Masahiro SUZUKI May 2014 Budapest Politics

CEU eTD Collection The historical development The historical of A thesis submitted to the Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy of Central Central European University in part fulfillment of the Adherence tothePast or Adherence J apan’s Degree Degree Masterof of Science

energy Masahiro SUZUKI May 2014 Budapest politics

Hope forHope theFuture?:

and itsimplication

s for

future nuclearpolicy

CEU eTD Collection Supported by Europeanthe Commission’s Erasmus Mundus Programme (United Kingdom). the Aegean (Greece), EuropeanCentral Univer Mundus Masters course inEnvironmental Sciences, Policy and Management (MESPOM) jointly operated by the University of This thesis issubmitted in fulfillmen MESPOM Environmental Sciences, andPolicy Management Erasmus Mundus Masters Course in

t theof Master Scienceof degree awarded as aresult successful of completion the of Erasmus

sity sity (Hungary), Lund University (Sweden) and the University of Manchester ii

CEU eTD Collection available from the Head of theD is place take may exploitation and disclosures which under conditions the on information Further implications for future nuclear policy 2014. M. Suzuki, (3) made be whic and notterms conditions any of such agreement. University, the may of permission and written contrary, the without the parties third to by use agreement for prioravailable any to subject University, European Central the (2) benot made without the permission (in writing) of the Author. may instructions such with accordance in made copies of process) any (by copies Further made. copies such from obtainedCentral be the may in Details Library. lodged University and European Author the by given instructions with accordance in only made be may extracts, (1) Notes on the copyright propertyintellectual ownershiprights: and of

For bibliographicFor and reference purposes this thesis should be referred toas: p intellectual any of ownership The Copyright Adherence to the Past or Hope for the Future?: The historical development of Ja of developmenthistorical The Future?: the for Hope or Past the toAdherence

in text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies (by any process) either in full, or of or full, in either process) any (by Copies Author. the with rests thesis this of text in epartment of Environmental Sciences and Policy, Central European University. .

Master of Science thesis, Central European University, Budapest.

roperty rights which may be described in this thesis is vested in vested is thesis this in described be may which rights roperty iii

the Librarian. This page must form part of any of part form must page This Librarian. the

pan’s ener pan’s h will prescribe the prescribe will h gy politics gy

and its and

CEU eTD Collection degree qualification or of this any or another for application an of support in submitted been has thesis this in to referred work the of portion No Author’s declaration

other university or instituteother learning. of

Masahiro SUZUKI

CEU eTD Collection Japan, Energy policy, Energy security, Nuclear power Keywords: future increasing on reliance ideology The time. over threats security energy that energy t framework a applying and thesis this historic the adherence to busi and bureaucracy between relationship interlocking power against policy energy latest the released 2011. in disaster nuclear Daiichi policy nuclear Japan’s develo thefor degree of M Masahiro SUZUKI OFABSTRACT THESIS has pment Japan’sof energy politics

paradigm shift politics n aa fo eooi and economic from Japan in i t

promoted among seeks to understand to seeks number of of number

emergence and progression and emergence ula power nuclear

. However, there insufficient is understanding ofJapan’s specific drivers of energy policy and of devel

other other

aster of Science and entitled: ula pwr a is origin its has power nuclear oped in the last nine decades nine last the in oped in the public the gained political parties, media, parties, political

the nation’s

. hr i a is There cnut hsoia analysis historical a conduct o

the

CENTRAL EUROPEANCENTRAL UNIVERSITY submitted by: why Japan still adheres to nuclear power even after Fukushima. By Fukushima. after even power nuclear to adheres still Japan why

and itsimplications for future nuclear policy

bega

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ness the nation’s energy debates, which debates, energy nation’s the nry politics energy ti tei offers thesis this ,

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nih into insight otiue to contributed

s h rao bhn Japan’s behind reason the is the interlocking relationship interlocking the teghnd y politicizing by strengthened

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the

CEU eTD Collection the generations tocome will be asproud of as I am. helpingtoeffortmaintainbeauty its Japanand and spirit helpingtoprogress country our a towards futurethat wil that I in theirhonor, word, mygive alsowould to like I Japan. away from deepestmyappreciationasshowto the Hirotani, for ded to like would I said, that With the yet strong bea a me kept has love and support your suchmaintained and built who have Japan of ancestors the all to goes alwaysalso gratitude This time. same the at humble will I that Knowing smiles. and food of lot a welcomalwayswho relatives and family my thank to like would I Lastly, into areal change inthis world. passionmy shaping towards me guiding and earth, the and environment the protect to are we passionate how t like shine always will together made we that memories these that sure absolutely am I and precious so was together spent we time The you. as people amazing such met my all To sudden rather leave. my after contact close such in kept have we that grateful very am I and aspects, all in studies learned I What MESPOM. suppoand encouragement the for SAP at colleagues past my thank to like would also I academic writing teacher, with Agnes Toth, for her continual dedication improving to my writing skills. meeting a coordinating kindly for Lindhqvist Thomas forespeciallyandLund, in TojoProfessor Professor to goes also gratitude My CEU. at was It such arelief tohave her asa professor and asa sempai since was I the only master’s student from Japan support. her for Tojo Naoko Professor thank to like would also I MESPOM. of year first tough the through mentor my thank to their like for would Commission I European students. ma the amazing and this maintaining staff and and creating faculty to MESPOM dedication all of appreciative very feel also I researcher. research my deepen and expand both to me challenged whoconstantly study, of Cherp, area this Alehto me introduced enthusiasticallyProfessor supervisor, my to gratitude sincere my give to like would I foremost, and First and empower me, challenging me, helping me, encouraging for to grateful feel I people countless are There place. better a writingpoint,atathis master’sarriveenergy onfinally the hope thesiscontributeto making withtoworld this environment.then Sincediscoveredin the interest firstmy eleven, wasI I When Acknowledgements recent tragedy and re utiful country. I respect your contribution, and I hope that I can also help my country to rise again after again rise to country my help also can I that hope I and contribution, your respect I country. utiful

ou, las acntd e ih i wso, n guid and wisdom, his with me fascinated always focus, friends in MESPOM and ESP, I don’t even know how to properly show my gratitude for having for gratitude my show properly to how know even don’t I ESP, and MESPOM in friends

ing me toreach where am I now.

- join the world asa leading nation inprogressing towards a sustainablemore future.

from you in those three and a half years of professional experience benefited my benefited experience professional of years half a and three those in you from

ct ti tei eerh o y rnms Kzk Szk ad Tamayo and Suzuki Kazuko grandmas, my to research thesis this icate

his brilliance as an educatoran asbrilliance his Professor ,

ir vi understanding and support for my decision to be so farunderstandingsodecision betomy and support for

aaa Steger Tamara trs rga fr t aun, urn, n future and current, alumni, its for program ster’s he North Star North ed . Additionally, I would like to thankmy to like would Additionally,I .

ed my return in the study breaks withbreaks study the in returnmy ed ,

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CEU eTD Collection 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. OF CONTENTSTABLE

5.3 5.2 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS DISCUSSION FINDINGS ANDFRAMEWORK METHOD LITERATURE REVI INTRODUCTION

4.4.3 4. 4.4.1 4.3.3 4.3.2 4.3.1 4.2.3 4.2.2 4.2.1 4.1.3 4.1.2 4.1.1 2.3.3 2.3.2 2.3.1 2.2.3 2.2.2 2.2.1 2.1.2 2.1.1

4.2

Era of war:Era of (1937 Limitations Method Theoretical Framework Conclusio Existing theories The energy debates on nuclear power after Fukushima Japan and nuclear power Outline Research Approach Research questions and Aims Background The implications of Fukushima to Japan’s future energy policy The centralized political and economic power The d Post Fukushima (2011 Era after the oil crisis in 1973: energy diversification (1973 Era of post war and Japan’s economic miracle: (1945 Energy system governance: METI’s Energy security threats: volatile price of fossil fuels and emerging environmentalism Vital energy system and th E Energy security threats: rapidly growing demand energyof and oildependence Vital energy system and their vulnerabilities: reliance on oil tore Energy system governance: centralized power to the government and the military Energy security threats: blo Vital energy system and their vulnerabilities: reliance onimported oilfor the military Energy policy and the governance structure of energy market Energy problem becomes energy security issue: historical roots of today’s policy forcesDriving for a nationto pursue nuclear Energy policy makers with vested interests innuclear power An important option for the diversification Affordability and sustainability ofnuclear power Japan’s energy security Japan’s energy policy and nuclear power Energy system governance: stubbornness nuclear of village Energy security threats: increasing energy price and capital loss Vital energy systems and their vulnerabilities: further reliance fuels on fossil nergy system governance: vertical relationship between thegovernment andindustry evelopment of vital systemsenergy and the concept of energy

......

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...... the importance nuclear of power before Fukushima eir vulnerabilities: diverse energy mixrelying onimports cked access tooil ......

...... regulatory power over energy industries ...... vii

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1973) ......

......

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2010) ......

...... - develop Japan ......

......

83 79 69

75 69 65 62 61 60 51 44 39 38 35 32 30 29 24 22 21 12 11 10 21 15 71 21 18 17 15 13 10 .

5 9 9 7 7 5 5 5 3 3 2

1 1

CEU eTD Collection Table 5.1. CO Table 4.9. Subsidies Provided tothe Development Nuclearof Power (unit: 100 million JPY) Table 4. Table 4.7. Import Price Crude of Oil,Coal, and Natural Gas Table 4.6. Suppliers of Coal in2010to Japan Table 4.5. Suppl Table 4.4. Table 4.3. Installed Capacity Coal,of Natural OilandGas, Nuclear Table 4.2. Population, GDP and Energy Supply in Japan Table 4.1. OilProduction, Oil Refinery Capacity and Oil Stock of Japan and the US in 1941 Table 3.1. Sections and Table 2.1. Main Driving Forces Nuclear of Power ofList Tables 8. Year the of Construction, the Operation, and the Capacity Japanese of NPPs Suppliers of Crude in OiltoJapan 2010 2

Emissio iers of Natural Gas(LNG) to Japan in2010

ns from the Power Sector Between 1990 and 2012 Main Data Sources for the Further Analysis

......

...... viii

......

Power (Unit:10000kW) ......

......

71 55 53 47 46 45 45 40 32 24 18 11

CEU eTD Collection Figure 5.3. Positive feedback loopin Japan’s energy politics Figure 5.2. Nuclear power plants and their locations in Japan in2009 Figure 5.1. Time Figure 4.26. governmentalThe control over theenergy industries as of May 2014 F Figure 4.24. Dependence ratio imported of oil passing the energy choke points Figure 4.23. Decline indiversity index of Japan’s PES Figure 4.22. Decline indiversity index of Japa Figure 4.21. Electricity mix Japan,of sudden increase of oiland naturalgas Figure Figure 4.19. Energy availability factor of NPPs inJapan Figure 4.18. Number of NPPs and nuclear power generation Figure 4.17. Figure 4.16. Improvement in diversity index of Japan’s electricity system Figure 4.15. Improvement Figure 4.14. Figure 4.13. F Figure 4.11. Figure 4.10. Figure 4.9. The governmental con Figure 4.8. Share of oilin electricity supply Figure 4.7. Share of oilin Japan’s PES Figure 4.6. Campaign pos Figure 4.5. Decreasing useof oilfor power generation during the era of war Figure 4.4. Decreasing capacity thermal of power Figure 4.3. Military spending compared to the total national Figure 4.2. Capital flow into war Figure 4.1. Di Figure 3.1. ofList Figures igure 4.25. importedThe price crude of oil and natural gas igure 4.12. Coal consumption inJapan

4.20. regulatoryThe framework of theenergy industries in2010 The relationship thethreeof key factors in Japan’s energy system development Nuclear power and decreasing tr Price imported of oil,coal and naturalgas to Japan Increasing dependence onthe imports of fossil fuels Number of vehicles and oilconsumption Share of nuclear power inelectricity supply rect andcomplete control over energy industries by thegovernment scale

of constructionof ter: Electric power is military power in

diversity index of Japan's PES - related economic activities trol overtrol theenergy industries in1950

of NPPs

......

...... end of therisk index in Japan’s PES n’s electricity system , t he

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...... ix

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...... budget

......

, and subsidies provided ...... -

...... 1960s ......

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75 74 73 67 65 64 63 63 62 60 58 57 51 50 49 47 44 43 4 40 38 31 31 29 28 28 27 27 26 17 2

CEU eTD Collection ofList Abbreviations EAF DPJ ANRE AEC ACNRE ACE PES NRA NPU NPP NISA MOFA MOF MITI METI LPG LNG LDP ISEP IIP IEEJ IEA GNP GHQ GDP ENV

Primary Energy Supply Nuclear Regulation Authority National Policy Unit Nuclear Po Nuclear and Industry Safety Agency Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan Ministry of Finance, Japan Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Japan (Current METI) Ministry of Economy, Trade and In Liquefied Petroleum Gas Liquefied Natural Gas Liberal Democratic Party Institute of Sustainable Energy Policies ofIndex Industrial Production InstituteThe of Energy Economics, Japan International Energy Agency NationalGross Product GeneralThe Headquarters of theSupreme Commander for theAllied Powers DomesticGross Product Ministry of theEnvironment, Japan Energy Availability Factor Democra Agency Natural of Resources and Energy Atomic Energy Commission Advisory Committee for Natural Resources and Energy (Former ACE) Advisory Committee Energyfor (Current ANCRE) tic Party of Japan

wer Plant

dustry, Japan (Former MITI and Ministry of Munitions) x

CEU eTD Collection lasting long Hughes the and upon reflecting discussed, litera been international Recent Japan. hasin environmentalism uprising and power struggle economic nuclear to substitute a as power. energy nuclear renewable of out phasing potential the on debate a into falls often public, general the and experts, energy NGOs, industries, sector, power the parties, political energy current The debates both inside and outside thecountry. of NPPs new construct to possibility cit among energy nuclear to resistance increasing the despite power nuclear restart to aim its showed and 2014) (METI 2014 April in policy energy national latest its released government Japanese The power. nuclear to respect with particularly pass already have years Three supply before the accident (METI 2014 NPP no is there 2014, May to Japan forced It nuclearplants54 poweraccident,existing (NPPs), includingthe safety the 4destroyedinspection. forin society. and economy Japanese to disturbance severe a caused 2011, Fukushima Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 (hereafter plan this electricity demand by2030the (METI 2010). It was also viewed asa climate change mitigatio of 50% than more by capacity its increase to aimed government the and independence, energy nation’s security. national Japan’s with e external energy imported of motivatedchallengealso Japannuclearto develop origins energyorder reduceenergyto in imports. Duringits the and sources energy the diversifying Japan encouraged 1970s, the of embargo oil institutional the by triggered mid the in challenge, first The welfare naturalresourceof availability limitedunfortunatethe which force years, ninety Japan, 1.1 1. nergy has been considered as a major lifeline, and the vulnerability of energy systems was closely associated closely was systems energy of vulnerability the and lifeline, major a as considered been has nergy

Introduction Background

and a nation a

of the of nation.

actors and events have had significant influence on the continuity of Japan’s energy supply. Thus supply. energy Japan’s of continuity the on influence significant had have events and actors a gone had developing a national economy national a developing , which was triggered by the tsunami resulting from the resultingtsunamifrom the by triggeredwas which ,

during 21) n Hong and (2013) with

discourse in Japan in discourse fueling for sources energy dominant the been have fuels fossil which hog sros reconsiderations serious through very limited very

zn. h plc de nt agt priua ftr eeg mx n ipis a implies and mix energy future particular a target not does policy The izens. operating in Japan, which accountedfor whichJapan, in operating - Before 2011, n 2011, Before d ic te ciet and accident, the since ed 20 et al. et fossil fuels, has gone through major energy security challenges over the past the over challenges security energy major through gone has fuels, fossil th ,

century drove the country into war (Yergin 1988). The second challenge, second The 1988). (Yergin war into country the drove century in addition in

21) cmae Jpns pre Japan’s compares (2013),

a after Fukushima after ; ANRE 2013 .

