was de- In 26 Anthemiou st one can molished and the sarcophagus see the remnants of Kadi Ahmet was transferred in the courtyard Efendi’s Mosque, a half-demol- of Mohamed Ali’s House14. ished minaret of the mosque that in 1926 was transformed Complex of Halil Bey (Mosque into a two-storey house16. The and Medrese) (Fig. 2) mosque dates back to the early Halil Bey’s complex includes ottoman period17. the mosque of Halil Bey or Mosque of Kutub of the early Acropolis- Citadel (Fig. 3) 20th century, broadly known One of the most impor- as mosque of Music15 and the tant sights of the city, Kavala’s
Fig. 2 Mosque of Halil Bey, Medrese of Halil Bey or the Acropolis, was built on ancient Archive of Boskou Effrosyni. Medrese of Mosque of Kutub. and Byzantine foundations. The A restoration revealed the rem- first defensive works by - Otto nants of an early Christian Ba- mans date back to 1425,18 but the silica, with meso-Byzantine and Acropolis was for the most part 19 3. Kavala’s Acropolis –Citadel, post-Byzantine layers. The walls constructed about 1520-1536 . It Archive of Papadopoulos Theodoros. of the mosque are decorated was divided into two parts, the previous built internal (the up- per) and the subsequent built ex- ternal (the lowest) surrounding walls. The internal surrounding walls include a central cylindrical tower, a prison (ex ammunition and food storage house), the rem- nants of a small mosque “İç Kale Cami” (ex water cistern) and an area suitable for guards lodging. The surrounding walls include bastions, towers and gates. Since the 17th century, the acropolis also served as a place of exile and imprisonment for
264 “Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala” • B. CHR. EFFROSYNI the sultan’s subjects. In 1964, the Complex of Hatzi Ali Pasha Ottoman Administrative Municipality of Kavala bought (Mosque and Medrese) Services (Old Courts) the fortress from the Egyptian Remnant of the small com- It was built by Emin Pasha, 20 government and, nowadays, plex (Külliye) of Hatzi Ali Pasha the last kaymakam of Kavala in it is open to the public and also of the 19th c., is found at the end 1896-1898 and funded by the tax- hosts occasionally various sum- of Kolokotroni st next to the Aq- es of the members of the Muslim mer cultural events. ueduct23. It included the Hatzi community27. It included the Ad- Ali Pasha Mosque and the hom- ministrative Services, the Mus- North Gate onymous Medrese. Nowadays, lim Court and a coffee house. th It was built in 16 c. probably its reconstruction is funded in In 26th of June 1913, commander on the foundations of an ancient order to be used as a cultural Ant. Kriezis raised the Greek flag gate. The North Gate led via L. venue. from the balcony of the building Katsoni st to the residential area showing the deliberation of Ka- 21 Ottoman school –Idadiye of the Panaghia peninsula . Prob- vala and its unity to the other (now Male High School) ably next to this gate existed a bas- national Greek country. In 1960, 24 tion for the control of the gates, It was built in 1909-1910 in after internal and external recon- the access to the residential area order to house the Ottoman city struction, it housed the Court of of the peninsula and the traffic to school –Idadiye. During the Bal- Kavala up to 2009. the shipyard and the aqueduct. kan wars, it housed the Greek hospital until about 1916. For Imbrahim Pasha’s Mosque Aqueduct - Kamares many years, it housed the Male (now Church of Aghios Nikolaos) (Fig. 4) The most impressive and im- High School of Kavala and, posing monument-landmark of nowadays, the 1st High School The mosque was built by Kavala- broadly known as “Ka- of Kavala. An interesting archi- Ibrahim Pasha in the early 16th c. mares” (=arches)- was built in tectural feature is the wooden probably on the site of an early the third decade of the 16th c. by ledge leaning on wooden cor- Christian church. It belongs Ibrahim Pasha probably on the bels25. to classic one-dome type with site of a roman or middle byzan- tine aqueduct of the city. It was Hatzi Sikir Aga’s House the last section of a public water (N.E.L.E.) supply network that brought It was built by Hatzi Sikir water from a spring in Palaia Aga in the first decade of the Kavala to the city’s faucets 20th c. It is one of the biggest Ot- (fountains), public baths, imaret toman houses of Kavala, sample and distinguished private build- of the Ottoman revival trend26. ings (Mohamed Ali’s house). After 1923, it hosted for many It supplied the city with water years the Kavala’s Division and until the 1930s. Its total length then an educational foundation is about 280m and at the highest “N.E.L.E” (Public Education Pre- Fig 4 Ibrahim Pasha’s Mosque (now Church of point is about 25m high22. fectural Committee). Aghios Nikolaos), Archive of Boskou Effrosyni.
265 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA porch. It was the largest mosque Cultural Route 2: “Traces visitors, descendants of other of Kavala and resembled an Im- of Christian Orthodox refugees that have experienced perial mosque.28 In the 20th c., a refugees in the city of similar adventures and other Kavala” (Map 2) few modifications29 (the porch visitors interested in knowing and the minaret were demol- During 1920’s Kavala ac- the heritage remnants of these ished) took place in order for the cepted almost 25.000 Christian populations. mosque to be converted into the Orthodox refugees from East The route is proposed to be current Church of Aghios Niko- Thrace, Constantinople, Pontus, followed by vehicle and the es- 30 laos in 1928 . Asia Minor and Cappadocia, timated duration from neighbor- doubling its population33. Ibrahim Pasha’s Double Public hood of Pentakosia to the chapel Bath House (Hamam) The refugees initially found of Panaghouda is about three shelter in tobacco warehouses hours including the visits to the Built by Ibrahim Pasha in under miserable conditions. sights. The departure point is the the first half of theth 16 c.,31 it Later, the Greek country cov- Custom’s Parking space and it was part of his foundation “kul- ered the refugees’ accommoda- includes the following itinerary: liye” that included a mosque, an tion needs by settling them in inn, a marketplace with shops, Neighborhood of Pentakosia the interchangeable houses and an Imaret (soup kitchen), a Me- (Fig. 5) by establishing new refugees’ drese , a Mekteb, a Tekke (Der- It was built by Apostolos neighborhoods34. vish Logde) with a Mescid and Girzis and is also referred to as a Sebilhane (building for the free The main subject of the route Kallithea because of the beauti- distribution of water). Nowa- is the Christian Orthodox refu- ful view. The neighborhood was days, the Ottoman Public Bath gees’ heritage that has been cre- named “Pentakosia” (=five hun- House has been converted into ated in Kavala and can be traced dred) because it hosted five hun- bars and restaurants, where by tourists nowadays. The route dred refugees’ families35. one can admire the remaining covers the most of the refugees’ domes32. neighborhoods and could attract Neighbourhood of Aghia Varvara In this neighborhood, 190 houses had been constructed in 40 two-storey buildings with wide façades, many windows organized in columns and French tiled roof. Its building in- cludes four residences36.
Map 2. Cultural Church of Aghia Varvara Route 2: “Traces of (Fig. 6) Christian Orthodox refugees in the city It was inaugurated in 1924 of Kavala” and funded by tobacco mer-
266 chants and other wealthy resi- dents and by the numerous refu- gees from Asia Minor who settled in the area. The refugees donated to the church precious icons and sacred vessels that had carried with them from their never-to- be-forgotten motherlands. The sizable three-aisled ba- silica tiled roof, without a dome, with projections to the north and south wall, takes the shape of a cross. It is entirely stone-built, with noteworthy benchmark the of their settlement in Kavala Fig. 5 Neighborhood of Pentakosia, stylish tall built temple. through the exhibition of their Archive of Savopoulos Achilleas. Church of Aghios Georgios important tangible and intangi- ble heritage. Thracian Refugees from Ster- na, eastern Thrace, settled in the Tobacco Museum of Kavala neighborhood of Aghios Geor- It is a theme museum, which gios after 1922 and founded the includes objects and archival homonymous three-aisled ba- material for the cultivation and silica with a dome that was built the production of tobacco, ag- on the site where the Ali Bin ricultural and commercial pro- Agus Mosque stood. One can cessing, industrial tobacco prod- admire icons and relics donated by Thracian refugees. ucts and exhibition samples, the life of tobacco workers and mer- Cultural Center of Kavala- chants. Refugees’ life is closely Ethnographic Museum linked to the tobacco processing, It was inaugurated in 1988 as it was their main occupation and, nowadays, managed by the for many years. Fig. 6 Church of Aghia Varvara, Benefit Enterprise of Kavala “Di- Archive of Tsoubakis Nikolaos. Metropolitan Church of mofeleia” is being re-exhibited Aghios Ioannis in a restored Municipal Tobac- co Warehouse. The visitors can It is a five-aisled basilica with make a journey to the everyday a dome, kind skylight, which is life of the refugees’ motherlands the arch of the middle aisle built and the life of the first years in 1867. In the church is found
267 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
onymous Lord Byron. It had 72 houses and 600 rooms38.
Church of Aghia Paraskevi The Byzantine style with three aisles without a dome church was inaugurated in 1925. The church Fig. 7 Vyronas or of Agia Paraskevi also served Girzi Neighborhood, until 1955 the two refugee settle- Historical Archive of Municipal ments of “Hilia” and “Byron”. Museum of Kavala. Chapel of Panaghouda or Zoodohou Pighi (Fig. 8) On the west of Kavala city, one can admire the chapel of Panaghouda or Zoodohou Pighi built in 1929. It is a chapel of the parish of Aghia Eirini. A thorough planning and Fig. 8 Chapel of management of the above two Panaghouda or proposed cultural routes could Zoodohou Pighi, Archive of Apotas enrich and enhance Kavala’s Komninos. tourist product and contribute to the sustainable socio-cultural, economic and environmental development of the area. The the icon of Panaghia of Sylivria Neighborhood of Dekaohto cultural routes could constitute a of East Thrace, the holly scull of (Eighteen) development tool, a competitive Aghios Aghathonikos and the In Visarionos st there are advantage and an added value relic of Osia Xeni donated by 18 refugee residences that con- for Kavala as they aim to attract 37 Thracian refugees . stituted the neighborhood of visitors, create new opportuni- Dekaohto (=eighteen). Neighborhood of Hilia ties to the local community to in- crease their income, attract new Byronas or Girzi It was named after the settle- investments, reduce the tourist Neighborhood (Fig. 7) ment of one thousand (=hilia) concentration, extend the tourist refugee families. The northern It was built by the contrac- period respecting the carrying part of the neighborhood was tor Apostolos Girzis on the west capacity of the sights and the area named Hilia, also known in the side of the city and was named and generate income for the con- past as Ambelokipi. Byronas in honor of the hom- servation of cultural resources.
268 “Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala” • B. CHR. EFFROSYNI
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Chatzinikolaou, Girini and Sofikitou 2014, 1. Aggeloudi-Zarkada, S. 2008. Kavala then and now. Kavala: Prefecture of 2 Karavasili and Mikelakis 1999, 82. Kavala. 3 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9. Apotas, K., and N. Tsoubakis. 2014. Virgin Mary of refugees-Virgin Mary of 4 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 17. Sylivria. Kavala: Thrakiki Estia Kavalas. 5 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 13, 150-51. Boli, K. 2014. Water. Reflections of civilasation. Translated by Glossima 6 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 150-51. Wehrheim. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala. 7 Lykourinos 2005, 96-8. Boskou, Chr. Ef. 2014. “Mohamed Ali’s biography (1769-1849)” In 8 Karagiannakidis 2008, 89-90. Proceedings of seminars of local history, edited by K. Apotas and V. Lolidis. Vol. 2, 255-86. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala. 9 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 48. 10 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 89. Chatzinikolaou, B., I. Girini, and M. Sofikitou. 2014. For a cultural and environmental route in the island of Kea: From yesterday 11 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 186-87. to today & guide of tomorrow. http://www.diazoma.gr/300- 12 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 186-87. Diadromes-Parka/8._KEIMENO-GIA-POLISTISTIKH--- 13 She was Mohamed Ali’s mother, see: Boskou 2014, 258. PERIVALLONTIKH-DIADROMH-KEAS.pdf (20 July 2015). 14 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 140-141. Dakari, K., A. Bakirzis, and G. Karabassis. 2008. Kavala’s Sea Walls. th 15 Because during the decade of 1930 it hosted the Municipal Band, Kavala: Hellenic Ministry of Culture-12 Ephorate of Byzantine see: Stefanidou 2007, 277 and Papazoglou 2008, 77. Antiquities. 16 Stefanidou 2007, 278 and Papazoglou 2008, 78. Karagiannakidis, N. 2008. “The space and the History/Places of Worship” 17 Karagiannakidis 2008, 89. In Neapolis, Christoupolis, Kavala, edited by N. Karagiannakidis and K. Lykourinos, 80-92. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala. 18 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9. 19 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 47. Karavasili, M., and E. Mikelakis. 1999. “Cultural routes. Towards an interpretation of the “Cultural Landscape” in a Developmental 20 Lykourinos 2005, 75-9. Perspective.” Archaeology and Arts 71: 82-6. 21 Lykourinos 2005, 81. Lowry, H.W. 2008. The shaping of the Ottoman Balkans 1350-1550. Istanbul: 22 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9, 61-2 & Aggeloudi-Zarkada Bahçesehir University. 2008, 122-23 & Boli 2014, 27-35 & Lychounas 2008, 59. 23 Stefanidou 2007, 287. Lychounas, M. 2008. Medieval Aqueduct of Kavala-Kamares, Kavala: Hellenic Ministry of Culture-12th Ephorate of Byzantine 24 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 80. Antiquities. 25 Ziogas 1995, 56. Lykourinos, K. 2005. “Kavala of the Ottoman era (late 14th c.-1912) –The 26 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 13. old town- Panaghia neighborhood” In Τhe old town of Kavala (7th- 27 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 62. 20th c.). Vol.1, 51-231. Kavala: Cultural Club of Panaghia “The 28 Lowry 2008, 240. Castle”. 29 Papazoglou 2008,58. Papazoglou, G., and K. Papazoglou. 2008. “Prefecture of Kavala.” In 30 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 23, 84. Religious Monuments of the Region of East Macedonia and Thrace. edited by G. Papazoglou, 45-78. Komotini: Region of East 31 Ibrahim Pasha’s Double Public Bath House were completed in 1530 Macedonia and Thrace. according to a register referred to : Lowry 2008, 236. 32 Lowry 2008, 234-36. Stefanidou, E. 2007.The city port of Kavala during the Ottoman Empire. Kavala: Historical and Literature Archive of Kavala. 33 Ziogas 1995, 29. nd 34 Ziogas 1995, 30. Ziogas, P. Chr. 1995. The traditional buildings of modern Kavala, 2 ed. Kavala. 35 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 94-5. 36 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 130. 37 Apotas and Tsoubakis 2014, 30. 38 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 98-9.
269
The St. Paul Trail
K a t e C l o w
SUMMARY OF EXISTING abandoned agricultural land. SITUATION The Republican inheritance law divides land equally between Historical Background all heirs; with a high birthrate, Under Roman occupation, larger holdings were subdivided most land was owned by large and small fields and abandoned landlords who employed/en- plots are common. Sale of ‘miras’ slaved local peasants. From Ro- (inherited property) was difficult man/Byzantine wells, terraces until state title deeds were issued over the last 20 years and current ABSTRACT and homesteads, we know that arable farms existed at high al- owners are still reluctant to sell. The St. Paul Trail is a titude on currently-abandoned 500km walking trail through Current Landscape land. the Taurus mountains of south Zones The Turkish Forestry Minis- Turkey, established in 2004. So I describe below the land- try owns all forested land (about far, due to lack of institutional scape on the route and how it 25% of Turkey’s land area) and support and investment, it has may have changed in the last employs city-based profession- not had measurable economic 2000 years: impact on the villages through als plus local permanent staff which it passes. We suggest that and ‘tahtacı’ or woodcutters, The Coastal Plain often descendants of local Alevi deevelopment as a pilgrimage The route starts on the polity tribes, who are contracted to cut route could make a significant of Perge, a coastal plain with oc- and extract timber. economic difference to the region. casional pine-clad hills used for Within the last 100 years, due food crops and animals, (Alex- Keywords: St. Paul, Turkey, to first world war population ander the Great exacted a tribute Taurus, Culture Routes Soci- loss, Moslem returnees from the of horses). The river must have ety, Antalya, Perge, Antioch in Caucasus, Greece and Balkans flooded periodically, increasing Pisidia, Adada, Roman roads. were resettled with the grant of fertility but causing damage.
271 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The city aqueduct provided ir- munications. Both contain pres- paths, stone-lined wells and cis- rigation in some areas. All farm- ervation areas (Köprülü Canyon terns, etc). Today, communica- ing was labour intensive and, National Park and Çandir Na- tions masts have been construct- without irrigation, produced ture Park). Widespread forest ed on some peaks; the Romans one crop per year of wheat, fresh cover includes red and black must have used the same peaks vegetables or fruit. Animals, es- pine, juniper, oak, cypress and, (ca. 2500 m) as surveying points. pecially sheep and horses, pro- above 1500 m, Lebanese cedar. Northern slopes vided wool, meat and transport Alluvial land is used for wheat- and fertilised the land. Perge’s growing or grazing but loss of The northern Taurus descend domestic needs included local ground-water makes higher to an alluvial plain at about clay and lead extraction (the land unproductive; farming is 1000m. Grazing herds (both Perge aqueduct is fed by the replaced by seasonal forestry summer and winter), have re- Kurşunlu (lead) river) for ce- work. Now that road access is duced many areas to scrub with ramics and metalwork. Nearby almost universal, concrete sum- low-growing kermes oak and low-quality timber supplied mer homes replace traditional typical maquis plants. Roman bathhouses, etc. architecture. quarries have been identified; in the last few years open-cast Land use has changed dra- Via these rivers, Perge and stone or marble mines were matically: irrigation, fertiliser Aspendos transshipped boat- opened. Labour-intensive ani- and plastic greenhouses, plus building timber for Egypt. The mal husbandry, plus marble and the proximity of the airport, sup- Romans may have managed the stone extraction, is still the main port early-season high-density forests by selective cutting, re- source of income. production of strawberries and planting or erosion control. An- cut flowers. Inland, often two cient terraces at Selge, Sütçüler Lakes basin crops of wheat and vegetables and Adada have grape presses Around Antioch in Pisidia can be produced. Small forested and once supported vines. For (Yalvaç), the plain is undulat- hills are managed by periodic many summers, coastal popula- ing and supports arable crops cropping. The area is now a sub- tions moved here for fresh graz- and fruit trees. Today, other urb of Antalya and population ing, to avoid malaria and work than farmers, villagers migrate density is high. on timber extraction and wheat to urban centres. The traditional and/or wine production. Forested canyons industry of rose oil production continues in a few villages. Moving north, the Taurus Summer pastures and high peaks mountains rise gradually and In summary, the hills remain irregularly to the peaks of Sarp Until recently, small sum- unchanged; flatter land is still Dağı and Davraz Dağı. The mer settlements, just above the devoted to agriculture but the Çandır canyon, carrying the Ces- treeline at 1800 m, were well- ‘tools of the trade’ have changed trus river, and the Köprülü Can- used for short periods in sum- dramatically. The advent of the yon, carrying the Eurymedion, mer. They show signs of pro- tractor (1950’s) and concrete run N-S and impede E-W com- longed but undatable use (paved irrigation channels (1960’s on-
272 The St. Paul Trail • KATE CLOW wards) enables large scale culti- west-east road, walking north- and Antioch in Pisidia, via vation and ensures a difference west from Antalya to Burdur Adada. We added a side-branch in prosperity between irrigated Lake and then east to Antioch following well-made ancient and non-irrigated areas. in Pisidia. We disagree for two roads up the Köprülü Canyon. reasons: Thus the route forms an in- DEVELOPMENT OF THE • many other direct roads have verted Y with the Pisidian/Ro- TRAIL been rediscovered. man settlement of Adada at the St. Paul in History junction of the arms. The route • Paul’s background enabled was designed to take advantage St. Paul was a letter-writing him to use a direct walking of the existing accommodation, missionary who travelled in route. divided into stages of 5-8 hours present-day Israel, Syria, Cy- The local name of Adada walking and includes the most prus, Turkey, Greece, Italy and (Kara Bavulu/Black Paul), sug- beautiful viewpoints. The first Malta. Uniquely amongst the gests that Paul travelled direct- St Paul Trail guide book was Apostles, Paul, neither knew ly; William Ramsay and Anta- published 2004, coinciding with Jesus nor came from a Jewish lya Conservation Commission the GEF-2 funded National milieu, but both his supporters historians agree. An elderly vil- Parks development plan for and detractors agree that his let- lager told me that (before 1923) ters had a major effect on church Köprülü Canyon National Park. Greeks often came from the doctrine. Unfortunately, the plan was not south to visit Adada. implemented and the route not Christian Baur suggests that Paul’s birthplace was Tarsus, supported. “... the harmonious relation …. be- 200 km east of Perge and in sight On the west branch are the tween the apostle Paul and … the of the Taurus. As tentmakers, older apostles … is unhistorical, ancient settlements of Perge his family used wool and hides (500,000 visitors per year), Ped- and .. the conflict of the two parties produced by transhumant shep- nelissos, Taşkapı and Parlais, on … entered .. deeply into the life of herds who used the summer 1 the east, Selge and Asar Tepe and the early Church….” . pastures/yaylas of the Taurus on the north Akrotiri/Prostanna, for fresh grazing. Paul probably Route Development and Parlais and Antioch in Pisidia. walked to and between yaylas, Use Due to dam construction or loss accepting hospitality from shep- of ancient bridges, some original The Trail is a 500km walking herds, as travellers do today. roads are unusable but over 50% trail based on part of St Paul’s of the trail follows roads which first journey, from Perge to An- Design of the route were in use from before the Ro- tioch in Pisidia. St Luke (Acts of With no detailed maps, we man occupation through Byzan- Apostles) mentions few place designed the St Paul Trail by tine and Seljuk periods. names and no timescales, so the walking and re-walking alter- route is speculative. Some bib- native paths through the moun- At several points, topogra- lical historians assume that St tains, using old roads/paths on phy forced Roman roads into Paul used the main Via Sebaste the shortest line between Perge narrow confines. For example:
273 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
A Roman road marked by and generating station cuts Operators and users of two inscriptions enters the the route in three places. the trail Çandır Canyon from the south. • New stone quarries have de- I have maintained contact From the canyon north exit, it stroyed the route at Çandır with accommodation owners continues to Adada. Inside the and other places. and travel agencies operating on canyon it is now partly miss- the route since 2004; from 2012, ing but villagers report that There is no provision in Turk- Ibrahim Ağartan represented it was once used by ‘fayton’ ish law for conserving historic the St Paul Trail on the commit- (horse-drawn carriages). Two routes; the Conservation Com- tee of the Culture Routes Society earthquakes in 1914 and 1959 mission (part of the Culture and and convened an annual meet- caused the collapse of bridges Tourism Ministry) can only reg- ing to continue contacts. Until and abandonment of this major ister paved, datable sections of the break in relations in 2010, road. The Roman road between road. Nature conservation was Israeli trekkers predominated. Lake Hoyran and Lake Eğirdir transferred from the Water and Now most users are European was submerged when the lat- Forestry to the City Planning recreational trekkers; occasional ter was dammed and the water Ministry but Landscape Con- groups of priests are welcomed level raised 2m. The road still vention implementation given by villagers and operators. exists on both sides of the lake to Forestry, so impeding conser- but trekkers now cross by small vation activities. Seven Turkish tour opera- boat. tors (mostly CRS members) run Existing accommodation group or self-guided trekking Damage to and and tourism patterns holidays (marketed by foreign conservation of the Tourism before construction operators) along the route. With route of the route consisted of: independent trekkers, bicycle Damage by new road con- • Antioch in Pisidia / Yalvaç – and horse riding groups, users structions, forest fire, dam / hy- day visitors (mainly guided total about 2500 people per year. droelectric projects and mining groups) to the historic site. (Compare this with 25 opera- has required rerouting – for ex- tors and 30,000 trekkers on the ample: • Eğirdir – backpackers trav- Lycian Way). Visitor volume is elling between Konya and • Two new motor-roads to Bey- barely sufficient to support ex- Antalya; averaging 1-2 over- dili village destroyed parts isting pensions and homestays, nights. of a paved Selçuk road sys- let alone encourage new accom- tem and facilitated construc- • Beşkonak – nearly a mil- modation. tion of concrete buildings lion white-water rafters are The tour operators (Moslem) amongst traditional houses bussed in from coastal hotels. are hampered by lack of suitable, of stone and cedar. • Barla – followers of Sheikh well placed accommodation and • A major hydro-electric proj- Said Nursi spend 1-2 over- lack insight and experience to ect on the Köprülü river, in- nights at a purpose-built ho- market to a religious (Christian) cluding a dam, 17km tunnel tel. sector.
