SECTION ONE Fundamentals of Medicinal Herbalism The History of Herbalism and Early Medicine...... 1 The Great Mother / Goddess Traditions...... 2 Ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian Herbal and Medical Traditions...... 3 European Healing Traditions...... 5 Mythological Beginnings ...... 5 The Roman Empire...... 6 The Middle Ages...... 10 The Renaissance...... 13 The Development of Medicine and Herbalism in Modern Europe...... 17 Unani: Islamic Herbalism and Medicine...... 19 Herbal Medicine in North American History ...... 22 The Indigenous People of North America...... 22 Teachings from Dark Rain Thom...... 23 Herbal Medicine in Colonial America ...... 28 American Medicine and Popular Health Movements of the 1800s ...... 30 Thomsonian Medicine, Physiomedicalists, Eclectic Physicians, and Naturopaths . . . 31 American Herbalism and Modern Medicine...... 34 Herb Regulation in the United States ...... 35 The American Herb Market ...... 36 Herbal Research...... 37 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)...... 40 Herbalism in the Ayurvedic Medical System of India ...... 43

Nomenclature and Classification of Plants...... 48 The Binomial System of Naming Plants ...... 49 International Standards of Taxonomic Names and Abbreviations ...... 49 Classifications of the Plant Kingdom...... 50

Botany for Herbalists...... 55 Roots ...... 57 Stems...... 58 Leaves ...... 62 Flowers ...... 69 Fruit and Seeds of Angiosperms ...... 74

Endangered Medicinal Herbs ~ Botanical Sanctuaries to the Rescue. . . . 77 Botanical Sanctuaries and United Plant Savers (UpS) ...... 78 UpS “At Risk” Plant List ...... 78 UpS “To Watch” Plant List ...... 79 What You Can Do to Help Endangered Plant Populations...... 79

Cultivating Medicinal Herbs...... 81 The Importance and Necessity of Growing Your Own Medicinal Herbs ...... 81 Grow Organically...... 82 Step One: Preparing the Garden...... 83 The Initial Planning Stage...... 83 Choosing the Location for Your Herb Garden...... 83 Keep a Garden Log...... 83 Soil ~ the Ground Substance of Life...... 85 Components of Soil ...... 85 Soil Structure...... 87 Soil Types and Textures ...... 87 Water Holding Capacity of Soil Types ...... 88 Soil Analysis...... 88 Compost Is “Black Gold” for Gardeners...... 89 Organic Fertilizers and Soil Conditioners...... 91 The Primary Nutrients ...... 92 Plant- and Animal-Based Fertilizers and Conditioners...... 92 Mineral-Based Fertilizers and Conditioners ...... 94 Balancing Soil pH...... 95 Basic Gardening Tools ...... 96 Step Two: Designing the Garden and Establishing Beds ...... 96 Deciding the Shape of the Garden...... 96 Breaking Ground ...... 96 Soil Cultivation...... 97 Making Beds and Arranging Plants...... 98 Woodland Gardens ...... 99 Step Three: Propagating Herbs ...... 99 Starting from Seed ...... 100 Deciding Whether to Plant Seeds Indoors or Outdoors...... 100 Potting Containers for Indoor or Greenhouse Planting ...... 101 Potting Mixes for Starting Seeds ...... 101 Pretreating Seeds to Aid Germination...... 101 Light Requirements and Depth for Planting Seeds ...... 102 Heat and Temperature Requirements for Seed Germination ...... 102 Planting Times for Seeds...... 102 Handling Seeds in a Conscious Way ...... 103 How to Plant Seeds in Containers and Greenhouse Beds ...... 103 Hardening Off and Transplanting Seedlings into Permanent Beds...... 104 Sowing Seeds Outdoors...... 104 Propagation by Root Division...... 105 Propagation by Stem Cuttings...... 106 Propagation by Layering...... 106 Step Four: Tending Your Garden ...... 106 Mulch ...... 106 Watering ...... 107 Weeding...... 108 Pruning ...... 108 Insect and Disease Control...... 108