There uclear power uclear

to restarting the existing ones existing the restarting to have been have Fukushima a 1 ). from

, regarding the nation’s energy strategy, between the between strategy, energy nation’s the regarding ,

t h sm tm, ut feunl, h rl of role the frequently, quite time, same the At was considered as an ideal solution to bolster the bolster to solution ideal an as considered was aa’ eeg strategy energy Japan’s s

h tid hleg ocre t te ain the nation, the to occurred challenge third the three posed a major disturbance to the continuitythe majordisturbanceto poseda ). Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

Great East Japan Earthquake on March 11 March on EarthquakeJapanEast Great occurrences - approximately uuhm ad post and Fukushima resources to restructure its energy system by system energy its restructure to , which further fuels the energy the fuels further which ,

in Japan’s modern history modern Japan’s in

30% of the total electricitytotalthe of 30% MT 21, 04. The 2014). 2010, (METI still still ture including Haya including ture n solution. However, remai - a country’s military country’s a uuhm energy Fukushima gradually ns ns ambiguous, tp all stop history, As

and shi of in

CEU eTD Collection as followingThe W m The This thesis research will be conducted with the following research question(s) inmind: 1.2 later encouraged Japan to initiate and further developed nuclear power. ta to nation the driven have energy of conception the and systems particular,In the focus this of historical research toexamine is developments how those the of nation’senergy economic structure affected th analyze and particularlytoday,policy its nuclearpolicy. specific country Japan’s identify to the policies analyze energy will of thesis drivers this diverse analyses, and studies recent the of shortcomings two the overcome to order In political economy have affected the nation’s energy policy and w Japan’senergysubsequent formationsof the believesthese challenges and Theauthor (WWII). and II War World period that to prior challenges security consequently energygone hadthroug major faced Japan However, source. energy primary historicalitstheir investthein nuclearpoweranalysis1970sstartedas becausewhenonly afterthat Japan to is is shortcoming second The social some make that aspects environmental and pa to attractive economic more solutions present energy the only not is it that believes author The structures industrial and economic current history, modern their similaritie possess nations two the since 2012) Takahashi 2012; Moe 2008; Iida (e.g. Germany of that with notably, often,respectively,fixate argumentsare their that is onefirst The two shortcomings. after energypolicy Japan’s of analyses the similar and studies 1970s. These the incrises oil world around revolve the studies during These Japan in strategy. power energy nuclear of future development Japan’s of scenarios various offer and policies Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the hy does Japan’s energy adherepolicy to milestones

 Research q

, current and historic that can explain theconfiguration energy of systems. ain question security challenges? energynational the to response in decades,nine last the in developed energysystem Japan’s has How economic and economic

how these how to

three guide this thesis towards finding the answers

is: s uestions ub

forgotten - environment and safety. In addition, the energy strategy of Japan is often compared often is Japan of strategy energy the addition, In safety. and environment questions

that the recent studies on Japan’s energy and nuclear policy almost alw almost policy nuclear and energy Japan’s on studies recent the that h drasticchangesh structuralpolitical initseconomy, particularly beforeandafter e d

past national energy challenges and the subsequent changes in its political and political its in changes subsequent the and challenges energy national past

and and A evelopment Japan of

were developed and utilized as

rticular countries, but there are also are there but countries, rticular ims

The author alsoauthorextend The nuclear power even after

ains eet nry itr, rdmnnl atr the after predominantly history, energy recent nation’s ’s energy system 2

for for t ill , yet have been taking different energy paths energy different taking been have yet , d on limited aspects of energy systems, mostenergysystems, of aspectslimited on d base he main question s continue to

the ke a certain energy path at a time, and in and time, a at path energy certain a ke s s

factors scope to explore this area and studies also of and formulated Fukushima other factors such as such factors other

do so in thefuture. that affect the nation’s energy nation’s the affect that

this .

research to beforeWWIIresearch to ?

the concept of energy. Fukushima political and political

ays start ays

have s in s .

CEU eTD Collection be presented with data sources. e the and threats, security 20 early the influence that Japan’sfactors energypolicy an with chapter previous the in reviewed a present will chapter This Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework and Method how that can be thesis this with contribution a make to intends author the what to demonstrate to chapter this of aim an is It thesis. this of questions research the to answers the provide potentially could that theories on chapterThis will review existing literature both Japan’s on energy policy with onits afocus Chapter restThe of thethesis is structured asfollows. 1.4 described below th towardsaim, work the researchandquestions the answers to find To 1.3 energy challenges. past the overcome to order in time respective the during taken were that strategies energy past nation’s the system energy current the as critical is analysis historical This history. isthecomplete necessarytask,it analyzeto how Japan’s developed energysystemcourse has in the modern of di informed more a allow would power nuclear to adherence its particularly policy, energy Japan’s influence that ans By

       Outline Research Approach

weringtheresearch questions

Discuss why and h system energy decades Japan’s how exploring by results the Present Develop atheoretical framework and research method for this thesis nation the in path certain a takes country a why reasons the identify help that theories existing the Examine Review theexisting literature energy onJapan’s policy with afocus onits nuclear policy Does What drove (and still drives) Japan toinvest in nuclear power? 2: Literature R th

Fukushima ’s energy development and evaluate if they are applicable toJapan etr. hs fcos include factors These century.

: achieved.

eview

nergy governance nergy bring a ow Japan became gradually inclined to nuclear power and adherestill toit

hoeia framework theoretical

paradigm csin n esbe n ssanbe nry ahas n h country. the in pathways energy sustainable and feasible on scussion , thisaimsto thesis, - shift making . The method of conducting the further research and analysis will analysis and research further the conducting of method The . i fo adtoa scholarly additional from aid

h vtl nry ytm ad hi vleaiiis te energy the vulnerabilities, their and systems energy vital the

to Japan’s

and how they have cohavetheyand how eeoe b te uhr from author the by developed 3

contribute to understanding national understanding to contribute energy policy Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

of Japan is Japan of

have s is study follows the research the studyfollowsis ? -

evolved in the nation’s history sinceevolvedinthe ore. t xlis t explains It sources.

eeoe oe te at nine last the over developed

the accumulated product of product accumulated the obnn the combining . Achieving this aim this Achieving . nuclear policy, and

, - e th he

level factorslevel and to show to and

approach e core ree theories To

CEU eTD Collection thefor future nuclear policy in Japan. author re be will thesis this for utilized framework theoretical The thesis. this of conclusion the presents chapter This Chapter 6: Conclusions politics to adhere 20 early the since developed chapt This Chapter 5: Discussion crises (1974 (1946 miracle economic Japan’s and war post of “Era the 1945)”, to (1937 energy major by sections four into divided be will chapter this history, of eras following the influenced have they how and factors the of nature mod the following present chapter This Chapter 4: Findings Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the - addressed examines if there is a potential paradigm shift of Japan’s energy politics and addresses the implicationsthe addresses and politics energy Japan’s of shift paradigm potential a is there if examines r icse hw aa’ eeg sses te ocp o eeg, h eeg gvrac have governance energy the energy, of concept the systems, energy Japan’s how discusses er -

and the Japanese energy history from the early 20 early the from history energy Japanese the and 2010)”, and the “Post Fukushima (2011 to nuclear power even after ern energy history from history energy ern

o te he cr fcos vle, hl itrciey nlecn ec ohr by other, each influencing interactively while evolved, factors core three the how th

century. It is an aim of this chapter to show what makes the current Japanese current the makes what show to chapter this of aim an is It century. threats that affec that threats

the early 20 early the Fukushima ted Japan’s energy politics energy Japan’s ted -

4 )”

th . .

century

. In order to cast a light on the co the on light a cast to order In . century to the current will be revisited. be will current the to century -

as turning points turning as 1973)”, the “Era after the oil the after “Era the 1973)”, :

“Era of war of “Era - evolving

The CEU eTD Collection douji ni kyoukyuu daiichiwo to shi, keizai otherwise indicated.): “Ener 1 “security” of level the measure to methodologies and objectives different and systems energy of complexity nat among varies security energy of definition The 2.1.2 (METI t adapt to strive to time, same the at and Efficiency) (Economic burdens achieve, to (Safety), in released document policy the Therefore, policy. energy Fukushima past the in 3Es the achieving in ( interests nation’s the by formulated been has Japan of policy energy The economic agenda alw has resources its of 96% imports the to Due oil. crude of importer 2 the (LNG), gas naturalliquefied importer of largest world’s the that suggests 2013) (IEA Agency of imports on dependent significantly the on research isand resources natural in poor is acknowledgementJapan internationalthat the with invariablystart energypolicy nation’s and domestic and strategy energy Japan’s on documents policy national The 2.1.1 research. this for thesis will be given This section pr 2.1 applicablebe could toformulatetheoreticala framework explainingforenergy Japanese (see policyChapter 3). exami existingr the ingaps the explore(2)power; nuclear with relationshipits and policy energy Japan’s of pictureoverall the present (1) objectives:three following the with on focusing particularly policy, energy Japan’s on review literature a presents chapter This 2. METI Translated from the original wording (For the rest of the thesis, all translations are made by the author unless

Literature R Literature

Japan and nuclear power ne existing theories dedicated to conceptualize a nation’s energy policy energy nation’s a conceptualize to dedicated theories existing ne Japan’s energyJapan’s policy and nuclear pow Japan’s energyJapan’s security

, kankyou heno tekigou wo hakaru tame, saidaigen no 2014 2010; Valen 2010;

, another core element, “Safety”, emerged as an additional factor to construct the nation’s future nation’s the construct to factor additional an as emerged “Safety”, element, core another , a ).

esents 1

(Tanaka 2012; y pt the put ays tine 2011): tine Primary Energy Supply ( Supply Energy Primary most importantly most the recent Japanese energy policy and its relation with nuclear power. The justification eview

ugii sei in this section April

aaee oenet eie th defines government Japanese eue spl o eeg a energy of supply secured E

kou METI nergy security, nergy saku no youkou ha, anzensei wo zentei shitato ue de, enerugii no antei

Japan was the world’s 5 world’s the was Japan

– , the stable supply of energy (Energy Security) (Energy energy of supply stable the , 2014, as “the key, which gives consideration to a safety aspect of energy of aspect safety a to consideration gives which key, “the as 2014, shutdown ritsusei no koujyou ni yoru tei

the importance power ofnuclear

2014

osl ul. h lts pbiain rm h Itrainl Energy International the from publication latest The fuels. fossil , along with the gaps of a ). PES

of the NPPs in Japan since 5 since Japan in NPPs the of E ) conomic efficiency, and efficiency, conomic

(Toyoda 2012; ISEP 2013). This lack of domestic energy domestic of lack This 2013). ISEP 2012; (Toyoda ions, organizations ions, er 5

esearch and justify the necessity ofnecessitythe justify and esearch th torikumi okonauwo koto de aru te ains tot priority utmost nation’s the s

largest energy consumer in 2012 and currently is currently and 2012 in consumer energy largest nto’ eeg plc, n the in policy, energy nation’s e kosuto deno enerugii kyo existing literature nd Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

largest impo largest ,

and researchers due to the increasing the to due researchers and o the environment (Environment) environment the o E before nvironmental conservation. After conservation. nvironmental th - making and nuclear policy that policy nuclear and making

rter of coal, and the 3 the and coal, of rter of May 2014, Japan currently Japan 2014, May of

identified for further with minimized with Fukushima ukyuu jitsugenwo shi, .

” f t pltcl and political its of

this thesis; and (3)and thesis;this

its nuclear policy nuclear its aet energy latest

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of . The The

the auxiliary equipment necessary to produce and maintain and produce to necessary equipment auxiliary the completely replace nuclearreplace completely g from nuclear to a to nuclear from g

a icesn nme o rsaces bt i Jpn n oesa, ae en attent been have overseas, and Japan in both researchers, of number increasing an , Fukushima one of the first Japanese scholars who revealed the hidden cost hidden the revealed who scholars Japanese first the of one necessary to understand to necessary utiaiiy evrnet n sft prpcie. nme o suis ae been have studies of number A perspective). safety and (environment sustainability to cycle nucle cycle to has avery significant meaning inthe context international of politics” (2003). interlockingrelationship cer oe hs en aig ire rtcs rgrig its regarding criticism fierce facing been has power uclear . Tetsuya Iida, the Executive Director of the Institute for SustainableEnergyPolicies Institutefor the of Executive the Director TetsuyaIida, . . In this In . Moe 2012; ar fuels, yet does not apply these apply not does yet fuels, ar

renewable energy renewable regard, the justification for this research is presented at the end of each of end the at presented is research this for justification the regard, - out by the year 2040 year the by out et al.

why the current Japanese energy policy still seeks to retain nuclear retain to seeks still policy energy Japanese current the why Dewit 2011; Kingston 2013; Vivoda 2012 power 2012; Greenpeace 2012).

on worldwideon 2000whilefrom2010,to nuclearis 2%thatof only betweenbureaucracy businessinterestswithinand vested and that Japan should begin decrease its dependence on nuclear on dependence its decrease begin should Japan that and . It claims that renewable capacity accounts for a 25% share 25% a for accounts capacityrenewable that claims It . t’s idea has been influential in formulating 7 - based society (e.g. Iida 2008; Dewit and Kaneko 2011; Kaneko and Dewit 2008; Iida (e.g. society based

vest in renewable energy since renewable energy renewable since energy renewable in vest Fukushima

(2011, 2014). Similarly, Greenpeace Japan (2012) Japan Greenpeace Similarly, 2014). (2011, , of which the most of these of most the which of ,

Fukushima Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University technologies to nuclear weap nuclear to technologies

as the “culprit” for maintaining Japanese maintaining for “culprit” the as

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even “cheaper”, even 2013) ) argue that nuclear power will be an important source of energy in Japan in all three scenarios three all in Japan in energy of source important an be will power nuclear that argue ) Furthermore, Vivoda is of the view that view the of is Vivoda Furthermore, tional competitiveness. Thus is actually very expensive very actually is otiue t J to contributed power power . was Vivoda (2012) also argues that Japan has no other choice but to restart nuclear power nuclear restart to but choice other no has Japan that argues also (2012) Vivoda

ared to other sources of energy. He energy. of sources other to ared - argument to thos to argument ute developed further for Japan is both economically feasible and environmentally desirable. Hong to renewables. The Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan (FEPC), the industry the (FEPC), Japan of Companies Power Electric of Federation The renewables. to uh s en as such nuclear energy will likely play a significant role in Japan’s energy future energy Japan’s in role significant a play likely will energy nuclear

of nuclearof powerlower is

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that - ), Chairman & CEO of the Institute of Energy Economics, Japan (IEEJ), and Koyama (2013) Koyama and (IEEJ), Japan Economics, Energy of Institute the of CEO & Chairman ), to the enhancement of safer construction and operation of nuclear power facilities around the around facilities power nuclear of operation and construction safer of enhancement the to aig vr h ls fu dcds a fsee a etd neet tutr i Jpns energy Japan’s in structure interest vested a fostered has decades four last the over making Bsd n th on Based . se dependence on nuclear on dependence se , the energy sector, and the nuclear industry. Moe (2012) demonstrates how this monopoly of monopoly this how demonstrates (2012) Moe industry. nuclear the and sector, energy the ,

a comprehensive more view onwhy Japan retains nuclear power is necessary ics. Heics. additionallyidentified

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Economy Energy energy problem security becomes issue 2 et al. et . 1 . Fukushima

hese theories are limited in their in limited are theories hese Main Driving P Forces ofNuclear

ecurity 21) ru ta “n nry oiy rbe i a eeg scrt ise f t s rsne and presented is it if issue security energy an is problem policy energy “an that argue (2014) —

as it had it as the cost of nuclear power can be higher, depending on what externalities to include at wh at include to externalities what on depending higher, be can power nuclear of cost the power

Driving Forces of Nuclear Power nuclear power also provides a clue to explain the strong relation (o relation strong the explain to clue a provides also power nuclear

Xu’s additional suggestion additional Xu’s when nucl when Enhancement of national security Reputation of technological excellence Development of nuclear related business Development of thehighly intensive technology Reduction otherof air pollutants Reduction greenhouseof gases Supplying the growing energy demand Stabilization of the electricity cost Reduction of fuelfossil imports Diversification of energy mix

I adto, h pplto got ( growth population the addition, In . nry n aa drn te ains ai eooi got i te ot a era war post the in growth economic rapid nation’s the during Japan in energy

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government and industries beforeindustries and government

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c in Japan also realized that nuclear power nuclear that realized also Japan in c to overcome th economic and national prestige can be another be can prestige national and economic

: h

s potentially s

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University istorical roots of today’s policyistorical of today’s roots ua geography human em.

more costly than costly more hscl geography, physical Adamantiades and Kessides Lester andLester Rosner (2009)

Fukushima Theory SourcesTheory Jewell (2011) Toth Toth (

ad the and ) Xu (2011) Xu (2011) r interlocking relation) interlocking r (2009) 2008) . Moreover,there.

of the nation to the of thermal energy thermal

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CEU eTD Collection (1988), Australian Government (2009), Cherp and Jewell(2011), and Winzer (2012). 3 oriented market (e.g. governed be should it how and energy of interpretation (1) politics;energy of areas four paradigmthem,a to shift such U the in situation the to referring by market energy gover theof transitioningdiscusses role also Helm current situation of the Japanese energy market, p theo This and ittaxes, regulates and subsidizes” (2002). resources, the owns it (…) presence government pervasive a with oligopoly, an best at is market energy “the returne be to time government without ke a is (4) sector targets; environmental energy the (3) developments; social and industrial to relates significantly one intervention dominant the is it respects by policy energy in intervene to tend Governments 2.3.3 to face national crises in its modern history. nation’s the imports: as stressed been continuously has power nuclear Additionally, agents). (securitization industries and government the by energy” domestic improve Japa of focus predominant the to applies also argument This that requires an increasing demand oil,and of thedominant power of national oil companies (2014). itshaspolicyinthe rationale energy its of priorityutmost current nation’s the as strategyprocurement oil the on focus determined China’s the following By security issue and by is what by develops thus system energy nation’s A means. what what a (1) questions: related representing security three following the by by problem issue security energy an into problem policy energy an transform agents” “securitization economy the of ‘continuity’ Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

with reference to the securitization theory firstly proposed by Wæver (1993) and further explored by Yergin Helm a transition a

Energy structure policygovernance and the nry euiy s el priual cnieig ht ula pwr a be fae a “quasi as framed been has power nuclear that considering particularly well, as security energy y f oenet n idsr rltos n osrcigte ains nry oiy ple o the to applies policy energy nation’s the constructing in relations industry and government of ry h suggests who

are () h eeg sco i te ore f osdrbe a rvne; 2 te nry sector energy the (2) revenues; tax considerable of source the is sector energy the (1) :

is actually happening in energy policy paradigm policy energy in happening actually is

d and the future energy market is very unpredictable for many reasons. Thus he states that states he Thus reasons. many for unpredictable very is market energy future the and d rmwr with framework al what measures need geographical feature geographical

insurance since the investment in power stations and energy networks takes substantialtakes networks energy and stations power ininvestment the since insurance

ht Te oenet s mjr lyr n h eeg market energy the in player major a is government “The that in energypolicy the historical energy security risks security energy historical or the realization of ‘major national values and objectives.’” and values national ‘major of realization the or energy sector simply cannot invest in the nation’s “security of energy supply” energy of “security nation’s the in invest cannot simply sector energy the