274 The St. Paul Trail • KATE CLOW
SOCIAL IMPACT OF TRAIL Overview Throughout Turkey, the 20th c. saw rapid population move- ments: • From 1950’s to today – migra- tion to the major cities (1950 – 78% of people lived in coun- tryside; today less than 30%). • From 1950’s to 1970’s - 2.5% population growth, partly due to longer life expectan- cy, partly due to family size; now family size is settled at 2
children per family. Fig. 1 Comparison of two routes • From 1950 to 1970’s about 2m people migrated to Europe, mainly Germany; so far very few have returned but some 2011, income per capita was 6,800 young European Turks have dollars, but this masks disparity started to take holidays trek- between towns and rural areas king in Turkey. and does not reflect capital hold- Below I list contrasts between ings in land and livestock. Shep- the two provinces: herds may typically have a flock Isparta has only 417,000 in- worth 25,000 dollars, two houses habitants, of which 53% are with land and grazing rights on resident in İsparta city (before large areas. A goat hair tent used boundary changes) and the re- by the shepherds in summer is mainder in small upland villag- worth 5,000 dollars. es or towns. 27,000 people born In 2011, the province of An- in Eğirdir, which has a current talya (income per capita 13,400 population of 33,000 people, dollars) had 2,160,000 inhabit- Fig. 2 St Paul Trail with major ancient sites now live in Isparta. ants, half in Antalya city. Most Since 1980’s, many rural set- of the route is included within tlements have been downgraded the boundaries of the large sub- from small town (requiring mini- province of Serik, so population mum 5000 population) to village; movements along it are con- some are totally abandoned. In cealed in larger figures. Shep-
275 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA herds all along the route have similar lives and The huge growth of towns in Antalya is due to incomes. boundary changes. Although towns in Isparta ap- pear relatively stable, smaller towns are declining Public services rapidly to village size and only Yalvaç and Eğirdir In 1996, the government closed many rural are growing. schools, transporting children by bus to larger Beneficiaries of the route schools. There are 19 unused village schools along the route; most empty and in poor condition. The Excluding the towns of Eğirdir and Yalvaç, Education Ministry built them on communal land there are 23 pension or accommodation owners and retain control although they have been nomi- and a few restaurant/café owners in small villages nally re-assigned to village headmen. While some along the route who derive an income from users village headmen want to use them as accommoda- of the route. Over the lifetime of the route, accom- tion centres, the Education Ministry refuses per- modation providers have increased from 3 to 23. mission. Of these, only 5 are licenced pensions; the rest are School reform was followed by health service home-stays run on an informal unlicenced basis. reforms based on visiting doctors and centralized The 5 locations where there are licenced pensions hospital treatment. Local clinics are often empty show a population decrease similar to that above, but the Health Ministry does not permit re-use. so the route has not so far a significant effect on migration. Nevertheless, the pensions and home- Roads stays do provide an income for at least one family per village. Changes to services were enabled by improve- ment to rural roads. For example, the north-south In general, pension or home pension owners road along the Köprülü river was first bulldozed and potential pension owners enjoy interaction in 2003, surfaced in 2007 and is now a direct as- with visitors and would rather run accommoda- phalt link between Kasımlar and Antalya; a new tion than farm; typically they would like their chil- Konya – Antalya road will cut it and improve ac- dren to learn foreign languages so that they can cess to the trail. Some road construction is poorly work in tourism. They see the potential of the trail executed and roads often collapse. and admire the initiative of their successful neigh- bours. However, most have small houses which Numbers of villagers along the route cannot accommodate many visitors without re- The following table gives numbers of residents building; they lack capital to invest, do not have along the route and rates of decline: language skills or training to deal with the local authorities, accountancy or marketing. Place Population/ Population/year % of 1st year column Difficulties in making/expanding Towns in Antalya 3895 (1990) 67476 (2012) 1700% accommodation Villages in Antalya 5407 (1985) 3455 (2012) 64% Two schemes allow villagers to finance pen- Towns in İsparta 46551 (1990) 46558 (2002/2013) 100% sions: the Forestry Ministry can loan up to Villages in İsparta 7852(1985) 5072 (2012) 65% 30,000TL (repayable interest free) or a develop-
276 The St. Paul Trail • KATE CLOW ment agency can grant up to guide book and map, maintain- to learn about their development 50% of costs (non-repayable). ing a website with accommoda- and place in the range of tour- Both schemes require licenc- tion information, encouraging ism offerings. For this reason the ing, health and fire certification, villagers to open accommoda- society has made an agreement proof of tax and insurance pay- tion, suggesting tour programs with the European Association ments, etc. Since all receipts are for agencies and by keeping the of the Via Francegina, the ulti- required, the recipient has to route clear and waymarked. We mate aim of which is to extend pay 18% value added tax plus hold annual meetings with pen- the existing Via Francegina from 20% income tax (normally vil- sion owners and agencies to dis- Rome to Bari, along the via Eg- lagers would do the work them- cuss their concerns. natia to Istanbul and though selves or employ a builder who Turkey to the St Paul Trail. This avoids tax); we don’t know any CONCLUSION – FUTURE is a major programme which grant applicants. OPPORTUNITIES FOR will take several years and re- DEVELOPMENT peated grants to realise. Subject Obtaining an operating or al- to grant acceptance, work will cohol licence is cumbersome and A quick trawl through search start in 2016. expensive as the building has engines produces scores of com- to conform to hotel standards. panies offering holidays follow- Without a licence, the accommo- ing the travels of St Paul from a dation cannot be advertised for religious or historical aspect; the fear of attracting attention of the standard tours include the Sev- authorities. If detected, fines are en churches tour, Footsteps of prohibitive, easily wiping out St Paul tour, tours covering both profits. Greece and Turkey, etc. We have shown in this paper Society activities to that the St Paul Trail has consid- support the route erable historical validity as well The Culture Routes Soci- as landscape and cultural inter- ety has made four applications est. There is no doubt that if the (jointly or alone) for local devel- trail was further developed and opment grants for work on the marketed, it could attract tour- route; in spite of conforming ism from the pilgrimage sector. with stated government devel- It thus has unrealized potential opment programs, three have as a religious tourism trail and been rejected in favour of politi- could be compared with the cally important applicants (the route of St James to Santiago de one accepted project was for an Compostella. i-phone application). As a society which special- The Society supports the route ises in trekking rather than pil- by producing and marketing the grimage routes, we have much
277 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOT REFERENCES 1 Dr. F.C. Baur, Paul - His life and Works, Preface to 1st edition, Theo- Baur, F.C. 1876. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Works, His logical Translation Fund Library, Willams and Norgate 1876. Epistles and Teachings. 1st edition. Theological Translation Fund Library, Williams and Norgate.
Büyükkolancı, M. 1998. Adada, Pisidia’da Antik bir Kent. Göltaş Kültür Dizisi, Yalvaç.
Demirer, Ü. 2002. Pisidian Antioch, St Paul, Sancturay of Men, Yalvaç Museum. Ankara.
French, D. 1981. Roman roads and milestones of Asia Minor. BAR.
Karahalil, U., A. İ. Kadioğulları, E. Z. Başkent and S. Köse. 2009. “The spatiotemporal forest cover changes in Köprülü Canyon National Park (1965 – 2008) in Turkey”. African Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 8.18: 4495-4507.
Mitchell, S. 1993. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor, Volume I: The Celts in Anatolia and the Impact of Roman. Oxford.
Mitchell, S. 1995. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume II: The Rise of the Church. Oxford.
Pehlivan, L. 2012. Isparta Kırsal Kalkınma Planı Taslak Metni. Batı Akdeniz kalınma Ajansı (BAKA)
Ramsay, W.M. 1890. The historical geography of Asia Minor.
Ramsay, W. M. 1895. St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen.
Ramsay, W. M. 1895. The cities and bishoprics of Phrygia.
Taşlıalan, M. 1997. Pisidian Antioch, The journeys of St Paul to Antioch. Göltas Kültür Serisi: 2, Ankara. www.yerelnet.org.tr
278 The ΕΝΙ in the Context of CBC - Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together
A n a s t a s i a E v a n g e l i d o u
The European According to the Treaty on 2014-2020” the Cross-border co- Neighbourhood Policy European Union the aim of that operation (CBC) is an integral (ENP) partnership should be “to estab- component of the EU’s European ENP was launched in 2004 lish an area of prosperity and good Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), and ever since has been strength- neighbourliness, founded on the and of EU-Russia co-operation. It ening relations, bringing tan- values of the Union and character- likewise features in associated re- gible benefits to both EU and ized by close and peaceful relations gional policies such as the Euro- its Neighbourhood partners, based on cooperation”. Mediterranean Partnership and including the introduction of re- the Eastern Partnership. It aims 1. EU Policy and gional initiatives and support to to promote co-operation across Objectives democratization. the borders between EU Member Relations and goals of the States and the countries in the The European Neighbour- ENP are further advanced European Neighbourhood and hood Policy supports the cre- through the European Neigh- the Russian Federation. ation of an area of prosperity bourhood Instrument (ENI), and good neighbourliness. Its ENI reflects real needs and which has replaced the Euro- basic principles are based on considerations that have emerged pean Neighbourhood and Part- cooperation, peace and security, over the years in the implementa- nership Instrument (ENPI) that mutual accountability, democ- tion of the European Neighbour- existed for the Programming Pe- racy, rule of law and respect hood Policy. The Council and the riod 2007 -2013 as part of the EU for human rights, the founding European Parliament Regula- external aid instruments. principles of the special relation- tion 232/2014, setting up the ENI, ship between the EU and the According to the “Program- underlines that it should give Neighbourhood countries of the ming Document for EU Support support to the implementation East and the South. to ENI Cross Border Cooperation of the political initiatives shaping
279 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA the ENP, including the Eastern dates the EU approach to devel- ship Instrument (ENPI) and Partnership and the Union for opment assistance. brings more tangible benefits to the Mediterranean. both the EU and its Neighbour- The two main principles un- hood partners. It has a total CBC in the European Neigh- derlying the European Neigh- budget of €15.433 billion and bourhood extends the principles bourhood Instrument (ENI) is will provide the bulk of fund- of Cross-border co-operation “giving incentives and reward- ing to the European Partner within the EU, which is part of ing best performers”, as well as countries through a number of the European Territorial Co-op- “offering funds in a faster and programmes. eration (ETC) programmes. CBC more flexible manner”. The in- in the Neighbourhood receives dicative financial allocations for The 16 ENI Partner Countries funding from the European each of the CBC programmes are divided in two strands: Regional Development Fund are established for the period ENI South: (ERDF) as well as from the Eu- 2014-17, together with illustra- Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jor- ropean Neighbourhood Instru- tive allocations for 2018-20. The dan, Lebanon, Libya Moroc- ment (ENI). In addition to sup- indicative total ENI funding for co, Palestine, Syria*, Tunisia. porting the Euro-Mediterranean the period 2014 - 2020 is EUR and Eastern Partnerships as set 489,000,000 - EUR 598,000,000 ENI East: out above, CBC in the Neigh- Euros. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belar- bourhood also complements us, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine. Based on the experiences other important regional or sub- gained from ENPI Programmes In the Programming Period regional initiatives including the implementation until today, 2007-2013 ENPI was the finan- Northern Dimension, Black Sea the ENI supports the Euro- cial instrument that covered Synergy and the EU Strategy for pean Neighbourhood Policy relation with Russia. Howev- the Baltic Sea Region. (ENP) and has as its major ob- er, in the Programming Period The main objectives of the jective to turn decisions taken 2014-2020 Russia has acquired policy involve building deep on a political level into actions a special status, as EU – Rus- and sustainable democracy, on the ground for the partici- sian relations are not developed supporting inclusive and sus- pating countries. through the ENP, but a strate- tainable economic growth, gic partnership covering four strengthening the Eastern and 2. Relevant Financial “common spaces”. Therefore it Southern regional dimensions Instruments to the is only eligible for ENI regional and providing mechanisms and ENP - The European and Cross-Border Cooperation Neighbourhood instruments to support these programmes, for which it co- Instrument (ENI) objectives. The ENP is comple- finances projects. Bilateral- co mented by other important EU The ENI builds on the operation with Russia is funded external policies including the achievements of the European under the new Partnership In- Agenda for Change which up- Neighbourhood and Partner- strument (PI).
* EU Cooperation with Syria is currently suspended due to the political situation
280 Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together • ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
3. How support is given ence with CBC within the EU ing experience between pro- through ENI under the European Territorial grammes and other relevant ENI support is programmed Co-operation programmes and actors. and given in three different CBC between Member States Other important lessons ways: and IPA beneficiaries under the Instrument for Pre-Accession learned from feedback from • By bilateral programmes Assistance, and under older in- CBC stakeholders, the Mid-Term covering support to one part- struments such as Phare, TACIS Evaluation of CBC Programmes ner country; and Meda. under the ENPI 2007-2013 and • By multi-country programmes wider reviews of external assis- which address challenges 4. Lessons learned tance have also been addressed common to all or a number The new approach of the in the ENI CBC Programmes of Partner Countries, and re- ENI CBC Programmes brings such as: gional and sub-regional coop- greater coherence with ETC pri- • The governance challenges eration between two or more orities and programmes includ- of involving multiple stake- Partner Countries; ing thematic priorities. Joint holders from different lev- • By Cross-Border Coopera- programmes under ENI have els of government in multi- built on the previous experi- tion programmes between country programmes; Member States and Partner ence and have addressed issues Countries taking place along such as: • The reduced impact of Sea their shared part of the exter- • The need for coherence and Basin programmes in terms nal border of the EU (includ- complementarity between of addressing common chal- ing Russia). projects on each side of the lenges (e.g. environmental) border to ensure real cross- if important countries in the Moreover, enhancing sub-re- border added value; Basin do not participate; gional, regional and Neighbour- hood wide collaboration as well • The importance of synergy • The need to focus the vast as Cross-Border Cooperation on with other ENI and other EU majority of the effort and EU external borders is one of the programmes and the need to funding on populations close six (6) targets of ENI, as referred avoid overlap and prevent a to the border to maximise in the Council and European Par- risk of double funding; cross-border impact; liament Regulation 232/2014 and • The need to balance local • The need for a more focused a key priority in the European ownership with national in- approach to thematic/sec- Neighbourhood Policy (ENP); volvement, especially for toral priorities within pro- Cross Border Cooperation policy areas (e.g. border secu- grammes to increase efficien- references are grouped under rity) which may be centrally cy of the beneficiaries and one specific Title of the ENI. controlled; improve the quality of the Cross Border Cooperation • The benefits of capacity projects proposed for fund- under ENI draws on experi- building support and shar- ing;
281 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
5. 2014-2020 ENI CBC Programmes “ENI Regulation is being followed by the Com- (EU contribution 1,052 MEUR) mission Implementing Regulation 897/2014 and the Programming Document for EU Support to For the Programming period 2014-20, a total of ENI CBC. These rules are used for the creation of twelve (1)2 land-border and one (1) sea-crossing the Joint Operational Programmes (JOPs) envis- programme will be financed, as well as four (4) aged under ENI. sea-basin ENI CBC programmes. These 17 pro- grammes are listed in the table below. 7. ENI – Strategic Framework on CBC Land Border Programmes Sea crossing Programmes CBC contributes to the overall ENI objective Kolarctivc Italy/Tunisia Karelia of progress towards ‘an area of shared prosperity South East Finland/Russia and good neighbourliness” between EU MS and Estonia/Russia their neighbours; Latvia/Russia Lithuania/Russia To advance this goal, CBC under the ENI will Poland/Russia have three (3) strategic objectives: Latvia/Lithuania/Belarus Sea Basin programmes 1. Promote economic and social development in re- Poland/Belarus Ukraine Baltic Sea Region Hungary/Slovakia/Romania/Ukraine Black Sea gions on both sides of common borders; Romania/Ukraine Mediterranean Sea 2. Address common challenges, in environment, pub- Romania/Moldova Mid-Atlantic lic health, safety and security; 3. Promotion of better conditions and modalities for 6. The Legal framework ensuring the mobility of persons, goods and capital. The ENI CBC Rules have aligned as much as *Each ENI CBC programme must contribute to possible with ETC/IPA CBC instruments in order at least one of the strategic objectives. to facilitate both management bodies and benefi- ciaries in project implementation. In order to increase the impact and efficiency of programmes, within the framework of objectives As part of the external aid policy of the Eu- set out above, each programme will focus on a ropean Union the legal framework for ENI CBC maximum of four (4) Thematic Objectives selected programmes is based on Regulation 966/2012 “on from a list which is broadly aligned to the Euro- the financial rules applicable to the general budget pean Territorial Cooperation goal. of the Union (Financial Regulation)”, the relevant Commission Delegated Regulation 1268/2012 “on The list is attached as Annex 1 of the ENI the rules of application of Regulation 966/2012” Programming Document and includes the and Regulation 236/2014 “laying down common following Thematic Objectives: rules and procedures for the implementation of 1. Business and SME development the Union’s instruments for financing external action”. Then these rules are being specified by 2. Support to education, research, technological devel- the application of the relevant specific Financial opment and innovation Instrument, Regulation 232/2014 “establishing a 3. Promotion of local culture and preservation of his- European Neighbouhood Instrument”. torical heritage
282 Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together • ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
4. Promotion of social inclusion and fight against poverty } Envisage more financial responsibilities for 5. Support to local & regional good governance both EU Member States and Partner Countries (recoveries procedures - expenditure verifica- 6. Environmental protection, climate change mitiga- tion for Partner Countries by ex-ante designat- tion and adaptation ed Control Contact Points). 7. Improvement of accessibility to the regions, develop- } Four (4) out of ten (10) Thematic objectives ment of sustainable and climate-proof transport and have to be select per programme as for ETC communication networks and systems Programmes. 8. Common challenges in the field of safety and security } Address the “new” obligations imposed by 9. Promotion of and cooperation on sustainable energy the EU Financial Regulation 966/2012 con- and energy security cerning the designation of Authorities, the Programme’s management bodies, on the de- 10. Promotion of border management and border secu- scription of the Management and Control Sys- rity, mobility and migration management tems (DMCS) and it bring about new reporting 11. Other areas not listed above likely to have a substan- deadlines etc. tial cross-border impact } CBC Programmes in the Neighbourhood Pol- 8. ENI Implementing Rules for the icy receive funding from ERDF & ENI; IPA Programming Period 2014 -2020 funds are also eligible for pre-accession coun- The ENI Programming Document sets out tries participating in the ENI Programmes; the EU’s general policy and objectives for the ENI } The financial allocation for ENI in total, for the CBC Programmes. It refers to European Neigh- Programming Period 2014-2020, is approxi- borhood Policy, the types of CBC programmes mately 18 billions Euros; Up to 5% is allocated co-funded under ENI and lists the individual CBC to the CBC component. The rest depends upon programmes, including their geographic eligibil- the ERDF contribution and the national co-fi- ity, and the general expected results. nancing of the participating countries. The detailed rules and procedures applicable } Other matters that are covered by the -Imple to all ENI CBC Programmes are included in the menting rules include, inter alia, the: Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) • rate and modalities of the co-financing. The 897/2014 laying down the specific provisions for minimum National Co-financing has been the implementation of the CBC Programmes fi- set to 10%. nanced under ENI. • procedures regarding the preparation of the The Implementing rules for ENI CBC Pro- joint operational programmes, grammes have the following features: • paying and certifying functions, } Build upon the principles of Continuity and Shared Management! Implementing rules make • role and function of the Joint Monitoring a clear distinction between the programmes’ and Selection Committees and of the Joint management modes. Technical Secretariat,
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• eligibility of expenditure, Member State and one Partner Country and /or the Russian • type of projects to be fi- Federation. nanced and the type of support they receive Following the adoption of a JOP, the European Commis- • conditions for financing sion shall conclude a Financing • CBC impact and added Agreement (FA) with the par- values to EU strategies ticipating Partner Countries. The Financing Agreement may • implementation in the eli- be co-signed by the other par- gible areas ticipants and by programme’s } Regarding Grants the rules Managing Authority. set out the provisions relat- JOPs shall, in principle, be ed to the: implemented through shared • Call for Proposals and management (a. 56 of the Finan- their content cial Regulation 966/2012) by a Managing Authority located in • Type of potential benefi- a Member State. A Joint Tech- ciaries. nical Secretariat shall be estab- lished to assist the Managing 9. Joint Operational Authority. Programmes CBC Programmes between CBC will be implemented Member States and Partner through multi-annual joint op- countries have demonstrated so erational programmes (JOPs). far a high quality project imple- JOPs for land and maritime mentation (confirmed by exter- borders shall be established for nal monitoring) and a strong each border and include eligi- interest and commitment at all ble territorial units from one or levels (programme & project) more Member States and one or and by all involved bodies de- more Partner Countries and/or spite the difficult context of- co of the Russian Federation. operation (political crisis etc). JOPs for sea basins shall However, the “CBC” impact be multilateral and include eli- has to be reinforced. The new gible territorial units facing a programmes are more targeted common sea basin belonging and the capacity building needs to several participating coun- at local level in the Partner coun- tries, including at least one tries is reinforced.
284 Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together • ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
10. Especially for the pean Commission on the adop- Sea-Basin programmes tion of the Programmes issued the Expected results are by the end of 2015 (if not: both focused on the: 2015 ENI and ERDF allocations } strengthened sustainable eco- will be lost). nomic and social develop- After the adoption of the Pro- ment; grammes the European Com- } identification of and sustain- mission has to sign “Financing able remedy to environmen- Agreements“ with the Partner tal and climate change chal- Countries at the latest by the lenges; end of the year following the } improved contacts between programme adoption (2016). the regional and subnational The first calls for proposals partners in the programme are expected to be launched in area; 2016/2017. The first projects will } increased regional involve- start to be implemented in 2017. ment and ownership in the As a conclusion it must addressing of regional and be underlined that the added subnational priorities of com- value of the Cross Border Co- mon concern; operation between Member } establishment or strengthen- States and Partner countries in ing of sustainable networks the context of ENI is focused on and cooperation platforms, the integrated and sustainable capable of providing a real regional development between contribution to the issues neighbouring border regions they address. and the harmonious territorial The projects should demonstrate cooperation over the borders in a clear CBC impact and added order to avoid the creation of value. new dividing lines among them. All involved bodies in the im- 11. Expected timeline plementation of ENI CBC Pro- The new Joint Operational grammes and projects are trying Programmes have been submit- to reach this ultimate objective. ted to the European Commis- sion by the 30th of June 2015 in order to secure the 2015 ERDF allocation. The objective is to have the Decisions of the Euro-
285 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
REFERENCES http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/neighbourhood/cross-border- cooperation/index_en.htm http://enpi.interact-eu.net/enpi/358
ENI Programming Document: http://eeas.europa.eu/enp/pdf/financing- the-enp/cbc_2014-2020_programming_document_en.pdf
286 OLKAS: International Contribution to the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Black Sea Region
S o f r o n i s P a r a d e i s o p o u l o s
Perhaps not everybody knows Black Sea area, the OLKAS proj- period. Moreover, in many cities that the ongoing LIMEN proj- ect, was designed to facilitate and archaeological sites one can ect had its predecessor called the development of cultural see architectural traces of me- OLKAS: From the Aegean to the tourism around the Black Sea dieval buildings and standing Black Sea – Medieval Ports in the and in the adjacent regions of monuments, ecclesiastical and Maritime Routes of the East. De- the Aegean and the Caspian Sea secular, fortifications and tow- signed by the European Center by means of promoting cultural ers which are preserved from of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine heritage of their historic city- the past. This heritage, which is Monuments from Thessaloniki ports. part of the culture that was orig- in Greece, the OLKAS project The project covered 46 histor- inally developed in the eastern was implemented from January ic city-ports in Greece, Turkey, part of Europe under the strong of 2012 until April of 2014 in col- Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, influences of the Byzantine civi- laboration with 7 partner orga- Georgia and Azerbaijan. lization, is represented today nizations and 4 associates from by very important monuments From historical and archaeo- Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Ro- from the medieval and later pe- logical point of view, the Black mania, Ukraine, Georgia, Russia riods. Sea area holds a very high posi- and Azerbaijan thanks to finan- tion among the regions where a A very important category cial support from the European rich cultural heritage was pro- of cultural sites is the coastal Union within the framework of duced. In the various museums city-ports, which have a long, the Black Sea Cross Border Co- of countries around the sea there constant and rich historical past, operation Program. are exhibited a lot of movable testified by monuments and As much as the LIMEN proj- monuments, valuable martyrs of archaeological sites preserved ect today addresses issues of the civilization that was spread there. However, many archaeo- cultural tourism in the wider in the area during the medieval logical sites, standing monu-
287 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ments and artifacts exhibited in aiming at the increase of econom- the museums representative of ic effect of cultural tourism in the the history of the city-ports re- region. Furthermore, one of the main largely unknown to trav- goals of the OLKAS project was elers and sometimes even to the to produce cross-border tourism locals. Very often, even the in- products that were disseminated ternational scholars, historians to the responsible bodies of local and archaeologists do not know communities, and marked the this heritage since they have beginning of a new effort to dis- limited or no access to the local seminate accurate and reliable in- bibliography and other relevant formation to the on site and web information available through visitors of the ports. modern tools such as internet, The acquirement of the websites and electronic data- knowledge for the historic cul- bases. tural heritage was the first step of The OLKAS project thus had the project which was achieved an objective of creating and es- by the detailed documentation tablishing a viable network of of historic medieval city-ports. collaboration among bodies that The documentation included the would record and promote the feeding of an already existent
Fig. 1 The participants of the historic ports and other impor- multilingual database, devel- International Conference: tant monuments of the area relat- oped by the European Center for “Medieval Ports in North Aegean ed with them as a modern cultur- Byzantine and Post-Byzantine and the Black Sea. Links to the Maritime Routes of the East”. al route between the Aegean, the Monuments (available at www. Thessaloniki, 4-6/12/2013 Black Sea and the Caspian Sea ekbmmdb.gr) as well as a newly
288 Int. Contribution to the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Black Sea Region • S. PARADEISOPOULOS established online database with all the information that refers to the history of every city-port and the archaeological testimony (www.olkas.net). The databases developed throughout the OL- KAS project contain information about archaeological sites pre- served, the museums available, the standing monuments, prac- tical information for visiting the Fig. 2 Educational sites including directions and programs in Varna maps as well as a rich photo- graphic documentation accom- panied by plans, sketches etc. Today this information is available to all the European and international tourists through the Internet at the website of the project (www.olkas.net) and as a printed edition of a Cultural Guide to 40 Medieval City-Ports in North Aegean and the Black Fig. 3 Theatrical Sea published in 2014. Other rel- games in Constanta evant information about archae- ology, history and architecture of these city-ports was also pub- lished in the Proceedings of the International Symposium “Me- dieval Ports in North Aegean and programs as well as of theatri- the Black Sea. Links to the Maritime cal games which are addressed Routes of the East” held in Thes- to the students of the schools saloniki in 2013 (Fig. 1). of their region. These programs focused on raising awareness of The two museums involved the new generation on the rich in the project, the Varna Regional medieval cultural heritage pre- Museum as well as the Museum served on their cities (Fig. 2-3). of National History and Archae- ology from Constanta imple- Beside this, a photographi- mented a variety of educational cal exhibition that had as topic
289 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
sites. The exhibition was hosted in Thessaloniki (Fig. 4), Istanbul (Fig. 5), Odessa (Fig. 6), Athens, Kavala, Volos, Constanta, Cy- prus and Simferopol in order to make citizens of Black Sea coun- tries aware of the common cul-
Fig. 4 The tural heritage that is preserved “Olkas”exhibition around the Black Sea Basin. in Thessaloniki In addition, the OLKAS proj- (December 2012- May 2013) ect team produced a 50-minute documentary film that presents the cultural heritage preserved in all these city-ports and con- sists a very important tool in the effort of the promotion of this heritage outside the countries involved, that is in Central and Western Europe and interna- tionally (Fig. 7). To sum up, the OLKAS proj- ect provided a unique oppor- tunity for international promo- tion and enhancement of the cultural heritage preserved in the historic city-ports. Through this promotion, this European heritage dated from the Middle Ages to the 19th century has be- come known to the tourists of the world to serve as a vehicle of local development. Fig. 5 The “Olkas”exhibition in the history and the cultural In a similar vein, the LIMEN Istanbul (April – October 2013) heritage of the city-ports of all project focuses on the establish- the countries participating in ment of an Institution for the the project gave the possibil- promotion of the cities-ports ity to local authorities, inhabit- from the Aegean to the Black ants and tourists to learn about Sea and of their cultural resourc- the cultural heritage of all these es through the prism of cultural
290 Int. Contribution to the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Black Sea Region • S. PARADEISOPOULOS tourism. Like the OLKAS, this project concerns cooperation between the city-ports and net- working them with the aim of creating conditions for devel- opment of local businesses in the field of tourism. Finally, the main activities within the LI- MEN project also include those similar to the ones successfully implemented in the OLKAS project such as the recording and documentation of cultural Fig. 6 The “Olkas” resources of the city-ports and exhibition in Odessa the development of the exhibi- (October 2013) tion for the history of the ports. I therefore suggest that the OLKAS and the LIMEN projects shall be considered as not just a simple continuation of one an- other but as complementary ac- tions within a single large-scale and long-term international program aimed at promoting and networking cultural cities around the Black Sea in order to raise their touristic potential and facilitate sustainable social and economic development of the local communities. I call upon the participants in the LI- MEN project to making use at full capacity of the promotional cultural products developed, the communications established and the knowledge and experi- Fig. 7 The “Olkas” documentary film ence acquired throughout the more than two-year voyage of the OLKAS in 2012-2014.