Sustainable Harvesting of Medicinal Herbs ...... 109 Differences Between Harvesting Cultivated Herbs and Wildcrafting...... 110 The Advantages of Harvesting Your Own Herbs ...... 110 Correct Identification of Medicinal Plants...... 111 When to Harvest Herbs ...... 111 Harvesting Leaves and Flowers...... 112 Harvesting Roots ...... 112 Harvesting Tree Bark ...... 113 Harvesting Seeds and Berries...... 113 Harvesting Stems ...... 113 Preparation of Plant Parts After Harvesting ...... 114 Guidelines for Safe and Ethical Harvesting and Wildcrafting ...... 114 Harvesting in a Conscious Way by Following Native American Traditions...... 115

Drying and Storing Medicinal Herbs...... 116 General Drying Instructions...... 116 Drying Tips for Each Part of the Plant ...... 117 Storing Dried Herbs...... 118 The Shelf Life of Dried Herbs...... 118

Creating Herbal Preparations ...... 119 Choosing Between Fresh or Dried Herbs When Making Preparations...... 119 Basic Types of Herbal Preparations...... 120 Understanding the Process of Herbal Extraction...... 120 Dried Herbal Preparations ...... 122 Powders...... 122 Capsules...... 122 Pills ...... 122 Water-Based Preparations ...... 124 Tea...... 124 Syrups ...... 126 Poultice ...... 127 Fomentation, Compress, and Wash...... 128 Flower Essences...... 128 Herbal Eyewash...... 129 Herbal Nasal Spray...... 129 Herbal Douches...... 129 Herbal Enemas...... 129 Herbal Suppositories ...... 129 Hydrotherapy ~ the Herb Bath and Sitz Bath ...... 130 Alcohol-Based Preparations...... 130 Tinctures ...... 130 Elixirs...... 139 Liniments...... 139 Extracts ...... 139 Oil-Based Preparations...... 139 Infused Oils ...... 139 Herbal Salves...... 141 Solar Infused Oils...... 142 Essential (Volatile) Oils...... 142 Standardized Herbal Products ...... 143

Creating Herbal Formulas...... 145 Differences Between Polypharmacy and Simpling ...... 145 Creating Formulas According to the “Three Cornerstones” Model...... 146 General Guidelines for Making Formulas...... 146

How to Calculate Dosages...... 148 Methods Used to Calculate Dosages ...... 148 Factors Determining the Quality and Potency of Herbal Preparations...... 149 Suggestions for Deciding Dosages of Herbal Preparations ...... 150 Helpful Hints on Drop Dosages When Using Tinctures ...... 150 Calculating How Long a Bottle of Tincture Will Last...... 151

Weights and Measurements for the Herbalist ...... 152 The Safety of Medicinal Herbs ...... 155 The Primary Causes of Herbal Side Effects and Toxicity ...... 155 Factors in Determining the Safety of Herbs...... 156 Rules of Safety When Using Medicinal Herbs...... 156 Comparing the Safety and Toxicity of Herbal Medicines and Pharmaceutical Drugs. . . 157 Research on Herbal Safety...... 159 Potentially Toxic Herbs...... 160 Classes of Potentially Toxic Phytochemicals ...... 160 Herbs Containing Potentially Toxic Phytochemicals ...... 161 Herbs Incorrectly Accused of Being Toxic...... 163 Contraindications...... 164 Herb-Drug Interactions...... 164 Final Analysis of Herbal Safety...... 166

Chemical Constituents in Plants...... 167 Chemical Pathways of Phytochemical Synthesis...... 169 Carbohydrates ...... 171 Lipids...... 174 Proteins ...... 175 Terpenes...... 175 Phenols ...... 176 Tannins ...... 178 Alkaloids ...... 178 Enzymes...... 179 Acids ...... 179 Minerals...... 179