”

ouin o ov Ja solve to solution

fcs n nwrn tee he qetos Leung questions, three these answering on focus a (2002

to be taken to overcome them. c ) an beobservedan if substantialarechanges following observedin the .

with scarce natural resources availability, whichavailability, resources natural scarcewith

codn t him, to According - articularly with nuclear policy, making nments and regulatory bodies in a privatized and liberalizedandprivatized a bodiesin nmentsregulatoryand nited 12 a’ ro cue f t mjr eedne n energy on dependence major its of cause root pan’s

for a for

K of ingdom

energy marketenergy relate great ’ rcn eeg plc on policy energy recent n’s

is proposed by Kern by proposed is securitized h mi raos for reasons main the

to protect; (2) from what risks what from (2) protect; to

d to oil supply,d tooil evolving anenergy system

number of reasons, most notably most reasons, of number (2002).

by those agents as a key national key a as agents those by A

argued by Anzai (2012). framework t framework et al et al. et pae t achieve to player y . 3 – governmental this

They suggest that suggest They (2013)

ula pwr to power nuclear forced o ass o ned i many in indeed,

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e is a risk of not questioning why questioning not of risk a is e sections

Conclusion formulated is important to understand what the natio the what understand to important is formulated

of the of of the nation the of

policy

amount y resources y (1) what drives a nation to pursue nuclear power; (2) how an energy problem becomes an energy an becomes problem energy an how (2) power; nuclear pursue to nation a drives what (1)

(2002)

modern wo -

t led); (2) policy goals; (3) policy instruments; and (4) governance institutions. governance (4) and instruments; policy (3) goals; policy (2) led); t co making in its modern history

the potential transition of energy policy and governance that zy

l poie getr nih into insight greater a provide uld according nations among differentiates It . of research is now ava now is research of

oiat ik o te nry system energy the of risks dominant relationship emerged and strengthened under the influence of Japan’s major energysecurityJapan’smajor influence of the relationship strengthenedunder emergedand . , the industrial and economic structure economic and industrial the ,

This occurredthrough the U the

nuc

is a complex process that varies in each nation due to the differences in the av the in differences the to due nation each in varies that process complex a is en ,

and couraged Mrs. Thatcher to weaken the coal miners’ union power as a stra a as power union miners’ coal the weaken to Thatcher Mrs. couraged lear believe nited the

France aimed to increase the nuclear the increase to aimed France diplomacy. In that sense, this thesis explored the existing theories in order to order in theories existing the explored thesis this sense, that In diplomacy. power U K

nited that the co the that ingdom s .

and environmental concern environmental and development in Japan in development

it was e was it K ilable, especially after especially ilable, ingd , it was the was it , - profile events, most importantly n importantly most events, profile oee, ot f hs rsac fcss n iie apcs of aspects limited on focuses research these of most However, politization mbination of the three theories reviewed in reviewed theories three the of mbination xplain its continual investment in nuclear in investment continual its xplain om stablished and developed as developed and stablished

during

Japan’s energy policy and its its and policy energy Japan’s risk of a coal miner’s strike that threatened the threatened that strike miner’s coal a of risk

13 of energy,bringingof

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, the level of economic development economic of level the ,

to what kind of risks that needs that risks of kind what to at respective times when specific energy poli energy specific when times respective at n considered as considered n Yet 2000s and consequently and 2000s

- Fukushima oil. faceted and context and faceted d nuclear related industries is industries related nuclear d et al.

s little has been has little

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University of energy of This argument implies that identifying and identifying that implies argument This

power

(2013) , dedicated to Japan’s nuclear policy nuclear Japan’s to dedicated , the four areas of energyareas politicsthe fourof capacity as a diversification strategy diversification a as capacity Japan’s ,

so hurriedly so

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transitioned the energy the transitioned

power may sft factors safety d threat. framed as the culprit the as framed this and this

as to as a beneficial insight

bring.

to be diversified. be to

Kern . These theories These . identified as identified

Moreover, the Moreover, why and how and why

as well as in as well as the last two last the

et al country’s

ailability in order in ey to tegy of fuel of .

The . argue into cies

the to ,

CEU eTD Collection history. that energy Japan’s in before together examined been never have theories challenges and risks energy contemporary the including features theories These between government and industry. constructed is policy energy national a how (3) and; issue security Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the the combination of combination the

individually scarcity of natural resources and the great the and resources natural of scarcity

t hese theories theories hese

give an insight into insight an give

provides a greater insight into Japan’s energy politics in its modern its in politics energy Japan’s into insight greater a provides ,

and the government and industry relations. industry and government the and explaining 14

Japan’s energy policy in terms of terms in policy energy Japan’s energy demand, the natio the demand, energy n governed and - policy making and making policy s re a as However, these three these However, the author the ut f interaction of sult n’s historical and historical n’s its geographical believes CEU eTD Collection regions or nations predicted ene such asoilembargo; (2)“robustness” as inreducing the risks thatcan bepredicted to occur such asscarcity of actions“intentional” and actors external from disruption energy of risks the mitigating in as “sovereignty” (1) (2011) Jewell and system energy vital nation’s w identify to mind in kept be will risks?”, what as considered ene these vulnerability that resources geography physical both by shaped are systems energy vital particular, in critare that factors of group first The further refine thethree key factors that affect Japan’s energ vi the of despite tiny concernits 20 early the in war time the during Empire, British the why on rationale a provide They society. a of continuity the to threat to a disruptionbe could a system thus function, to society a for system energy critical a represents system energy “vulnerabi defining by wid objectives a cover can definition this that argue and security energy of conceptualization generic a as systems” energy vital of vulnerability “low present Jewell and Cherp historica government and industry (2) factors; geographical (1) energy: three, following framewo theoretical a construct to section previous the in reviewed theories of clusters three the combines thesis This 3.1 3. “Energy security threats” security “Energy

rgy resources and its subsequent uprising cost; and (3) “resilience” as in allev in as “resilience” (3) and cost; uprising subsequent its and resources rgy

   FrameworkMethod and Theoretical Framework

Energy system governance Energy security threats Vital energy system k o dt cleto ad nepeain Truh h ltrtr rve, h ato ietfe the identified author the review, literature the Through interpretation. and collection data for rk system energy tal , g tras eoe o eee ht hy eur imdae oiia ad economi and political immediate require they that severe so become threats rgy

to occur due to the complexity of energy systems such as political instability of energy producing energy of instability political as such systems energy of complexity the to due occur to n ua geography human and icalfor “energy crises.” In this regard, the question formulated by Leung by formulated question the regard, this In crises.” “energy

e fcos ht ae fetd aa’ eeg plc, pcfcly on specifically policy, energy Japan’s affected have that factors key is exposed to thenext factor

that a nation or a region needs to consider for mitigating those pot those mitigating for consider to needs region a or nation a that

, societyweaknessesfunctionandtocould their that

and technologic and

proportion in the energyproportioninthe system relations

, refers to refers — s s “

. V and their vulnerabilities n thereby and T ital energy systems and their vulnerabilities” their and systems energy ital

here are three are here , . iy ad vtl nry systems energy “vital and lity”

such as pop as such th potential al innovations. These three perspectives will also be utilized in order to order in utilized be also will perspectives three These innovations. al

century, considered the stable supply of oil as the main energy security energy main the as oil of supply stable the considered century,

society ,

major threatmajor , “E additional ulation growth and growth ulation ad otmoay nry euiy het ad () the (3) and; threats security energy contemporary and l hat Japan perceived (and perceives) as a major threat to the to threat major a as perceives) (and perceived Japan hat nergy security threats — a ta tm. h ato blee ti faeok can framework this believes author The time. that at ,

15 . They argue that oil wasoil that argue. They

vrey f itrcl n cneprr rss and risks contemporary and historical of variety e perspectives of energy of perspectives s y policy into the following groups:

to Japan’s Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University ”

increasing energy demand. energy increasing (2013)

most important energy objective. Whenobjective. energy important most seriouslydisruptthat ” .

. ,

, r , codn to According such as the availability of energy of availability the as such efers to Japan’s energy s energy Japan’s to efers iating the risks that cannot becannot that risks the iating the vulnerability security et al.

(2014), “[protect] from “[protect] (2014), ential risks and threats: and risks ential h plc of policy the

devel hi study their society ato te are they action c

oped by Cherp by oped of the function of

They

. For Japan. For the energy the

a vital a , create nuclear ystems

CEU eTD Collection Figure 3.1 continues andvulnerabilities specific its system as considered overcome for triggers give threats security These oil. imported oil of price the in increase sudden weaknes These imports. energy on dependence as suchweaknesses certain carries which system, energyvital nation’s the of formation E V (1) factors: three These been identified as those who have dominantinfluences in the nation’s energy policy. later threat security energy new can again which system, energy next the of formation the on influence an have will risks and overcome energy in sectors private and hub, a as acting center trigger governance a as acts factor This them. overcome to taken measures subsequentmitigationtheandcontemporary threats energysecurityand Japan’s historicalanalyzeand identify Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the “Energy system governance system “Energy nergy system governancesystem nergy

for the purpose of purpose the for

). the threats, which could lead to a major transformation major a to lead could which threats, the threats national certain overcome to level national a at taken actions Those threats. security energy ”

crises . This new governance design governance new This e ae unrbe o usqet nry euiy het, e t i ebros r a or embargoes oil it be threats, security energy subsequent to vulnerable are ses

, overcoming the particular threats. particular the overcoming tl nry system energy ital

co ” refers to refers ” - evolve over time. For example, the geographical constraints of Japan affect theaffectJapanconstraints of geographicalexample, the For time. over evolve

in time. For Japan in particular, the government and the energy sector have sector energy the and government the particular, in Japan For time. in n h cs o a ia eeg system energy vital a of case the in

the role of public authorities, often including the government in the in government the including often authorities, public of role the this cycle this s

n ter vulnerabilities their and s an energy policy energy an s

of co of 16 the formation the - policy

evolution of the development of energy systems ( systems energy of development the of evolution

This newly developed energy system also carriesalso system energy developed newly This - making of the governance system governance the of

o for to to reinforce or reconstruct a new energy new a reconstruct or reinforce to of

n te interactio the and energy system governance system energy () E (2) ; te et fa next the m

ht s mesl dependent immensely is that eg securi nergy

tr “nry system “Energy ctor, s ewe them between ns y t ty if the thre the if be exposed to exposed be hreats in order to order in ; and ats

See

are (3) on to

CEU eTD Collection (2011 Fukushima an war crises energy three those disaster 1937 in Japan against security are There E three key f en Japan’s of development the examine to order in literature related and organizationsinternational and Japan by compiled after even retain of power favor nuclear in still is government Japanese the why understanding to contribute to seeks paper This 3.2 Developed by the author. Figure nergy security threats, and

Method J d

3 in 2011. Therefore, this paper divides Japanese modern energy history into history energy modern Japanese divides paper this Therefore, 2011. in in its m its in . 1 pns cnmc ial (1945 miracle economic apan’s three energy three actors developed by theauthor . The relationship ofthethreekeyfactors inJapan’senergysystem development ergy politics and energy and politics ergy

odern history. These These history. odern -

. h aayi i dn i crnlgcl re fr h proe f atn lgt n the on light casting of purpose the for order chronological in done is analysis The ).

95 () h (is) world (first) the (2) 1945; threats considered as energy crises that posed a major complication to Japan to complication major a posed that crises energy as considered threats as turning points turning as Fukushima Energy system governance

systems T ahee hs i, hs eerh xlrs aiu eeg statistics energy various explores research this aim, this achieve To . energy

in the

. These periods are periods These . -

1973);

in its modern history. This analysis is done with a focus on the on focus a with done is analysis This history. modern its in crises are: crises previous secti i cii i 17; n () h Fksia aih nuclear Daiichi Fukushima the (3) and 1973; in crisis oil (3 17 Ea fe te i cie (19 crises oil the after Era ) .

(1) international embargos and embargos international (1) on: : (1) Era of war (1937 to (1937 war of Era (1) :

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University V ital energy system 73 four s

and their vulnerabilities, – 1945);

periods according to according periods 2010 economic ); (2) Era of post of Era (2)

n () Post (4) and sanctions ’s energy ’s

ing

CEU eTD Collection focus primary oil. crude on instead concentrating diesel,and gasoline as such products oil different and oil crude of kinds various consider not does thesis The necessary and citizens, Japanese Japanese government, Japanese the to limited are actors these Moreover, influence. of power in thelast ninedecades strategyenergy national the as Japan’s anticipate aims paper This 3.3 paradigm change, proposed by power?”; challenges?”; security energy national the to sub three and after evenpower nuclear to adherepolicy energy Japan’s does “Whyquestion main the includes analy the completing After Table data sources for each section. the between relationship Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the 1973 1945 1937 2011

Era

- - - Limitations

3 201 1973 1945 . - 1 .

large and

Sec

- (3) questions of this thesis, which currently accounts for 97% of the total natural g natural total the of 97% for accounts currently which thesis, this of oprtos atog sm frin actors foreign some although corporations, tions and section

“Did 4.4.1 4.3.1 4.2.1 4.1.1 and theirvulnerabilities o nlz the analyze to future future Vital energy system

. H Fukushima

nuclea three key factors. keythree (1) owever Main ses of the four periods, the questions the periods, four the of ses

Statistics Bureau Digital Library EDMC (2014) “How has Japan’s energy system develo system energy Japan’s has “How National Diet IEA IEA Statistics

Government websites and Data source . It identifies i identifies It . documents Kern r energy policy energy r literature Related (2012) , Data Sources for th historical

the author does notthe authordoes intend

bring a policy paradigm change?” paradigm policy a bring Moreover, the term “natural gas” i gas” “natural term the Moreover,

et al.

(2013),

Table eeomn o Jpns nry systems energy Japan’s of development nfluential actors for each of Japan’s energyJapan’s of each for actors nfluential . section (2) It 4.2.2 4.1.2 4.3.2 4.4.2

will be utilized Energy security threats focuses on the macro the on focuses 3 Wa doe ad tl die) aa t ivs i nuclear in invest to Japan drives) still (and drove “What . 1

18 and analysis further the for periods divided the presents e F

urther A s EDMC (2014) epcal te ntd States United the especially , tatements Government websites and websites and Data source documents documents

Corporate to literature speeches Political Related

to seek an answer for thelast question. comparatively posed in this thesis will be answered be will thesis this in posed

nalysis .

ped in the last nine decades, in response in decades, nine last the in ped

Additional framework to access a policy a access to framework Additional and and

ncludes liquefied natural gas ( gas natural liquefied ncludes

analysis of Japan’s energy policy such policy energy Japan’s of analysis

section evaluate each actor’s individual Energy system governance 4.3.3 4.2.3 4.1.3 4.4.3 as supply in Japan ‘METI Japan in supply as

n re t epan and explain to order in

policy ae includ are , Legal Related literature Governmental Media articles websites and websi Data source proceedings Committee documents documents Corporate - making

documents Fukushima tes and

LNG, the LNG, ed

systems , which ,

when

?” CEU eTD Collection are Japanese to Lastly, Japanese economy and the perception of energy. currencyexchangerate of n ar resources energy of prices All accounts for 1 in minimal is energy this of Furthermore,renewableenergy coalificationof is ignored, thus “coal” include 2013’) ecessary to present also in also present to ecessary only , liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal (LPG), gas petroleum liquefied , it should be should it stored in physical form in the libraries and archives inJapan sources % inthe% nation’s electricity production

, noted

particular and inflation and that US D US the Japanese energy history energy Japanese the ly the a the is not given agivenin not focus is

the

ollars ( ollars msl peetd n aaee Y Japanese in presented mostly e uthor historical documents prior to prior documents historical of USD

conducted this thesis this conducted JPY - based gas and other types of oil of types other and gas based s alls quality coalof inthe following chapters. ) . This .

in the last nine decadeslastnine the in

is for is ,

19 excluding hydro the of rest

compared to other energy resources, wh resources, energy other to compared the purpose of taking into account the fluctuationsthe accountinto taking of purpose the research this Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

oil crises in 1970s in crises oil .

thesis

(ANRE 2013 and of representing of and

in Budapest with very limited a limited very with Budapest in (JPY) , - considering cased gases. As for coal, the rankthe coal, for As gases. cased uls te uhr hns its thinks author the unless , a , ).

of which m which of

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CEU eTD Collection Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the This page intentionally left blank

CEU eTD Collection 4 ( function to system 1988). mo the sovereignty nation’s sys energy vital The indus and oil, 7% oil of tons million 63.3 U the The 4.1.1 power in as perceived was energ the presents first section This conduct awar with Japan oilembargoUSin1941.d againstaninitiated The Japan imports,oil of 80% morethan dependedfor whom onJapan States, crisis Unitedwhen occurredfirstthe The East East over territory its extended and reserves oil external sought Japan functions. military its fuel the earlyIn 20th century, the dominantdriverof Japan’s energy policy was to (T “ 4.1 “Post Fukushima (2011 an war post “E identified: factors key three pro analysis The challenges. security energy major of influences the nine under decadeslast the over developed has system energy Japan’s how exploring from findings presents chapter This 4.