291
The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives
P o l y x e n i A d a m -V e l e n i
In June 2015, two years have It is a project that aimed, as its but with separate, self-sufficient passed since the approval of title mentioned, to examine the funding*. the European project BSUDRA common elements and the dif- A sudden, exogenous twist (Black Sea Unity and Diversity ferences in the regions around affected the entire project. Dur- in Roman Antiquity) and in es- the Black Sea in Roman times. ing its course, and nearing its sence this signified its comple- Similarities and differences, that middle, in June 2014, Ukraine tion, which was nevertheless is, among the nations and com- left the project, due to the war given a three-month extension munities that fell under Roman taking place in the country until the end of September of imperialism. We shall see fur- and Crimea, which participated the present year. The project ther on what was discovered in the project with its institu- will come to an end with an and whether the initial aim was tions, was annexed to Russia. international conference orga- achieved. Seven countries par- Thus, after several months, un- nized in Istanbul in the follow- ticipated in the project. Romania til the matter was resolved by ing September. Consequently, was the leader, with Greece com- the managing authority of Ro- we are indeed at the end and ing second in honorary position, mania (the well-known to par- I will attempt in the limited due to its long-standing experi- ticipants, JMO), our Ukrainian space offered to follow the ence in European programmes. (and now Russian) colleagues course of the project, highlight- Then came Bulgaria, Moldova, took part in Georgia for the last ing its negative as well as posi- Ukraine, Georgia, while Turkey time and never again as their tive aspects. participated as a full member, expenses were not eligible any-
* P. Adam-Veleni, Black Sea-Unity and Diversity in the Roman Antiquity, in F. Karagianni (ed.) Medieval Ports in North Aegean and Black Sea. Lins to the Maritime Routes of the East, International Symposium, Thessalonike, 4-6 December, Proceedings, Thessalonike 2013, 548-468, where the project has been presented when it kicked of.
293 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA more. Hence, all Yalta events maining countries participated bers, who did not participate in were cancelled. with representatives from their the funding and organization of the main events but played a The project was oganised by scientific institutions. For spe- supporting role with their pres- the Tulcea periphery, with Mick- cifically, Greece was represented ence or participation on an aca- aela Lugu as its administrative by archaeologists of the Archae- demic level. I will not tire you director, as the elected represen- ological Museum of Thessaloni- by enumerating them, as they tative of the periphery, while in ki, Bulgaria by an archaeologist are presented in detail on the list charge of the scientific direction of the Archaeological Museum you are looking at. was Mickaela Iakob, archae- of Varna, Moldova by research- ologist-researcher of the Envi- ers and professors of the Univer- The project’s entire structure ronmental Institute of Tulcea. sity of Ukraine by the scientific included an ambitious plan of Respectively, for Turkey, the staff of the Yalta Institute and continuous meetings and travels periphery of Sinop was respon- Georgia by an archaeologist of for the participants in order for sible for the project with Profes- the Archaeological Museum of every country to host an exhibi- sor. Clair Barat of the University Vatum. Apart from the main tion and a workshop. Initially, of Valansien being responsible members, the project included three preparatory meetings took for the scientific aspect. The re- a multitude of associated mem- place. Apart from the first, kick- off meeting in Tulcea (July 2013), a second one followed in Sinop (September 2013) and a third one in Thessaloniki (November 2013) where procedural issues were discussed and dealt with the organization and agenda of the workshops in general, the determination of the dates of the following meetings, the cre- ation of a website, the database, where major archaeological sites of each country would be regis- tered, the organization of a sum- mer excavation at Slava Roussa, Fig. 1. 1rst exhibition in Tulcea, Mars 2914 (minority province of Tulcea) and the promotion of the proj- ect in general. Six more meet- ing followed in the remaining participating countries. During Fig. 2. Exhibition in Thessaloniki those first meetings, it became (February 2015) clear that based on the techni-
294 The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives • P. ADAM-VELENI cal report completed and cer- tified by the natural subject, the exhibition would include 90 posters, 13 posters for each country, with Romania display- ing 15 as the organizing coun- try. The posters would present each country’s institution and its most important archaeologi- cal sites or monuments, as they deemed appropriate. The same exhibition opened on all coun- tries. The posters were bilingual, in English and each country’s language. The poster exhibition take place in June 2014. That Fig. 3. Excavation at Libida, Summer Camp in Slava Russa is because, another exhibition was accompanied by their pub- (July-August 2014) lication, with the Romanians and a workshop had to take functioning as editors. The pub- place somewhere, so the Roma- lication was printed in a large nian leaders proposed Sulina number of copies for each coun- in Romania, a small island on try (500) in order to be distrib- the Danube Delta, for symbolic uted for free to institutions and reasons: it is where a coalition bodies of each country and who- of six European countries with ever would be interested. common economic interests had first met, forming a first kind of As was natural, the first ex- rewarded though by a visit to a hibition and the first workshop European Union, thus acquir- gifted and interesting place that took place in Tulcea, inaugu- ing a multinational character, lies off the beaten track. and furthermore it is the closest rated in March 2014 (Fig. 1). The Each workshop’s topic was location to Ukraine, whose land exhibition and workshop at Ki- different: Tulcea dealt with Ro- sinau in Moldova followed in is visible from the island, and man politics, Kisinau with in- May, then the inauguration and Crimea itself, whose meeting striptions and sources, Vatum the workshop was repeated in had been cancelled. Of course, with Roman numismatics and Vatum in Georgia, then again the partners of the project ac- coin circulation, Sinop with ce- in Sinop, in Turkey, in February cepted, despite the fact that in ramic production and pottery 2015 in Thessaloniki (Fig. 2), in order to reach the location fur- trade, Thessaloniki with Roman March 2015 in Varna, Bulgaria, ther funding was needed which art and architecture, Varna with and in June of the same year could not be substantiated, and religion and cults, and Sulina in Sulina, Romania, replacing they ended up paying the ex- with indigenous populations, Yalta, which was scheduled to penses themselves. They were newcomers and Romans of each
295 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA region. These interesting top- Roman site of Slava Roussa, a ners and associated members ics were mostly followed, but in provincial town near Tulcea, of was also large. The experience several instances they were ne- a mixed population. I suppose had many challenges and sev- glected, possibly due to the lack that the site was chosen for two eral difficulties. of researchers dealing with the reasons: The first one was due to Nevertheless the outcome predetermined topics for each the fact that it is the birthplace was positive, as the impres- country. Thus, it so happened of Michaela Iacob, the scientific sions of the participants reveal, that in the workshop dealing supervisor of the project, who as many people from different with sources and inscriptions also conducts research there cultural backgrounds came to- included presentations dealing for several years. The second gether in order to have a scien- with pottery, or numismatics to reason was to reinforce and at- tific and communal experience, be presented in the pottery work- tract at least of a few days, to and the entire project left them shop and architecture issues this remote land, the attention all with a happy aftermath, de- in the numismatics workshop. of scholars, who were given an spite the difficulties they had to This caused some confusion as empirical experience, together face. Given the opportunity with it was difficult to have a mean- with some archaeological tours the above positive comment on ingful discussion, which was re- to nearby sites. From the Greek the summer excavation camp, duced to superficial explanatory side, four persons participated, I think it would be useful to at- questions and rarely penetrated two students of the Department tempt a general assessment of deeper into the topics. of History and Archaeology of the entire project, searching to The summer excavation camp the Aristotle University of Thes- determine certain weaknesses (Fig. 3) was attended by under- saloniki and two scientists, a in the organization and the ben- graduate and postgraduate stu- member of the Greek Archaeo- efits offered. dents from all countries, par- logical Service and an indepen- ticipating in the excavation of dent researcher. Respectively, One of its major drawbacks the University of Iasi at the late attendance from both main part- was the density of the project,
Fig. 4 2nd Meeting in Thessaloniki
296 The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives • P. ADAM-VELENI regarding its actions, which had they should, nor the attention of objective. Similar mismatches variety and diversity, despite the students and antiquarians, were also noted with our Turk- the fact that this was initially in order to produce meaningful ish partners, whose heads were seen as an advantage and was, I scientific discussions (Fig. 4). members of the local govern- suppose, one of the reasons the Nevertheless, due to the com- ment and showed no interest to project was approved in the first plex team and the necessity to the scientific part. On the con- place. The two-year time limit move swiftly to all actions, we trary, they clearly showed how proved to be too short for so spent long hours discussing the bored they were during the many actions, in order for them organization of our meetings workshops in various countries. to be complete and meaningful. with procedural issues. The There were difficulties with the English translations of the post- The short amount of time, project was too demanding and ers, inadequacies in the transla- which in certain instances was the specifications for its imple- tion to the national languages in only a month or two, between mentation, according to Roma- the website, which still remain. workshops, resulted to an in- nian laws, difficult. The inex- ability to prepare original sci- perience of the organisers in A large part of the discus- entific papers by each country’s topics of financial management sions dealt with the foundation representatives. Most of us, led to delays in expenses pay- of an association, with the partic- with very few exceptions, re- ment and mainly in the expen- ipating countries as the founding sulted to present scientific top- diture of certified installments, members, which would aim to ics previously prepared and in especially during the second the further viability of the proj- many cases already published year, when most of us partici- ect and its continuation through fully or repeatedly. Concur- pants had to borrow money to another project that would ex- rently, the goal of most of those be punctual to the timetable of tend to the late Roman times, meetings was only partially the project. Another important as we had agreed to place a 3rd reached: the workshops did not procedural obstacle was also century AD limit on this project have the expected effect on the the fact that the financial ad- during our first meeting, though local scientific communities, nor ministration and the scientific this later on breached. The es- on the local society wherever responsibility of the project was tablishment of this common for they took place. Apart from the conducted by different institu- all members of the project time- Thessaloniki workshop, where tions, with common reclimina- table was binding as it had been approximately 200 people from tions and delays between them. incorporated into the project’s the Artistotle University and the The Romanian local adminis- natural topic, but nevertheless Archaeological services around tration of Tulcea was obviously clashed with the various legis- Macedonia, in the other work- interested solely in the right lative regulations of the partici- shops, the participants would and punctual management of pating countries. As a result an address each other, attendance the various stages of the proj- association was founded, based by local institutions was mini- ect and showed no interest for on Romanian legislation and the mal to non-existent, they did not the essential scientific aspect, other partners signed up. But this provoke researchers’ interest, as which was the project’s main made participation in this associ-
297 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
lic spaces, mainly in museums, apart from two occasions: in Ki- sinau the posters were placed in the central hall of the entrance of the University and in Sulina
Fig. 5 Workshop in the posters were placed on the Vatum (Georgia) circular staircase towards the historic lighthouse of the city. Both choices were poor and rath- er impromptu and done at the last minute. In Thessaloniki we thought it would be challenging not to present the 90 posters just by themselves but combine them with an exhibition of Roman an- tiquities, which were taken from the museum storeroom, offer- ing the public the opportunity to view more artefacts from our collection, including stonework, sculptures, inscriptions, pottery, glass vessels, metal objects, a Fig. 6 The Workshop in ation potential as not all partners panorama of Roman art in Mace- Thessaloniki February 2015 were made to participate and donia. The archaeological exhi- also it could not be valid in their bition was funded solely by the countries. As a result, facing this Museum and was not charged to difficulty it became clear that the the project’s budget. Our exam- European countries need to get ple was partially followed by the next exhibition organized by the, closer in terms of legislation in very important in terms of con- order to function in a common tents and exhibits, archaeological and collective manner. Museum of Varna, where repre- The organization of the post- sentative items of its collections ers for each country was rela- were on display. Although the tively swift and I believe that exhibition had some weaknesses each country tried to include the regarding the organization of the most representative and inter- informative posters, I believe it esting archaeological sites. The managed to give an image of the exhibition was organized in pub- representative antiquities of each
298 The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives • P. ADAM-VELENI country and through it, the visi- their introversion and came into is the greatest achievement, the tor could find the common - ele contact with relevant institutions founding of true and meaning- ments and cultural differences of their neighbouring countries. ful relations through which any during Roman times in the Black Countries that neighboured each future project regarding Roman Sea region. Thus, a very impor- other for many years got to know antiquity can be sustainable, as tant step was done towards this each other. Furthermore, the there is still much to do in terms direction, so in a possible con- project’s countries were asked to of research on the topic. Roman tinuation of the project, it could organize similar actions which antiquity remains, still in a great be made possible to determine were needed to be adjusted to degree, unknown in all these re- more accurately these data of their national characteristics, gions and many scientific issues similarities and differences in gaining valuable experience on in different fields should be dis- the Black Sea populations during legislative, procedural and scien- cussed by the researchers in the Roman times (Fig. 5). tific adjustments. The project, de- future. The two years BSUDRA In conclusion, we could say spite its imperfections, reached project was just the beginning, that in a scientific project like all its technical goals, which was we hope that it will be continued. ours, even if its goal is, in asso- a necessary prerequisite for its ciation with its strictly scientific further sustainability. It was a character, to inform and awaken very good initial stage and cre- the local communities, to draw ated all secure conditions for its attention and interest to a histor- continuation. Already, all mem- ical era, in that case the Roman, bers were asked to participate and reinforce tourism, it would to the BSUDRA project through be best if the entire operation its association that is about to be was dealt by scientists and not founded in the final conference in elected officials of local govern- Istanbul in late September, with ments or periphery employees. Norway as the leader, regarding Many issues that arose could its nautical actions (Fig. 6). have been avoided if there was The participants got to know a more dynamic scientific over- local specificities, customs, even view and the scientific results the cuisine and came in contact would have surely been more with places they possibly would meaningful and helpful. never have visited, as they are What was in the end the final located in peripheral districts profit of the project and what in most cases. The participants, impact will it have? The biggest despite their different origins, advantage of this multinational surpassed themselves and man- European (and not just Euro- aged to feel like a big family with pean) company was that for the its convergences and, of course, first time, these countries exited its divergences as well. And this
299
The Digital Economy, Culture and Tourism in the Black Sea Region
P y r r h u s M e r c o u r i s
Before explaining the impor- Maastricht Treaty 1993. It is ist sector is subject to laws re- tance of the digital economy to within the context of the single lating to competition (Title VII, the culture and tourist sectors market that the EU has perused Chapter 1)1. of the Black Sea region, it is im- the development of the digital Digital technologies include portant to examine some of the economy. The regulatory frame- the information society, which background relating to the way work for the digital economy in includes the internet and so- the European Union encour- Europe is established at EU level cial networking also includes ages the developments of these as is a lot of the investment. Of the development of all kinds of sectors. This means looking in course the single market is not communication products and some detail at the legal context just about the digital economy. It services. Including software and the funding context. Then it includes other sectors including developments, mobile phones is worth examining projects that creative industries, tourism and and all kinds of portable devic- develop tourist and cultural ac- culture. Though where culture is es like androids, smart phones tions and contribute to the digi- concerned there are provisions I-pads, lap-tops, note books, tal economy for the Black Sea re- which permit states to fund cul- and all kinds of smart mobile gion – specifically the Black Sea ture, namely the arts and heri- devices that are now available Silk Road Corridor project and tage and the audiovisual sector. to consumers to view content the Culture Exchange Platform. Enforcement of the single mar- and download information. The The European Union (EU) ket is done through competition EU formally started supporting for many years now has been rules. However, states can sub- the development of the digital encouraging the development side culture in accordance with economy in a serious way as far of the Digital Economy within rules on state aid as determined back as the year 2000 with the the context of a single market. by articles 107, 108 and 109 of adoption of the Lisbon Strat- The single market became the the Treaty of 2012 and in accor- egy which is sometimes called primary objective of the Euro- dance with Article 167 specific to the Lisbon Agenda. It aimed pean with the adoption of the culture. Unlike culture, the tour- to make the European Union
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“the world’s most dynamic and monized rules on issues such The Audiovisual and Media competitive economy” by 2010. as the transparency and infor- Services Directive 2010/13/EU Since then the European Union mation requirements for online regulate TV broadcasting over has pushed through a whole se- service providers, commercial traditional terrestrial network ries of laws and funded all kinds communications, electronic and also over the internet. It is of activities. contracts and limitations of li- currently under review. ability of intermediary service Laws include These are just some, but the providers. ” This is a very pow- most important laws which the Satellite and Cable Council erful directive and some critics culture, tourist and digital sec- Directive 93/83/EEC of 27 Sep- feel that it gives too much pow- tors need to consider. However, tember 1993. There are serious er to telecoms. It has however the European Commission is moves to revise this directive. It provided a regulatory frame- anything but pleased with the is a “one-size-fits all” law which work for financial transactions current status quo. On the 6th regulates transmissions over sat- over the internet. of May the EC issued a Com- ellite TV and cable TV and cre- The Directive on Copyright in munication on “A Digital Single ates a single market in the gov- 2 the Information Society, 2001/29/ Market Strategy for Europe” . ernance of copyright. This law EC. This directive tries to harmo- The Commission makes it quite is not popular with the culture nize the diverse copyright laws in clear about its intentions. It be- sector, because it sets out one set lieves that there are still far too each member state. It primarily of rules to be implemented by many obstacles in creating a harmonizes rules on exceptions. all member states. It is a law that single digital market economy. This law is heavily criticized by regulates a technology – that This communication is a radical lawyers and by rights-holders. It is cables and satellite. Artists, document and should be viewed was a very difficult law to enact meaning creators and authors within the context of the negotia- and took many years before it are wary of a directive that does tions relating to the Transatlantic was finally agreed to. not take into account the differ- Trade and Investment Partner- ent cultural traditions of a mem- The Directive on services in ship (TTIP). The most important ber state and they do not see this the internal market (2006/123/ points of the Communication: directive as a good model for EC.) This directive is supposed • Point 2.1 expresses the real regulating authors’ rights. to be a codification of judgments thinking of the authors that The Electronic Commerce made by the European Court is the new Commission led Directive, 2000/31/EC. Accord- of Justice upholding the rights by Claude Junker. The single ing to the European Commis- of businesses to operate in the market for a digital economy sion website, this directive single market. The law was so has not been created, as they “ sets up an Internal Market controversial that it became a see it. This is because every framework for electronic com- muddle and confusion. Culture country has its own rules. Es- merce, which provides legal is exempt but not tourist and in- pecially regarding the details certainty for business and con- formation and communication relating to copyright and sumers alike. It establishes har- services. consumer rights.
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• Point 2.3 is about geo-block- right practices as an obstacle The funding context ing. This includes broadcast- and to maximize the potential This is influenced by the legal ers blocking access to their of these portable devices and context. All funding programs of online services to other coun- cloud computing. The Com- the European Union, including tries. The document consid- munication is of the view the Black Sea Cross Border Co-op- ers geo-blocking as a huge that it should be easier to ac- eration Program have to take into obstacle to the single market cess copyright information account the legal aquis of the EU, and wants to get rid of this for educational and research which includes all the above rules. practice. It does not ask why purposes for free. a broadcaster or any other The EU views culture in- • Point 3.2 calls for the review online service provider has creasingly as a creative industry. of the Audio-visual Media chosen to block its services This not popular with artists and Services Directive (AVMS) to another territory. Valid cultural professionals, but due and this is actually happen- reasons like contractual ob- to the economic crisis, employ- ing at the time of writing. ligations are not mentioned. ment and economic growth are On 7 July 2015 the Europe- This could be a subtle move upper most in EU policymaking. an Commission launched a towards pan-European cross Increasingly more money is be- consultation with a view of border licensing. The Euro- ing made available to the digital reviewing the validity of the pean Commission will also economy. We see this in particu- directive. The consultation is review the Satellite and Ca- lar with the hundreds of Opera- set to end on 30 September ble Directive (SATCAB). tional Programs which manage 2015. The representatives of the European Regional Develop- • Point 2.4 mention is made of the culture sectors (actors, ment Funds and the European the forthcoming communica- actors, musicians, film direc- Social Funds. Billions are going tion on copyright to be pre- tors and screenwriters) have to develop the digital economy. sented later in 2015. The EC is in the past warned the Eu- Probably after agriculture the fascinated by Cloud comput- ropean Commission that the digital economy is the most sub- ing, Big Dada, the “Internet scope of the directive should sidized sector3. of all things” and by portable include video-on-demand devices like androids and services, Telecoms and other Other programs, namely the I-pads, smart-phones, and users of audio-visual prod- Interreg Mediterranean Pogram, other mobile devices which ucts and to consider a “con- part of the wider Interreg Pro- are transforming the way tent directive” and not have gram is now seriously funding we live. It is using these new a two tier system, which the tourist sector. This sector is products as a justification regulate traditional linear not mentioned explicitly in the to seek out changes to copy- services more severely than Treaty, unlike culture. Intrigu- right. Though the documents non-linear internet services. ingly, tourist projects are to be stresses the importance for Now the EC is questioning funded, but within the context copyright and the need to re- the validity of having a two of cultural heritage and the nat- tain it nonetheless sees copy- tier system. ural heritage4.
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The humble culture sector change Platform (CulturEXP). is increasingly dependent on These last two projects contrib- the Creative Europe program5, ute to the development of the whose funding contrast poorly digital economy in the Black Sea with the other programs men- region. tioned. 1. The Black Sea Silk Specific to the Black Sea re- Road Corridor (BSSRC)7 gion is the funding program, The project has been imple- which is funding the LIMEN mented with partners in Greece, project, which is the Black Sea Turkey, Georgia and Armenia. Joint Operational Program Black Sea Basin6. This programme has The project aims at support- successfully funded projects that ing cross border partnerships relate to culture and to tourism for economic and social devel- including the OLKAS project opment of above mentioned which evolved into the LIMEN four countries through creation Project. It has also funded the of tourism networks and pro- Fig.1. Shows the tourist route and heritage trails of the Black Black Sea Silk Road Corridor motion of local (rural) services Sea Silk Road Corridor. (BSSRC) and the Culture Ex- and traditional products. The
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BSSRC is an online platform an inclusive list of tourism nia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Russia which is now up and running service providers (lodging, and throughout Greece. and offers visitors opportunities food, local crafts, souvenirs, to experience the destinations of tour guides, etc.) at destina- 2. The Culture Exchange 9 the Black Sea Basin countries of tion points. The directory Platform (CulturEXP) Turkey, Georgia, Armenia and and the applications have This project10 has as its ob- Northern Greece, while learning been designed by Armenian jective to create a cross-border about local history and culture. IT engineers and are used exchange of culture by provid- Apart from significant economic across all four countries. Lo- ing an innovative, multi-lingual growth, the BSSRC Project Tour cal entrepreneurs and stake- IT platform, based on available Trail brings many environmen- holders can register in the open source social platform so- tal benefits. The paramount of online directory, immediate- lutions and adapted for culture them is the protection of biologi- ly reaching users of the web producers (artists), culture op- 8 cal resources. The project had portal and mobile applica- erators (museums, festivals, etc.) three main components. tions (APPs). and other actors of the culture a. From 2013 to 2015, series market. The platform is up and c. A number of events and cultural-historical and natu- running and provides an online training courses were or- ral sites have been marked tool, where all entities related to ganised locally for tourism with directional signs, infor- the culture can advertise, dis- service providers on the ef- mation panels, trail markers, cuss and organise cultural assets fective use of online oppor- and walking tour plaques, and events in the region. The tunities granted by the web which provide multi-lingual platform will also be an impor- portal and the applications. content about the site. In tant source of information about Greece, there are twenty-five The project has successfully the culture and related cultural such sites, in Turkey hun- been completed within budget events (artists, operators, events) dred, in Armenia forty-three and met or exceeded nearly all for the culture consumers. The and in Georgia thirty-four expectations and outcomes. The structure of the platform has six sites. On the panels there is a physical layout of the trail has parts. bar code that can be swiped been laid out and by the time the The first part is a ‘user pre- by a mobile device like a project officially ended in March sentation module’. This creates smart phone which enters 2015, detailed information on and stores platform users’ own you into the portal. over 1500 tourist services and profile, the user presentation b. A web portal has been cre- heritage sites and natural parks module supports three catego- ated and it features the vir- were available of a comprehen- ries. The first category is for art- tual version of the trail, along sive online platform available to ists. It allows digitized samples with five smart-phone ap- APP users. Currently, the proj- of an artist’s own art, express in- plications with social media ect is aiming to expand to other terest in types and geographical integration. An online direc- countries in the Black Sea re- locations of performance events, tory is available and gives gion, including Bulgaria, Roma- interest in particular arts or cul-
305 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA ture areas. The second category users from different areas, cul- with huge potential. Already relates to culture infrastructure tures may freely participate and they have drawn the attention owners: which permits for in- express their opinions on events, of some of the cities in Greece ventories of performance sites art and tradition. which are bidding to be cultural operated and available to artists, The platform is up and run- capitals in 2021. There is every timetable of the events and avail- ning and in now provides a hope that Romanian cities will ability. And the third category is rich content on the platform – take the opportunity to use these for culture operators to describe by attracting, encouraging and online platforms and even Plo- their activities and post informa- training culture providers to vdiv which will be the cultural tion on an event schedule. advertise on the platform and to capital in 2019 could consider The second part is a ‘specific provide own cultural content. It also using these platforms. In- event scheduler’. This is a sort of ensures the uptake of the plat- deed, everybody is free to join thematic calendar, where plat- form by the users – by dissemi- in. Lastly it is important to note form participants are able to lo- nating, advertising, training ac- how the EU is convinced that cate and advertise their events. tivities.Target groups: Culture the digital economy is the fu- The third part is a ‘culture producers, culture operators, ture economy. The recent Com- browser’. This module provides infrastructure owners - artists, munication issued by the EC a catalogue and search facility performers, art galleries, muse- could result in the consolidation for any type of content on the ums, theatres, cultural organisa- of existing laws which are even platform. It is tailor-made to en- tions, culture consumers includ- more focused in generating an able searching the content (e.g. ing cultural tourism. environment conducive to the events) by art, region, operator, To conclude, these two proj- development of a digital single artist, etc. ects are good illustrations on market economy. The fourth part is ‘collab- how the EU is developing the orative tools’. This is a popular digital economy for tourist and collaboration tools to enable cultural purposes in the Black conferences and, chats and is Sea region. In this way it is con- integrated so the platform users tributing towards peaceful co- are able to work online for prep- operation through culture and aration of common events. tourist development by bringing peoples together to share their The fifth part is ‘announce- common heritage and enjoy ment boards’. This is a function- each other’s cultural genius and ality allowing for posting mes- at the same time encouraging sages, announcements related to visitors to come to the region. culture. However, the digital economy The sixth and last part of the is already huge and it is going platform is a ‘thematic discus- to become even bigger. These sion/reflection spaces’ where projects are two small projects
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NOTES REFERENCES 1 http://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/treaties/index_en.htm. Treaty of the European Union (2012) - http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- 2 http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/digital-single-market/docs/dsm-com- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:C:2012:326:FULL&from=EN. munication_en.pdf or http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15- Satellite and Cable Council Directive 93/83/EEC of 27 September 1993 - 4919_en.htm. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX 3 http://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=576&langId=en. :31993L0083:EN:HTML.
