Belonging and Trust in the Inter-Media Society: The Case of the 3.11 Disaster Sonja Petrovic ORCID 0000-0001-6389-5751 Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2019 Asia Institute, Faculty of Arts The University of Melbourne i Abstract The 3.11 disaster in Japan is an epitome of an unexpected, highly complex and intrinsically disruptive media event, and remains an ongoing concern even after eight years. The complexity of the triple disaster not only brought destruction to the surrounding environment but also reconfigured many people’s sense of place, security and communal belonging. In addition to the material reconstruction in the aftermath of disasters, it became equally essential to understand the social aspects of disasters, including how different media forms can aid recovery by strengthening connections with self, family and society. In the context of the sense of communal belonging and perceptions of trust in media, significantly shaped and reconfigured by the 3.11 disaster, this study expands the scholarship on the role of media in disaster communication to focus predominantly on individual media usage patterns and behaviour within contemporary Japanese society. Examining individual media usage experiences utilising various media forms, from traditional mass media forms such as television and newspapers to new, digital players, social media platforms and online news websites, this study looks specifically at how individuals experience their sense of communal belonging and trust in the context of the complex, inter-media environment of the 3.11 disaster. Based on in-depth interviews and social media data from Japan, this research examines the role of traditional mass media and non-traditional online media in evoking and amplifying a sense of belonging to spatial and relational communities. Here, the study elaborates on the role of online media in disaster communication and challenges they impose on traditional mass media use. Furthermore, this research looks at changes in individual perceptions of media credibility in a disaster context and present day, elaborating how shifting trust in media intersects with the changes in the way individuals use and rely on media. Main findings of the study suggest that in the wake of the disruptive media event, Japanese media users move from using traditional mass media as a sole source of news to personalised, inter-media environment which supports the emergence of affective connection to a community. The intensified sense of communal belonging further facilitates the practice of seeking and evaluating information and media credibility through new media forms of connectivity. ii Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is entirely my original work and that any information and material derived from other sources has been indicated and adequately acknowledged. The thesis is fewer than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, figures, references and appendices Signature: Date: 25th October 2019 iii Parts of the publication [Petrovic, S. (2019). A Sense of Communal Belonging in Digital Space: The Case of the 3.11 Disaster. New Voices in Japanese Studies, 11, 74-98. doi: 10.21159/nvjs.11.04] were used in Chapter Five of this thesis. The opinions and arguments presented in the publication are my own. Acknowledgements This work would not have been possible without the financial support of the Melbourne Research Scholarship for international students, established by the University of Melbourne. I am especially indebted to my supervisors, Dr Claire Maree and Dr Ikuko Nakane, who have worked actively to provide me with insightful advice and feedback on my research. Their continuous encouragement, guidance and support were essential for the completion of this research project. This study would not have been completed without the help from all the interview participants. Their willingness to spend time and share their inspiring stories have made an invaluable contribution to my PhD. I am also truly thankful to the friends who helped me find interviewees when I had difficulty in recruiting research subjects. I am incredibly fortunate to have friends in Serbia, Australia and Japan, who have always been supportive of my work and helped in whatever way they could during many unexpected hurdles. Lastly, my ultimate inspiration comes from my parents and sister, and their endless and unconditional love and guidance over the years. Thank you for selflessly encouraging me to explore new directions in life and seek my destiny. Most of all, a heartfelt thank you to my partner, for all his patience, love and support throughout this challenging journey. iv Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................. ix List of Extracts ................................................................................................. x Glossary ............................................................................................................ xi 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Disasters and Media ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 The Context of the Study and Problem Statement .................................................................. 5 1.3 Definitions of Media ................................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 8 1.5 The Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 10 1.6 Thesis Structure ...................................................................................................................... 11 2 Theoretical Framework and Literature Review Media Use, Sense of Communal Belonging, Media Credibility .................................................... 14 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 14 2.2 Sense of Communal Belonging ............................................................................................. 16 2.3 Mediated Disasters ................................................................................................................. 18 2.4 Traditional Mass Media Use and Sense of Communal Belonging ...................................... 21 2.4.1 Imagined Communities ............................................................................................... 21 2.4.2 Television and Social Togetherness ............................................................................ 22 2.5 Online Media Use and Sense of Communal Belonging ....................................................... 25 2.6 Media Credibility .................................................................................................................... 28 2.6.1 Theorising Media Credibility ...................................................................................... 28 2.6.2 Media Use and Perceptions of Credibility .................................................................. 30 2.6.3 Online Media Credibility ............................................................................................ 32 2.7 Japanese Media Landscape ................................................................................................... 34 v 2.7.1 Traditional Mass Media .............................................................................................. 35 2.7.1.1 The Growth of Japanese Television ............................................................ 35 2.7.1.2 Current Trends in Television Use ............................................................... 37 2.7.1.3 The Establishment of the Japanese Press ................................................... 38 2.7.1.4 Japanese Press Today ................................................................................. 40 2.7.1.5 Cartelisation of Japanese media ................................................................. 41 2.7.1.6 The Erosion of Public Trust ........................................................................ 44 2.7.2 Online Media ............................................................................................................... 47 2.7.2.1 The Internet Development ........................................................................... 47 2.7.2.2 Keitai Culture .............................................................................................. 48 2.7.2.3 Curated (matome) Websites ........................................................................ 49 2.7.2.4 Social Media................................................................................................ 50 2.7.2.5 Social Media During 3.11 ........................................................................... 52 2.8 Synthesis of Key Literature .................................................................................................... 53 3 Methodology and Research Approach ...................................................... 56 3.1 Philosophical Underpinnings and Research