Oil started and ended ThePacific War.” For For the rest of this thesis, all translations were made by the author unless otherwise indicated. “ erasaki 1995). Nich

nergy system governance” system nergy

Findings en

Asian count Asian Era of war: (1937 trial use(Odano and Araya 2007).

nited strengthened its imperialism and went through a drastic political and economic restructure in order to order in restructure economic and political drastic a through went and imperialism its strengthened Vital Japan did not have a domestic supply of oil, and was entirely dependent on external sources for the for sources external on dependent entirely was and oil, of supply domestic a have not did Japan ergy consumed in Japan in 1940 in Japan in consumed ergy st ibei se

the government and important S

d Ja d 0.7% natural gas ( gas natural 0.7% tates energy system and their on imported vulnerabilities: reliance oilfor nsou ha abura de hajimari abura de owatta.”

pan’s economic miracle (1945 miracle economic pan’s — ries, most notably most ries, ntoa scrt threat security national a

very was

. Although oil represented a tiny proportion of the whole energy system in Japan, it was it Japan, in system energy whole the of proportion tiny a represented oil Although . Research Group for the Econ the for Group Research resource e fr aa i ti ea a oil was era this in Japan for tem

- - limited resource availability. equivalent energy, equivalent roughly the equivalent of equivalent the roughly

)” .

- “

1945) because a number quasiof in the chronological order from the “Era of war (1937 to 1945)”, the “Era of “Era the 1945)”, to (1937 war of “Era the from order chronological the in V EDMC ital energy system energy ital

4 into y system y

–

it was the only the was it

A 2014). At that time, Japan was extracting coal for both domestic and domestic both for coal extracting was Japan time, that At 2014). —

Indochina in 1940, which 1940, in Indochina statement a year prior to 1941 when the official oil official the when 1941 to prior year a 66% wih eutd n h cnetain of concentration the in resulted which , of Japan of

- consisted of of consisted

- 1973)”, the 1973)”, statutory 63.3 million tons of tons million 63.3 s omy of Empire of omy

made by the bymade n ter vulnerabilities their and 21 energy during WWII during

ecision upy system supply

corporations.

coal, 16% coal, “Era after the oil crises (1973 crises oil the after “Era

that could fuel the military the fuel could that catapulted Showa Emperor, theEmperor, Showa124 Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University 1943). So much so that more than 90% of 90% than more that so much So 1943). was and explains its vulnerability its explains and

oil (Mtoe) (Iwama 2006, 20 2006, (Iwama (Mtoe) oil cniee ciia t poetn the protecting to critical considered , of of the largest oil producer oil largest the

hydro, 10 hydro, Japan ”; secure a supplyof

“ E

intoPacificinwhichthe War eg scrt threats security nergy

ceeds with a focus on th on focus a with ceeds % firewood and charcoal, and firewood % embargo was imposed by imposed was embargo

oiia ad economic and political

th at that time that at

EmperorofJapan - the

2010

oil inorder to in the region the in military 07 )”, and the and )”, and and South and ). Of this Of ). (Sagan how it how ”;

and

e .

CEU eTD Collection Survey, all data is summarized and presented Iwamaby (2007) Authority, the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Imperial Japanese Army, and the United States Strategic Bombing 5 Kellogg onto pressure well his made Roosevelt On Research Group for the Tokyo Tribunal the U th encouraged oil,importantly most acce gain to aimed It 1987). Banhart 1988; (Sagan action nation the endowecountry a As 4.1.2 0.1 to reduced was million kℓin 1945, 3%of it Moreover, 1937. in consumed amount the of half the is which sector, household the house for allocated oil internal of usage the control relevant and those especially 1938, manage in resources to began government the after However, 2007). 2006, (Iwama recorded sector household the 1937, In sector. household the in demand increasing the despite regulated strictly was military for than other o in military the to oil of importance the to Due strategy of energy resources at anational level intheworld, double approximately 1941, December in respective army the and navy disruptions demand actual the than was Japan capacity, procurement oil in disadvantage significant nation’s the with Faced 2006, (Iwama Japan 2007). of control the outside sources, external from came 1940 in Japan in consumed oil the Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

The The different estimates of oil stock were recorded by various organizations including the National Pla 5

th nited

Energy security tooil blockedaccess threats:

Octob make a concerted effort in opposition to those violations of treaties and those ignorings of humane of ignorings those and treaties of violations those to opposition in effort concerted a make considerations(… humane and justice senseof all of devoid is which Innocent Pact andthe Nine Power Treaty: during the time of war, Japan extended its borders its extended Japan war, of time the during S (Iwama 2006, 2007). This oil stock oil This 2007). 2006, (Iwama tates e opponents of those actions to impose economic sanctions and embargos against Japan, led byledJapan, embargos againstandeconomic imposesanctions actions to those ofopponents e er what he described as aggressors as described he what

1937,

and followed by theU peoples, innocent nations, are being cruelly sacrificed to a greed for power and supremacy and power for greed a to sacrificed cruelly being are nations, innocent peoples, h nto ws sue t hv sokie 84 o . mlin kilo million 9.7 to 8.4 stockpiled have to assumed was nation the d with few natural resources, yet with an increasingresources, demandan natural withwith yet few d to fuel to holds h amount the olwn temltr cnlc bten hn ad Japan and China between conflict military the following -

known “Quarantine Speech” and implied that the U the that implied and Speech” “Quarantineknown eoe h Pcfc War Pacific the before the 1937 demand inthe

significantly decreased over time. In 1941, 2.1 million kℓ of oil was allocated to allocated was oil of kℓ million 2.1 1941, In time. over decreased significantly the military. the ly, and according to the data available, by the time Japan decided to go into war into go to decided Japan time the by available, data the to according and ly, t highest its

aa cnue i 14. hs a te is dsigihd stockpiling distinguished first the was This 1940. in consumed Japan

nited

1948).

These to i consumption oil K

continuing the continuing piling

ingdom

militaristic actions and the and actionsmilitaristic against the against

sector (Iwama rder to protect the sovereignty of the state, any use of oil of use any state, the of sovereignty the protect to rder o om sokie n re t mtgt ptnil supply potential mitigate to order in stockpile a form to

22 strategy was conducted nationally and also done by the by done also and nationally conducted was strategy

and the DutchEast (SaganIndies 1988; 1987; Banhart

ss to and secure recourses secure and to ss .

argued

Covenant of the League of Nations, the Briand the Nations, of League the of Covenant

n aaee ainl hist national Japanese in war (further explained in 4.1.3), the 4.1.3), in explained (further war in East and South East A East South and East in 2006, 2007).

by Iwama (2006, 2007).

invasions of invasions

nited States nited ) The peace The ) to protect thesovereigntyto protect of te S rsdn Franklin President US the ,

and their supply routes, supply their and

r a 47 ilo kℓ million 4.7 at ory neighboring countriesneighboring

- had loving nations mustnationsloving through sia ie (k liter imp

a will of putting of will a orting more oil more orting ℓ nning )

amount of amount f oil of

military 5

— - CEU eTD Collection antei shi s kyoudoubouei no tassei, shinbunka no souzou, keizaitougou nojitsugen wo kisuru ni ari. Kore, jitsu ni toua wo gokeirenkan no kankei wo jyuritsu suru wo motte kokkan toshi, toua ni okeru kokusai 6 economy and more importantly in this era, to fuel military toprotect imports oil for Indies East Dutch the and block 2005). (Utley importation U the decision, aluminum commodities strategic of U the ledturn, in Asia, East South intoinvasionsfurther Japan’s (Sagan 1988; Ishii 2008; t further evenwent and 1940, in Indochina French into steps further take to Japan motivated sanctions economic US These Japan. against the remove to Japan with treaty commercial 2007) Iwama 1988; (Sagan gasoline aviation produce to information technical and production airplane of materials to embargo”, U the statement,Japanese the to response a As Shimbun in appeared eco and cultural of concept the into developed contri and region the system Asia East naturalsecureresources (Asahi Shimbun1941).argument Hiswasin orderachieve thatJapan soughtnew a to legitimacy the addressing statement a issued Konoe Fumimaro Minister Prime exporters from selling fo The

“Kono shin chitsujyo no kensetsu ha nichiman ed , to generate a new culture, and to integrate the economies in East Asia for the purpose of stabilizing of purpose the for Asia East in economies the integrate to and culture, new a generate to , lwn ya i 1938, in year llowing

Center 2014’) (FranklinDelano Roosevelt against the spread of thedisease. community world the of spread, to epidemic starts the disease ap physical that of true epidemic an unfortunately When be spreading. is to lawlessness seems law(…)It and order international the of jeopardized population being the is of world percent ninety of security the and freedom the peace, The (…) instincts the tr the

ekai noshinun nikiyo suru yuen nari. 1941; Agency of Information 1943).

“with an aim to establish the security of international justice, to develop the cooperative defense cooperative the develop to justice, international of security the establish to aim an “with and other petroleum products, on products, petroleum other and a in joins and proves the ading channels of oil. of channels ading nited governmental documents governmental buting to the world development world the to buting

S airplanes and aeronautical equipment Japan to (Sagan 1988). tates Research Group for theEconomy Empire of

nldn io ad te srp aito fes mcie ol, opr la, zinc, lead, copper, tools, machine fuels, aviation scrap, steel and iron including

diinly t Additionally, Te ae er te U the year, same The . lo rz Japa froze also o the south in 1941, in south the o the quarantine

S eatet f tt srnl dsorgd icat auatrr and manufacturers aircraft discouraged strongly State of Department US

Right before these embargos, Japan was Japan embargos, these before Right y h rmiig e pret h ae hetnn a radw o all of breakdown a threatening are who percent ten remaining the by 5 th

October

e uc Es Ide jie these joined Indies East Dutch he in 1940 entitled 1940 in by more than 92% collectively 92% than more by ee assets nese

”

of the patients in order to protect the health of the community the of health the protect to order in patients the of the legal si sangoku soukei he, seiji, keiza

ni nomic u nomic ted 1 1937 where the biggest oil reserve in Asia at the time was locatedwas time the Asiaat in reserve oil biggest the where st obstacles for additional embargos and economic sanctions economic and embargos additional for obstacles

of of S 23 nited

tates ” with emphasisauthorwith the by August 1941 (Department of State 1943) State of (Department 1941 August wih ee any rprd o prhsn ol for oil purchasing for prepared mainly were which , (Agency of Information 1943). Information of (Agency

nity among East Asian countries, an idea which first which idea an countries, Asian East among nity ,

extended its informal embargo, thus called “moralcalled thus embargo,informal its extended “Greater East Asia Co Asia East “Greater S tates nited Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

eesd ntfcto of notification a released the nation 1943). S tates i, bunka tou kakuhan ni watari (Iwama 2007) in order in 2007) (Iwama

to impose the “offic imposethe to

dependent

of Japanese military actions to actions military Japanese of from potential colonization embargos sei

- , Prosperity Sphere” ( Sphere” Prosperity gi speech availablespeech at

no kakuritsu, 6

This ideology further ideology This on the United States United the on

gis Jpn and Japan against emnto of termination .

ial” embargoial” Prior to thatto Prior to fuel its fuel to

in 1939 in

‘Miller Asahi .

CEU eTD Collection security issue,” a theory proposed by 8 Shikashinagara, ninen sannenn to nareba mattaku kakushin ha motenu. 7 on this In I: “Article reads: gives influ how describes law the of article first The Diet Library 2012 24 manner. effective most the in war al limited with faced Being 4.1.3 bombings on on Powers Allied t the longer to surrender much unconditional months, eight and years three fact, In out. run would Japan of stock oil the before least at possible, as soon as the against war intoplunged Japan However, ofprobability winning Harbo Pearl on Attackthe for Fleet Combined the of Chief in Commander the and AdmiralMarshal the Yamamoto, Isoroku Data from Iwama (2006) with reference to United States Strategic Bombing Survey 1946. Ta the of fact (Iwama 2006, 2007; 1987). Banhart they T Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

Oil Stock (10,000 barrel) Oil Oil P For For the rest of this thesis, “securitize “Soreha zehi yare to iwarereba hajime here w here l resources that the nation had nation the that resources l

ble ble human and material and human

March Refinery C entered into war in 1941, as can be seen in seen be can as 1941, in war into entered

to thecentral government for roduction (10,000 barrel/day) Energy c system governance: 4 . as a significant gap of oil of gapsignificant a as no confidence inwinning. months 6 you will show thisI war,going into insist on you If 1 . Oil Production, RefineryOil Capacity and Stock Oil of Japan and the 1941 USin

1938

Hiroshima apacity (10,000 barrel/day) ,asee o h usin se ytePieMnse Kne bu hsoiin n the on opinion his about Konoe, Minister Prime the by asked question the to answered r,

( ) and National Mobilization Law or possibly a year. However, if this if However, year. a possibly

the war securitized resources

law, national mobilization refers mobilization national law, on natural

6 th . Later inlife, Konoe shared conversation this in bookhis (Kyodo News 1968).

August

decidedgovernment Japanese the oil, including resources

including any physical and labor resources labor and physical any including

production and refineryand production 8 in order in

the Wæver (Isoroku Yamamoto T controlling ” refers to the act of people in power to

he government he

no hantoshi ya ichinen no aida ha zuibun abarete goran ireru. ni

potential risk of resource supply and Nagasaki on entralized the power government to militar and the

(1993) and applied for energy politics by Leung to 1938; Research Group for the Economy of Empire of Economy the for Group Research1938; defend the nation the defend U

ential it can be in terms of its unconditional power that the law the that power unconditional its of terms in be can it ential

any economic, social and cultural activities nited Table 4.1 Table a Ymmt assumed Yamamoto han 15 S Japan passed a law, a passed 4,300 24

tates war continues for more than two to three years, I have I years, three to two than more for continues war 0.5 th 9 ,

August th

to capacity between the U the betweencapacity

aware well be to believed was government the and

August. th on how

that the government carries out national control national out carries government the that September 8

during th

much damage we can bring to the enemyforthe to bring damagecanwemuch

1 De 4, ihn week a within 945,

” entitled “National Mobilization Law” Mobilization “National entitled

cember

33,500 the time of war ‘or any incidents equalincidents any ‘or war of time the disrupt 4 384 1941) US 66 transform a policy problem into a

for the purpose of purpose the for

1941 with an aim to end the end to aim an with1941 it

7 ion

o be. to this war this nited as national security threats.

S Japan:US after et et al. (2014). It It tates

1:738 lasted for more thanmore for lasted 1:52 across the 1:8 to centrally controlcentrally to end

and Japan and the

d y Japan’s by ed 1943

conduct

w atomic two

; National; nati y

on. It when ing

, war on

CEU eTD Collection organized in 1946, which reformed again in 2001 to 11 darou” ka to kangaeru yorimo, kono houritu de tousei dekinaimono ga arunara, sore sagashitawo hou ga haruka ni hayai 10 jinteki oyobi butteki shigen wo tousei unyou suru iu.”wo ni onaji’ nisaishi kokuboumokutekitassei no tame kuni no zenryaku wo mottomo yuukou nihakki seshimuru you 9 purpose of protecting the sovereignty of Japan military the fueling Tribu Tokyo the for Group Prime the as served concurrently E to assigned were officials military many Munitions. ofMinistry the Autho Planning National the 1943, In government and activities military, the by ruled was which thewarAs proceeded, Japan accelerated the centraliza electricityfor one into integrated industry, power ( organizations the within resources and consumption, and production on government num small a into integrated a by Energy2014 & Oil Nippon driven also were industry coal and industry oil The 2012b). were there Before controlled world the in examples Authority orders government’s the Japan of emperor the by regulations additional impose to government the of types and materials all war’ a to

“Daiichijyou: Honpou ni oite kokkasoudouin toha senji ‘sensou nijyunzu

ooy f Empire of conomy “Touseihouki toshite, sekai ni ruirei no nai tett This Ministry of Munitions is the former

the introduction of introduction the

by ( when this law was proposed, said “This said proposed, was law this when ainl oiiain Law Mobilization National

by this l more than eight than more utilizing thes utilizing

distribution a business sector

supplementary law introduced law supplementary aw

quasi n n wy ee otold y hs over this by controlled were way any in than

today 93 Jhsn 92. h frt iitr f h mnsr ws iei oo who Tojo, Hideki was ministry the of minister first The 1982). Johnson 1943;

. ( - e resources in the most effective manner effective most the in resources e throughout Japan National Mobilization Law labor These articles also articles These national company national 11 trying tofigure out ber of corporations that were completely monitored and controlled by the by controlled and monitored completely were that corporations of ber a

this law, this

This ministry, as the name suggests, was responsible for conducting the war, thuswar, conducting the responsible wasfor suggests, name the as ministry, This nal hundred power generation and distribution companies distribution and generation power hundred ; Odano and Araya 2007) Arayaand Odano ; that

that are that

1948) was

by are as are

M putting supplementary laws supplementary putting inister and inister

National Mobilization LawMobilizationNational 98 Tkhsi 1967) Takahashi 1938; firmly built and power industry power . Therefore, all the all Therefore, . rity and the and rity exhaustive in control under the under control in body of the the

(FEPC 2014).

for electrici for describe eishita mono

what can be controlled” motn pstos n h min the in positions important (See Figure.4.1) the General Officer of the Imperial Japanese Army ( Army Japanese Imperial the of Officer General the form in without go Ministry of Commerce were Commerce of Ministry as this law this as

1938). Naoki Hoshino, the President of President the Hoshino, Naoki 1938). control law is is law control

1938 forced 1938 Japan asawhole moved towards totalitarianism. was an open market open an was Ministry of Inter

25 . After the law entered into force, these companieswereforce,these intoenteredlaw Afterthe . tion of politicaltion of and economic on follow not do who those for detail in punishments the

the Ministry of Economics, Trade and Industry (METI).

ty generation and transmission and generation ty resources available in Japan in available resources vr mvmn o hmn cptl ad material and capital, human, of movement every

ing through votes inthe parliament da. Kono houritsu de nani to nani toga tousekidekiru Therefore, .