4 http://www.programmemed.eu/en/the-programme/program- The Electronic Commerce Directive, 2000/31/EC. http://eur-lex.europa. ming-2014-2020/med-2014-2020.html. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32000L0031. 5 http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-europe/. The Directive on Copyright in the Information Society, 2001/29/EC. 6 www.blacksea-cbc.net/. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX 7 www.blackseasilkroad.com. :32001L0029:EN:HTML.
8 The lead partner for the Project is The Directive on services in the internal market (2006/123/EC.) http:// • AMAP Human Development NGO (Yerevan, Armenia). eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32006L0123. The other partners: • European Regional Framework for Cooperation Interregional The Audiovisual and Media Services Directive 2010/13/EU - http://eur- Development Organization (ERFC), Greece. lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:095:000 • The Economists’ Association, Turkey. 1:0024:en:PDF. • TADZRELI Foundation, Georgia. Communication on “A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe” - Armenian Society for the Protection of Birds/Birdlife Internation- http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/digital-single-market/docs/dsm- al Associate in Armenia (ASPB), Armenia communication_en.pdf or http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_ 9 http://cultur-exp.eu/. IP-15-4919_en.htm.
10 The project is led by: European Regional Development Funds (ERDF) and European Social • Georgian Research and Educational Networking Association Funds (ESF) – http://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catld&langld=en. (GRENA), Georgia Interreg Mediterranean Program - http://interreg-med.eu/en/home/. The project partners are: • European Regional Framework for Co-operation (ERFC), Greece Creative Europe Programme - http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative- • District Government of Burgas, Republic of Bulgaria europe/. • AMAP Human Development NGO Research and Educational Networking Association of Moldova Black Sea Silk Road Corridor (BSSRC) (RENAM), Republic of Moldova Contact details of the partners of the Blacks Sea Silk Road Corridor Project (BSSRC). You can find a detailed description on the website: http://www.blackseasilkroad.com/en. The partners:
AMAP Human Development NGO. www.amap.am. 101 Pavstos Biuzand str., entry 1, apt #6, Yerevan, 0002, Armenia, Tel: +374(010) 532455.
Economists’ Association (IPA Lead Beneficiary). www.ekonomistler. org.tr. Address: 19 Mayıs Mah.Tayyareci Cemal Sok. Safa Apt. No:20 D:9. Sisli Istanbul Turkey Tel: +90 212 351 80 86. http:// www.ekonomistler.org.tr/.
TADZRELI Foundation. www.facebook.com foundationtadzreli?ref= stream. Address: 35B Ir. Gamrekeli Street 0186 Tbilisi, Georgia. Tel: +995 577 73 85 55. https://www.facebook.com/foundationtadzreli.
European Regional Framework for Cooperation Interregional Development Organization (ERFC). www.erfc.gr Address: 33 Platanos Street, 25100 Egion, Greece, Tel: +30 26910 60427. http:// www.erfc.gr/.
Armenian Society for the Protection of Birds/BirdLife. International Associate in Armenia (ASPB). www.aspbirds.org Address: Garegin Njdeh 27/2, 10, 0026 Yerevan, Armenia Tel: +374 10 208725. http://www.aspbirds.org.
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SPONSORS European Union
USAID
The Honorary Consul for Italy in Gyumri, Armenia
ARMINCO
Armenian Travel Bureau
Akhaltsikhe Municipality (Armenia)
Adigeni Municipality (Armenia)
Akhalkalaki Municipality (Armenia)
Aspindza Municipality (Armenia)
Borjomi Municipality (Armenia)
Astir*Egnatia, Alexandroupolis (Greece)
Apivita (Greece)
Egnatia Highway (Greece)
Central Finance and Contracts Unit (Turkey)
Republic of Turkey Ministry for European Union Affairs
Culture Exchange Platform
Information on the project can be found on http://cultur-exp.eu/.
The partners in the project:
Georgian Research and Educational Networking Association (GRENA) www.grena.ge, Address: 10 Chovelidze Street, 0108 Tbilisi, Georgia, e-mail: [email protected], Tel.: +995 32 2250590.
European Regional Framework for Co-operation (ERFC) www.erfc.gr, Address: 33 Platanos Street, 25100 Aegion, Greece, e-mail: erfc@ otenet.gr, Tel.: + 30 693 6656204.
“AMAP” Human Development NGO. www.amap.am, Address: 101 Pavstos Busand Street, Entry 1, Apt. 6, 0002 Yerevan, Republic of Armenia, e-mail: [email protected]. Tel.: +374 10 532455.
District Government of Burgas. www.bsregion.org, Address: 1, Tzar Petar street, Burgas 8000, Republic of Bulgaria, e-mail: cultur. [email protected], Tel: +359 56 894149.
Research and Educational Networking Association of Moldova (RENAM). www.renam.md, Address: Stefan chel Mare str. 168, of. 134, Chisinau, MD-2028, Republic of Moldova, e-mail: cult- [email protected], Tel.: +373 22 739827.
SPONSOR European Union
308 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s: Objectives and Actions of an Interdisciplinary Project
G e l i n a H a r l a f t i s , A t h i n a V i t o p o u l o u
ABSTRACT The aim of the paper is of Education. It was led by the to present the objectives, the Department of History of the methodology and the main Ionian University in collaboration products of the interdisciplinary with other 5 Greek Universities and inter-university research and Research Institutes and 23 project “The Black Sea and foreign Universities, Research its port-cities, 1774-1914. Institutes and Archives mainly Development, convergence and from the Black Sea countries. linkages with the global economy”. Subsequently, the paper focuses The project, held out during on one of the six research axes of 2012-2015, was included in the project concerning the study of the Action “Thales” which was urban planning and architecture financed by the Greek National of the Black Sea port-cities and Strategic Reference Framework, briefly discusses its main goals, the E.U. and the Greek Ministry methodology and outcomes.
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1. Identity and The aim of the project was the Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, objectives of the project identification, analysis and syn- Russia, Georgia and Turkey). thesis of the economic and social These port-cities became centres The interdisciplinary and in- develοpment of 24 port-cities of of attraction for economic immi- ter-university project “The Black the Black Sea which formed an gration from the whole region Sea and its port-cities, 1774-1914. integrated market that became of Central and south-eastern Development, convergence and the larger grain-exporting area Europe, while main agents of linkages with the global econ- in the world in the second half of economic integration proved to omy” was included in the Ac- the 19th century until the begin- be the mobile groups of the so- tion “Thales”, financed by the ning of the 20th century. By plac- called people of the classic dias- Greek National Strategic Refer- ing in the centre of the analysis pora like the Greeks, Jews and ence Framework, the E.U. and the sea and its ports, the analy- Armenians, as well as those of the Greek Ministry of Education. sis penetrates in the economic other central European groups. The project was led by the De- activities of the port-cities, the It was these mobile entrepre- partment of History of the Ionian coastal area and the hinterland, neurial groups that undertook University (project coordinator: the integration of markets and the control of external trade and Gelina Harlaftis) in collabora- their interlinkages with the glob- shipping and those of the link- tion with the University of Crete, al economy, beyond political ages with the global economy. the National Hellenic Research boundaries and divisions. The The project intended to indicate Foundation, the Institute of Med- linkages with the global econo- the unity of markets during the iterranean Studies, the Universi- my triggered development and period before the Russian revo- ty of Thessaly and the University convergence of regional markets lution and their integration in of the Aegean. It also collaborat- in the global economy. the global economy at the begin- ed with 23 academic institutions ning of the 20th century. It also – Universities, Research Insti- From the late 18th century reviewed briefly the isolation tutes and Archives – from the to the early 20th century the and re-incorporation of the area Black Sea countries, that is Tur- Black Sea coastal line had been in the world transport system in key, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, transformed to an international the soviet and post-soviet times. Russia and Georgia, as well as market with linkages with the from Moldavia, Norway, Italy, Mediterranean sea, the north- Moreover, the project aimed Israel and the United States1. The ern European seas, the Atlantic at the renewal of the method- Main Research Group consisted and the Indian ocean. Despite ological analytical tools through of 19 scholars and the External the existence of old port-cities in an interdisciplinary approach Collaborators Research Group the southern Black Sea coast, like and the internationalisation of of 71 scholars (professors, senior Trebizond, during the period Greek historical studies. researchers, young researchers, under examination, more than 2. Methodology that is Ph.D. holders, PhD. stu- 20 port-cities were created and dents, post-graduate students), developed on the rivers and the The methodology of the re- 57% of which were Greek and coastline of the western, northern search project was historical, 43% foreigners. and eastern Black Sea (today’s based on the analysis and study
310 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s • GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU of primary archival sources in cities of Kerch, Berdyansk, Mari- well as formation of intercon- the different Black Sea -coun upol, Taganrog, Rostov-on-Don, nected data-bases and statis- tries and in western European to the southeastern coast of the tical series. archives. The study was ap- Black Sea that includes the port- 3. Organisation and realisation cities of Novorossiysk and Ba- proached in an interdisciplinary of workshops and confer- toum. The fifth maritime region way by combining maritime, ences (parallel to the on-go- includes the southern Black Sea economic and social history ing research) to prepare and ports Trabzon, Samsun, Giresun with social sciences, geography, present the results, as well as and Sinop (Fig. 1). oceanography, transport, city- participation in international planning and architecture. The project consisted of four conferences of Social and One can distinguish five mar- gradual stages which concerned Economic History, Slavic and itime regions in the Black Sea each port-city and maritime re- Ottoman Studies. gion and constituted in fact the which form the main five port 4. Preparation of the main de- main actions of the program: systems that developed to serve liverables of the project, that the needs of the sea transport of 1. Localisation, collection and is a number of books, a da- short and long distances. Start- registration of archival data tabase, historical statistical ing from west to the east: the and concentration of pub- series and a website (see also first maritime region is the one lished records and secondary Results and deliverables). of southwest Black Sea (pres- bibliography by conducting ent-day Bulgaria), with main several research missions in ports Varna and Burgas and all cities under study. secondary ports Pomorie, Sozo- 2. Process of collected material Fig. 1 The 23 Black Sea port-cities pol, and Michurin. The second (including Nhezin, an important from many countries and lan- maritime region is that of the 18th century “land port”, makes guages (translation, taxono- them 24 cities) under study and northeast Black Sea (present day my and homogenisation), as the five maritime regions Rοmania) and includes mainly the ports of the Danube, Galatz and Braila, and Constanța. The third maritime region covers the port-cities of the northern coast of the Black Sea, Odessa, Niko- layev (Mykolaiv) and Kherson and the Crimean port-cities, Eu- patoria, Sevastopol and Theo- dosia (Feodosiya). The fourth maritime region is that of the Azov Sea (divided presently between Ukraine and Russia) that includes mainly the port-
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In each of the five maritime 3. Results and solid basis of interaction and regions research took place ac- deliverables of the networking, first on a local cording to the following six axes: project level among Greek Universi- ties and Research Institutes 1. The Black Sea as a unit of re- The essence of the project and second on an international search. Marine environment was international cooperation, level between them and their and five port systems. the creation of working net- counterparts in the countries of works of communication with 2. Five maritime regions. Eco- Eastern Europe situated around the Universities and Research nomic and social develop- the Black Sea. The project en- Institutes of Black Sea countries ment of 24 port-cities. couraged this way the extrovert and the collective and organized orientation of Greek academic 3. The form of the cities. City- academic opening in an academ- institutions by rendering them planning and architecture. ic area still almost inaccessible to centres for the study of the econ- the independent researcher. The 4. Macro-analysis. Formation of omy and society of the Black Sea reasons lie on the lack of efficient macro-economic statistical se- area. In fact, it gave the possibil- knowledge of the national lan- ries. Comparison with world ity of scheduled and systematic guages or the lack of a common economy. flow of movement of scholars language of communication in a between countries and facili- 5. Micro-analysis. Entrepreneur- world that is nationally and po- tated communication not only ial elites and major business litically fragmented. between Greek historians and families. Indeed, one of the most im- Black Sea countries’ historians 6. Linkages with the Mediterra- portant contributions of the but also of scholars among the nean and the Atlantic. project was the formation of a Black Sea countries, thus open-
Fig. 2 Homepage of the interactive historical map Port Cities - Short Histories
312 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s • GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU ing the way to more permanent Administration, 2. Form of the the port cities of the Black sea forms of academic cooperation. cities, 3. Economy, 4. Culture, region in which documentation The project contributed as 5. Maritime Environment. The from local archives and different well to introduce in the his- website contains also annotated ethnic languages is combined torical studies of southeastern bibliography and archival sourc- and translated in a common lan- Europe the History of the Sea es for each port-city. guage and b) the formation of processed homogeneous statisti- and/or Maritime Economic His- B. Formation of databases tory, which during the last ten cal series of imports and exports and historical statistical series years has taken off internation- in value and quantity, shipping (quantitative products). This ally along with Global History arrivals and departures from action includes the combination and Global Economic History. each port-city from a combina- of archives for all port-cities and It also supported the training tion of available contemporary the collection of statistics from and education in research of the statistics. younger generation as 55% of Russian, Romanian, Bulgarian, the external collaborators team Ottoman and British sources. The website, the databases were young scholars (10% PhD The aim was a) to provide a rich and the historical statistics (Fig. holders, 30% PhD students, 16% and multi-faceted database for 3-4) fed with data of all kinds, graduate students and 9% first university degree holders). The deliverables of the re- search project were: A. Creation of a website in three languages - English, Russian and Greek – available in the address www.blacksea. gr (Fig. 2). Within the website Fig. 3 The five there is the interactive histori- databases cal map, Port Cities - Short Histories with an average of 60 templates for the history of each port-city. The aim of this map is informative, that is, to make var- ious aspects of the historical evo- lution of the port-cities known to a wider public and bring out the local and national bibliography and archival wealth. For each port-city there are templates in Fig. 4 The historical the following five categories: 1. statistics
313 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA from demographic data to town economic development of the six states. These port-cities are: planning, business histories, mi- port-cities through statistics and Varna, Burgas, Constanța, Brai- cro- and macro- statistical series, one on the shipping, ports and la, Galati, Odessa, Nikolayev, geographical, environmental and cities in Soviet and post-Soviet Kherson, Yevpatoria, Sevasto- port information etc. are avail- period. Three monographs were pol, Feodosia, Kerch, Berdy- able to draw information from written, one on the social his- ansk, Mariupol, Taganrog, a very difficult region and to be tory of Imperial Odessa, one on Rostov-on-Don, Novorossiysk, used for comparative approach- the integration of the Black Sea Batum, Trabzon, Giresun, Sam- es in global economic history, markets to the global economy sun and Sinop. This axis of the social history, urban and port and one on the British Consuls research was led by the School development and economics, at Berdyansk. Finally, one PhD of Architecture of the Univer- geography, marine environ- thesis was also produced on the sity of Thessaly (scientific re- ment etc. economic and social develop- sponsible: Vassilis Colonas)3. 2 C. Conferences. During the ment of the Crimean port-cities . The research was based on research three Black Sea Proj- The deliverables of the re- works dealing with the broader ect International Conferences search are in the three languages context of the development of have been held: the first one in of the project, English, Russian the city, on studies on urban Eu- Odessa on September 2013, the and Greek in order to be used rope and the specific character of second one in Constanța-Varna by scholars of all regions. Spe- the Russian, Ottoman and -Bal on May 2014 and the third one cial care was taken to have vari- kan experience, as well as on pri- in Istanbul on October 2014. The ous aspects of the research along mary sources found in various members of the research groups with the database and the web- national or local archives, mainly also participated in an important site in English to be available to city plans, urban design projects number of international confer- all scholars worldwide. and construction plans for infra- ences presenting their work on structures. The main goals were: the different research axis of the 4. Urban planning a) to formulate a framework of project. and architecture of comparative analysis between Black Sea port-cities, the Black Sea port-cities and b) D. Books. There are 12 vol- 18th-20th c.: a brief to outline the key stages in the umes coming out of the project. presentation of the urban transformations, show The members of the research third research axis the interplay of new life patterns groups co-authored nine collec- and urban forms and bring for- tive volumes, the four of which The aim of the third research ward affiliations and discrepan- on the economic, maritime and axis was to examine the histori- cies of the developed formal and social history of the maritime cal evolution and urban trans- land use patterns. regions of the Black Sea, one on formations of να φύγει port cit- the linkages with the west, one ies lying around the Black Sea Although each side of the on urban planning and architec- coast, from the end of the 18th to Black Sea has a singular story, ture of the port-cities, one on the the beginning of the 20th centu- shaped by different sovereign- merchants of Nezhin, one on the ries and belonging nowadays to ties, groups of inhabitants, as
314 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s • GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU well as by different economic and cultural patterns and -par ticular moments of achieve- ment, the hypothesis initially formed was that the places, ac- tivities and long history shared by the coastal cities of this closed sea allow to a certain degree a comparative study of their evo- lution and transformation. In an attempt to outline a framework for the comparative study of the Black Sea port-cities, apart from the general historical context and the geopolitical, eco- nomic, social, technological and cultural developments which comprise the urban transforma- Fig. 5 Comparative study of population in 1900 tions of this geographical area, we proposed to examine a num- ber of parameters that guide ur- ban change and development. These parameters are: • Their size and demographic evolution (Fig. 5). • Their origin and/or founda- tion, as colonisation consti- tutes a current practice in the area during the 17th-18th cen- turies, as well as the turning points in their evolution (first
appearance, development and Fig. 6 Study of successive extensions, rise and the georgaphic decline periods). characteristics and settings. Up: Nikolayev • The geographic characteris- and Kherson on the tics of both wider environs north side of the Black Sea. Down: Sinop on the and specific site of each city south side of the Black (Fig. 6). Sea (google earth)
315 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Figure 7. Plan of • The physical planning. Odessa, 1809, Odessa local- Concerning the physical plan- history museum ning the issues we have studied are: • The colonisation as a current practice in the area during the 17th-18th centuries. • The forms of premodern Rus- sian, Ottoman and Balkan urban structures, which re- gards the various traditional social and spatial parameters of everyday life in the city, as they have been incorpo- rated in the urban forms and structure, which underwent important transformations in the course of the 18th and par- ticularly the 19th century. • The similarities and differ- ences between the Black Sea cities and the Central and Western European cities. • The plans for the making of new cities and the expansion and/or redesign operations of existing ones (Fig. 7, 8, 9), spe- cific buildings and premises, Figure 8. Plan of Batum, the new building typologies 1887-89, Sub-department of and morphologies, the moni- Ajara Government – Archives Administration toring mechanisms and plan- ning regulations. (να μπει τελεία) • The formation and patterns of transport networks (rail- road, ports) and the con- struction of major technical
316 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s • GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
and infrastructure works and and archival material, some- port projects in the 19th centu- thing which is also related to ry, the impact of which was the important presence of Greek decisive for the formation communities. and character of the system The main conclusions drawn of the settlements, the built from the comparative analysis and rebuilt forms etc. concern three interconnected All these issues were viewed axes: within the context of the devel- The first axis concerns the oping capitalism and globali- common characteristics of plan- sation, as well as through the Fig. 9 Plan of Varna, 1897, ning models and practices ad- History of Varna Museum different processes and percep- tions of modernisation during the 18th-19th centuries; namely the Russian Empire moderni- sation, the Ottoman Reforms and the programs and projects of the nation-states in the Bal- kans. In fact, the period of study represents an important phase of transformation for the Black Sea port-cities, the next one be- ing after the dissolution of the two empires at the end of WWI and the rise of socialist regimes in five of the six countries of the study area. In order to deepen the com- parative analysis, the research focused at a second stage on some of the port-cities under study, that is Odessa, Constanța, Braila, Varna, Samsun, Trabzon and Batum. The selection was based on multiple criteria, main- ly the importance of the port fa- cilities as well as the availability and accessibility of bibliography
317 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA opted during the period of study modernisation process. In fact, similar spatial segregation phe- in the area. We can see for certain although the Black Sea port-cities nomena as the land-use zoning the renunciation of the tradition- were under different sovereign- and the socio-economic zoning al urban patterns and the intro- ties and despite their geographi- (i.e. beaux quartiers and poor duction of new models drawing cal restraints, the economic and neighbourhoods). mainly from the European plan- social context prevailed and the The third axis concerns the ning practice of the 18th century, cities acquired a rather similar way the planning models and more or less adapted to local con- persona - depending also on practices are transferred and ditions. Common characteristics their size - οι δύο παύλες να diffused. We should first bear of these plans are: the use of one έχουν το ίδιο μέγεθος that tran- in mind the presence of mili- or more rectangular grids (often scended the existing differences tary engineers - specialized in composed at an angle) aiming at in urban form and architectural fortifications and public works providing equal advantages for styles. The urban patterns and - that were “circulating” around private lots, impressively wide building types of the bourgeois Europe transferring planning streets and clearly defined pub- city are present in all Black Sea models, while working for dif- lic spaces, the extrovert urban port-cities, and allowed the ac- ferent rulers and authorities. space (open city that replaces tivities of private business, pro- Certainly, this doesn’t dimin- the former closed city), as well duction and consumption, mod- ish the role that played also as uniform and strict regulations ern administration, leisure and the presence of a multicultural to control the construction and prestige to flow freely. Build- bourgeoisie: Tradesmen, indus- the urban form. We should also ings and open spaces for po- trialists, bankers, etc. traveling point out that most of the cities litical gatherings and discourse, to central and west-European start as free ports and organize and the functions of self-gov- metropolitan centres to do busi- basic port installations which are ernment (town halls and civic ness acquired new manners and gradually developed most often squares, clubhouses and lecture habits, adopted new ways of by reclaiming land from the sea, halls, seats of professional asso- living (social life, political activ- a practice that leads to interest- ciations, etc.) soon appeared in ity, education, entertainment), ing observations concerning the the cities. With them industrial new attitudes to matters related changing relation of the cities premises and warehouses, and to private and public space and to the sea. Another characteris- infrastructure works accom- new architectural forms and tic is the important role of the panied the rising needs of the typologies and claimed urban imported and widely used new ports and other transport facili- space modernisation. technology in private and civic ties. One specific characteristic, buildings, public works and in- related to the topography of frastructure and the shift to new the Black Sea coast, is the urban materials and techniques. staircases found in many cities. The second axis concerns the At the same time the similar pro- rather similar character acquired cess of urban space modernisa- by the port cities following the tion leads to the appearance of
318 Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s • GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
NOTES 1 The collaborating group consists of the following academic institu- tions: Boğaziçi University, Bilkent University, Düzce University and 19 May University from Turkey, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Varna University from Bulgaria, Dunarea De Jos” University of Galati from Romania, Moldavian Academy of Sciences from Molda- via, State Archives of Odessa, State Archives of Nikolaev, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, University of Berdiansk, Univer- sity of Mariupol and University of Kharkov from Ukraine, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), Southern Russia Academy of Sci- ences (Rostov-on-Don), State Russian University of Human Studies, European University of St. Petersburg and State University of St. Petersburg from Russia, Elia State University (Tiblisi) from Georgia, Jerusalem University from Israel, Southern State Connecticut Uni- versity from U.S.A and Maritime Museum of Bergen from Norway. 2 The nine collective volumes are: Constantin Ardeleanu and An- dreas Lyberatos (eds), Port-Cities of the western shore of the Black Sea: Economic and Social Development, 18th-early 20th centuries, History of the Black Sea, volume 1; Evrydiki Sifneos, Oksana Iurkova and Valentina Shandra (eds), Port-Cities of the northern shore of the Black Sea: Institu- tional, Economic and Social Development, 18th-early 20th centuries, Histo- ry of the Black Sea, volume 2; Gelina Harlaftis, Victoria Konstantinova and Igor Lyman (eds), Between Grain and Oil from the Azov to Cau- casus: The port-cities of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, 18th-early 20th centuries, The History of Black Sea, volume 3; Edhem Eldem, Vangelis Kechriotis, Sophia Laiou (eds), The Economic and Social Development of the Port–Cities of the Southern Black Sea Coast, Late 18th-Beginning of the 20th century, The History of Black Sea, volume 4; Maria Christina Chatziioannou, Panayotis Kapetanakis, Apostolos Delis (eds), Link- ages of the Black Sea with the West. Trade and immigration, The History of the Black Sea, volume 5; Vassilis Colonas, Athina Vitopoulou, Alexan- dra Yerolympos, Black sea port-cities. Urban planning and architecture, 18th-20th c., The History of the Black Sea, volume 6; Socratis Petmezas, George Kostelenos and Alexandra Papadopoulou (eds), with the collaboration of Marios Emmanouil, The development of 24 Black Sea port-cities. A statistical approach, The History of the Black Sea, volume 7; A.A. Pallis, M. Lekakou, I. Theotokas (eds), Shipping, Ports and Cit- ies in Soviet and post-Soviet period. Reintegration in the global economy, The History of the Black Sea, volume 8 and Iannis Carras and Eugene Chernukhin, The Balkan Merchants of Nezhin 17th-19th centuries, The History of the Black Sea, volume 12. The three monographs are: Evry- diki Sifneos, Imperial Odessa: Peoples, Spaces, Identities, The History of the Black Sea, volume 9; Alexandra Papadopoulou, The intregration of the Black Sea markets to the Global Economy, 19th century, The History of the Black Sea, volume 10. The PhD thesis is: Anna Sydorenko, The eco- nomic and social development of the Crimean city-ports during the second half of the 19th century, The History of the Black Sea, volume 11. 3 The research team consisted of Vassilis Colonas, Athina Vitopoulou and Alexandra Yerolympos.