Healing Qualities of Herbs...... 180

SECTION TWO The Materia Medica How to Use the Materia Medica ...... 193 Botanical Name and Family ...... 193 Common Names ...... 193 Medicinal Parts of the Plant ...... 193 Range and Habitat ...... 193 Description of the Plant ...... 194 Cultivating Medicinal Herbs ...... 194 Sustainable Harvesting ...... 194 Preparation of Plant Medicine and Dosages ...... 194 Chemical Constituents in Herbs ...... 195 Safety, Contraindications, and Drug Interactions...... 195 Medicinal Uses ...... 195 History of the Plant ...... 195 Healing Qualities ...... 195 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Perspective ...... 196 Primary Actions ...... 200 Teachings from the Plant Devas ...... 200

How to Use Herbs for Healing and Daily Health Care...... 203 Health Depends on Good Nutrition and a Strong Digestive System ...... 203 Be Wise and Balanced in Your Health Care Choices ...... 204 Gather Reliable Information...... 204 Start Using Herbs Slowly and Do Not Be Overwhelmed ...... 204 Obtaining Medicinal Herbs ...... 204 Drink Herbal Teas as Part of Your Daily Routine ...... 205 Do Not Use Herbs as a “Quick Fix” ...... 205 How to Use Herbs for Acute Health Problems ...... 206 How to Use Herbs for Chronic Health Problems ...... 207 How to Take Herbal Preparations and Times of Administration ...... 207 Take One New Supplement at a Time ...... 207 Increase Dosages Gradually ...... 207 Give Yourself “Days Off” and Alternate Herbs...... 208 Do Not Detoxify When the Body Is Weak or Malnourished ...... 208 When Choosing Herbs, Consider the Qualities of the Illness and Match Them with the Corresponding Herbal Qualities ...... 208

The Materia Medica American Centaury (Sabatia angularis)...... 209 Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus)...... 214 Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) ...... 220 Black Walnut (Juglans nigra)...... 232 Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) ...... 239 Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) ...... 246 Blue Vervain (Verbena hastata)...... 253 Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) ...... 259 Burdock (Arctium lappa and A. minus)...... 266 Calendula (Calendula officinalis)...... 275 Catnip (Nepeta cataria)...... 282 Cayenne (Capsicum annuum)...... 287 Chamomile, German (Matricaria recutita)...... 296 Chasteberry (Vitex agnus-castus)...... 303 Chickweed (Stellaria media)...... 310 Cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.) ...... 315 Comfrey (Symphytum officinale)...... 320 Cranesbill (Geranium maculatum) ...... 328 Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)...... 332 Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea, spp .)...... 341 Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis)...... 353 Elecampane (Inula helenium)...... 360 Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) ...... 366 Goldenrod (Solidago odora, spp.)...... 373 Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)...... 378 Holy Basil, Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)...... 389 Hops (Humulus lupulus)...... 396 Horehound (Marrubium vulgare) ...... 403 Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)...... 408 Isatis (Isatis tinctoria)...... 413 Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)...... 418 Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)...... 426 Lobelia (Lobelia inflata)...... 434 Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis)...... 444 Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca)...... 450 Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) ...... 457 Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)...... 462 Passion Flower (Passiflora incarnata)...... 468 Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)...... 474 Pleurisy Root (Asclepias tuberosa) ...... 481 Sage (Salvia officinalis)...... 486 Saint John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum)...... 494 Scullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora)...... 506 Senna (Senna marilandica)...... 511 Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica)...... 515 Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)...... 523 Valerian (Valeriana officinalis)...... 529 Wood Betony (Stachys officinalis)...... 536 Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) ...... 540 Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus)...... 546

SECTION THREE Index of Health Issues and Herbal Recommendations ...... 553 Herbs for Pregnancy, Childbirth and Lactation ...... 599

APPENDICES Glossary ...... 615 Cross-Reference of Common and Botanical Plant Names...... 626 Media Sources for Herbal Research ...... 638

Bibliography ...... 640

General Index ...... 672