. law. The remaining The law. 1938; Agency of I of Agency 1938;

It would be much easier to see to easiermuch be wouldIt .

in force in order to order in force in etaie government centralized

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University the exceptionally . ” 9 national Trade and Industry (MITI) great

existing The second The

(Inose 1989) beki jihenbeki no baai fukumuwo ika kore

a with free c free with ubr of number vertical eight hundred companies hundred eight

sr (R istry integrated nformation 1943). As 1943). nformation powerful. There are no o no are There powerful. 46 and the third third the and

relationship further power tothegovernment acr . articl ompetition

esearch rvt companies private that oss the nation the oss ,

but with edicts given edicts with but n utilized and and es in the law the in es in order in could be used for used be could National PlanningNational regulate

what can not benotcan what nine companies nine G article

op o the for roup in Japan and Japan in ewe the between to organize to

industrial Research

s list up list s

o the for , re (METI for the for central enable to be to

- t (JX her

, CEU eTD Collection inshown theFigure 4.3. and government econo all of 64% spending military into put was budget national more and more Similarly, ( these war into capital of flow economic andpolitical of centralization This Data from Fi Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the GNP gure

activities )

rm14 o 194 to 1940 from 4

. JX NipponJX Oil & (2014 Energy 1 .

Direct and complete control over energy industries bythe government such as production and transportation of military supplies military transportationof and productionas such more than 80% of national budget was used for maintaining the military functions, as clearlyas functions,military the maintainingfor used was budget national of 80% than more mic activities were conducted for fueling the military, thus were controlled were thus military, the fueling for conducted were activities mic - related

4, which 4, economic

clearly shows the increasing trend of economic activities related to war. to related activities economic of trend increasing the shows clearly

a ), FEPC (2014) and Odano and Araya (2007) activities power towards the war the towards power during the war. the during 26

Figure 4.2 Figure

can be seen in number by the incr the by number in seen be can

and during this period of time of period this during

Japan shows the comparison between comparison the shows

’s Gross National ProductNationalGross

by the central the by .

In 1944, In

easing

CEU eTD Collection importation channels of oil because of notable A generation. power for used oil of trend decreasing the by observed also be can military the fueling for oil of usage strategic national the addition, In Data from Iwama (2007) with reference to Nihon Bungeisha Figure Data from Iwama (2007) with reference to Morimoto(2005) and Nihon Bungeisha(2002). Figure 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 0 4 4 . . 3 2 1940 . Militaryspending compared . 1934 The ProportionThe to Total (%)Budget National Capital flow into war 17 44 The ProportionThe Comparedto GNP (%)

War 1941 - relatedEconomic Activities 23 1937 Budget Military

69 -

related economic a

the international embargo 1942 30 to thetotal budget national

1941

reduction can be seen after 1941 when Japan lost a lost Japan when 1941 after seen be can reduction

(2002) 27 71

1943

ctivities

s (Ss Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

ee 1944 1944 Figure.4.4

78 64

and

Figure. 4.5) .

ll the ll

CEU eTD Collection 14 13 12 power of the ten million (Yomiuri Newspaper)” Prefecture)” (Wakayama fight to soul shared one people, million med of types various and activists social by Japan across distributed also be totalitarianismcan This Data source: Figure Data source: Figure Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

Seisenhe tami ichioku no taiata Ichiokuisshin jyuu toru kokoro data for oil in 1940 is not available 1000 ton for coal, 1000 liter for oil 1 million kilowat 10,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 5,000 4 4 . . 5 4 . Decreasing use of oil for power generation during the era of war . Decreasing capacity ofthermal pow Statistics Bureau Statistics Bureau 0 - 1938 1940 FossilforUse Fuel PowerGeneration

1939 ( ( 1941 2012 2012 Power by Supply Fuels ri

seen ) ) 1940

in a s a in 1942

1941 ocial movement as well by advertisements and campaigns made andmadecampaignsadvertisements and wellby as movementocial 1943 1942

14 , “Fig er 28 1943 ht for the Immortal Divine Land 1944

1944 1945

13 ia. Such advertisements include: advertisements Such ia. “hre toward “Charge , 1945 Thermal Hydro Oil Coal 12 te rsd wt the with crusade the s

”

15 .

“The ten “The CEU eTD Collection 15 further strengthened thepower of this during fuel single on the section This on itfor 77% of the country’s primary energy supply (P depending was Japan that level the to increased gradually oil on dependence the demand, energy and growth coal against competitiveness use multiple a developing coal from changed policy energy national the in priority economic and political The war. the after en of supply government Japanese The recovery. economic an achieve to strived Japan WWII, After 4.2 Image source: Figure andfighterstanksthat encourag poster campaign a is discouragedalsofurther was it electricity,for As

Shinshuu Fumetsu

poten - based economyto o based Era of post war and Japan’s economic miracle 4 . tial disruption of energy because of because energy of disruption tial 6 . Camp Asahi Shimbun ergy first f i a idsra eeg, rnprain ad lcrct fuel electricity and transportation, energy, industrial as oil of to presents the vital energy systems energy vital the presents aign poster: Electricpoweris military power

be critical in order to revitalize its economy and society, which were utterly devastated utterly were which society, and economy its revitalize to order in critical be could

- (

based 1995 ie f ail goig economy. growing rapidly of time

. As Japan went through dramatic growth in economic develo economic in growth dramatic through went Japan As . be producedifbe theresourcesforgenerating electricityare allocated themilitary.to ing the general public to decrease power consumption by showing how many how showing by consumption power decrease to public general the ing )

in this era this in the central government over because

the significant inc significant the in order in

and their vulnerabilities their and of the three advantages of oil: advantages of thethree of 29 ES

to allocate more resources to the military. the to resources moreallocate to )

in 1973 (EDMC 2014). national energy politics. t lo describes also It rease in energy importation energy in rease Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University :

(1945

. It explains It . -

1973)

ad 3 icesn pri increasing (3) and ; o thi how

(1) fuel efficiency of oil; (2)oil; efficiency fuel(1)of

the increasing risk increasing the eooi growth economic s considered

pment, population pment, and dependence and

Figure.4.6

a stable a of ce

CEU eTD Collection 1973 era. this inelectricitysupply of in Japan’s PES of 77% for accounted and 1961 in coal of share the exceeded and significantly grew oil of importance the 1950, until respectively 50% than more and 5% under were PES in coal and oil of shares the although Therefore, revolution” ( “energytransition this called nation The resource. energy primary its as oil with system energy its reconstruct more and un more oil of indus price as coal against the oil of efficiency making fuel the addition, another, In (2007). coal afteragainst competitive one discovered were Africa and East Middle the energy, industrial graduall was resource energy development, Shimbun Asahi of Economy sectors power t industries other and coal of growth simultaneous ( jobs Shimbun create Asahi also of could extraction Economy coal of and Department oil, unlike obtained, domestically be could that resource re Japan’s of focus first the society, and economy national the rehabilitate To strategic bombings on th capacityandelectricitythe predestroyed, production 60%the of was decreased to st was what stock oil the that suggests Kanno 2014). (EDMC 1910s early the of u oftenare were which production, 1946 industrial of indices in the addition, In 2014). consumption (EDMC 1910s late energy the of level primarythe to reduced and GNP the Both infrastructure. and economy devastated a the unconditionaltosurrenderJapan’s with1945 in ended WWII When 4.2.1 Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the - - development of the coal industry (Odano and Araya 2007). This policy was policy This 2007). Araya and (Odano industry coal the of development replaceable role as fuel for transportation and as raw material for chemical products encouraged Japan to Japan encouraged products chemical for material raw as and transportation for fuel as role replaceable

(See Figure4.8) Vital energy system and their on oilto vulnerabilities: re reliance sed asanimportantsed indicatorevaluate to the healththeJapaneseof economy, worsenedlevel tothe o ANRE 2008) in ckpiled before the Pacific War Pacific the before ckpiled

, population

n re t mblz te aaee cnm a a hl (O 1981 (MOF whole a as economy Japanese the mobilize to order in transportation 1973 .

, as shown in Figure 4.7 Figure in shown as , e essential ,

n eeg dmn, dn ad ry age ht h rl o ca a a primary a as coal of role the that argue Araya and Odano demand, energy and y replaced by oil because of the latter’s the of because oil by replaced y the

T ,

99. oee, s aa wn truh rmtc rwh n economic in growth dramatic through went Japan as However, 1949). he share of oil in electricity production increased from 1% in 1955 to 61% in61% to 1955 in1% electricityincreased fromproduction in oil of sharehe 1960s. and electricity and

energy infrastructure Japan of

. In addition, t addition, In .

fuel In addition,a In 99 Oao n Aaa 07. h nto amd o have to aimed nation The 2007). Araya and Odano 1949, . They also explain that it was the time that oil reserves in reserves oil that time the was it that explain also They . a ue coal use hat 30

wo thirds of the domestic oil refinery facilities were facilities refinery oil domestic the of thirds wo t the same time, oil becamedominant sourceoil time,the same the t - (2001) ae energy based

better fuel efficiency and conve and efficiency fuel better

was reduced to only 10,000 only to reduced was

. Allied Powers, Japan had nothingbuthad Japan Powers, Allied

postwar ,

uh s te, chemical steel, as such formed - develop Japan develop - energy policy was on the on was policy energy war levels due to the USthe to duelevels war ;

h Dprmn of Department The

because coal because trial energy and its and energy trial k ℓ

nience as nience —

1% of 1% was a was ,

The and CEU eTD Collection Data from ANRE Figure Data EDMC from (2014 Figure 4 4 . . 8 7 . Shareof oil in electricity supply . Shareof oil in Japan’s PES ( 2013 a ), compiled and re ), compi led and re - calculated by the author. - calculated by the author.

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

CEU eTD Collection and was put under the jurisdiction of ANRE within METI. 16 Table years 27 in (29% growth ongrowth average p times 480 is which 1973, in kcal billion 298,235 to 1946 in kcal billion 622 from energy oil the increased Japan economy, growing fast this support to order In respectively. average on 10.3% supply energy the of growth the and growth GDP The rate. growth its and supply energy increasingcorrespondingly the and growth GDP GDP, population, of growth rapid the inc oil of ratioimport the 1973, to 1950 From2004). (ANRE interest an holds Japan which in reserves the from produced oil the of ratio the increase reserves oil foreign of extraction and development 2004). ANRE cha energy major nation’s the as emphasized was supply” oil of independence and stability import “the 2005). (RIST Outlook” Demand and Supply Energy Term “Long entitled 1967, in nation Industry and board advisory an as formed was (ACE) Energy for 1967, In nation. the of strategy energy core the as appeared first price competitive of importance the details), for 1982 Johnson (See foreign researchers by “miracle” and a economists as praised was that speed a at growing was economy Japanese the when era, this In 4.2.2 internationa critica potent against systems the expose to contributed growth of speed this time, same the at However, electricity. and energy, industrial transportation, of demand rapid its ener support to and society and economy national the revitalize to nation the for resource the of period this during Therefore, Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

ACE was reorganized in 2001 and formed the Advisoryreorganizedformed2001CommitteewastheACE Naturalin forand Resources Energy“ACNRE”and Year 1951 1950 1949 1948 1947 1946 1952 y demand gy

t keep to l En 4

. 2 . ergy security rapidly threats: of growingdemand energy dependence and oil

Population lly competitive in order to ation of cheap oil” was oil” cheap of ation (MITI, former Ministry of Munitions)of formerMinistry(MITI, Population 85,808,114 84,541,337 83,199,637 81,772,600 80,002,500 78, 73,114,136 . h tr “needne rfr t te ains cie novmn i te exploration, the in involvement active nation’s the to refers “independence” term The

h vtl nry ytm ae o ul h eooy ih i i odr o et h growing the meet to order in oil with economy the fuel to are systems energy vital The 101,473 h Jpns cmais wih ee nraig t dpnec o oil on dependence its increasing were which companies, Japanese the , GDP andEnergyS

er year). 202,005 181,025 160,966 147,534 138,290 120,377 111,492 GDP

considered

post

drive reased from 90% to 99.7% in 1973 (EDMC 2014). (EDMC1973 in 99.7% to 90% from reased war economic reconstruction economic war the continual growth of the GDP GrowthGDP upply in Japan

as the as (%) 12 12 15 ial supply disruption of oil. The stability of oil supply was supply oil of stability The oil. of disruption supply ial 9 7 8 9

and published its first comprehensive energy policy of the ofcomprehensive energypolicyfirst its and published

Ti i t obtain to is This .

32 for the Minister of the Ministry of International Trade International of Ministry the of Minister the for

basis

of Japan’s energy policy and “the affordability, “the and policy energy Japan’s of Total energyTotal supply

(10 59,226 53,327 47,788 45,276 41,307 34,597 28,357 in this time period time this in 10

national in Japan in n neet n hs rsre and reserves those in interest an kcal)

economy , oil , upyn tbeeeg t a at energy stable supplying

the was the most important most the was Growth Growth energyof supply Advisory Committee Advisory 16 . ex

llenge (RIST 2005; (RIST llenge Table 4.2 Table In that document,that In ceeded 9.4% and 9.4% ceeded

progressively ly N/A (%)

11 12 10 19 22 6 increasing

presents

- based to ,

CEU eTD Collection backwardnesswaJapan’s in nucleartechnologywhich autonomy( its regained state thewhen1952 in Treaty Peace The 4.8 both thatshow nuclear first commercial NPP for power generation was builtin1960 and to started in1966.run Figure 4.7 and Figure commencin nation the in resulted which disruption, supply energy potential a of risk the mitigate and oil, on dependence the reduce could that source energy alternative an for year’s past the of days 43to equivalent amount an 1965, of end the by and oil, stockpiling start again once to nation the encouraged 1973. Thisin producing nationsembargo oil of oil the bycaused crisistheupcoming oil before Japan o imported on dependence increased subsequently the and growth economic skyrocketing This Data EDMC from (2014), MIC (2012), and Bolt, and J. van Zanden Year 1974 1973 1972 1971 1970 1969 1968 1967 1966 1965 1964 1963 1962 1961 1960 1959 1958 1957 1956 1955 1954 1953 nuclea

r development in the post the in development r 110,572,678 109,103,610 107,595,272 106,100,243 103,720,060 102,536,079 101,330,883 100,195,804 Population 99,036,040 98,274,961 97,181,653 96,155,847 95,180,520 94,286,810 93,418,501 92,641,282 91,767,079 90,928,263 90,171,631 89,275,529 88,239,032 86,981,463

(1964) consumption was stored (ANRE 2005, 2006). At the same time, Japan sought Japan time, same the At 2006). 2005, (ANRE stored was consumption (1964)

power 1,227,706 1,242,932 1,150,516 1,061,230 1,013,602 915,556 813,984 721,132 649,189 586,744 554,449 496,514 457,742 420,246 375,090 331,570 303,857 287,130 267,567 248,855 229,151 216,889 GDP appeared asanother energ war era was discussed immediately after Japan signed the San Francisco San the signed Japan after immediately discussed was era war

GDP GrowthGDP (%) - 12 12 13 11 12 13 1 11 1.2 8 9 9 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 8 5 6 1

33 modernof theofleadingfields one thenrecognizedas s

y resource tofuel Japan after 1967 CAS , J.L. Total energyTotal supply

2013). It was the scientists, concernedaboutscientists,the was It 2013). Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University g the development of nuclear power. The power. nuclear of development the g (10 (2013) 150,608 136,566 120,994 115,942 100,810 384,679 385,409 347,036 324,790 319,708 277,527 243,191 212,386 185,151 168,910 85,861 73,903 78,780 71,105 64,131 60,628 61,580 10 kcal) , compiled and

Growth Growth energyof supply re calculated by the author .

il concerned il (%) - 10 13 15 17 16 11 11 11 15 14 15 15 10 12 0.2 - - 4 6 4 7 2 6 2

concern

CEU eTD Collection could a bring serious threat reminded thecountry once again thatrelying onsingle resource from one region to dominantly expe Mo 2010). (Iyoda 1974 in % 23 Japan caused prices from coming was 80% which of supply, total its of 99% for oil imported on depending was Japan 1973, In 2014). (EDMC 1970 to 1946 from with systems energy vital nation’s the fueling by 1967 by economy largest second world’s the became Japan 20 (EDMC years) 2 in increase % 400 oil (perimported 20 (ANRE oil of price the increase U against embargoes oil declared (OAPEC) Countries Exporting Arab the following 1973, October In in thenation’s energy policy (See section 4.3.2). stronger development. economic and conquered Japan (Ya a was There anthe necessityadditionaleconomic energysourcecontinueof to growth(Yamamotoof its 2012; technologicallyadvancednationgainedincr 8 on speech when Therefore, physics nuclear of use peaceful the of (Yamamoto 2012). development the in and science in nation leading a as pride its and a to of time the in news amazing part elementary on was study His physics. in prize Nobel ever first resources wa nuclear world potential the possible for thegeneral public toknowthe details about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and that suggests (2012) Yamamoto ( technology nuclear of development the of importance the argued first that science, Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the n increasing number of the general public general the of number increasing n nited re aoo 02 Nnsw 2008) Nanasawa 2012; mamoto on rienced a negative GDP growth of growth GDP negative a rienced form - going S tates after the oil crises in the 1970s and even and 1970s the in crises oil the after . However, this was also the time when a Japanese scientist, Hideki Yukawa, received Yukawa, Hideki scientist, Japanese a when time the also was this However, . thenational

th essetrssac aog the among resistance persistent suffering of the residents in those cities those in residents the of suffering and Netherlands, and announced their plan to gradually reduce oil supply and at the at and supply oil reduce gradually to plan their announced and Netherlands, and

eebr 92 te ecfl tlzto o ncer oe t hl Jpn re Japan help to power nuclear of utilization peaceful the 1952, December kℓ Eisenhower, the 34th president of the United States, made his famous “Atoms for Peace” for “Atoms famous his made States, United the of president 34th the Eisenhower,

) to Japan rose fromrose4 Japan ) to to suddenly face “skyrocketing inflation “skyrocketing face suddenly to

discourse to be nucleartechnologygeneral.discoursein favorof in to Politicians, scientists tre t fr a ideology an form to started Thi

to the continuity of the nation i 15s built 1950s, in r s post ideology the weakened media control after the US lead occupation in Ja in occupation lead US the after control media weakened the evr fr the for reover, war the H . 5 J Npo ol Eeg 2014a Energy & oil Nippon JX 05; severe economic recessioneconomic severe

Middle East (ANRE 2013 (ANRE East Middle 14). During the post the During 14). wvr te oiiiain f ula eeg a ciia t re to critical as energy nuclear of politicization the owever, - to consider to

Israel 1.2 , 908 JPY in 1972 to 8 in1972908to JPY easingsupports

started to see nuclear technology as a means to re to means a as technology nuclear see to started

strong public

a, h mmes f h Ognzto o Aa Petroleum Arab of Organization the of members the war, 1974, as clearly shown in shown clearly as 1974, cheap oil, which was traded from traded was which oil, cheap is tm since time first more solid more

nucl

cos h nation the across 34 ulc eitne o h mltr uiiain f nuclear of utilization military the to resistance public bevd gis te ntain f h ncer program nuclear the of initiation the against observed .

ear power ear He also argues that this, along with the fear of the of fear the with along this, that argues also He ’s economy and society.

from scient (Bolt a (Bolt war era, war ”, and the nation’s consumer price index rose by rose index price consumer nation’s the and ”,

still when still , 343 JPY in 1973 and to 21 1973343andin JPYto a

in the late 1940s and early 1950s early and 1940s late the in the ). Therefore this unexpected increase in oil in increase unexpected this Therefore ). h ed f h Pcfc a i 14, Japan 1945, in War Pacific the of end the nd Zanden 2013), however, it was enabled was it however, 2013), Zanden nd as essential for continual growth continual for essential as due to such dramatic economic growth, economic dramatic such to due icles and, according to Yamamoto, this Yamamoto, to according and, icles onre spotn Ire sc a the as such Israel supporting countries istsand

that environmental objectiveenvironmental . s rsl, h aeae rc of price average the result, a As ).