319
LIMEN. The New Institution: “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”
F l o r a K a r a g i a n n i , A n a s t a s i a C h a t z i n i k o l a o u
The Framework ‘cultural port’, the city-port of cultural heritage of the city-ports, Istanbul. the development of cultural tour- The main goal of the project ism as well as the wider local de- LIMEN is to highlight the cul- This effort is inspired by the velopment efforts. The proposed tural role of the city-ports in the timeless and successful Institu- Institution will to join the area on Black Sea area. LIMEN project tion of the “European Capital of the basis of culture and to sup- -which is also based on the re- Culture”, which was established port every mobilization activity sults and products of the recent- 30 years ago after the initiative in the field of cultural tourism. ly implemented project OLKAS of the Greek Minister of Culture, (www.olkas.net)- proposes and Melina Mercouri. The monuments –tangible and works systematically on the pi- intangible – reflect the historic, lot implementation of a new cul- The Aim social, cultural and economic con- tural Institution, the “Cultural The “Limen” project aims to ditions under which the common Port of the Black Sea” give all participants and stake- cultural heritage was formed. These monuments consist the holders –directly or indirectly The establishment of this living testimonies of the contacts involved- the chance to support new and very promising Institu- developed throughout time in be- a new cultural institution, which tion is the main objective of the tween the city-ports of the Black will contribute dynamically to project and it is proposed as an Sea since they bear the influences the friendship and collabora- innovative tool for the promo- and trends that were circulated in tion relationships in between the tion of the city-ports of the Black the area via the maritime routes. Black Sea, but also to multiply Sea and of their cultural trea- The historic networking of the the development possibilities of sures. The pilot implementa- city-ports that is testified by the the area. tion attempts to be put forward archaeological data and written through the financial resources It is about an attempt to devel- sources is what the Institution of of the project LIMEN and with op a timeless Institution which the Cultural Port of the Black Sea first participating city-port as will support and highlight the wants to revive and to highlight.
321 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Therefore, one of the goals of • Stable partnerships between by the mistakes and omis- the project “LIMEN” is that the public authorities, universi- sions of the Institution of the new institution will establish an ties, organizations, enterpris- Cultural Capital of Europe. institutionalized cooperation of es and tourism agencies that • A truly useful Institution for the city-ports in a permanent are involved in the fields of the citizens and the local so- base, will develop a structured culture and tourism. cieties. cultural-tourism-social network, • Coordination and improve- improve the management ca- ment of the managerial ca- Our First Actions pacity at local level and create pacity of organizations at lo- • Research of the existing situ- circumstances of promotion and cal and regional level. ation by gathering useful in- support of SMEs that are active in sight and information. the fields of tourism and culture. • Development of specialized cultural-tourism products of • Search for experts who can Expected Results and high quality and internation- supportthe promotion of the Benefits al recognition of the area as a the establishment of the Insti- Estimated-expected results tourist destination. tution and benefits are: • Search for specialists with • The development of a com- experience of the Cultural mon strategy for the protec- What We Do Not Want It Capital of Europe. tion and promotion of the to Be • Acquiring a common base- common cultural heritage • A temporary project, without line of thinking with all part- and the promotion of good perspective ners about what we want to practices and excellence achieve and how to achieve it. models of management and • Another institution which promotion of the common will substitute -even partly- • Presentation of the ‘idea’ in cultural heritage. other institutions that have respective events in all par- been seriously working with- ticipating city-ports. • Rich and reliable knowledge in the Black Sea for years. for the main cultural monu- What We Achieved Up ments of the ports. • A bureaucratic Institution Until Now • New opportunities for socio- What We Want It to Be • Initial approval of the EU economic development and • A vibrant, recognizable, sus- and funding of the “LIMEN” differentiation of the cultural tainable Institution project which if focused on offer through the sustainable the new idea, by the Black management of the cultural • An Institution that will bene- Sea Basin Joint Operational resources. fit from the good practices of Programme (http://www. the 30-year experience of the • New, sustainable archaeolog- blacksea-cbc.net) as a natural Cultural Capital of Europe. ical-cultural routes for tour- continuation of the OLKAS ism development. • An Institution that will learn project (www.olkas.net).
322 LIMEN. The new Institution, “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” • F. KARAGIANNI A. CHATZINIKOLAOU
• In January 2015 a document ens, October 10th and 11th Moreover, was published by the Euro- 2013 • Two (2) workshops have been pean Commission (“JOINT • Presentation in the “7th In- organized in Odessa and in STAFF WORKING DOCU- ternational Black Sea Sym- Varna with cross-border par- MENT Black Sea Synergy: posium on the “Perspectives ticipation review of a regional coopera- of Tourism on the Black Sea tion initiative”) in which spe- • Local promotional activities area”. The forum was orga- cial attention is given to our have been organized in Ka- nized by the International initiative and the agreement vala, Istanbul, Batumi and Centre for Black Sea Studies with the strategy “Europe Constanta in Athens, on 16-18/10/2014 2020”. • Meetings have been set with • Display in the Museum of • Our plan has been discussed Members of the European the City of Athens/ Vouros – and considered as a project Parliament of Greece, Bulgar- Eutaxias Foundation, of the of major importance by the ia and Romania at the head- “Olkas. Medieval Ports in BSEC1, which supports our quarters of the European Par- initiatives. the Maritime Routes of the liament East. North Aegean - Black • We have researched and Sea- Caspian Sea” exhibi- • Participation and interven- documented the feasibility tion and public presentation tion at Athens in the Special of our initiative and also we of the idea of the “Cultural Event on the 30 years of Eu- prepared an integrated com- Port of the Black Sea”, on ropean Capitals of Culture munication plan2. the occasion of a special • Promotion of the Institution • We have achieved major local event organized by the Hel- through the cultural cruise synergies with written com- lenic Ministry of Foreign Af- and this Symposium mitments for the usefulness fairs & the European Centre • Production of a video- docu- of the Institution for Byzantine and Post-Byz- mentary film for the public antine Monuments in the • We promote a brand name Greek TV Channel (ET 3) framework of the Hellenic that will cover, besides the BSEC Chairmanship-in-Of- • Dozens of references in social Black Sea area, the Aegean, fice media, press releases, inter- the Adriatic, the Mediterra- views, articles, etc. nean, as well. • Presentation of the “Limen” project in the European Ter- What’s Next The Most Important ritorial Cooperation Confer- • Distribution of the promo- Promotional Activities ence: “Promoting Best Practic- tional material in all partici- (So Far) es and Sharing Experiences” pating countries • First public presentation of that was held in Thessaloniki the LIMEN project in the on May, 8th‐9th, 2014, under • Promotional campaign in “Black Sea Tourism Forum the Greek Presidency of the Brussels (we will attempt and Workshop”, held in Ath- Council of EU. to combine the exhibition
323 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
on the cultural ports of the of the Black Sea Basin Pro- within the Black Sea and espe- Black Sea with a promotional gramme that has supported cially through the cities-active workshop, presentation of and funded our initial at- ports of the area. It will create a the proposed Institution to tempt and we hope that this platform that in terms of culture the media, screening of the will continue in the near fu- and economy will ensure the documentary, and other) ture as well. equal and sustainable coopera- • Deal with the legal aspects, • Private schemes, NGOs, and tion, as well as it will serve the the institutional framework, others that contribute reli- contemporary needs of the soci- etc. ably to our effort. eties and local economies. • Pilot Operation of the Institu- We are convinced that the Our Means tion Institution of the Cultural Port • Our belief on the importance has a direct connection with the • Putting forward initiatives/ of this Institution submit applications for fund- new strategy of “Europe 2020” ing by programmes that will • A network of organizations for the promotion of smart and support the promotion of the and individuals with knowl- sustainable growth. Within a Cultural Port in the Black edge, common understand- time that the budgets for culture Sea, the Caspian sea, and ing and professionalism are reducing, we are convinced that aiming to the establish- the Aegean, the Adriatic, the • Our potential for this initia- ment of the “Cultural port of the Mediterranean seas. tive to be funded by EU and Black Sea” institution we invest other resources Our Allies to a new era with great growth Until today we have accepted Problems to Be Solved potentials based on the cultural heritage preserved in each one interest for collaboration by: • Ensure the idea to be patent- of the city-ports. • Our partners ed • Our associate partners • Brand name and Copyright • Important organizations, part- • Legal Entity of the Institution ners of other projects in the • Funding Black Sea • Rights - Obligations - Role of • Cultural and tourism agen- participants cies that are active in Brussels • Important bodies of the Cen- Final Considerations tral Administration, the Lo- The Institution of the Cultur- cal Governments, Culture al Port of the Black Sea aims to and tourism industry in 6 become the umbrella-action for countries. development initiatives at cross- • The Managing Authority border and transnational level
324 Feasibility-Sustainability Study of the Proposed Institution “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” - The Marketing Plan
S o f i a B o u r n a t z i , C h r y s s a K o p r a
Cultural Ports and the production Port” will draw attention to the of a feasibility-sustainability values, diversity and common study for the establishment of the features of a new European Institution. tourist destination. It will create The objective of the study has a a platform for sharing good twofold orientation. The first one practices across the city-ports and ABSTRACT is to strengthen the ties between will promote networking between The project “LIMEN” proposes nations by establishing the cultural cultural destinations. the establishment of a new institution of the “Cultural The initiative will promote institution, the “Cultural Port of Port”; an institution that aims to new European cultural itineraries the Black Sea”. This institution develop a vital cultural, economic and raise awareness about their is inspired by the prestigious and tourism connection between potential for tourism among E.U. Institution of the European city- ports. The second objective stakeholders and businesses, Capitals of Culture and through the study aims to fulfill is to destination managers, national and this new Institution will be develop an action plan towards the local authorities. pursued the promotion of the Black establishment and the promotion of This Study has made clear Sea city-ports and of their cultural the institution. that culture can be the way to re- recourses with the ultimate aim of Within the Study a thorough connect the city-ports, regions and promoting the cultural tourism in and detailed “step by step” action the peoples of the Black Sea and to the area. plan was provided, in order to become the vehicle to re-establish Within the above scope part of promote the proposed Institution cultural relations between them, the project’s activities has been the accurately and effectively. with Europe and the rest of the promotion of the Institution of the The Institution of the “Cultural world.
325 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The “Cultural Port” will –among other priori- pean Parliament and approved for funding by ties- draw attention to the values, diversity and the European Commission. The result was the common features of a new European tourist des- publishing of call for proposals for pilot proj- tination and will seek to maximize the synergies ects on transnational cultural tourism products between Culture-Tourism-Creative Industries. (COSME, 2014). The document of the call clear- ly stated: “It is the intention of the Commission to In particular, the “Cultural Port” answers to capitalise on those initiatives (i.e. ECoC, European major challenges raised by most EU policies for Heritage Days, European Heritage Label) and look the next years: for synergies with similar or complementary initia- A. Cultural Policies: EU’s Cultural Policy, among tives undertaken by other International and Euro- other specific priorities, is to promote cultural pean Organisations”. diversity and to strengthen the competitive- ness of the cultural and creative sectors and C. Maritime Policy: Since 2007, the EU has fos- through transnational cooperation. Addition- tered an Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP), ally, Culture within EU;s external relations is which aims to increase coordination between a new development and has been put into ac- the maritime sectors and to provide a more co- tion through the Preparatory Action initiated herent approach to cross-cutting issues. Since in 2014 by the European Parliament, regard- 2012, the IMP has focused among others, on ing the cultural dimensions of the EU external Blue Growth and on Sea Basin strategies. The relations. This Action is being funded by the Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) – Commu- European Commission and a first study and nication on a European Strategy for Growth inquiry was prepared by a Consortium of eight and Jobs in Coastal and Maritime Tourism international cultural organizations and insti- (COM(2014) 86 final) “encourages the diversi- tutions. This Study called for the development fication and integration of coastal and inland of visible common EU strategy on Culture in attractors, including through transnational the EU external relations. Among the proposals thematic itineraries like cultural, religious or of this Action is that the EU should find ways ancient trade routes” (Action 11) and invites to open EU strategies, such as the Institution of Member States, regional and local authorities the European Capitals of Culture Programme to “develop cultural heritage based tourism,…. (ECoC) to third countries and within the Black ,develop innovative practices for regenerating Sea non-EU members, in order to encourage a and re-using existing maritime infrastructure”. focus on shared histories. Should such a devel- Also, it invites them to “encourage internet opment is to be put into practice at European connectivity and promote electronic marketing Commission level, then the “Cultural Port” tools”. Within this Policy Paper, is announced could become a parallel theme to ‘test’ this de- the Commission’s intention to explore links velopment. with the Black Sea Synergy, mainly through the promotion of cross-cutting policy elements. B. Tourism Policy: Transnational Cultural Tour- ism Products have also been a focus of previ- The “Cultural Port” should be a factor to con- ous Preparatory Actions initiated by the Euro- tribute to a long-term strategy of the city-ports.
326 Study of the Proposed Institution “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” • S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
Its sustainability will be measured on terms of be- on that strategy, the Institution can be established coming a catalyst for a change in the city-ports’ by the coordinated efforts of the LIMEN partners. cultural and general development producing The suggested networking strategy has two direc- sustainable cultural, social and economic impact tions: by developing links between culture, education, a. Networking for the establishment of the insti- tourism, territorial planning, social services etc. tution. The Institution of the Cultural Port can be a b. Networking for the tourism promotion of the unique opportunity for the organizing city-ports in city-ports which first will create the need to the the area to differentiate themselves in terms of in- future customers and second will contribute to ternational visibility, status and prestige, reinforc- the growth of the arrivals’ number, the increase ing their cultural identity and positioning them as the local economy and the GDP (Gross Domes- cultural destinations on the international scene. tic Product). The creation of the proposed institution will a) Establishment of the Institution of the Cultural offer a multidimensional opportunity to improve Ports development prospects of the city pots. The do- mains that will significantly advance are expected As it has been analyzed in the previous chap- to be the following: ters of this study, the establishment of an insti- tution activates a serious number of productive • “Contribution to long-term strategy”, units that are willing to participate. As an exam- • “European dimension”, ple, the Institution of European Capitals of Cul- • “Cultural and artistic content”, ture has opened new ways of presenting the cities • “Implementation capability”, by strengthening arts, culture and local mentality. • “Access” and The Institution is proposed to begin as a pilot • “Management” project which will seek to maximize the synergies between Culture, Tourism and Creative Industries For the establishment of the “Cultural Port” it is by funding the development and promotion of a necessary to have support of the European Parlia- new European cultural route around a high-end ment, the European Commission and its relevant product. DGs and most importantly by major international organizations, such as the BSEC. However, before The initiative will present a shared vision of the that a network needs to be build and operate in port-cities with creative potentials as the key driv- order to explore the potentials of the actual estab- ing forces behind city and regional development. lishment of the Institution of the Cultural Port. The steps that need to be followed by each partner in that direction are: Building the Network of the “Cultural Port” a.1. Local Authorities Synergy and cooperation are the only two ways of making things happen. The project LIMEN itself First of all is to secure an Agreement between is an idea based in connecting different countries public and –major- private organisations of the by using the ports and the culture as links. Based city-ports of the Black Sea. The participation of the
327 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA local governments of the cities is of highest impor- aims at promoting tourism initiatives as well as tance. This initiative is a city-centred one, and the the cultural ones, but also because the tourism sec- obvious step is to secure the consensus of the local tor involves mainly private sector the consensus of Authorities. which will further promote the Institution. There are several reasons for that: Ensuring the support of the associations is not as much officially required as it is necessary for • Shows the official support and agreement of getting the real statistics, goals and needs from the city. the professionals. Those are the ones who know • Ensures the help of the local authorities con- the market and develop marketing strategy for it. cerning the materialization of the project. Those are also the ones who will measure in num- bers the results. The productive unions are: • The local governments are firstly, responsible for the administration of the city-ports. • Chamber of Commerce • Tourism Associations (described bellow in 2.b. • They are the authority closest to the local com- section). munities, and thus as such they can ensure the consensus of the local communities. a. 3. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT • This will also secure a bottom-up lobbying The Agreement needs to be promoted at E.U. from local cultural professionals as well. level. • Engaging in the project the organizations sup- The Members of the European Parliament are ported by the Municipality or the Prefecture. elected congressmen by various parties who rep- resent their country and take duties in specific • Gets advantage from their previous experience fields such as culture, tourism, development, sus- in similar projects. tainability etc. They are the ones responsible for • Combines the project with other cultural, tour- introducing a new institution to their colleagues ism of developing projects run by the local au- in European Union and ensure their support for it. thorities. After getting the support of the local and national authorities, the procedure is: The authorization for a project is provided by • Getting a list of each MEP (name, contact de- the following councils: tails, party, specialty) • The Mayor and the city’s council • Sending them an introduction letter asking for • Governor and prefectural council an appointment • The Management of the Port • Arranging meeting with the manager of their a.2. Productive Associations office in EU • Presenting the proposal for the institution Cul- Additionally, the participation in the Agree- tural Ports ment of the tourism sector is also important. The major local Tourism Associations need to be in- • Requesting for the introduction of the institu- cluded, not just because the proposed Institution tion by them to their colleagues
328 Study of the Proposed Institution “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” • S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
• Setting the terms and criteria of establishing National Association of Romanian Travel Agen- the institution cies (ANAT): http://www.anat.ro/ • Besides the European Parliament, the Euro- pean Commission and the most relevant Di- Istanbul – Turkey rectorates need also to be approached. The Istanbul Convention & Visitors Bureau (ICVB): most relevant Directorate Generals are the http://icvb.org.tr/ Regional and Urban Policy, (DG REGIO), the International Cooperation and Development Turkish Hotel Association (TUROB): (DG DEVCO), the Education and Culture http://www.turob.com/ (DG EAC) and the Directorate General for Association of Turkish Travel Agents (TURSAB): Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship http://www.tursab.org.tr/ and SMEs responsible for the tourism sector. The approach of the respective DGs is crucial Kavala – Greece since this is the place where the major funding Kavala Hotel Association: comes from. http://www.kavala-hotels.gr/ Association of Travel Agents Northern Greece: a.4. Other Major Organisations and Stakeholders http://www.etgmth.gr/ a. This Agreement is to be supported by major transnational organisations such as the BSEC. Hellenic Association of Travel and Tourism Agen- cies (HATTA): b. Tourism promotion of the city-ports http://www.hatta.gr/ Tourism is a wide open field that includes ev- Odessa – Ukraine ery section of each region so a study that refers Odessa city tourism portal: to ports and culture is very much involved with http://omr.gov.ua/en/tourist/ the tourism business. Lots of parts of this study include tourism or apply to it. Starting by the local Ukraine Tourism Organization: associations and reaching the national ones, the http://www.traveltoukraine.org/ networking of each partner should include: Thessaloniki – Greece Batumi – Georgia Thessaloniki Hotel Association: Batumi official tourism portal: http://www.tha.gr/ http://gobatumi.com/ Thessaloniki Convention Bureau (TCB): Georgian Tourism Association (GTA): http://www.tcvb.gr/ http://www.tourism-association.ge/index.php Association of Travel Agents Northern Greece: Constanta – Romania http://www.etgmth.gr/ Romania Tourism official site: Hellenic Association of Travel and Tourism Agen- http://www.romaniatourism.net/where-to-go/ cies (HATTA): towns-cities/constanta-romania/ http://www.hatta.gr/
329 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Varna - Bulgaria Youtube: Cultural Ports Varna Municipality: The social media channels have been created http://www.varna.bg/en/index.html by the ‘Passpartout’ Team of experts in constant Bulgarian Hotel & Restaurant Association: collaboration with the LIMEN Lead Partner, EK- http://www.bhra-bg.org/ BMM, in order to promote, apart from the project itself, the city-ports from the cultural and tourism Bulgarian Association of Travel Agents (BATA): aspect, as well. The important issue of creating http://en.batabg.org/ those channels is that they will not be shut down Promotion - Branding after the official project is over but will continue to upload useful content. Therefore, the material that Each partner of the LIMEN project can proceed can be uploaded on them refers to: according to the following suggested action plan • Beautiful photos of the cities and the ports as it describes step by step how the project can be (please make sure that the comments are all in materialized and how the partner can promote its English). own activity: • Videos produced by the official Regional or The LIMEN partners are getting a full package National Tourism Organizations and the Con- of promotional material which includes: vention Bureaus. • A 4 page flyer in English about the ‘Cultural Port” Institution. • Articles about the city-port that have been pub- lished by bloggers and journalists (links). • A video spot (1 min) which can be used to the presentations of the project. • Comments of the travelers that have visited the city-port. • A power point file used for presentations. • Programs of upcoming events (in English). All the above will be uploaded in a USB pack- age. The LIMEN partners are given the opportu- The ‘LIMEN’ team encourages the partners to nity to order directly from the manufacturer the be highly engaged with the social media channels exact amount of pieces required for their own use. by: • Participating frequently and actively (like, Concerning the social media promotion of the share, re-tweet, post, follow). Cultural Port Institution it is suggested that the partners could use the existed channels as they • Inviting their FB friends, followers and promo- connect all countries and apply to a higher num- tional admin teams to participate. ber of followers. Those channels are: • Providing the LIMEN admin team interesting Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/ updated news and info. CulturalPorts?fref=ts The presentation in an event arranged by a lo- Twitter: Cultural_Ports cal partner needs to be reinforced by the city’s pro- Google Plus: https://plus.google. motional material and info such as: com/u/0/102714020307781266740/posts • Brochures
330 Study of the Proposed Institution “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” • S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
• Promotional gifts above mentioned activities are coordinated and branded in a distinctive way. This way is the “Cul- • Contact details of the marketing manager of the tourism authorities for further information tural Port” which will act as an umbrella for all the if required. activities. It will be a promising initiative for the area and The Institution and its initiatives offer poten- for its aspirations especially in terms of its impact tial added value of a concerted strategic approach potentials. Most of all, during the current new to cultural relations between the EU, its Member conflicts emerging in the Black Sea area, a cultural States and European civil society stakeholders and transnational Institution can bring the peoples, the the Black Sea countries and the respective stake- local and regional communities together and thus holders. have an actual impact on the resolution of these The “Cultural Port” can be a pilot project that tensions. Culture and creativity are the vehicles will enhance the establishment of creativity in a towards peace relationships… new emerging market. Accordingly, through the “Cultural Port” the international position of the European cultural and creative industries would be strengthened and new, long‐lasting interna- tional partnerships focusing on local demand would be built. The “Cultural Port” would also be a platform for discussion, dialogue and shared learning with local stakeholders, aiming at the fa- cilitating of trade missions and the organisation of matchmaking events. To better exploit the potential of cities as cul- tural actors this new city‐to‐city programme is es- sential to be established. It can involve awareness-raising about the po- tential of Cultural-Creative Industries in boosting socio-economic development as a continuous pro- cess that is essential both in the start-up phase of policy and strategy development and also in fos- tering partnerships among different actors of dif- ferent sectors at different levels. The target group for these activities will be wide – starting from the policymakers, cultural operators, creative entre- preneurs, tourism stakeholders and other indus- tries as well as the general public. The best results can be achieved when all the
331
Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution
R o be r t P a l me r
ABSTRACT The article briefly traces the The competitive element of the history and different phases of initiative has been an important the European Capitals of Culture component, provoking cities to (ECoC) initiative of the European develop wide multi-stakeholder Union, which began in 1985 and support as an essential part of will be continued until 2035, with the process. Successful common formalised criteria and selection approaches used by ECoCs are processes .The objectives of the summarized, and many of these initiative and the ways in which have led to significant impacts for cities have used the ECoC as a the cities holding the title. The tool for cultural economic and question of whether the Limen social development are outlined. project should use the ECoC model The bids from candidate cities to create a programme geared to are evaluated in relation to how port cities is discussed. If Limen they address certain key issues wishes to advance such an idea, and newly enhanced criteria the current project would likely concerning the cultural strategy of need to transform into a more the city, the European dimension formal organization. In doing so, of the bid, the proposed cultural it would be important to address and artistic programme, the city’s and resolve issues connected capacity to deliver, the approach with membership, governance, to outreach and participation of leadership and management, as citizens, and the management well as securing a sustainable and financing of the event. financial base.
333 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
European Capitals of Culture ally through their Ministry for Culture. Cities in- terested in participating in the competition must The European City/Capital of Culture (ECoC) submit a proposal for consideration. initiative of the European Union (EU) was estab- lished in 1985 by the Council of Ministers as a The submitted applications are reviewed EU Community Action (Resolution 85/C 153/02)1. against a set of established criteria during a pre- Over 60 cities have been given the title of either selection phase by a panel of independent ex- European City of Culture (1985-2004) or European perts in the field of culture. The panel agrees on a Capital of Culture (2005 to the present). There was short-list of cities, which are then asked to submit also a parallel programme of European Cultural more detailed applications. The panel reconvenes Months established in 1990 where cities outside to assess the final applications and recommends the EU were designated host a special month of one city per host country for the title. The recom- culture, which ran from 1992-1999 (Resolution mended city is then formally designated as Euro- 90/C 162/01)2. pean Capital of Culture. The role of the European Commission is to ensure that the rules established According to the European Commission, the at EU level are respected. European Capitals of Culture initiative is designed If the designated ECoC meets the established to achieve the following objectives3: criteria for the title, the European Commission • Highlight the richness and diversity of cultures will award the Melina Mercouri Prize (currently in Europe; €1.5m funded from the EU Creative Europe pro- • Celebrate the cultural features Europeans gramme) to the city. Although the ECoC can seek share; funds from other programmes of the European Union, the major financing is given directly by the • Increase European citizens’ sense of belonging municipality that receives the title, the EU member to a common cultural area; state concerned, other public authorities (county, • Foster the contribution of culture to the devel- province and regional authorities), private-sector opment of cities. businesses, foundations, and part is often raised from earned income derived from ticket sales and Experience has shown that the event is an ex- other revenue-generating activity. On average, cellent opportunity to achieve other objectives: the financial contribution from the public sector • Regenerating cities; (a combination of city, region, state and European • Raising the international profile of cities; bodies) has accounted for, on average, 78% of the income for ECoCs, with the remainder raised from • Enhancing the image of cities in the eyes of private-sector sponsorship and earned income4. their own inhabitants; In the past, the European Commission has pub- • Developing a city’s cultural offer; lished an evaluation reports on the outcomes of • Boosting tourism. the European Capitals of Culture. For the ECoCs post 2019, the cities themselves will carry out their Six years before the title-year the selected host own evaluation and send it to the Commission by member states publish a call for applications, usu- the end of the year following that of the title.