Table 4.2 Table uprs nuclear supports

industrieswhowere also aware

1 - . T . 2 US dollars (per barrel) (per dollars US 2 CAS his his

, 2013). In addition, In 2013). 203 JPY in 1974203(ain JPY sudden disruption sudden

- nry o the for energy fuel thenation develop Japan develop

was pan made it made pan the nation’s the contributed CAS - rs a a as arise same time same ,

- included an develop became

2013). dalso

CEU eTD Collection democratic country. GHQ’s objective “indirectly”to occupy Japan it as was considered as more effective to restructure the nation into a 17 1948, the Secretary o M 1988; be would that nation a build re to changed policy occupational the as purpose original its lost also Economicof Power ( 1947 in force into came which Power” Economic of Concentration nati the of power centralized the disintegrate purpose same the for Therefore, 2009). (Masuo economy nation’s the dominating were wartime, the during Japan dramatically grew of which Zaibatsu), economy (called conglomerates monopolistic the dissolve to planned also GHQ The Kishi. cent the to p of example the by seen be can strategy occupational US economics and another,many after important nation communist a become would Japan that feared re thus and communists, expel instead to transformed time over 1946 (GHQ services public in engage to people, business and politicians or criminals war as convicted were who those prohibited and 1946 in policy a published (GHQ) Powers Allied the for Commander Supreme the of Headquarters General the politics, Japanese in power centralized militaristic the disintegrate first to order In economyits inorder to develop Japanas a powerful ally against communism (Hosoya 1988; 200 Masuo U the of the of WWII into the including get to nation the encouraged Th had 1988). that (Hosoya economics and politics Japanese dismantle to aimed transitions severaltowards Japan through of relationship went era this in governance energy The 4.2.3

These decisions were formerly made by the Japanese government under th

se Energy system governance

asuo 2009). This policy change policy This 2009). asuo aaee industry Japanese of efficiency manufacturing impair time same the at may (…) industry of deconcentration extreme stagesomeat problem,economic but seriousnoitself in presentmayZaibatsu thedissolution of The influentialendedactorsimportantup remaining in the po nited political er of politics and even became even and politics of er monopolized industries, and the military the and industries, monopolized S tate eventually returned eventually 1947). Initially1947). and business and ’s occupational strategy shifted from the democratization of Japan to the rehabilitation of rehabilitation the to Japan of democratization the from shifted strategy occupational ’s

sae oe ws evl cnrlzd n gvre b a adu o pwru actors powerful of handful a by governed and centralized heavily was power state e of those who were expelled due to their former influencetoformer their to due expelledwere whothose of f theArmyf theUnited of States

-- a, hrfr, otoe h a we Jpn a bcm self become can Japan when day the postpone therefore, may,

a strong ally with the U the with ally strong a

, the United States in the period of the of period the in States United the

it meant to disintegrate any overly powerful ec powerful overly anydisintegrate to meant it positions (Hosoya 1988; MacArthur 1950; Souers 1948). Because of this, one this, of Because 1948).Souers 1950; MacArthur 1988;(Hosoya positions

to their core functions of public of functions core their to : v is clearly evident clearly is

ertical relation including decisions, wartime the to influential highly as identified Prime Minister in 1950s such as Ichiro Hatoyama and Nobusuke and Hatoyama Ichiro as such 1950s in Minister Prime on’s economy by passing “The Act for Elimination of Excessive of Elimination for Act “The passing by economy on’s .

nited 35 - influenced government at the center the at government influenced

by the speech made by Kenneth Claiborne Royall in Royall Claiborne Kenneth by made speech the by f oeta cmuit bgn o fill to began communists potential if oliticians who once got purged however came back came however purged got once who oliticians S ship as tates

the original political purge, the GHQ aimed to aimed GHQ the purge, political original the

between the and government industry against communism in the Far East (HosoyaEast Far the in communismagainst - Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University sitions named “red purg “red named and business servicesbusiness and Act for Elimination Excessive of Concentration - od W Cold ,

develop Japan in a timely a in Japan develop inthepostwar era e influencee of GHQ it as was the es ) . 17 eily eas o te changing the of because pecially ,

This policy, called “purge”, was “purge”, called policy, This n hc a iie nme of number limited a which in onomic entities, but thispolicybut entities, onomic ar. The United States United The ar. the e”, since the U the since e”, wartime Japanese politicsJapanesewartime .

This change in the in change This since theobjectivesince . However, many However, . - uprig (…) supporting.

h emptied the nited manner to manner

initially 9). S tates

CEU eTD Collection naru shoyoubusshi ha ikkatsu yuusenteki nikore kakuhowo suru.” 18 1962,In thegovernment issued thePetroleum Industry Law.law This was togrant three rights tothe Minister Industry Law e strengthened governmental regulation in the energy and sector industry 2014 governm the was it thus importation Law, Control Trade all Foreign and scarce, Exchange Foreign of were enforcement the currency with MITI foreign of control the and under became materials both when period, this during Additionally, resources material and human the controls and industry the with interacts directly government the that stated explicitly Shimb Asahi important of Economy of most Department the as coal of extraction the prioritize cal policy a issued government Japanese coal the of development the on put was era this in development energy the in priority first The supply of energy relationship vertical firm gove the even that out pointing in right is (1982) Johnson 2009). (Masuo the United States U the of aim the with However, was which Industry, and Commerce of Ministry the state, former the into energy the controlled that Munitions of e Ministry and oil coal, including the industries power, occupational the of arrival the Before well. This Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the nergy system nergy

“Kokunai shisaku no issai wo seikitan no zousan ni shuuchuu suru. Korega tameni sek rnment and business and rnment a change in change ). In the early 1960s, the energy policy soon shifted from its target on coal to the development of the oilthe developmentof theto coal ontarget its fromshiftedsoonpolicy energy 1960s, the early the In , as oil as , available in 6 on Royall C. Kenneth by (Speech might hereafter arise in theEast. Far time same the at and self a Japan in building of reexamined(…) being are programs Earlier industry. Japanese stop must deconcentration (…) Japan. of recovery economic the to contribute instances many in would services industrially Japan running and up building in active most the were who men The s h saes tot priority utmost state’s the as

1964). , which, s

was with oil during this era of economic prosperity (e.g. prosperity economic of era this during oil with the political agenda of the U the of agenda political the

to for theKorean War intheearly 1950s, the monopolistic culture of those industries remained

support rapidlyits growing economy. MOF

considered as a more attractive resource to fuel its fuel to resource attractive more a as considered can be observed by a number of legislationsnumberofa enactedby becan observed ee fe te bet n ms scesu bsns laes f ht onr, n their and country, that of leaders business successful most and ablest the often were

A 1949 was to serve as a deterrent against any other totalitarian war threats which threats war totalitarian other any against deterrent a as serve to ent who decided what to import at what amount (JX Nippon Oil & Energy & Oil Nippon (JX amount what at import to what decided who ent maintained ) nited

lectricity during the war period (See section 4.2.2 for details) was dissolved was details) for 4.2.2 section (See period war the during lectricity - sufficient democracy, strong enough and stable enough to sup to enough stable and enough strong democracy, sufficient hr o te on wee t nuy nefrs ih h efcec of efficiency the with interferes unduly it where point the of short

S tates o nrae h etato cpct (The capacity extraction the increase to , in order to sufficiently meet the nation’s objective to secure the secure to objective nation’s the meet sufficiently to order in , un e “roiy rdcin Policy Production “Priority led

to quickly rebuild Japan and Japan rebuild quickly to nited th 1949; Odano and Araya 2007; MOF 1981). In that policy, it is it policy, that In 1981). MOF 2007; Araya and Odano 1949;

aur 14, mhss y h author. the by emphasis 1948, January

its its S influence onthe energy market remained tates 36

affected the energy system governance of Japan as Japan of governance system energy the affected national

oiy o eosrc is economy its reconstruct to policy Petroleum Industry Law

We hold to an equally definite purposedefinite equally an to hold We

economy (ANRE 2008). This 2008). (ANRE economy in order in strengthen its economy to support to economy its strengthen soon ” ,

n dcae ta te nation the that declared and 's war machine war 's

reformed into reformed to

itan no zousan ni hitsuyou develop aie Ofc 1946). Office Cabinet

h woe peh is speech whole The

1962;

, the nation’s vitalnation’sthe

and We realize that realize We -- MITI industry. The industry. militarily and militarily Electric Utility ewe the between was port itself port

in 1949. in further

direct (The 18

CEU eTD Collection seisaku wo choukiteki nisusumeru iu to taisei wo totonoeru koto ga daiichi de arimasu” 20 19 that energy policy should be constructed according to the state’s long underst shared a was there that suggests he Therefore, (2012). embargos trade resource international the by finally and resources natural of lack a of ar 1955, Representativeswhen of House the of member a Goto, Shigeru variousof agencies and ministries including MITI and led Japan as Prime Minister from 1982 to1987. S of Agency 2013). (CAS citizens” Japanese all of cooperation with adequaallocate institutionsandestablishnecessary to state the of priorityutmost the is “It arguedHe 2013).(CAS parliament Nakasone, Yasuyuki by made explicitly regula of means by industry nuclear the manage directly to intention government’s Bureau to laws supplementary with along which Law Basic central The supply condition of electricity including condition: supply of Regulation (3) and to need area; utilities electric service each outside supply not should and area respective of Regulation(2) MITI; of Ministerthe fromapproval an get to hasbusiness conducts power who anyone entry: over controls governmental Law Industry Utility Electric the issued government the enforced, was Law Industry Jap left GHQ (FEPC) 9 these privatized all right production ov an as targeted was electricity for responsible entity only the was which Hassouden, Nihon sector, power the for As price oil, of became includin business, oil Therefore, to facilities. related refinery anything oil construct to entities business to permission give (3) and business; refinery (1 MITI: of

“ functionThe of

Kikou teki nimo yosan teki nimo, kokka ga fudou no taisei wo upy eeti uiiis can utilities electric supply:

withint gues that gues in November 1952 November in opne fre a idsr ascain named association, industry an formed companies ) plan the amount of oil importation; (2) give permission to business entities to participate in oil in participate to entities business to permission give (2) importation; oil of amount the plan ) governing system of nuclear power was power nuclear of system governing cience and Technology and cience ,

yet regional monopolies regional yet an and the nation regained its autonomy (FEPC 2014). In 1964, 2 years after the Petroleum the after years 2 1964, In 2014). (FEPC autonomy its regained nation the and an te budget in order to prepare the foundation of the long term development [of nuclear development[of term long the of foundationthe prepare to order in budget te he PrimeMinister’sOffice( he s

it was widely believed that the cause of Japan’s reckless and aggressive war was a result first result a was war aggressive and reckless Japan’s of cause the that believed widely was it formed Atomic Energy Bureau was transferred to 9 to

under the of control thegovernment.

erly centralized monopoly by the GHQ, and was dissolved in 1951 by partitioning by 1951 in dissolved was and GHQ, the by monopoly centralized erly alreadyexisting obtain

the foundation foundation the —

h pwr nuty ( industry power the 7

an approval from the Minister of MITI when they make any changes to the to changes any make they when MITI of Minister the from approval an o rfs te upy f lcrct wtot raoal ecs i e in excuse reasonable a without electricity of supply the refuse not m

onths after the enforcement of t of enforcement the after onths establish the Atomic Energy Commission Energy Atomic the establish

and the H the and

regional were granted by MITI MITI by granted were

the price. anding among politicians, regard politicians, among anding

g the importation of crude oil, the capacity of produ of capacity the oil, crude of importation the g n D rpeettv, hn h bsc a ws rpsd n the in proposed was law basic the when representative, LDP an of the of current ead of AEC in 1959 in AEC of ead distributionwere(METIThey2012b; 2014).companies FEPC development

Electric Utilit Electric t he

also 37 Cabinet Office) of the governmentthe of2013).(CASCabinetOffice) to to the

20 established in 1955 by enforcin by 1955 in established

ae, Nakasone Later,

Science and Technology Agency in1956 of nuclear technology nuclear of in t in the y Industry Law Industry y motte, zenkokumin kyouryoku no moto ni,kono the Atomic Energy Basic Law EnergyBasic Atomic the Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University he 9 he . He was continuously elected as the heads the as elected continuously was He . eeain f lcrc Powe Electric of Federation he San Francisco Peace Treaty Peace Francisco San he - term national strategy.

respective less of the parties each belonged each parties the of less

a apitd h H the appointed was 94: 1 Rglto o market of Regulation (1) 1964):

(AEC) areas

tions and legislations were legislations and tions in Japan. in

and the Atomic Energy Atomic the and

of Japan. of

n introduced and g the Atomic Energy Atomic the g

was enactedwas law This ction, and the and ction,

Companies r Additionally, generation , a o the of ead

when the when

energy

came three

The ach

to,

its in ] ,

CEU eTD Collection imported energy resources but a has power nuclear addition, In disruption. supply energy potential of risk the minimize to measure main nation’s area unstable politically of amount predominant the when especially resources, any for region single dominant a supply to resource energy one on dependence of Japan reminded that institutionaloi The 4.3 Data OECD from (2010), CAS ( Figure 2013). (CAS Japan in vertical relation activities nuclear monitor to entity additional an as joined form both which Agency, Technology and Science the and Commission act to maintained tra strategynational the as time, over declined industries T Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the he

gained more attention as a favorable energy source not only not source energy favorable a as attention more gained vertical Era after the oil crisis 19 in 4 . 9 was maintained and further strengthened from 1950 to the late 1960s. However, t However, 1960s. late the to 1950 from strengthened further and maintained was .

The governmentalenergy the over control 1950 in industries relation ship

as the responsible regulatory body for the energy sector energy the for body regulatory responsible the as l embargos of the 1970s and the sudden increase of oil pri oil thesuddenof increaseand the 1970s embargos of l

with between thegovernment and ship . The . the two major risks of relying significantly on imported energy resources: (1) risk of risk (1) resources: energy imported on significantly relying of risks major two the the number of acti of number the

nsitioned to shift its nation into oil based economy and society (METI 2008). MITI2008). society(METI andeconomy based oil intonation its shift to nsitioned ewe te oenet n te nry etr icuig ol oi coal, including sector, energy the and government the between refore, since this energy crisi energy this since refore, 2013), ANRE lso tolso meet the nation’s climate target.

73: energy diversification (1973 ve coal mines in Japan decreasing Japan in mines coal ve

(2008, the

2004) energy 38

s, Japan has pursued energy diversific energy pursued has Japan s,

part of energy; and (2) risk of dependence on a on dependence of risk (2) and energy; of part sector sector from 1950 to the late 1960s. as a mean a as

ed in the Cabinet of the government, the of Cabinet the in ed . Additionally, t Additionally, . the resources is imported from a from imported is resources the anotherenergycrisibroughtces

from 1047 in 1952 to 8 in 2008, in 8 to 1952 in 1047 from s

to reduce the dependence on dependence the reduce to - 1960s

iue . peet this presents 4.9 Figure -

2010)

he Atomic Energy Atomic he he coal industry coal he

ad power and l ation as the as ation s

CEU eTD Collection but ca the that tells also 4.3 Table in all ( supply energy (E primary 266% nuclearelectricitysupplied bygrowth wasthis of of half the About by the rose supply Although electricity era. the 2010, this to 1973 in from 140% demand by increased electricity of increase significant a was There in Figure4.10 primary a as remained and history, energy Japanese supply total the of 28% capacit production its increased gradually it however, 1973; in Japan in supply only electricity total power of Nuclear 3% for generation. accounted electricity in significant especially become had energy nuclear of role The 11% (2010) inJapan to (1973) 1% from increased energy nuclear and (2010) 17% to (1973) 2% from increased gas natural nucleargas,andcoal,natural energyincreased. increasedCoal15%(1973)22%ratioin PESfromto(2010), its 2013 (ANRE 2010 in 8% to 1973 in 73% from dropped in generation oil electricity of share the tellingly, more Even 2014). (EDMC 2010 in 44% to 1973 in 77% from decreased (PES) METI 2005; (ANRE energy sudden other or embargoes, oil the with experienced prices, energy of disruptionincreases supply of kind the mitigate to order In 4.3.1 nuclear related industries over Japan’s energy politics power nuclear of development after section This See Figure 4.10 Figure See

not not dismantled.

creased. Although the actual pro actual the Although creased.

93 I 1973. y Vital energy system and theirenergy mix vulnerabilities:rel diverse and, in 1991, ended up producing the largest amount of electricity of any resources when it reached it when resources any of electricity of amount largest the producing up ended 1991, in and, first t .

’s PES (EDMC 2014; ANRE 2013 il hn demonstrate then will ).

explains Accordingly,

(ANRE 2013 (ANRE the vital energy systems systems energy vital the Japan began to diversify the nation’s energy mix with coal, natural gas natural coal, with mix energy nation’s the diversify to began Japan

2010; Lesbiel 2004). The proportion of oil in the total primary energy supply energy primary total the in oil of proportion The 2004). Lesbiel 2010; pacity for pacity as Table 4.3 Table as .

It will a uto o lcrct rm oil from electricity of duction o these how ).

it a N s present lso remained, meaning that meaning remained, uclear power uclear shows a

, ).

fueled by diverse source of energy of source diverse by fueled ies and diverse the installed capacity of nuclear, coal, and natural gas natural and nuclear,coal, of capacityinstalledthe

source of electricity in Japan until 2010 until Japan in electricity of source

during this period timeof

39 h increasing the

reached a peak of 37% in 1998, its highest point in point highest its 1998, in 37% of peak a reached

complex Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

most of t of most energy - fired power plants decrea plants power fired oe o te eta gvrmn and government central the of power

nry systems energy and the rest by coal and natural gasnatural andcoal by rest the and he oil power plants were ceased, were plants power oil he .

a ). M 21; NE 2013 ANRE 2014; DMC In parallel, the amount of amount the parallel, In ying on importsying and their and otiue to contributed , as clearly shown clearly as , vulnerabilities sed overtime, sed ,

and nuclear and

were the a ).

CEU eTD Collection Table Data from ANRE Figure Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the Year 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 4 . 4 3 .

. 10

Installed Capacity ofCoal, Natural Gas, andOil Nuclear . Share of nuclear power inelectricity supply

( 2013 1,093 1,120 1,141 Coal 424 424 446 487 487 524 531 994 923 808 650 582 509 a )

, re

- calculated by the author. Natural Gas 1,877 1,329 1,126 3,267 3,141 2,936 2,869 2,729 2,352 2,034 1,984 1,984 690 470 310 250

5,340 5,413 5,359 5,379 5,423 5,764 5,924 5,894 5,58 5,443 5,643 5,587 5,550 5,566 5,371 4,889 Oil 40 4

Nuclear 2,870 2,788 2,568 2,452 2,056 1,828 1,718 1,608 1,551 1,495 1,268 799 743 660 389 228

Power

(Unit: 10000kW)

CEU eTD Collection 2014 4.11 Figure in shown as sector, also vehicles account decades four last thevehicle domestic transportation, in economy developing rapidly Japan’s airlines, and vehicles light and heavy 2013 (ANREtransportationsector the fuel to resource dominant electricity and the in Though Data from ANRE ; JXNippon Oil & Energy 2014b Year 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 199 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989

8 for 74% of all transportation units owned in the country (AIRIA 2014). (AIRIA country the in owned units transportation all of 74% for

grew — past, oil past, some of these were now supplied by other fuels other by supplied now werethese of some (

2013 significantly and subsequently increased the amount of oil cons oil of amount the increased subsequently and significantly 3,887 3,795 3,745 3,747 3,736 3,767 3,784 3,575 3,377 3,050 2,922 2,488 2,461 2,191 2,028 2,014 1,803 1,578 1,448 1,343 1,223 1,150 Coal a was the dominant fuel for Japan for fuel dominant the was )

compiled and Natural Gas because h ave beco ave 6,253 6,161 6,002 5,761 6,006 5,874 5,993 6,042 5,929 5,880 5,722 5,677 5,519 5,248 4,914 4,431 4,280 4,190 4,091 3,910 3,839 3,437 increased translated by the author ).

oil has been and still is the dominant fuel for those vehicles those for fuel dominant the is still and been has oil me a commodity among commodity a me

in number of units in order to satisfy the growing demands of demands growing the satisfy to order in units of number in 4,925 4,988 5,248 5,269 5,218 5,252 5,243 5,321 5,374 5,334 5,340 5,308 5,347 5,351 4,601 4,617 4,659 4,692 4, 4,662 4,688 4,709 Oil 526 41

’s vital ’s

Nuclear

energy systems energy in this era this in a 4,574 4,574 4,492 4,492 4,492 4,492 4,255 4,119 4,037 3,838 3,442 3,324 3,148 2,928 4,896 4,885 4,794 4,947 4,947 4,958 4,712 4,574 Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

). Various types of transportation of Varioustypes ). (See Japanese households Japanese

iue 4.11 Figure. . However, oil still still oil However, . – military, Numbers of other types of types other of Numbers umed in the transportation the in umed ) Among .

in this era this in transport, remained as remained

l tps of types all , including,

and now and industry (AIRIA the ,

CEU eTD Collection 21 to remain as a significant resource tofuel thehousehold an reducing to critical as seen imp with along Mtoe 7.8 to consumption from 59.4 Mtoe in1973 to23.4 in2010, Mtoe mainly 18 by increased sector household pollutant been also has gas town substit to order in developed been sector ofenergydemand the in shareits increasedhas gas natural importantly, 4.10 N fu r energy other to oil from transition the 2014). (EDMC plastics as such products chemical various for material raw as used been 2013 (ANRE these however vehicles, electric as such vehicles improving the (2013 ANRE Data from AIRIA Figure Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

atural gas atural nction of Town gas currently accounts for 82% of the total gas demand inJapan (Suyama 2013). , which increased from 2.3% in 1974 to 29.3% in 2010 as 2010 in 29.3% to 1974 in 2.3% from increased which , ,

particularly since 1973 (METI 2013). The gas pipeline network, called town gas system in Japan, has Japan, in system gas town called network, pipeline gas The 2013). (METI 1973 since particularly 4 icuig O, O ad CO and NOx SOx, including s . 11

Japan . also a a Number of vehicles

). In addition to the function of oil as fuel for transp for fuel as oil of function the to addition In ). epan ta te euto o te oa ol consump oil total the of reduction the that explains ) fuel

became an important energy resource energy important an became ese economy and society (2014), efficiency of

encouraged

ANRE

oi ro l consumption and air pollution air and consumption l ving energy efficiency (IEA 2014b (IEA efficiency energy ving

vehicles. There are

(

2013 00 ute oil and LPG in the household sector in 1970s an 1970s in sector household the in LPG and oil ute

and oilconsumption since the 1990s the since fo 15 te o 63 Te T MToe 26.3 to Mtoe 1.5 from %

a ) and JX Nippon Oil & (2014b) Energy 2 .

sucs was esources

ic 19s MT 2013). (METI 1990s since only

also , acutely in the industrial sector, in order to decrease to order in sector, industrial the in acutely , 42

locally Japan in owned vehicles total the of 3.8% represent

in the production of of production the in made, d industry sector.

- including CO including based the the ). Therefore, ). by share of the total electricity supply. Mo supply. electricity total the of share ortation, tbe upy f i sti oil of supply stable

efforts tointroduce non 21 increasing the gas usefrom of 1.6 Mtoe in fe 20 i mil ahee by achieved mainly is 2000 after tion

the Accordingly e nuty etr eue te oil the reduced sector industry he 2

household sector andhouseholdsector , . re the For these reasons, these For a calculated by the author electricity

stable supply of natural gas natural of supply stable increasing amount of oil has oil of amount increasing

te a dmn o the of demand gas the , , as shown in shown as ,

d 1980s. The use of use The 1980s. d Therefore l evs critica a serves ll - oil based engine

it is expectedis it the

, although , industry Figure. air re is l

CEU eTD Collection Image from Figure mainly inpower generation and and iron steel production. 70 milliontons peryear. Figure 4.12. in change no almost been 2013 (ANREpowerge for used coal of increasethe to due2010 in decreased37% relativeproportion to 1976 in Japan in used coal all of 80% than more consumed which industry, 2011; Japa in coal the era, economic growing rapidly the during trend 2004). price coal’s of because tha resource favorable oil on dependence crise oil world the After - nation’s fired pow fired ANRE Figure 4.12 Figure n, which produced 260 billion kW billion 260 produced which n, 4 .

12 ANRE A . Coalconsumption in Japan oil

2013 fter thedevelopment of the industry in1960s, er plants after 1973 ( 1973 after plants er - fired power plants we plants power fired (2013 a shows the increasing trend of coal in coal of trend increasing the shows ; Kim ; Oao n Ara and (Odano n oil in terms of its potential to bolster the security of Japan’s energy systems, both systems, energy Japan’s of security the bolster to potential its of terms in oil n competitiveness and competitiveness a s, coal was re was coal s,

), translated In In conclusion, after oilcrises, coal also became a critical resource inJapan once again, 2013) the . In addition, In . mut f ol osmd o io ad i production oil and iron for consumed coal of amount

ENV 2011; ENV by a 07 AR 20) I fc, coal fact, In 2008). ANRE 2007; ya - the author a as identified re converted to coal to converted re h in the year 2012, and boast a total capacity of 8,412MW of capacity total a boast and 2012, year the in h

wider distribution in the world the in distribution wider coal remains coal .

METI 2013). There are currently 69 coal 69 currently are There 2013). METI as observed in the previous chapter (see Figure 4.8). Some of Some 4.8). Figure (see chapter previous the in observed resource 43

the

- as fired the coal demand inthe sector remained an important raw material for for material raw important an that might potentially help decrease the nation’sthe decrease helppotentially might that ele

power decreasing the to opposed as supply ctricity Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University , and the nation also constructe also nation the and ,

and teto as attention gained

(Odano and Araya 2007; ANRE 2007; Araya and (Odano a cery hw in shown clearly as , - fired neration, there had there neration, the a ).

power stations power n vn more even an iron and steel and iron A lthough the lthough

about 60

d new d ( ENV -

CEU eTD Collection supplying countries in2010. 4.6 particular,In oiland natural gas are immensely dependent Data from ANRE Fig 2010). economies growing rapidly the by driven resources energy of competitionincreasing or regionsproducing by energy of price the in increase or supply energy of disruption disrusupply of risksexternalvarious toexposed been hasstill security energy 2010, to 1973 from PES T disruptions of any nature, including uncertain factors, such asimposition of stricter environmental regulations. gr increa and fluctuate with supplied is which demand energy growing price and embargoes oil by as such supply energy in disruption na the supply to perspectiveseneof era this In 4.3.2 Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the he importdependencehe allof three fossil ow respectively ure n cmeiin vr them; over competition ing

Energy security volatilepriceandemerging threats: offossilfuels environmentalism 4 . 13

after the oil crises oil the after . Increasing dependence ontheimports offossilfuels present inl ia eeg sses E systems. energy vital tional ( 2013 rgy securityrgy e ae on based se

a the amount and the proportion of imp ) , compiled by the author. reached 95% in 1995 and has remained high remained has and 1995 in 95% reached 96% , the potential threats of energy security were diverse were security energy of threats potential the , risks:

aiu tps f rsue, uh s h dpein f nry eore and resources energy of depletion the as such pressures, of types various

of of oil was imported from 11 3 rslec prpcie te blt o eeg sses o eoe from recover to systems energy of ability the perspective: resilience (3)

(1)sovereigntyperspective:

fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal)andfuels(oil, natural gas,

tee eedne n n rgo cud rvk a severe a provoke could region one on dependence xtreme an 44 nraig mut f nry resources energy of amount increasing

on the

orted oil, natural gas, and coal countries,

of developing nations (ANRE 2013a (ANRE nations developing of manipulation; (2) robustness perspective: robustness (2) manipulation; the Middle increasing (See , East. Table 4.4, Table with 7

whichhad accounted80 for

Figure. 4.13 Figure. ption

dependenceenergyimports on Middle Eastern countries , ,

which includes intentionalincludeswhich yet

). categorized into three into categorized Therefore, JapaneseTherefore,

to Japan to Japan by 4.5 whose ,

and Table - ; METI ; 90% of

prices

the

CEU eTD Collection Data from ANRE Table Data from ANRE Table countries for 22%. 98. accounting for Qatar United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia Country Total Others Equatorial Guinea United States Oman United Arab Emirates Brunei Russia Qatar Indonesia Australia Malaysia Country Total Others Australia Sudan Indonesia Oman Iraq Kuwait Russia Iran

4 4

. .

5 4

. .

Suppliers of Crude Oil toJapan in Suppliers of Natural Gas (LNG) to Japan in2010

84%. 98% of n ( ( 2014 2013a

5% of coal was imported from 6 )

) and MOF

and MOF atu ral gas was imported from 10countries, among which 3 Imported Amount of Natural Gas ( 2014 ( 2014 Imported Amount of O ) , compiled and recalculated by the author. ) , compiled and recalculated by the author. (1 million tonne) (1000 214,326 14,938 15,171 20,944 24,877 44,767 62,562 5,123 5,771 6,986 8,799 1,852 2,535 70.4 12.9 13.2 14.6 1.4 0.3 0.6 2.7 5.1 5.9 6.0 7.7

2010 kℓ

) 45

countries,

with Australia supplying 62% Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

100 10% 12% 21% 29% 100% 2% 3% 3% 7% 7% 4% 1% 1% 11% 18% 19% 21% % 2% 0% 1% 4% 7% 8% 8% % %

Middle Eastern .

CEU eTD Collection as of prices whereas shows price coal the 1988, to 1975 from addition, In fuel. cheapest the as stayed always oil, of price fluctuating addition, In strengthened over time, with about 90JPY being traded for 1USD in 2010 1 Japanesealthoughtheyen: exchangeof rate currency of Indonesia and China as suchJapan to exporters past includingnations, developing in oil for demand increasing the and East Middle the in situation political unstable continuously the including reasons, of variety a by influenced eve greatly fluctuate to continued oil of price The Data from ANRE Table Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the China Canada Russia Indonesia Australia Country Total Others United States from 2005 to 2007. the

ol cue i pie n h ls 4 yas however years, 40 last the in price oil crude world

. the oil and natural gas prices fluctuated greatly. prices fluctuated naturalgas and oil the Th 6

oil and natural gas can be also observed in otherperiod in observed also becan naturalgas and oil

. (ME

Suppliers of Coal to Japan in2010 as Figure 4.14 and Table 4.7 Table and 4.14 Figure as

TI 2014a TI ( 2014

)

). This flu This ). a and MOF l though the extent of correlation is higher with natural gas than coal than gas natural with higher is correlation of extent the though taino of ctuation ( 2014 Imported Amount of Coal

) , compiled and recalculated by the author. show, the pric show,the (1000 tonne) the 187 117 10 11 36 3 4 7

imported oil price more or less corresponds with the trend the with corresponds less or more price oil imported

n after the oil crises in 1970s. in crises oil the after n 46

USD was traded forwas traded USD

es of natural gas and coal show coal and gas natural of es srltv tblt frelative is of stability it ,

a be as afce b te nlto and inflation the by affected also been has s

of time, such as from 1998 to 2003 time,fromto 1998 suchas of

(EDMC 2014) aro 100% 19% 62% 2% 2% 4% 6% 6% % und 300 JPY in 1974, the JPY the 1974, in JPY und300 the

This price fluctuation fluctuation price This coal pricecoal

a correlation to correlation a . a

continual as compared tocompared as ,

and coal had coal and , decline,

as wellas

was the

CEU eTD Collection Table Data EDMC from Figure Year 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1980 1975 4 4 . 7 .

14 .

Import Price of and CrudeOil,Coal, Natural Gas . Pr ice ofimported oil, coalandnatural gasto Japan ( Crude Oil 2014 1 11,879 32,602 40,501 19,254 12,315 13,003 12,940 13,431 17,284 13,599 10,128 9,402 9,231 9,708 3,468 ) , compiled and re Import Price (JPY/tonne)

11,631 13,387 13,749 6,067 5,905 5,087 4,739 5,387 6,601 7,297 7,931 7,762 6,438 6,482 8,031 Coal - calculated by the author.