334 Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution • R. PALMER
Reviewing the development of ECoC, three refining selection criteria and strengthening main phases can be distinguished5. the monitoring and subsequent evaluation • Phase 1 (1985-1996): the first cycle of ECoC processes. cities, representing each of the 12 EC mem- The European Parliament and Council have ber states at the time. In this phase, the Pro- adopted a new framework for the initiative, post gramme was considered intergovernmental 2019, in April 2014 (Decision 445/2014/EU)6. It in- activity and did not have a legislative frame- cludes the chronological list of member states that work. Cities were mostly nominated by the can host the title from 2020 until 2033. Croatia and state and most had less than two years to Ireland will host the event in 2020, and launched plan their programme, which posed a chal- their respective competitions in June and Decem- lenge to their capacity to fund or develop ber 2014. Greece and Romania will host the event ECoC-specific initiatives. A few cities, such in 2021 and launched their national competitions as Glasgow, stood out for their capacity to in December 2014. Lithuania and Luxembourg innovate and take the Programme forward will host the event in 2022, and launched their re- a tool for the transformation and regenera- spective competitions in July 2015. tion of the city. This new framework also makes it possible for • Phase 2 (1997-2004): started a new cycle, a city in a candidate country or potential candidate involving 19 cities in 14 countries. Selec- for EU membership to hold the title every third year tion criteria and bidding deadlines were from 2021. This city will be also selected through an implemented from 1998, bringing consider- open competition. In December 2014, the Commis- able advancement to the capacity for ECoC- sion published a call for the 2021 title, to be given to specific programming and raising the scope a city in a EU candidate country, and several cities of ambition. The Programme also secured in Serbia have presented their candidacy. greater EU centrality by being under the The selection criteria for candidate cities com- umbrella of the main EU culture pro- peting for the ECoC from 2020 onwards have been gramme. Dedicated EU funding towards strengthened. The bids from candidates are evalu- the ECoC grew over this period. ated in relation to how they address certain key • Phase 3 (2005-2019): the most extensive, in- issues. The main ones are as follows:7 cluding 29 cities from 29 countries, of which A: Contribution to the long-term 10 are new EU members (having joined af- cultural strategy ter 2004). The ECoC Programme had its first legislative framework and became a Com- • that a cultural strategy for the candidate munity Action at the start of this new Phase, city, which covers the (ECoC) action and involving the inclusion of formal European includes plans for sustaining the cultural Dimension criteria, in line with the Maas- activities beyond the year of the title, is in place at the time of its application; tricht Treaty, and clearer Selection Panel guidelines. Two subsequent decisions ap- • the plans to strengthen the capacity of the plied during this period have contributed to cultural and creative sectors, including de-
335 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
veloping long-term links between the cul- posed and their overall artistic quality; tural, economic and social sectors in the • the capacity to combine local cultural heri- candidate city; tage and traditional art forms with new, in- • the envisaged long-term cultural, social and novative and experimental cultural expres- economic impact, including urban develop- sions. ment, that the title would have on the can- didate city; D: Capacity to deliver • the application has broad and strong politi- • the plans for monitoring and evaluating the cal support and a sustainable commitment impact of the title on the candidate city and from the local, regional and national au- for disseminating the results of the evalua- thorities; tion. • the candidate city has or will have an ad- B: European dimension equate and viable infrastructure to hold the • the scope and quality of activities promot- title. ing the cultural diversity of Europe, inter- cultural dialogue and greater mutual un- E: Outreach derstanding between European citizens; • the involvement of the local population • the scope and quality of activities highlight- and civil society in the preparation of the ing the common aspects of European cul- application and the implementation of the tures, heritage and history, as well as Eu- action; ropean integration and current European • the creation of new and sustainable oppor- themes; tunities for a wide range of citizens to at- • the scope and quality of activities featuring tend or participate in cultural activities, in European artists, cooperation with opera- particular young people, volunteers and the tors or cities in different countries, includ- marginalised and disadvantaged, includ- ing, where appropriate, cities holding the ing minorities, with special attention being title, and transnational partnerships; given to persons with disabilities and the elderly as regards the accessibility of those • the strategy to attract the interest of a broad activities; European and international public. • the overall strategy for audience develop- C: Cultural and artistic content ment, and in particular the link with educa- • a clear and coherent artistic vision and strat- tion and the participation of schools. egy for the cultural programme; F: Management • the involvement of local artists and cultural • the feasibility of the fund-raising strat- organisations in the conception and imple- egy and proposed budget, which includes, mentation of the cultural programme; where appropriate, plans to seek finan- • the range and diversity of the activities pro- cial support from Union programmes and
336 Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution • R. PALMER
funds, and covers the preparation phase, ing the capacity and ambition of the cultural ac- the year of the title, the evaluation and pro- tivity in the host city (internally), and raising visions for the legacy activities, and contin- the profile of the city and particularly in cultural gency planning; terms (externally). The dominance of these two objectives is a likely explanation for the two most • the envisaged governance and delivery common areas of positive impact of ECoCs: rais- structure for the implementation of the ac- ing the capacity and ambition of the cultural sec- tion which provides, inter alia, for appropri- tor; and achieving image enhancement for the host ate cooperation between the local authori- city, often involving a repositioning of the city as a ties and the delivery structure, including leading cultural centre.9 the artistic team; Another objective emphasised by bidding cities • the procedures for the appointment of the has been to use the ECoC as a ‘catalyst’ for change general and artistic directors and their fields in areas, such as tourism development, increased of action; inward investment, supporting the growth of cul- • the marketing and communication strategy tural industries, physical regeneration, social en- is comprehensive and highlights that the ac- gagement and enhanced pride in the city. In most tion is a Union action; cities, there has been a significant increase in tour- ism, with remarkable rises in visitors both during With the growth of ECoCs across Europe, the the ECoC year itself, which has been sustained af- bid process has become a high profile event in terwards in certain cities depending on the city’s most EU countries. In this context, the most widely ambitions and strategies10. recognised strengths of successful bids have been broad multi-stakeholder support, a clear rationale A commonly perceived weakness of successful for seeking the title, and an appropriate and vi- bidding proposals is the absence of a strong Euro- sionary European concept for the programme. pean Dimension11. While cities tend to stress the Essential to a successful ECoC has been the need European and/or multi-cultural character of their to confirm widespread ownership of a city’s bid city and its cultural ambitions, plans are often not across different interests. A key lesson learnt is in place to establish meaningful connections with that those cities which begin the process signifi- the rest of Europe. Special efforts need to be made cantly in advance of the bidding period for the to ensure that relationships are developed with year in which they want to host, tend to build bet- other European cities, countries, cultural organisa- ter support with key stakeholders, which include tions, universities, and networks. public authorities (at local and regional levels), Many common approaches and strategies for businesses, cultural and social organisations, art- success are used by the majority of cities, regard- ists, and a very wide range of NGOs and indepen- less of size, geography or length of EU member- dent groups involved in the cultural, social and ship. Some of the most noticeable common ECoC 8 economic life of the city . approaches include12: In terms of overall vision, the most common • Developing a vision, aimed not just at cel- objectives expressed by successful cities are rais- ebrating the city but also at providing op-
337 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
portunities for ‘transformation’. The notion • The impact of the ECoC’s European Dimen- latter reflects the ambition to use the ECoC sion is visible in a smaller number of cities, as a catalyst for change in other areas: im- including the opportunity to open debate age change and cultural or social change. with the local population, so that consid- eration of European identity and exchange • Using the ECoC to generate a momentum is clearly seen as complementing, and not to develop shared cross-sector development competing with, the exploration and cel- in the city – commonly across culture, tour- ebration of their local identity. ism, education and social services – in order to position or reposition a city and, occa- The ECoC initiative has become one of the sionally, its surrounding region. most visible and prestigious EU flagship cultural initiatives, and one can understand why the par- • The ECoC can have a significant effect on ticipants of the Limen project wish to study this the city’s cultural vibrancy. Its contribution model. to strengthening networks, opening up pos- sibilities for new collaborations, encourag- The Limen Symposium raised the question ing new work to continue, and raising the of whether the ECoC experience might suggest capacity and ambition of the cultural sector the appropriateness of developing a similar pro- and individual artists and creative people is gramme for “Port Cities” – either on restricted ba- commonly acknowledged. sis (“Port City of the Black Sea”) or more widely spread (covering the port cities of the Mediterra- • Many cities with a previously low (and, at nean, Adriatic and other areas). times, even negative) profile have experi- enced an image renaissance, attracting con- Before developing such an initiative, careful siderable media attention and enhancing lo- consideration needs to be given to whether or cal, national and international perceptions. not the Limen partners and participants wish to grow into a formal association or network, as a le- • The dimension of social impact can be un- gal entity. If so, the new association would need derstood in terms of effects on local percep- to develop effective governance and management tions and fostering a sense of pride, which structures, and a realistic financial base. It would partly relates to image impacts and is close- be highly unrealistic to expect financing from Eu- ly influenced by local and national media ropean or regional bodies unless the Limen organ- attitudes. isation developed a more sustainable organisa- • As mentioned earlier, ECoC can have a con- tional structure, which was not totally dependent siderable effect on immediate to medium- on external funding. Most effective networks or term tourism trends, which, in turn, can associations of cities depend on contributions and have a significant impact on the city’s econ- fees directly from their members. omy. In the case of cities capable of under- The issue of leadership will also be important going considerable repositioning, growth to discuss. Which current members of the Limen in tourism visits and spending can be sus- project might offer strong leadership? How might tained for many years to come. a ‘shared-leadership’ structure be developed? This
338 Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution • R. PALMER is a different issue to ensuring that the future or- (iii) the creation of a fair and expert process of se- ganisation has a stable, experienced and profes- lection, where proposals by cities are evalu- sional management and administrative structure, ated against the criteria; which can support a more complex set of activities (iv) the need to strengthen connections between and projects of the organisation. cities and other partners; The nature of the membership of any future (v) a means of monitoring and evaluating the association is a key question for Limen partici- initiative, and information sharing across the pants. Clearly there are advantages to have dif- network ferent types of members: city councils, regional councils, inter-governmental and European asso- The designation of “Port City” might be ap- ciations, other associated networks, universities, plied as an entirely emblematic action, and be the individual academics, archaeologists, historians, result of an entirely informal process of consensual urban planners, port authorities, tourist agen- decision-making, without applying strict criteria. cies, cruise ship industries, tourist guides, artists, Each designated city might be left to do anything it communication specialists, local and regional wishes, without evaluation, and cities might sim- businesses, and others. Careful consideration ply use the “brand” to build their own individual needs to be given how such a combination of in- images, draw media attention to themselves and terests can be achieved, and how this will impact increase visitors to their own cities. However, the on the priorities activities of any future formal as- experience with the ECoCs has demonstrated that sociation. such a loose approach will likely be unsuccessful and unsustainable. The title would soon become a In seeking support or recognition by bodies meaningless invention without impact or results, such as the European Parliament, the European and be discredited as a tool for development. Commission or the Organisation of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, clear decisions would need to be made about the issues mentioned above. If a programme along the lines of ECoC were to be created (e.g. designated “Port Cities of the Black Sea”), the following issues would need to be considered: (i) the development of precise criteria to be ap- plied when making the selection (a study of the criteria used in the ECoC competition may be helpful); (ii) the establishment of a formal process of ap- plying to be a candidate (by a municipal- ity, or a consortium different partners, who
would bear responsibility for meeting the Locations of European Capitals of Culture. Green designates current cities; criteria and managing the events; red is for past cities; and blue for future cities.
339 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Council of the European Union, 1985 Council of European Union, 1985. Resolution of the Ministers responsible 2 Council of the European Union, 1990 for Cultural Affairs, meeting with the Council, of 13 June 1985 concerning the annual event ‘European City of Culture’. 85/C 153/02 3 European Commission, http:ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative- europe/actions/capitals-culture_en.htm Council of European Union, 1990. Conclusions of the Ministers of Culture 4 Palmer 2004, 90-1 meeting within the Council of 18 May 1990 on the future eligibility for the ‘European City of Culture’ and on a Special European Cultural 5 European Parliament, 2013: 39-45 Month event. 90/C 162/01 6 European Parliament and Council, 2014 European Parliament, 2013. European Capitals of Culture: Success Strategies 7 Ibid. and Long Term-Effects (Garcia, B, Cox, T). European Union 8 European Parliament: 2013: 53 European Parliament and Council, 2014. Decision of the European 9 European Parliament: 58-62 Parliament and of the Council establishing a Union action for the 10 Palmer, 2004: 99-119 European Capitals of Culture for the years 2020 to 2033 and repealing 11 Palmer, 2004: 77-83 Decision No 1622/2006/EC. 445/2014/EU 12 Ibid, and European Parliament, 2013 Palmer, R, 2004. European Cities and Capitals of Culture. Palmer/Rae, Brussels
340 Embracing a New Institution for the Black Sea: “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”
M i c h a e l B. C h r i s t i d e s
Ladies and Gentlemen it is a Yet today, after following great privilege to be able to ad- with religious observance the dress this very distinguished au- works of our symposium, I dience. find that the arguments in support of the project, which The title of my brief inter- I included in my intervention, vention is “Embracing a new just pale in comparison to the institution for the Black Sea: condensed and all-embracing the Cultural Port of the Black wisdom I heard during these Sea” and it has not been chosen last 4 days! by chance: when Dr. Karagi- anni first mentioned to me this I mean, successful case stud- ambitious project, I became one ies have been presented; the im- of its most ardent supporters. portance of cultural tourism was At that time I was the nation- underlined in all possible ways; al coordinator of the Hellenic even the damage that excessive Chairmanship-in-Office and we tourism provokes to cultural included the first official- an sites and monuments has been nouncement of the initiative put forward! in the formal address of the Thus, I will skip reading Chairman to the meeting of the from the intervention I had pre- BSEC Council of Ministers in pared and address you “from Thessaloniki, on the 12 of De- the heart and mind”, instead cember 2014. from the paper!
341 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Let me underline from the So it only comes as a logical, outset that Culture and Tourism natural consequence that the are not alien terms / concepts to BSEC Organization supports the BSEC Organization: in fact the establishment of the new there are two separate Work- institution. In fact, I believe ing Groups dealing with these that the next joint meeting of important items and they are our Working Groups on Cul- among the most active Groups. ture and Tourism is the ideal Apart from their separate meet- opportunity for a representa- ings the two Working Groups tive of the “Limen” Steering have also one or two yearly joint Committee to introduce the de- meetings, given the interconnec- tails of the project and to try to tion of the issues they address. engage in its implementation These WG consist of relevant ex- as many BSEC Member States perts from Member States and I as possible. I am confident it would not exclude that some of will not be difficult to convince you have participated in one or them! more of their meetings. The involvement of BSEC This means that we in BSEC could be multifaceted. Just to have covered a long way in pro- mention some ideas that cross moting cooperation and coor- my mind: dination in the above fields of • The promotion of the new Culture and Tourism. Allow me institution could be included to add that, on the institutional as a permanent item in the level, BSEC has only recently agenda of the joint meetings signed a Memorandum of Un- of the BSEC Working Groups derstanding with the UNWTO on Culture and Tourism, (2014), as well as the “Athens after all, BSEC is the only Declaration” of the Ministers in home-born regional Organi- charge of Tourism, where many zation promoting coopera- of the concepts like cultural tion in the economic sector, routes, food and wine tour itin- eraries, events on gastronomy, • Give the opportunity to the film-induced tourism, etc. are experts of our WG not only all included. Special attention is, to express their general sup- of course, given to the develop- port, but also their views and ment of cultural tourism / cul- ideas on the characteristics tural routes projects in the Black and the structure of the insti- Sea region. tution,
342 “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” • MICHAEL B. CHRISTIDES
• Help form the program of ple of the opposite: that is, hav- – not even the beginning of the events that are to be held in ing the BSEC Organization and end – of a cooperation and syn- the city-port selected as the the EU jointly supporting, in ergy between the BSEC Organi- cultural port of the Black Sea, concrete and practical terms, a zation and the initiators of the project that promotes the collec- new institution. BSEC is ready • Help efforts to secure the tive cultural and touristic identi- and willing to discuss and for- necessary funds, although ty of the wider Black Sea region. mulate the framework of this co- in this specific sector of fund operation and, thus, participate raising, BSEC has not been Ladies and Gentlemen, from its initial phase in the real- very successful until now! Your symposium has prov- ization of this important project. On the other hand, of course, en beyond any doubt that the Ladies and gentlemen, thanks BSEC is one of the few Inter- North Aegean and the Black national Organizations that Sea regions enjoy a very rich again for the invitation to a really enjoy the privilege of naming and diverse cultural heritage, very interesting symposium and a Bank as its “related body”! going back to antiquity, if not congratulations to its initiators and organizers. • BSEC can help increase the to mythology. Promoting - and sense of ownership of this preserving in a sustainable way project among Black Sea – this unique heritage was – and countries, a very important remains – our obligation and re- prerequisite for the initia- sponsibility, consisting of efforts tive’s success. As I mentioned that will be more effective if we before, I hope that we can in- can all share their burdens. volve more cities and ports The new institution “the Cul- in the wider region because, tural port of the Black Sea” can among other, this could lead become one of the most valuable to a healthy competitive spir- and effective vehicles to achieve it, which can only add to the the above aim. This is the reason importance of the project. why BSEC (which, by the way, Most hopefully the project regrets not having itself thought of this brilliant idea!) will stand will continue to enjoy EU fund- beside the initial promoters of ing and support. You might have the new institution and why heard that cooperation between BSEC wishes to actively partici- BSEC and the EU is flourishing pate in its dissemination and in and doing fine! Well, in practi- the efforts to help it reach ma- cal, realistic terms, this is not the turity. case, unfortunately, for reasons that I will not bother you with. So, I don’t wish this to sound So, I hope that this very project as a threat, but rather as an ear- can become a very good exam- nest promise: this is not the end
343
Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks: The Case of the “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”
D i m i t r i o s N i k o l a k a k i s
procedure for externalizing their cultural network is not possible activity as a common action. As without a compatible legal a result, the network acquires the framework that would facilitate capacity for more elaborate and the pursuit of its targeting. The sophisticated results by profiting network should acquire the form of from the experiences, the traditions a legal entity-personality, entering and the habits of all partners, in the society as an institution that order to create a more enriched embodies elements of both public experience of cultural character. and private sector legislation. In our days, cultural networking Regardless of the plethora of appears to be a social necessity, matters that need to be taken under not only among native but also consideration, such as the official ABSTRACT among international partners. seat, the status of membership, Cultural networking is the The case of the “Cultural Port of the model of synergies with other process of interaction between the Black Sea” seems to embody collaborators and the management partners for the pursuit of goals as the dynamic of international of innovation, the institutionalized preservation of cultural heritage cultural networking, aiming not cultural network should be and promotion of cultural affairs. only at preserving and promoting legally organized in a way that The use of the term “network” common cultural heritage but also all partners, as a unity, would gives to this process a special at presenting it as a factor of social participate equally in the effort of importance indicating that the and economic enhancement for all transforming cultural content to partners are not only collaborators partners and countries involved. creative occasion for societies and but also equal components of a However, the organization of a individuals.
345 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction tion. However, the participating parts are not condemned to lose Creating a network means their own cultural identity but establishing lines of communi- they are encouraged to offer it cation between different part- as an ingredient for the creation ners sharing identical back- of new cross-cultural and there- ground, in order to succeed in fore ecumenical values. In this externalizing their potentiality as a common action. This kind context, the establishment of of collective action embodies cultural networks, especially an energetic dynamic, since it among international partners, exploits the abilities, the poten- should not be treated as an op- tialities and the capacities of all tion, but as a necessity for the partners, in order to succeed preservation and promotion of in managing more efficiently cultural heritage, while ensur- and effectively plans, works ing collateral positive effects in and projects. At the same time, various areas such as social life, 2 networking provides space economy and tourism . for interdisciplinary outcomes, Cultural Port of the while offering a wide range of options for interaction between Black Sea the partners and other institu- The case of the “Cultural tions or social organizations. Port of the Black Sea” seems to It is obvious that a successful contain the necessary dynamic network creates conditions for for the establishment of a cul- applied innovation in the area tural institution with network- of its activation by suggesting ing characteristics. As a matter alternative actions and better of fact, its productive cause is managing solutions according the project “Limen: Cultural 1 to its targeting . Ports from the Aegean to the The application of this gen- Black Sea. Common Borders. eral approach in the field of a Common Solutions” aiming at network with cultural premises contributing “… to the develop- marks the path from individual ment of cultural tourism in the to collective cultural achieve- wider region of the Black Sea…”. ments and “products”, that are The leader of the “Limen” proj- based on the development of ect is the European Centre for collaborations and active syner- Byzantine and Post Byzantine gies, in order to achieve the for- Monuments located in Thes- mation of cross-cultural innova- saloniki, Greece, which coor-
346 Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks • DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS dinates the collective action Legal Aspects For indispensable. As a matter of of a number of differentiated Cultural Networking fact, this condition would offer partners (universities, muse- institutional authority over the The proper organization of ums, research centers and mu- activity of the network by creat- a cultural network of interna- nicipalities) that come from city ing a specific context for the con- tional partners is not possible ports from countries all over the tact and interaction between the without its foundation under an Aegean and the Black Sea (Tur- partners as well as between the appropriate legal framework, key, Greece, Romania, Ukraine, network as entity and the rest of which forms the basis for the Georgia, Bulgaria). The basic the world, such as states, govern- development of all network’s ac- outcome of the joint efforts of ments, universities, enterprises, tivities. The legal conditions for industry, individuals and vari- the project is the exploitation of the establishment of the network ous institutions of both private the knowledge and of the cul- should derive from two primary and public sector. As a result, tural diversity of all members sources. The first one, coming the network, upgraded actually for the foundation of an insti- from the fact that the network to a kind of institution, would be tution named “Cultural Port of involves partners from various equipped with the necessary or- the Black Sea”. This organiza- countries, is International Law ganizational premises, in order tion aims at becoming actually (such as Treaties and Charters). to fulfill its purposes and goals an institutionalized network The second one is the internal concerning cultural objectives using the cultural resources of legal order of the countries from and cross-cultural blending5. the partners for various pur- which the members originate. poses related to cultural, tour- It should be mentioned that, Defining the legal aspects of istic, economic and social di- while internal legal orders are the function and activity of this 3 mensions . Nonetheless, various based on national written texts cultural institution - network, matters need special care for (such as Constitution, Laws, De- the first point of interest lies in the proper organization of the crees or Ministerial Decisions), the non-profit character that proposed institution and for the the implementation of which such an institution should have. achievement of its goals. The is ensured through the public This actually derives from the umbrella of the International force and the judicial power of fact that the needs to be served Law, the variety of countries in- each country, International Law from the institution are related volved under their own internal could be implemented as regula- with humanitarian and cultural legal order, the plurality of the tory factor over international re- criteria, while all of its available partner’s individual “personal- lationships only after being vol- resources should be disposed ity”, as well as their differen- untary accepted by countries4. for actions and services for the tiated cultural traditions and Nonetheless, even though the benefit of relative targeting. Un- habits are aspects that should compatibility of the network’s avoidably, the non-profit char- be taken under consideration in organization with the above- acter will affect the taxation im- the proposition of a fully com- mentioned legal sources is not posed on the institution, since it patible legal framework for cul- always easy to be achieved, it could gain tax-exempt status or tural networking. is unavoidably necessary and favorable tax treatment. The tax-
347 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA ation issues are also relevant to permanent local reference point The next dimension of the the form of legal entity that the in order to communicate with analysis of the legal conditions institution could acquire6. It is the institution. However, the for organized cultural network- obvious that the network should place of the official seat is of sub- ing is about the status of mem- be created as an entity settled stantial significance, since it in- bership. Being a member of under public law, while also dicates the applicable law for the a network means taking over enjoying some privileges for ini- regulation of the relations of the some obligations, in order to tiatives under the legislation for network with third parts, while enjoy specific rights and privi- the private sector. Furthermore, at the place of the seat a number leges. On the other hand, be- the operational capacities of the of juridical acts for or against the coming a member is a process of network demand its incorpora- network could be performed. special content, since the avail- tion, condition that could offer As a consequence, for the selec- able options could vary from the ability to hire and to employ tion of the location of the seat, full members to partial mem- personnel, to own property and the higher degree of compat- bers or associates. The degree of assets, to perform transactions ibility between the national legal engagement of each part in the and acts in its own name and to frameworks of the parties on the activity and life of the network enter into contracts7. one hand and the goals and ob- is an affair of legal regulation and specifies the character of The next critical issue con- jectives of the institutionalized the membership and therefore cerns the adoption of a name network on the other should be the privileges and the obliga- and brand name of the incor- taken under consideration. In tions of the parts. A secondary porated network. These two other words, the country, whose point of legal concern is the re- appellations may be identical legal order could better serve the gime and the necessary condi- or different, suggesting an ab- accomplishment of the purposes tions under which a candidate breviation as brand name that of the cultural network, is the could become member of the could be adopted more easily one to be chosen for the location 9 network. Under this aspect, le- by the public opinion. Both ap- of its seat and headquarters . gal suggestions about the proce- pellations should be officially The location of the seat might af- dure for entering as well as for guaranteed as trademarks of the fect the official language of the quitting or being expelled from network in a worldwide scale, network. In all cases, the part- the network could be made. In marking its presence and action ners have to decide about the the same spirit, the correct or- as autonomous entity repre- designation of the official lan- ganization of the network de- senting all signatory parties8. A guage or languages of the net- mands legal definition of the relevant matter concerning the work. This factor determines the potential disciplinary offenses legal identity of the institution externalization of the network of the members as well as of the has to do with the selection of its (communication with the rest of available penalties that should official seat (head office), which the world), while it dictates the be imposed on them11. implies the permanent location language which has to be used of its headquarters. This factor in all the network’s contracts, Each organization, associa- is important for the creation of a agreements and deals10. tion or institution has its own
348 Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks • DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS administrative structure accord- ter of representation, but also a tive ways for the management ing to the form of the legal entity condition for continuously re- and consumption of the net- chosen for its foundation. The inforcing cultural relationships work’s financial resources. By all same analogy finds room for and exchanges between the part- matters, economic transparency application in the case of a cul- ners12. should be the key factor behind the financial management with tural institution of international As an institution, the net- the legal framework ensuring partners. The legal details of work will be created with a the publicity of all procedures the matter concern the appoint- specific temporal horizon. The and expenses. A consequence of ment and the function of the founding members will decide “extended” financial publicity basic administrative organs that the exact duration of the insti- would reveal to public the eco- could be of solitary or collective tutionalized network, the condi- nomic “health” of the network, nature. Generally speaking, the tions and the procedures for its which would facilitate the pro- principal and most “powerful” extension and the reasons for its cess of attracting investments in administrative organ of an insti- dissolution. In any case, it is pro- its activities13. tution is the General Assembly posed that the cultural network of all members. As the principal is better to be founded primar- As an organization with cul- source of institutional authority, ily for a specific period of time tural background and targeting, the Assembly appoints the soli- (for example a trial period of one the network has unavoidably tary administrative organs, such or two years), that could be in- a scientific, educational and re- as the President or the Secre- definitely extended according to search character. The result of tary General, while defining the the successful or not activation this condition will be the elabo- width of their authority and or- and presence of the network. At rate output of a variety of model ganizational capacity. However, the same time, a very important or prototype intellectual works, in the case of a cultural network subject of legal interest is the which have to be protected as ex- which is founded over values origin and management of net- clusive products of the creativity such as cultural diversity and work’s resources. All partners and originality of the network. cross-cultural interrelations, it is have to contribute financially for This raises issues of copyright, suggested that constant admin- supporting the institution, while intellectual property, patents istrative task should be given to there has to be a prediction for and trademarks. Thus, legal a collective organ that could be a flexible legal context encour- providence should clarify the characterized as Steering Com- aging individuals, governments exact framework for the devel- mittee or Administration Board. or international foundations to opment of all scientific research The members of that body invest in the activity of the net- coming from the network, the would come obligatory from all work. Tax reduction for private ownership of all products of in- partners in equal terms, ensur- sector organizations could be a tellectuality coming from part- ing the equivalent representa- motive for donations and grants. ners or associates as well as the tion of all participants in the On the other hand, legal predic- ways according to which the re- effective administration of the tions are necessary for designat- search and scientific work of the network. This is not only a mat- ing the most efficient and effec- network would “invade” the life
349 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA of societies, indicating the active collective and not nationally Conclusion presence of the network in the isolated. However, in order to It is evident that the creation modern world. The intellectual maintain its potentiality for in- of a cultural network can not be production of the network has novation, the network should considered just a matter of col- to spread among people without engage itself in active syner- lective initiative or expressed losing its paternity14. gies with other organizations volition for exquisite cultural like research centers, universi- And this, maybe, leads to the achievements. There is a range ties and enterprises. This type most significant aspect of legal of legal aspects and dimensions of externalization is necessary concern about a network, which that are involved in the pro- for promoting the engagement has to do with the manage- cess, the proper management of the network in the actual life ment of innovation. Generally of which ensures not only the of the societies, offering the po- speaking, one of the most brief proper founding of the network tentiality for the transformation though accurate definitions of as institution, but also its sus- of academic research to a vital innovation is “the application of tainability as an active organiza- product for society16. knowledge for the production of new tion for the promotion of cross- knowledge”. An already formed At this point, the role of cultural affairs and economic cognitive and scientific back- a flexible and accurate legal productivity. Therefore, the suc- ground, which serves as basis framework is crucial for the cessful making and being of a for the development of a series proper management and utiliza- cultural network demands gen- of new achievements having the tion of the network’s scientific eral legal providence combined dynamic to satisfy aims, objec- and research achievements, in with purposeful governmental tives and needs, while ensuring order to attract new active part- interventions for the formation practical financial benefit, is the nerships, even from the private of the necessary legal frame- starting point for every inno- sector, that would facilitate the work. This condition seems to vative attempt. Key words for process of transferring the pro- become more crucial in the case successful innovation are “ef- duced knowledge as concrete of an international cultural net- fectiveness” and “efficiency” by product to the being of societies work that wishes to realize its proposing procedures and stan- but also to real economy. In the actions and activities as an in- dards that upgrade the quality same direction, legal predictions stitution composed of interna- of productivity by the use of the could be imposed enabling for tional partners. In this context, least possible time and available the network the possibility of the specific research in the already resources15. The case of a cul- creation of new subsidiary legal existing legal framework of the tural network like the “Port of entities as spin off companies international partners and the the Black Sea” is innovative by having as target the energetic countries involved should be nature, since it promotes joint transfer of knowledge from the conducted in order to find and cross-cultural action and collab- research and academic level to exploit the most adequate and orative cultural works. Through the level of actual life by trans- sufficient legal techniques for the network, culture is treated forming fundamental research the proper organization of the as something internationally into lucrative innovation. institutionalized network.
350 Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks • DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS
NOTES REFERENCES 1 Allee 2009, 3-5. Allee, V. 2009. “Value Creating Networks: Organizational Issues and 2 Švob-Đokić 2011, 26-8. Challenges.” The Learning Organization Special Issue on Social Networks and Social Networking 6: 427-442. 3 Information about the aims and objectives is available in Limen (2014, http://www.limenproject.net/ aim-objectives/). Commission of the European Communities. 2007. Commission Staff 4 Routledge 2009, 68-71. Working Document. Impact Assessment on the Directive on the cross- border transfer of Registered Office. Brussels: SEC: 1707. 5 Innocenti 2015, 125-7. 6 Hansmann 1987, 40-1. Farinha, C. 2011. “Networks as contemporary diasporas: artists in between individuality and the community in Europe”. In 7 Varbanova 2013, 2-7. Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in the 21st Century, edited 8 Robertson 1989, 69. by B. Cvjetičanin, 141-50. Zagreb: Institute for International 9 Commision of the European Communities 2007, 25-6. Relations Culturelink Network. 10 Thomas 2007, 92, 94. Hansmann, H. 1986. “Economic Theories of Non Profit Organization.” 11 Farinha 2011, 146-7. In Between Public and Private: The Non Profit Sector., edited by W. Powell, 27-42. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 12 Klabbers 2002, 169-96. 13 Klaic 2007, 120. Innocenti, P. 2015. Cultural Networks in Migrating Heritage. Intersecting Theories and Practices across Europe. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing 14 World Trade Organization 1994, Part IV. article 62. Limited. 15 Greenhalgh and Rogers 2010, 4-5. Greenhalgh, C. and Rogers. M. 2010. Innovation, Intellectual Property and 16 Mercer 2011, 32-35; Raj Isar 2011, 50. Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Klabbers, J. 2002. An Introduction to International Institutional Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Klaic, D. 2007. Mobility of Imagination: A Companion Guide to International Cultural Cooperation. Budapest: Center for Arts and Culture.
Limen. 2014. The Limen Project. http://www.limenproject.net/
Mercer, C. 2011. “Culturelinks: cultural networks and cultural policy in the digital age.” In Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in the 21st Century, edited by B. Cvjetičanin, 31-44. Zagreb: Institute for International Relations Culturelink Network.
Raj Isar, Y. 2011. “Cultural networks and cultural policy: some issues and imperatives .” In Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in the 21st Century, edited by B. Cvjetičanin, 45-51. Zagreb: Institute for International Relations Culturelink Network.
Bobertson, K. 1989. “Strategically Desirable Brand Name Characteristics.” Journal of Consumer Marketing 6(4): 61-71.
Routledge. 2009. Handbook of International Law, edited by D. Armstrong. London and New York: Routledge. Taylor and Francis Group.
Švob-Đokić, N. 2011. “Cultural networks and cultural policies: a missing link.” In Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in the 21st Century, edited by B. Cvjetičanin, 25-30. Zagreb: Institute for International Relations Culturelink Network.
Thomas, C.A. 2007. “Language Policy in Multilingual Organizations.” Working Papers in Educational Linguistics 22(1): 81-104.
Varbanova, L. 2013. Strategic Management in the Arts. New York: Routledge.
World Trade Organization. 1994. Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).
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APPENDIX
353
LIST OF AUTHORS
ADAM-VELENI Polyxeni BUZOIANU Livia Dr. Archaeologist, Director Senior Researcher Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki Museum for National History and 6, M. Andronikou, Str. 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece Archaeology Constanța [email protected] Ovidiu Square 12, 900745, Constanța, Romania [email protected] ALTAN Barış LIMEN Project Manager, Koç University BOURNATZI Sofia Rumeli Feneri Yolu İstanbul-Sarıyer, Turkey Tourism Marketing [email protected] Pass Par Tout 65, El. Venizelou Str. 557 28, Neapoli, Thessaloniki, Greece ATHANASOULIS Demetrios [email protected] Dr. Archaeologist Director of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Cyclades CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS Menelaos 10 Epaminonda Str. 10555, Athens, Greece Project Team Coordinator, Municipality of Kavala [email protected] 10 Kyprou Str. 65403 Kavala, Greece [email protected] AYAZ Melik Head of Department of Excavations and Surveys CHATZENIKOLAOU Anastasia General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums Project Coordinator Limen Project II. TBMM Binası Yanı 06110 Ulus-Ankara, Turkey 2 Leophoros Stratou Str. 54640 Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] [email protected]
BOSKOU Efrosyni CHOTZAKOGLOU Charalampos MSc in Tourism Planning, Management and Policy, Dr. Archaeologist Museum Curator, Limen Project Manager Hellenic Open University, Chairman of the Municipality of Kavala, Society of Cypriot Studies 8/apt.3, Lefkonos, Str. 10 Kyprou Str. Kavala 65403, Greece CY-1011 Lefkosia, Cyprus [email protected] [email protected]
BOZKURT Serkan CHRISTIDES Michael EU Affairs Expert Ambassador, General Secretary Ministry for EU Affairs (Turkey) Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Mustafa Kemal Mahallesi 2082. Cadde No: 4 Sakıp Sabancı Caddesi, Müşir Fuad Paşa Yalısı Eski Bilkent-Çankaya/ANKARA Tersane 34467 Emirgan, Istanbul, Turkey [email protected] [email protected]
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CHRYSOS Evangelos INAISVILLI Nino Professor Emeritus of the University of Athens Principal Researcher, 16, Delegiorgi Str., 17456 Athens, Greece Niko Berdzenishvili Institute of Batumi [email protected] Shota Rustaveli State University 35, Ninoshvili Str. 6010 Batumi, Georgia CLOW Kate [email protected] Founder of the Society of the “Cultural Routes Society” Haşım İşcan Mah, 1296 Sok No 21 KALOPISI-VERTI Sofia Muratpaşa, Antalya 07100, Turkey Prof. Emerita of Byzantine Archaeology, University of [email protected] Athens 30 Kronou Str., 175 61 P. Faliro, Athens, Greece DADAKI Stavroula [email protected] Director of Ephorate of Antiquities of Kavala-Thassos 14 Kyprou Str., Kavala 65110, Greece KANAKI Georgia-Anna [email protected] Officer Hellenic Ministry of Economy, Development and DEMİR Volkan Tourism Directorate General of Tourism Policy, Asisistant Professor, Aquaculture Engineer Directorate of Strategic Planning 12, Istanbul University, Institute of Amalias Ave. 105 57 Athens, Greece Marine Science and Management [email protected] Müşküle Sok. No:17 Vefa/Fatih 34134 İstanbul [email protected] KARAGIANNI Flora Dr. Archaeologist, Head of the Office for Scientific EVANGELIDOU Anastasia Research Lawyer LLM, MSc, EU law expert European Center of Byzantine and Post Byzantine Management Organization Unit of Monuments Development Programmes Leophoros Stratou 2, 54640, Thessaloniki, Greece Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism [email protected] 82 Tsimiski, Str. 54622, Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] KATSIOTI Aggeliki Dr. Archaeologist, Ephorate of Antiquities of GEROUSI Evgenia Dodecanese Dr. Archaeologist, Director of the Directorate Ippoton 14 str. Rodos, Greece of Byzantine and Post - Byzantine Monuments, [email protected] Ministry of Culture and Sports 20 Bouboulinas Str. 10782 Athens, Greece KILIÇ Gökçe [email protected] Research Associate Istanbul University GÜLER Taner Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters 34459, Research Associate, Istanbul University Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters 34459, [email protected] Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey [email protected] KILIÇ Namık Research Associate HARLAFTIS Gelina Istanbul University Professor of Maritime History, History Department, Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters Ionian University72, I. Theotoki str., 49100 Corfou, Greece 34459, Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey [email protected] [email protected]
356 LIST OF AUTHORS •
KIZILTAN Zeynep NASTASI Irina Director Dr., Archaeologist Istanbul Archaeological Museums Museum for National History and İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri Alemdar Cad. Archaeology Constanța Osman Hamdi Bey Yokuşu Sk 34122, Ovidiu Square 12, 900745, Constanța, Romania Gülhane – Fatih / ISTANBUL, Turkey [email protected] [email protected] NIKOLAKAKIS Dimitrios KOCABAŞ Ufuk Attorney at the Supreme Court of Greece Assistant Professor Professor, Istanbul University PhD in Law, PhD in Theology Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 34459, Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] [email protected] KOPRA Chryssa ÖZSAİT-KOCABAŞ Işıl MSc Urban Policy Studies Assistant Professor, Istanbul University BSc Media & Communications Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters Alpha Mentor 28 Megalou Alexandrou Str. 55 535 34459, Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] [email protected] PALMER Robert KOSTIC Elena Consultant Archaeologist 17 South Charlotte Str. Edinburgh EH2 4AS, European Center for Byzantine and Post -Byzantine United Kingdom Monuments [email protected] 2 Leophoros Stratou, Str. 54640 Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] PARADEISOPOULOS Sofronis Director of the Hellenic Foundation for Culture. LUGOVYI Oleg M. Odessa Branch Assistant professor 16-20 Krasnij Pereulok 65 026 Odessa, Ukraine Department of Ancient History and Middle Ages [email protected] Odessa I.I.Mechnikov National University. 2 Dvoryanska Str. 65082, Odessa, Ukraine RICCI Alessandra [email protected] Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology and History of Art, LYCHOUNAS Michalis Koç University Rumeli Feneri Yolu - İstanbul - Sarıyer Kavala City Councillor, [email protected] Archaeologist/Curator Hellenic Minstry of Culture and Sport SIOMKOS Nikolaos Ephorate of Antiquities of Kavala-Thasos Dr. Archeologist, Kyprou 14 65110 Kavala, Greece Ephorate of Antiquities of Chalcidice and Mount [email protected] Athos, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs. MERKOURIS Pyrros 82 Anaximandrou St., 54250 29 Place van Meyel Brussels 1040, Belgium Charilaou, Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] [email protected]
357 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
SOTIROPOULOU Vassiliki UĞURYOL Sancar Social and Political Scientist Course Director and Diving Career Counsellor Expert on EU programmes PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) Management Organization Unit of Development Bentler Mevkii, Sitebent Evleri, Sardunya Sok. No:1 Programmes Bahçeköy-Sarıyer / Istanbul, Turkey Ministry of Economy, Competitiveness and Tourism [email protected] Mandritsas 21A 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected] UGRINSKA Irina Municipality of Varna TSOUKALIDIS Yiannis 43, Blvd. osmi primrski polk 9000 Varna, Bulgaria Project Development Consultant [email protected] Omonoias 133, Kavala 65403, Greece [email protected] VITOPOULOU Athina Dr. Architect-urban planner, TOURTA Anastasia Hellenic Open University Dr. Archaeologist, Director 4 Pittakou, Str., 54645 Thessaloniki, Greece European Center for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine [email protected] Monuments Leophoros Stratou 2, 54 640 Thessaloniki, Greece VLAZAKI Maria [email protected] Secretary General Hellenic Ministry of Culture TÜRKMENOĞLU Evren 20-22, Bouboulinas, Str. 106 82 Athens, Greece Research Associate, Istanbul University [email protected] Ordu Str. Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters 34459, Laleli-Fatih/Istanbul, Turkey [email protected]
358 PROGRAM On Board Symposium
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA. MEDIEVAL - MODERN NETWORKS Sunday, August 23th, 2015
14.30.00h–20.00h INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM: City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks
Registration
OPENING OF THE SYMPOSIUM
14.30‐14.40: S. KALOPISI‐VERTI (Deputy President of EKBMM)/ U. KOCABAS (Prof. Istanbul University) 14.40‐15.00: GREETINGS M. VLAZAKI, General Secretary, Ministry of Culture (Greece) M. CHRISTIDES, Ambassador, General Secretary, BSEC M. AYAZ, General Directorate of Cultural Heritageand Museums, Head of Department of Excavations and Surveys (Turkey) S. BOZKURT, EU Affairs Expert, Ministry for EU Affairs (Turkey)
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PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
15.00‐15.15: F. KARAGIANNI, LIMEN: Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea.
KEYNOTE ADDRESS
15.15‐15.45: E. CHRYSOS, ΛΙΜΗΝ–PORTUS–HARBOUR in metaphorical use.
15.45–18.45: SESSION 1 MEDIEVAL NORTH AEGEAN AND BLACK SEA CITY - PORTS. (HISTORY - ARCHAEOLOGY - ART)
Chairwomen: Anastasia Tourta, Marika Didebulidze 15.45‐16.00: S. KALOPISI‐VERTI, Aspects of cross‐cultural relations and artistic interchange across the medieval Black Sea: the evidence of monumental art 16.00‐16.15: E. KOSTIC, Presentations of medieval ships in the art of the Black Sea region 16.15‐16.30: ST. DADAKI, “Observations on the Fortifications of Late Byzantine cities on the Northern Aegean coast 16.30‐16.45: Μ. LYCHOUNAS, Travel, drink and be merry. Port and wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea 16.45h – 17.00h Coffee Break
17.00‐17.15: O. LUGOVOI, German and French quarters in the 12th century Constantinople 17.15‐17.30: E. MIRCHEVA, Continuity and discontinuity of the port system on the West Black Sea coast. 17.30‐17.45: C. CHERA, Cultural Heritage in Ancient Greek Colonies Histria, Tomis and Callatis 17.45‐18.00: I. NASTASI, Public Open Space in the City‐Port of Tomis (4th‐6th cent. AD) 18.00‐18.15: M. JANJALIA, Architectural heritage of Batumi
360 PROGRAM • ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
18.15‐18.30: N. INAISHVILI, Archaeological sites in environment of Batumi, Adjara 18.30‐18.45: DISCUSSION
18.45h – 19.00h Coffee Break
19.00 – 20.15 SESSION 2 TRADE AND ECONOMY IN THE CITY-PORTS OF NORTH AEGEAN AND THE BLACK SEA (HARBOURS, TRADE ACTIVITIES, TRADE PRODUCTS)
Chairmen: Constantin Chera, Evren Türkmenoglu 19.00‐19.15: U. KOCABAS, Z. KIZILTAN, Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad between Black Sea and the Mediterranean 19.15‐19.30: E. GEROUSI, The commercial relations between Aegean and the Black Sea on the basis of the testimony of the early Christian amphorae 19.30‐19.45: M. MANOLOVA‐VOYKOVA, Trade contacts of the towns on the West Black Sea 9th –14thc. according to pottery imports 19.45‐20.00: L. BUZOIANU, Commerce et navigation dans la mer Noire dans les documents épigraphiques et iconographiques
20.00-20.15: DISCUSSION 20.30h Dinner
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Monday, August 24th, 2015
16.00h – 19.45h CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
16.00 - 17.45 SESSION 3 CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE MARITIME ROUTES BETWEEN BLACK SEA AEGEAN-MEDITERRANEAN CITY-PORTS (COMMUNICATION OF PORTS, NETWORKS, TRAVELS- TRAVELERS)
Chairpersons: Sophia Kalopisi, Verti, David Khoshtaria 16.00‐16.15: V. TENEKEDJIEV, The Influence of Constantinople on Church Liturgical Arrangement in the West Pontic Region, 5th ‐ 6th C. AD. 16.15‐16.30: N. SIOMKOS, Constantinople receiving icons. A new approach to an old issue. 16.30‐16.45: D. ATHANASOULIS, Some Notes on the Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese 16.45‐17.00: E. DRAKOPOULOU, The artistic network established between the Monastery of Patmos, Constantinople, the Aegean, and the Black Sea (12th‐16th c) 17.00‐17.15: A. KATSIOTI, Rhodes‐ Constantinople: A two‐way traffic 17.15‐17.30: CH.CHOTZAKOGLOU, The Cultural Network of Cyprus ‐ Constantinople‐ Euxeinos Pontos during the Iconoclasm era 17.30- 17.45: DISCUSSION 17.45h - 18.00h: Coffee Break
18.00-19.45: SESSION 4 PRESERVATION-PRESENTATION OF THE MEDIEVAL CULTURAL HERITAGE
Chairpersons: Ufuk Kocabas, Lydmyla Tarakhtii 18.00‐18.15: N. KILIC, Preservation of Yenikapı Shipwrecks 18.15‐18.30: G. KILIC, From underwater to museum: Presenting underwater cultural heritage
362 PROGRAM • ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
18.30‐18.45: R. H.ARAKS, Embracing Culture and Tourism Together; The Experience of the Princes’ Islands 18.45‐19.00: B. ALTAN, Sustainable Cultural Routes in Istanbul: the Küçükyalı ArkeoPark and Its Vicinities 19.15‐19.30: E.C. ARAUZ, From Küçükyalı to Tophane: Engaging Communities and Negotiating Cultural Heritage Practices in Istanbul and Turkey. 19.30-19.45: DISCUSSION 20.30h: Dinner
Tuesday, August 25th, 2015
09.00h – 20.30h CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
09.00- 11.30: SESSION 5 TOURISM AND CULTURE
Chairpersons: Dessyslava Georgieva, Rafi Hermonn Araks 09.00‐09.15: G. A. KANAKI, Cultural Tourism: Potential for Growth 09.15 ‐09.30: V. SOTIROPOULOU, “Funding opportunities for cultural projects: How high is culture in the European agenda?” 09.30‐09.45: S. TAYCAN, Between Two Seas; Walking Through the Future, Bodily Experiencing the Transformation of Istanbul 09.45‐10.00: S. UĞURYOL, From Ancient Divers to Modern Diving Industry and Its Effect on Cultural ourismT 10.00‐10.15: L. TARAKHTII, Odessa: Touristic and Cultural Port of Black Sea Basin. 10.15‐10.30: I. UGRINSKA, Varna‐ a crossing point of ancient history, cultural heritage and tourism opportunities 10.30‐10.45: M. TUDOR, Romania 4 U‐ Culture and Tradition 10.45‐11.00: V. POLTORAK, Northern Black Sea Fortresses as objects of tourist interest 11.00‐11.15: Ş. KILIÇ‐YILDIZ, “The Effects of Tourism on World Heritage Sites in Turkey”.
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11.15-11.30: DISCUSSION 11.30 – 11.45h: Coffee Break
11.45 - 14.15: SESSION 6 CULTURAL ROUTES AND NETWORKING
Chairpersons: Michalis Lychounas, Baris Altan 11.45‐12.00: Ι. TSOUKALIDIS, Μ. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS, Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation and Local Tourism Development: Balance and Costing and the Role of the Stakeholders. 12.00‐12.15: I. GOLUBKOVA, Network of competence centres for the development of cruise tourism in the Black Sea region-CruiseT. 12.15‐12.30: I. D. JUGANARU, Tourist Destinations in Romanian Port cities at the Black Sea 12.30‐12.45: E. BOSKOU, Cultural Routes of Kavala 12.45‐13.00: K. CLOW, Local Beneficiaries of the First Cultural Routes in Turkey 13.00‐13.15: A. KALLIANIOTIS, Fish and Fishermen between Aegean and the Black Sea 13.15‐13.30: V. SUNTSOV, Flavorable Sides of Cultural Tourism: Some Thoughts from Odessa 13.30‐13.45: O. POLTORAK, Medieval Music Traditions on the Black Sea region 13.45‐14.00: L. MITZALI, Tourism and Human relations
14.00-14.15: DISCUSSION 14.30 - 16.00h: Lunch
364 PROGRAM • ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
16.00 - 20.30: CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
16.OO-17.40: SESSION 7 CULTURE AND TOURISM PROJECTS IN THE BLACK SEA
Chairpersons: Vassiliki Sotiropoulou, Mammad Zulfugarov 16.00‐16.10: A. EVANGELIDOU, The European Neighborhood Instrument in the context of CBC. Targeted synergies for bringing EU and its neighbors closer together. 16.10‐16.20: S. PARADEISOPOULOS, OLKAS: International contribution to the development of cultural tourism in the Black Sea Region 16.20‐16.30: D. KHOSHTARIA, OLKAS project: Results and Outcomes 16.30‐16.40: P. ADAM‐VELENI, BSUDRA: Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives of a Black Sea Project 16.40‐16.50: P. MERKOURIS, “The Digital Economy, Culture and Tourism in the Black Sea Region”. 16.50‐17.00: E. KAKHIDZE, “ALECTOR Project: Georgian wonders of the Silk Road” 17.00‐17.10: G. CARAIVAN, HERAS Project: Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Black Sea 17.10‐17.20: M. TSVETKOVA, BS‐Tourism Net: “Creation of a Black Sea Network for Sustainable Tourism Development in Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia” 17.20‐17.30: G. HARLAFTIS, A. VITOPOULOU, A.PAPAGIANNAKIS, “Black Sea Port‐cities, 1780s‐1910s: Objectives and actions of an interdisciplinary project”.
17.30-17.40: DISCUSSION 17.40-18.00h: Coffee Break
365 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
18.00 – 20.15: SESSION 8 THE PROPOSED INSTITUTION: “CULTURAL PORT OF THE BLACK SEA”
Round Table Ufuk Kocabas, Michalis Lychounas, Constantin Chera, Lydmyla Tarakhtii, Marika Didebulidze, Dessyslava Georgieva, Baris Altan
Moderator: Flora Karagianni 18.00‐18.15: F. KARAGIANNI, A. CHATZINIKOLAOU, Establishing the new institution: “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” 18.15‐18.30: S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPRA, Feasibility – Sustainability Study of the proposed Institution “Cultural Port of the Black Sea” ‐ The marketing plan 18.30‐18.45: R. PALMER, Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution. 18.45‐19.00: M. CHRISTIDES, “Embracing a new institution for the Black Sea: “Cultural port of the Black Sea”. 19.00‐19.15: D. NIKOLAKAKIS, Legal aspects in creating cultural networks. The case of the “Cultural port of the Black Sea”.
19.15 - 20.00: DISCUSSION CLOSING OF THE SYMPOSIUM 20.30h Dinner
366 PROGRAM Agenda Cruise
CITY PORTS FROM AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA MEDIEVAL MODERN NETWORKS Cultural tourism is a critical aspect of sustainable development. Proj- ects “OLKAS” (www.olkas.net) and “LIMEN”(www.limenproject.net), co- funded by the “Black Sea Basin Joint Operational Programme 2007-2013” and national resources, have significantly contributed over the last five years to the on- going dialogue on this subject, with the participation of dozens of organizations from almost all countries of the Aegean and the Black Sea. The project “LIMEN” has as its main objective to give prominence to the cultural role of the city -ports of the Black Sea by proposing the estab- lishment of a new Institution, the “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”, which will contribute dynamically to the relations of friendship and cooperation in the Black Sea area and, of course, to the development opportunities of the area. The project “LIMEN” is being completed with a series of activities the flagship of which is the International Symposium “City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks. The Sympo- sium aims to determine and focus on the broad concept of cultural heri- tage and cultural tourism and its development in the regions extending from the Aegean to the Black Sea.
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The organizers wish to bring together experts in cultural heritage; cul- tural tourism; cultural routes; ecology and historical heritage of coastal areas and their hinterland. Within the symposium topics related to both historical and tourist aspects of the ports will be discussed. A specific axis of the Symposium will also focus on the cultural heritage of the regions, with special emphasis on the archaeological material of the sites. Moreover, case studies, best practices as well as lessons learned will represent the thrust of the sessions. The Symposium wishes to define a framework for sustainable tourism and best practices for the regions con- sidered; to evaluate how and if the economical benefits of cultural tour- ism may reverberate on the communities of the regions considered. Each session will be followed by extensive discussion and dialogue time. The “on-board” Symposium will open with the inauguration of the Exhibition “Ode to the Sea” with works of contemporary art organized by the students and professors of the laboratories of Painting (Prof. Gior- gos Tsakiris) and of Engraving (Prof. Manolis Giannadakis) of the Depart- ment of Visual a nd Applied Arts of the School of Fine Arts of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The opening of the exhibition will be held on Friday, August 21st 2015 at the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus. The cruise-ship will depart from the Port of Piraeus on Saturday, August 22nd, will continue sailing through the Aegean and the Black Sea and it will reach Constanta in Romania, then Nessebar in Bulgaria and finally will arrive in its last destination, Istanbul. The works of the Symposium will be concluded with a public event to Istanbul, open to the media and to the public, where the results of the project will be presented with the occasion of the inauguration of the pho- tographic exhibition “3 seas 7 Ports: Cultural Routes from Aegean to Black Sea”. We invite you to join us in this unique experience, organised for the contributors and friends of the project “LIMEN”.
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Friday, August 21st, 2015 19.30h Archaeological Museum of Piraeus: Inauguration of the Exhibition “Ode to the Sea” with works of contemporary art organized by the stu- dents and professors of the laboratories of Painting (Prof. Giorgos Tsa- kiris) and of Engraving (Prof. Manolis Giannadakis) of the Department of Visual and Applied Arts of the School of Fine Arts of the Aristotle Univer- sity of Thessaloniki. After the opening of the exhibition, the “Underground Youth Orches- tra” will give a concert with famous Greek and international songs. A reception will follow at the Museum yard.
Saturday, August 22nd, 2015 Port of Piraeus: Beginning of cruise/ Departure at 20.00h
Sunday, August 23rd, 2015 Volos: Arrival: 08.00h Departure: 18.00h 10.00 WALKING TOUR IN THE CITY AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF VOLOS 12.00 – 15.00: Anytime Dining
14.30.00h–20.00h INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM: City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Networks
• Registrations • Greetings • Beginning of Symposium Works
15.45 – 18.45 SESSION 1 MEDIEVAL NORTH AEGEAN AND BLACK SEA CITY- PORTS. (HISTORY- ARCHAEOLOGY - ART)
In the session, topics related to the history of the medieval North Ae- gean and Black Sea city-ports are included, based on the examination of historical resources. There are also included topics related to the presen- tation and interpretation of archaeological data (e.g. excavations, fortifi- cations, standing monuments), or topics on architectural and artistic ele- ments which characterize the medieval cultural heritage.
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16.45h – 17.00h Coffee Break
19.00 – 20.15 SESSION 2 TRADE AND ECONOMY IN THE CITY-PORTS OF NORTH AEGEAN AND THE BLACK SEA (HARBOURS, TRADE ACTIVITIES, TRADE PRODUCTS)
The session includes topics related to the harbours and the trade that was developed between the city ports in the medieval period. In this ses- sions are included papers on trade activities that were developed in the harbours and the products that were transported. Moreover, here are in- cluded studies on harbor facilities which served the commercial activities, or even archaeological material that is connected with them (coins, seals, pottery).
20.30h: Dinner
Monday, August 24th, 2015 Chios Island: Arrival: 07.00h Departure: 18.00h 08.00h – 14.00: VISIT AT “MASTICHOXORIA” (MASTIC VILLAGES) 14.00 – 16.00 : Anytime Dining
16.00h – 19.45h CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
16.00 - 17.45 SESSION 3 CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE MARITIME ROUTES BETWEEN BLACK SEA- AEGEAN- MEDITERRANEAN CITY-PORTS (COMMUNICATION OF PORTS, NETWORKS, TRAVELS- TRAVELERS)
The session discusses the circulation of architectural and artistic trends among the Aegean and the Black Sea as well as the role of Constantinople in the development of the medieval architecture and art in the area. The session promotes the presentation of maritime routes that were developed in t he middle ages connecting the Black Sea with other areas, such as the Aegean and the Mediterranean. It is expected that the participants on the
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session will focus on the networks of communication that were developed among the city-ports and will highlight the constant relations that were established between the different areas.
17.45h -18.00h: Coffee Break
18.00-19.45 SESSION 4 PRESERVATION- PRESENTATION OF THE MEDIEVAL CULTURAL HERITAGE
The session includes topics related to the preservation, conservation as well as presentation of the medieval cultural heritage exhibited in the museums of the area. 20.30h: Dinner
Tuesday, 25th, August, 2015
«ON-BOARD»
09.00h - 20.00h: CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
09.00- 11.30 SESSION 5 TOURISM AND CULTURE
The fundamental and substantial purpose of the session is to present and discuss the points of convergence between tourism and culture, rea- soning the universal blast of cultural tourism. The expected outcome of the session would be the configuration of the framework within which Tourism and Culture co-exist. Evidence of existing cultural destinations is significantly important for the justification of any conclusions.
11.30h-11.45h: Coffee Break
11.45 - 14.15 SESSION 6 CULTURAL ROUTES AND NETWORKING
The purpose of the session is to set and discuss the issue of cooperation and networking between destinations, increasing the added value of the tourism product. 14.15 – 16.00 : Anytime Dining
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16.OO-17.40 SESSION 7 CULTURE AND TOURISM PROJECTS IN THE BLACK SEA
The purpose of the session is to point out that European Union funding policy has become a benchmark for development on the region of Black Sea. Implemented EU projects play a substantially important role, towards the improvement of living standards at local communities, friend- ship and co- operation among them.
17.40h -18.00h: Coffee Break
18.00 – 20.00 SESSION 8 THE PROPOSED INSTITUTION: “CULTURAL PORT OF THE BLACK SEA”
This final session is a Round Table which aims to codify the proposed methodological steps to be taken for the promotion of the proposed Insti- tution of the “Cultural Port of the Black Sea”. The participants will be asked to discuss whether the initiative of Cul- tural Ports, will continue to add appropriate value to the cultural Unity among Back Sea region citizens.
DISCUSIONS – RESULTS – CLOSING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
20.30h Dinner
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Wednesday, 26th, August, 2015
CONSTANTA: Arrival: 06.00h 10:00h: Welcome speech from the director of the Museum of National History and Archaeology from Constanta, dr. Gabriel Custurea 10:30h - 12:00h: Guided visit of the museum, the Roman edifice with mosaic, and the ancient agora of Tomis. 12:00h - 13:00h: Walking tour in the old city (Mosque Carol I, Cathedrals, ancient Roman-Byzantine quarter, Casino, Genovese lighthouse, touristic port - marina, Ovid’s statue)
13:00h - 14:00h: Lunch
14:00h - 17:00h: Visit to the archaeological site of Histria Departure of the cruise: 19.00h
20.30h: Dinner
Thursday, 27th, August, 2015
NESSEBAR: Arrival: 08.00h 09.00h: Departure from Nessebar to Varna 11.00h: Arrival at Varna 11:30-12:30h: Guided tour around the museums, roman bath and etc. 12:30h: Transfer to Aladja monastery 13:00h – 14:30h: Visit the Aladja Monastery, open air concert and lunch. 14:30h – 16:00h: Transfer from Varna to Nessebar 16:00h- 17:30h: Walking tour to Nessebar Departure of the cruise: 18.00h 20.30: Dinner
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Friday, 28th, August, 2015 ISTANBUL: Arrival: 08.00h Free morning 19.00h: Koç Museum • Inauguration of the Photographic Exhibition “3 seas 7 Ports: Cultural Routes from Aegean to Black Sea”. • Reception Overnight stay on the cruise.
Saturday, 29th, August, 2015 ISTANBUL Free day • End of Cruise • Depart of Participants Optional: • 10.00 am. Departure for the Archaeological site of Kücükyalı in Asian coast. • 13.30 pm. Lunch • 15.30 pm. Departure for Heybeli Ada. Visit to the Library of the Theological School of Chalki • 21.30 pm. Return from Heybeli Ada to Istanbul
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375 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
376 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board
Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board
U fuk K o c a b a ş , I ş ı l Ö z s a i t -K o c a b a ş , T a n e r G ü l e r , E v r e n T ü r k m e n o ğ l u
Within the frame of the LI- to study the city-ports from the cultural heritage of our region, MEN Project, we had a nine-day points of archaeology, history its sustainability, and its healthy sailing trip from the Archipela- and art history, and to discuss transfer to the future and rel- gos to the “inhospitable” Pon- seafaring routes, preservation evant implementations. tus Euxinus holding an inter- of the cultural heritage as well national on-board-symposium as tourism itineraries by deliver- Greece – Athens, “City-Ports from the North ing papers. The symposium cre- Friday, 21st August 2015 Aegean to the Black Sea. Medi- ated the sphere for sharing very The international symposium eval – Modern Networks”. The valuable and technical informa- was held on board Emerald participants thus had a chance tion regarding the richly varied Princess cruise ship setting off from Athens (Fig. 1). About one hundred participants from nine countries attended the sessions and a total of fifty-seven papers were delivered. The cruise ship starting from Athens visited Vo- los, Chios, Constanta, Varna and
Fig. 1 Emerald Princess is one of the largest cruise ships in the world.
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Istanbul harbours respectively, moving from the Aegean into the Black Sea. Piraeus, the harbour of Ath- ens located 12 km away, was the starting point for the cruise ship. In addition to the main harbour there are lesser har- bours such as Paşalimanı (Ma- rina Zeas) and Mikrolimano Fig. 2 Opening lecture of the (Turkolimano). In addition to exhibition at the Archaeological being the most important port Museum of Piraeus garden, Prof. Manolis Giannadakis. of Greece, the area is also known as an entertainment centre with restaurants on the sea. The first activity of the Project was held at the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus on Friday, August 21st, 2015. Here we joined the open- ing of the modern art exhibition titled “Ode to the Sea” prepared by the students of Department of Visual and Applied Arts of the School of Fine Arts of the Aristotle University of Thessa- loniki under the supervision of Prof. Giorgos Tsakiris and Prof. Manolis Giannadakis (Fig. 2). After the opening of the exhibi- tion, the “Underground Youth Orchestra” gave a concert with Fig. 3 Concert of Underground Youth famous Greek and international Orchestra. songs (Fig. 3). In the course of the reception at the museum garden the participants were able to explore the rich collec- tion and bronze statues of the hosting museum oldu (Fig. 4-5- 6-7-8).
380 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Fig. 4 Bronze statue of a Piraeus Artemis. Fig. 5 Detail from Piraeus Artemis. It dates from the mid-4th century and is Artemis. It dates from the mid-4th century attributed to the sculptor Euphranor. and is attributed to the sculptor Euphranor.
Fig. 6-7 Pottery and figurine collection of the Archaeological Museum of Piraeus.
Fig. 8 Chairedemos and Lykeas (and Rahmi Asal), Piraeus Museum. Funerary stele of two young hoplites, who presumably died in the Peloponnesian war, c. 420.
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Greece-Pireus, with the symposium venue. It Saturday, August 22nd 2015 was not that easy to discover other parts of the 15-story tall On our second day at Athens floating skyscraper. The first our first venue was the Athenian day ended with emergency ma- Acropolis with the Parthenon noeuvres and gala dinner. Temple (Fig. 9). This temple dedicated to Athena is known for the sculpture on its exterior and it was built in the Doric or- der in the fifth century BC (Fig. 10). Our second stop here was the new Acropolis Museum, which was opened in 2009 in the southeast of the acropolis hill Fig. 9-10 Athenian Acropolis (Fig. 11). The museum’s physi- with the Parthenon Temple. cal connection with the works on top of which it was built is as interesting as the artefacts on Fig. 11 The Odeon of Herodes display in it (Fig. 12-13-14-15). Atticus is a stone theatre structure Fig. 14 After crossing the ground floor lobby located on the southwest slope of Beginning of cruise, Depar- towards the turn styles of the Museum, the first the Acropolis of Athens. ture at 20.00 from Port of Pi- collection lies before the visitor. An ascending, raeus. The first activity on board wide glass-floored gallery houses finds from was the reception given by Cor- the slopes of the Acropolis. The occasionally transparent floor provides a view of the vus Travel. This was especially archaeological excavation, while its upward fruitful for getting us acquainted slope alludes to the ascent to the Acropolis.
Fig.12-13 The new Acropolis Museum lies on the archaeological Fig. 15 Lamp in the shape of a warship. End of site of Makrygianni and the ruins of a part of Roman and early 5th century BC. Byzantine Athens.
382 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Greece – Volos, Sunday, 22nd August 2015
The first en route stop of the cruise was the port city of Volos in ancient Magnesia region, one of the oldest settlement areas in Greece. Volos, now part of Thes- saly, is one of the most impor- tant port cities of Greece. On our visit to Volos we visited the Ar- chaeological Museum, and the replica of the Argo ship, as well as an important monument of industrial heritage, namely the Rooftile and Brickworks Muse- um N. & S. Tsalapatas. One of the most important ar- chaeological sites of Volos is the Neolithic site of Sesklo, which was discovered at the end of the nineteenth century and then ex- cavated. This site not only casts light onto the Neolithic period of the Balkans but also has con- nection with the Neolithic strata of Hacılar Höyüğü in Central Anatolia. That Sesklo had “sea trade” with Milos Island in this period puts it into our span of interest. We were welcomed by the legendary Argo ship’s replica at the harbour of Volos (Fig. 16-17). Sailors of the Argo, or more commonly known as Ar- gonauts were a group of heroes, Fig. 16-17-18 Argo who lived in the Mycenaean ship’s replica at the period, fourteenth century BC, harbour of Volos.
383 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA before the Trojan Wars in the barked, Argo, which literally Colchis and was guarded by the Greek mythology. They appear means “swift”. The ship with giant Serpent. Jason, the leader in a myth in which Jason went fifty oars actually was named af- of the Argonauts, managed to to Colchis thought to be in the ter Argos, its builder. The Gold- get hold of the Golden Fleece eastern Black Sea to look for the en Fleece symbolises the wealth after a long journey on board a Golden Fleece. The heroes were and power in Greek mythology. galley and much struggle. named after the ship they em- It was hanging on an oak tree in This replica was built in 2007 as per the shipbuilding tradi- tions of its time (Fig. 18). This warship-style galley was fur- nished with a bronze ram at its bow in order to attack enemy ships. The Rooftile and Brickworks Museum N. & S. Tsalapatas was founded by Nikolaos and Spyri- don Tsalapatas and is consid- ered an industrial heritage Fig. 19 The Roof (Fig. 19). This factory manufac- tile and Brickworks Museum N. & S. tured bricks and roof tiles but it Tsalapatas.
Fig. 20-21-22-23. Museum presents daily life in the factory, as well as all the production stages of different types of bricks and tiles. Its objective is to showcase the historical identity of the town of Volos and to contribute to the preservation and promotion of its industrial heritage.
384 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Fig. 24 Opening speech of the Melik Ayaz, Fig. 25 Presentatıon of the LIMEN Fig. 26 Keynote address, Prof. Dr. General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Project, Dr. Flora Karagianni. Evangelos Chrysos. Museums, Head of Department of Excavations (Turkey)
stopped production when baked Our second venue was the land. Nea Moni Monastery was clay products were replaced by Nea Moni Monastery located 12 at its height when it was under others in modern constructions km away from the island’s cen- the Byzantine hegemony; it is re- (Fig. 20-21). Then it was convert- tre; it was built by three monks ported that there were about one ed to a museum (Fig. 22-23). in 1042 and it is one of the big- thousand monks at the monas- The academic program of our gest tourist attractions of the is- tery at its peak time (Fig. 29). symposium started the same day Nea Moni Monastery features that with the opening speeches typical examples of Byzantine and the first two sessions; in the mosaic art executed by masters mean time, the cruise ship con- from the capital (Fig. 30-31). tinued its route towards Chios Island (Fig. 24-25-26).
Greece – Chios Island, Monday, 24th August 2015
The island was an important wine production centre of an- tiquity and also exported mas- tic. Mastic is used for treating stomach problems and in food as aroma. Here we were able to visit a production site and see each step one by one after the mastic was harvested from the tree (Fig. 27-28). Fig. 27-28 Visit at “Mastichoxoria” (Mastic Villages). Fig. 29 Nea Moni Monastery
385 CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig. 30-31-32 The interior is decorated with superb mosaics on a gold background, among the finest examples of the Byzantine era.
Our next stop on the island the Byzantine period (14th-15th Following the trip on Chios was the Mesta Village, a very centuries). Only two gates lead Island the participants con- well-preserved medieval settle- into village, which features ducted the third and fourth ses- ment located 35 km away from narrow alleys and houses built sions of the symposium back the centre. This village with adjoining each other leaving no on board the Emerald Princess unique architecture was built in gaps in between (Fig. 33-34). (Fig. 35-36).
Fig. 35-36 Transportation from Chios to cruise ship by boats.
Fig. 33-34 Mesta Village
386 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
On Board, Tuesday, 25th August 2015 The cruise ship entered the Dardanelles early in the morn- ing and with the announcement by the captain of the ship the passengers were invited to a minute’s silence in memory of those who fell in the Gallipoli Battle a century ago (Fig. 37). Fig. 37 Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial. Fig. 38 Full day of sailing and symposium. The voyage from Chios Is- land to Constanta port of Ro- mania was a full day of sailing rival into the Bosporus from the (Fig. 39-40). The Emerald Prin- when the fifth, sixth and sev- Sea of Marmara was a moment cess sailed up the gorgeous Bos- enth sessions of the symposium awaited with great enthusiasm porus and in the darkness of the were held on board (Fig. 38). Ar- by all the passengers on board night to Constanta (Fig. 41-42).
Fig. 41-42 Emerald Princes going through Fig. 39-40 Bosporus the Bosporus.
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out the history. Today the city has a population about 300,000 people. Tomis is mentioned in the legendary voyage of the Ar- gonauts; this is where Jason set foot on land after he got hold of the Golden Fleece. First we visit- ed the National Museum of His- Fig. 43-44 The Port of tory and Archaeology located in Constanta is located on the the old city (Fig. 45-46). The visit western coast of the Black Sea. was organised by our Project partners and we were welcomed Romania – Constanta, by the rich archaeological collec- tion (Fig. 47-48). Among leading Wednesday, 27th August 2015 pieces to see in this museum are Our first venue in the Black the figurines of “sitting woman” Sea was Constanta, a port city of and “the thinker”, dated to the Romania (Fig. 43-44). Constanta, fifth millennium BC (Fig. 49). or ancient Tomis, was founded Among other monuments vis- as a Greek colony in the sev- ited in the old city are the Gen- enth century BC. Maritime ac- oese Lighthouse, SS Peter and tivities always had a great part Paul’s Cathedral, and the King’s in the city’s economy through- Mosque rebuilt on the place
Fig. 47-48 Collection of the museum
Fig. 45-46 National history and archaeology museum from Constanta.
388 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Fig. 49 The figurines of “sitting woman” Fig. 50 A street toward to the harbour. Fig. 51 One of the iconic buildings in the and “the thinker Romanian seaside city of Constanta, the Casino.
of the former Big Mahmudiya Another ancient city we visit- Mosque in 1910 (Fig. 50-51-52- ed was the ancient city of Histria 53). The first half of the day was and its archaeological museum concluded with a lunch at the near the mouth of the Danube museum (Fig. 54). River (Fig. 55-56-57-58).
Fig. 54. Lunch at the museum.
Fig. 52-53 King’s Mosque rebuilt on the place of the former Big Mahmudiya Mosque. Fig. 55. Ancient city of Histria.
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The eighth and last session of the symposium closed the day and the program (Fig. 59).
Bulgaria – Burgas – Varna – Nesebar, Thursday, 27th August 2015
Our second venue at the Black Sea was Burgas in Bul- garia. From there the partici- pants got on buses and drove to Varna, the biggest port city of Bulgaria and visited the Varna Archaeological Museum with Fig. 56-57-58 Histria the organisation of our Project Museum. partners (Fig. 60). Unique finds from the Varna Necropolis, which were admired by all (Fig. 61), constitute the oldest gold jewellery collection of the world and dated to 4,600 to 4,200 BC (Fig. 62-63-64). Rated among top with its exhibition tech- niques a visit to the Varna Mu- seum is a must for every visitor to this city (Fig. 65-66-67-68- 69). On the way back we were able to stop shortly at Nesebar (ancient Mesembria). The lunch was at the enchanting Varna Museum accompanied with a mini concert (Fig. 70). An important touristic ven- ue today Nesebar was actually founded as a colony by Megari- ans in the sixth century BC. It was
Fig. 59 Last session an important port city during the of the symposium. Byzantine period (Fig. 71).
390 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Fig. 60 The Dormition of the Mother of God Cathedral is the largest and most famous Bulgarian Orthodox cathedral in the port city Fig. 61 Varna of Varna, and the second Archaeological largest in Bulgaria. Museum
Fig. 62-63-64 The Varna Necropolis findings.
Fig. 65-66-67-68-69 Collection of the Varna Archaeological Museum.
Fig. 70. Lunch at the Varna Museum and mini concert. Fig. 71 Nesebar
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Turkey – Istanbul, Friday, 28th August 2015
The cruise ship set off from Burgas in the early evening and arrived in Istanbul in the early light of the following morning. Fig. 72 Galata Tower Our visitors setting foot in- Is was built during the tanbul at the Karaköy-Salıpazarı reign of the Emperor Justinyanos in 6th cruise ship harbour had two century, İstanbul- full days to visit the historic Turkey. sites of Istanbul, the grandest city of the trip (Fig. 72-73-74-75- 76-77-78-79-80-81). The Golden Horn had an important part in the history of Istanbul, one of the most impor- tant port-cities of the Mediter- ranean. The entire coastline of the Golden Horn was suitable for mooring and anchoring and provided a large shelter for the ships. It did not require large Fig. 73 Magnificent pier and mole constructions Hagia Sophia. Built as a cathedral in 6th century, for commercial transportation. converted to a mosque This seems to have been valid after the conquest of until the end of the Byzantine Istanbul, now is being used as a museum. period.
Fig. 74 Valance Aqueduct completed by Emperor Valens in the late 4th century AD.
Fig. 75 Basilica Cistern. This underground cistern was built in the 6th century.
392 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
When Byzantium was made Constantinopolis in 330 there were two harbours side by side on the Golden Horn side of the city, namely Prosphorion and Neorion; they were fortified on Fig. 76 Famous the south side and had a nar- Topkapı Palace. row entry on the west side. As Ottoman Empire was the imperial capital grew in the ruled from this palace for approximately 4 fourth century two more har- hundred years. It is a bours were built on the Mar- museum now. mara coast and named after the emperors of their construction times – Julian and Theodosius Fig. 77 The Imperial I. All these four harbours are Hall (Hünkâr Sofası), also known as the listed in the Notitia of Constan- Imperial Sofa, Throne tinopolis. Room Within or Hall of Diversions, is a domed hall in the Harem, believed to have been built in the late 16th century.
Fig. 78 Dolmabahçe Palace is in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, served as the main administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from Fig. 79 Haydarpaşa 1856 to 1922. Historic Train Station
Fig. 81 Istanbul Archaeological Museum. It has one of the biggest archaeological collection in the Fig. 80 Ortaköy Mosque world.
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cultural lives were documented photographically. In all these cities compositions and filming of the local people and tourists, architectural attractions, cultur- al-artistic lives, and urban lives were carried out. The exhibition organised by the Istanbul Uni- versity presented over twenty photographs from these seven port-cities. The exhibition was open to public visit at M. Rah- mi Koç Museum’s enchanting Lengerhane hall from 29 Au- gust to 30 November 2015 (Fig. Fig. 82 Illustration 83-84). Photographs taken were of 9th century also published in the exhibition Byzantine era ship replica Yenikapı 12. catalogue of the same name.
Rescue excavations conduct- lowed us to investigate in detail ed at Yenikapı located in the the shipbuilding’s evolution “historic peninsula” from 2004 from shell-first to frame-first onward by the Istanbul Archae- philosophy. Studies that will ological Museums brought to shed light onto the maritime light the Theodosian Harbour, history of this ancient city con- one of the largest harbours on tinue (Fig. 82). the Marmara coast of Byzantine Constantinopolis. In addition Photograph Exhibition: to thousands of artefacts the Three Seas Seven assembly of thirty-seven me- Harbours dieval shipwrecks uncovered Research and filming with- constitute the largest collection in the frame of LIMEN Proj- of its kind from a single site. Is- ect were completed on 20 Au- tanbul University’s Department gust. Thessaloniki and Kavala of Conservation of Marine Ar- in Greece, Varna in Bulgaria, chaeological Objects excavated Constanta in Romania, Batumi Fig. 83- 84 Opening of the photograph twenty-three merchantmen and in Georgia, Odessa in Ukraine exhibition: Three Seas Seven Harbours, M. Rahmi four galleys, which have al- were visited, and urban and Koç Museum’s Lengerhane hall.
394 Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board • U. KOCABAŞ, I. ÖZSAIT-KOCABAŞ, T. GÜLER, E. TÜRKMENOĞLU
Turkey – Istanbul, Saturday, 29th August 2015
On this final day of the cruise a group of participants visited the archaeological site of Küçükyalı on the Asian side (Fig. 85). Then Fig. 85 Archaeological the group sailed to Heybeli Ada site of Küçükyalı and visited the Library of the Theological School of Chalki (Fig. 86). Thus ended the nine-day- long symposium and event pro- gram as planned. We would like to express our gratitude to all Fig. 86 Theological School of Chalki those who contributed and par- ticipated (Fig. 87).
Fig. 87 Group photograph of the participants of City-Ports from the North Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval – Modern Networks
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