Natural Gas 23,545 22,355 17,235 16,754 1 23,463 25,578 28,729 24,587 20,535 24,789 28,448 58,181 62,681 26,587 8,899

Crude Oil Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University 1.57 1.65 1.17 1.23 1.65 1.71 1.73 1.29 1.71 1.51 4.14 5.15 2.45 1.2 2.2

Import Price (JPY/kcal)

Coal 0.88 0.86 0.74 0.69 0.79 0.96 1.06 1.15 1.13 0.93 0.94 1.16 1.68 1.94 1.97

Natural Gas 1.81 1.72 1.33 1.29 1.45 1.97 2.21 1.89 1.58 1.91 2.19 4.48 4.82 2.05 1.8

CEU eTD Collection sum of all the energy resources calculated. electricitymix, p Index, Diversity = (DI mix. electricity 23 conversion ratio was obtained from the Petroleum Association of Japan 201 coking coal to Japan. The amount of crude oil was converted from barrel to tonne by dividing 1.176. by (the 22 resilientmore to potential of disruptions Japan’sin thediversity index of PESfrom Japan’sand PES of diversity the 1973, After (METI 2010). such of use the production steel and iron for coal and cooking, and heating for gas natural transportation, for oil instance, for systems: i energy Japan’s play to role essential particular, own their into fall to began fuels fossil the of each Furthermore, higher and increased therisk potential of supply disruption to Japan. (Toyod recognized addition In Data EDMC from Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

This is calculated by applying the Shannonapplyingthecalculated isby This The price of coal was calculated by Year 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 a 2012; Tanaka 2012; a

globally to the increasing price of of price increasing the to ln = natln =

irrepl ( Crude Oil 2014 from the late 1980s late the from 38,582 34,332 49,780 47,904 39,676 33,789 22,241 17,815 17,884 15,853 16,682 12,355 8,764 aceable urallogarithm whichhastranscendental the number2.7182818….)(= e itsbase,∑ and as =

) 2012; METI 2014 METI 2012; , compiled and re

Import Price (JPY/tonne)

(See

resources for electricity production, which could be substituted by nuclear power nuclear by substituted be could which production, electricity for resources

section 4.3.1 for details). Therefore, details). for 4.3.1 section

12,450 11,318 17,711 9,512 8,997 9,161 6,538 4,500 4,746 5,106 4,059 4,278 5,660 Coal

taking the average of the prices between imported fossil fuels after the after fuels fossil

- calculated by th

and further intensified the competition among nations to secure themsecure to nations competitionamong intensifiedthe further and

the a pooto o te nry eore n h ttl prim total the in resource energy the of proportion = 19732010. to - ). Weiner diversity index(DI=diversityWeiner

energy supply.energy This growing competition growing This electricity supply electricity Natural Gas 50,299 43,029 66,017 50,873 43,120 37,401 29,746 28,024 28,091 28,600 27,655 20,306 18,908 e author.

The higher index means that the energy systemshigherareindex means thatenergy The the

oil crises, the depletion of such of depletion the crises, oil 22

increased Crude Oil 4.97 4.42 6.41 6.17 5.11 4.35 2.87 2.04 2.15 1.57 1.11 2.3 2.3

it became a national priority to decrease to priority national a became it

. 4) Import Price (JPY/kcal) consequently boosted the price even price the boosted consequently (

Figure 4.15 Figure

p i

p i Coal

1.89 1.72 2.69 1.46 1.37 1.39 0.99 0.68 0.72 0.77 0.61 0.6 0.82 ) to Japan’sprimary to ) energy and 2

steam coal and imported

shows the improvementthe shows

resources had been had resources Natural Gas 3.86 5.06 3.31 2.87 2.28 2.15 2.16 2.12 1.56 1.45 3.3 3.9 2.2

r eeg or energy ary

n fueling n

CEU eTD Collection parameter does not take into account unevenness this ofnuclearshare power haddiminished theevenness of energy resources used for power production. 2010 towards decreasingtrend slight a displays electricity, of supply Japan’s for As Data from MITI Figure 4 . 15 . Improvement (

2 does not necessarily mean that it poses higher threats to Japanese energy secu energy Japanese to threats higher poses it that mean necessarily not does 013 ) , the index iscalculated based onthe Shannon in

diversity indexofJapan's PES the the diversity specific risks associated with each energy resource

as shown as index goes higher from 1973 to 1985 to 1973 from higher goes index 49

in Figure 4.16 Figure in - Weiner diversity index by the author. Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

. This decline is This . because ,

then stabilizes and stabilizes then s

(Lesbirel 2004).

the increasing the rity since this since rity However,

CEU eTD Collection associated with the political and economic instability of the exporting nations to Japan) globally; risk(4) associated with Japan’s d instability of associated 24 sources such as hydro (CRIEPI 2008). importe 27% to 6% from 1980s the and 1970s supply energy Japan’s supply electricity 2010). IEEJ 1982; powe nuclear for resourceenergy the uranium, Japan contrary, the On Data Figure Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

this

from from MITI

risk index is calculated based on Herfindahl d oil for PES, and 0 represents 0 and PES, for oil d 4 . 16 with the geological distribution of resources; (2) risk associated with the political and economic resource holding . Improvement indiversity indexof Japan’s electricity system ( 2013

in order to strengthen the country’s energy security as a whole. a as security energy country’s the strengthen to order in . 24 ae o ti belief this on Based

n this In ) ( , the index iscalculated based onthe Shannon See Figure. 4.17 Figure. See acltd y REI (2008) CRIEPI by calculated believed

nations; risk(3) associated with the demand and supply balance of energy traded aclto, ik ne 1 ersns ht h nto i sll dpnig n the on depending solely is nation the that represents 1 index risk calculation,

that the risk of the contemporary and future potential supply disruption of disruption supply potential future and contemporary the of risk the that

)

, ependence on certain nations for resource importation; and risk(5)

when Jpn ie t ices te rprin f nuclea of proportion the increase to aimed Japan , the country’s energy demand is completely fueled by internal energy internal by fueled completely is demand energy country’s the the proportion of nuclear power in the nation’s PES nation’s the in power nuclear of proportion the r, was minimal compared to other fossil fuels (AEC 1977; IAE1977; (AEC fuels fossil other to comparedminimal was r, – Hirschman Index

50 hw a significant a shows

- Weiner diversity index by the author. .

It applied five different risks: (1) risk

n continual and

Indeed

erae in decrease , t ,

pwr n total in power r he risk

increased index of index h late the

CEU eTD Collection suishinwo suru 25 is This built. was was strengthened sector 2000 Energy and Resources Natural for Committee Advisory al were who members 30 than Natu less of consisted for Committee Advisory the to organized ACE by constructed be to continued policy energy Japan's 4.3.3 (ENV 1990; ANRE 1998; Hayashi and Hughes 2013). CO aachieve to measure a as attention it since power the and development the promote further will nation “the that stated and Warming”, the Change, Climate by released report assessment first the following 1990, In 1990). ENV 1998; (RIST systems energy Japan’s to threat another becameregulations potential the and concerns environmental green decreasing When Image source: CRIEPI Figure

nisankatanso wo haishutu shinai enerugii toshite anzensei no kakuho wo zentei nigenshiryoku no

Energy system governance: METI’s regulatoryEnergy METI’s system governance: power over ene 4 . 17 . N

does not emit CO emit not does

uclear power anddecreasingtrend of theriskindexinJapan’s PES

particularly (

2008 Japanese government issued a policy, “Action Program for the Prevention of Global of Prevention the for Program “Action policy, a issued government Japanese , anda , os gs msin bcm aohr oiia pirt o J of priority political another became emissions gas house

) , the unit the for leftaxis is100petajoule. the case of the close tie between the government, bureaucracy,government,between the tie close the of case the

firm relation firm 2

”

(ENV 1990). (ENV 2

reduction target reduction ship l

25 between the government,betweenMITIthe appointed by the Minister the by appointed

Since a Rsucs n Eeg ( Energy and Resources ral ). Therefore, the governmental influence on the energy the on influence governmental the Therefore, ). 51

this moment, n moment, this that does not not does that within METI METI within

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University negatively affect negatively uclear power uclear

of MITI ( MITI of during this period, which was re was which period, this during the , AC

rgy industries an Intergovernmental Panel on Panel Intergovernmental d energy d R) n 2001. in NRE) has Act for Establishment of the pn n h 19s the 1990s, the in apan

the nation’s economynation’s the utilization of nuclear of utilization gained an increasingan gained

- the power sect power the related industriesrelated kaihatsuriyou

ANCRE or

- ,

CEU eTD Collection Agency of Jap METI of jurisdiction the under Corporation National 26 in thenational market ( controlthe on to similar Minister The 2013). (METI 70% than more of share market the th by dominatedbeen also gr rapidly which industry, gas The aim clear a is there reserves, oil national and foreign of development and production exploration, compani these Since 2013). INPEX 2013; (JPEX companies development oil biggest second and first the of shareholder biggest the currently is 2001) in MITI from (reformed (METI) Industry and Trade Economy, of Ministry the of Minister the Furthermore, by 2009 (ANRE 2005; Nakamura level certain a to capacityrefinery oil of efficiency the improve to companies oil theobligated and framework law the cangovernment the of 2014 ANRE gap the reduce o Japanese the open to aim an with 2001 in abolished was Law Industry Petroleum The private oil companies possessing the additional 89 days worth of oil national as stored is oil of worth days 104 which among total, in oil of worth days 187 stockpiled 2010 (ANRE sector private the in obligated stockpiling of amount decreased 5 to increased stockpile national of amount target the Accordingly, s private the in indicating cannotresponsibility believed 1978 DevelopmentPetroleum Japan former the 2014 1980 by consumption national of worth days 90 to equivalent stockpile to companies oil private obligate to government 1975 Japanese in Law the Stockpiling 1973, Petroleum the in issued occurred oil of disruption supply sudden the to response political a As crises because industries nuclear and Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

n 04 h JpnNtoa Ol oprto was Corporation Oil National Japan the 2004, In to secure the authority of theindustry. c

). In addition to that to addition In ). o tr adtoa 3 additional store to in the 1970s ,

when the world oil price again started to increase rapidly, the government proposed a new regulatorynew a proposed government the rapidly,increase to started again price oil world the when that

that "oil that b an. ). i stockpiling oil ector should be considered as supplementary to the nat the to supplementary as considered be should ector between domestic and foreign prices foreign and domestic between In this way this In

(ENV 1990; ANRE 1998; IEEJ 2010). stockpiling is a core measure to strengthen the national energy security, thus the stored oil stored the thus security, energy national the strengthen to measure core a is stockpiling be left to the private sector alone sector private the to left be Gas Industry Law still

theelectricitysector ree private companies, similar companies,private ree , t , Corporation Oil National Japan the funded government the , , be observed today. For example, in 2005, within the 4 years of the abolishmethe of years 4 the within 2005, example,in For today. observed be 0 million 000 he industry became open became industry he is

n n o te ot motn ojcie o Jpns nry secu energy Japan’s of objectives important most the of one

2014 increasing focus was put on the development of nuclear power after the oil the after power nuclear of development the on put was focus increasing ew as natural gas increased gas natural as ew

). 1954).

kℓ

es belong to the top tier of the industry, being responsible for the for responsible being industry, the of tier top the to belong es

Corporation f i as oil of

such as to regulate the market entry and the price of theofproductprice toand marketthe entrysuch regulateas the

reorganized at tha at 52 a

y nertn te opn wt te ea ad Mining and Metal the with company the integrating by . This can be observed in the in observed be can This . for free competition. free for

formed

ainl tcpl (NE 2006). (ANRE stockpile national to the power industry, which collectivelywhich industry, power the to

t time t its

( ne gi o om aa Ol Gsad Metals and Gas Oil, Japan form to again once in 1967 by the 100 the by 1967 in Petroleum Stockpiling Law

by u by share in Japan's PES from 2% to 17%, has 17%, to 2% from PES Japan's in share

,000 million kℓ million ,000 (JX Ni (JX f EI holds METI of sing market mechanism (ANRE 2013 (ANRE mechanism market sing ional stockpile" (ANRE 2006, (ANRE stockpile" ional ppon ppon Oil 2014c

H owever, the direct intervention direct the owever, b ). By the end of 2012, Japan 2012, of end the By ).

% government funding) government % in 1989 as opposed to the to opposed as 1989 in

governmental documentsgovernmental euaoy power regulatory

1975; JX Nippon OilNippon JX 1975; il market in order to order in market il

). 26 ( re

h government The - organized from organized oil in amou in oil governmental iy tu the thus rity, account stock, with stock,

2010

that nt of nt

for nts b

in a is ). ;

CEU eTD Collection giants, and the bureaucracy, that can be observed since WWII in Japan. 28 Education, Culture, Sports, Science Technologyand as parta of central government reform of Japan. 27 Table provided from the after 1974 sector,power nuclear industries,and the came in Law for the Development of Areas Adjacent to Electric Power Generating Facilities. threeThese laws all Resources Development Tax; (2)The Special Budget Law Development for Electricof Power; when the nation passed three laws topr The aim an with oil, improve the self on that especially imports, energy on dependence the reduce to order in source energy stre furtherbetweenrelationshipthem was policy group this in involved was 2012), (Moe 1994 to 1955 from power 2013). Kingston 2012; Vivoda 2012; Moe 2013; (CAS industries nuclear and companies, power private 10 Agency, Technology and Science the by supplemented body,regulatory governmental the as hub its as METI includes t era, this In Ooi 1 1 Hamaoka 2 Takahama 1 Onagawa 1 Genkai 5 Daiichi Fukushima 1 Takahama 1 Shimane 3 Daiichi Fukushima 2 Daiichi Fukushima 2 Mihama 1 Tsuruga 1 Mihama 1 Daiichi Fukushima Tokai

Iron Triangle politics refers to the st I n 2001, the Science and Technology Agency was moved from the jurisdiction of the cabinet to the Ministry of Ministry the to cabinet the of jurisdiction the from moved was AgencyTechnology and Science the 2001, n financial mechanism for - 27

Plant Name making

4 to

. B 8

, there was a construction rush of NPPs with in force political the as stayed continuously which (LDP), Party Democratic Liberal the ecause

force in1974, a year after th .

Year ofthe Construction, theOperation, andtheCapacity of

he governance over the electricity system system electricity the over governance he

s get xml o Io Tinl polit Triangle Iron of example great a is - reliance of energy production (Moe 2012).

government

Construction Start Year of

increasing national

subsequently 1972 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1970 1970 1970 1969 1968 1 1967 1967 1960

967 rong relationship between the political parties (especially LDP), industry

e 1973 oilcrisis, in to order prepare omote nuclear power power

ngthened as Japan developed nuclear power as the nation’sthe ngtheneddevelopednuclearpoweras Japanas

increased ov First Year of plant hosting communitiesplanthosting 2004; (RIST2013).CAS investment in Operation 1979 1976 1975 1984 1975 1978 1974 1974 1976 1974 1972 1970 1970 1971 1966 53 bigger capacity t

was

er time

ics

: conduc

(1) LawThe of the Promotio

the development of of

(See Table 4.8 and Table 4.9 Capacity

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

(1G (Moe 2012), this energy governance and its and governance energy this 2012), (Moe aa (oinn n Uu 2001). Usui and (Colignon Japan

1.18 0.54 0.83 0.52 0.56 0 0.83 0.46 0.78 0.78 0.50 0.36 0.34 0.46 0.17 ted by a limited number of actors of number limited a by ted .78 W)

han

the previous years national Japan Operating Situation after nuclear energy End of operation Endof operation Endof

budget to subsidize the ese NPPs Fukushima Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended ,

n of Power and ) .

and

the subsidies

was built

(3) The

Therefore

- 28 primary which

The The

CEU eTD Collection Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the Hamaoka 2 Hamaoka Tokai Daini 1 Ikata 6 Daiichi Fukushima 3 Mihama 4 Daiichi Fukushima Ooi 2 Hamaoka 5 Hamaoka 1 Doori Higashi 3 Onagawa 7 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 6 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 2 Onagawa 4 Hamaoka 1 Shika 4 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 3 Kariwa Kashiwazaki Ooi 4 Ooi 3 3 Ikata 4 Genkai 3 Genkai 2 Shimane 2 Tomari 1 Tomari 5 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 2 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 3 Hamaoka 2 Tsuruga 2 Sendai Daini 3 Fukushima Daini 4 Fukushima 4 Takahama 3 Takahama Daini 2 Fukushima 1 Kariwa Kashiwazaki 1 Sendai 2 Ikata 2 Genkai Daini 1 Fukushima

Plant Name

Construction Start Year of 1999 1998 1996 1991 1991 1989 1988 1988 1987 1987 1987 1987 1986 1985 1985 1984 1984 1984 1983 1983 1982 1982 1981 1980 1980 1980 1980 1979 1978 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 1973 1973 1972 1972 1972

First Year of Operation 1985 1985 1984 1985 1984 1982 1981 1982 1978 1978 1977 1979 1976 1 1979 2005 2005 2002 1997 1996 1995 1993 1993 1994 1993 1993 1991 1994 1997 1994 1989 1991 1989 1990 1990 1987 1987 1985 1985 1987 978 54

Capacity (1G 0.87 0.87 1.10 1.10 0.89 0.57 0.56 1.10 0.84 1.10 0.57 1.10 0.83 0.78 1.18 1.38 1.10 0.83 1.36 1.36 0.8 1.14 0.54 1.10 1.10 1.18 1.18 0.89 1.18 1.18 0.82 0.58 0.58 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.16 0.89 1.10 1.10 W) 3

Operating Situation after End of operation Endof Fukushima Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspend Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspend Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspende Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended Suspended ed ed d

CEU eTD Collection Table Compiled and translated by the author. Data Data from JNES Tsuruga 4 Tsuruga 3 Tsuruga 1 Doori Higashi Ooma 3 Shimane 3 Tomari 2 Shika Sendai 3 Sendai 2 Kaminoseki 1 Kaminoseki 6 Hamaoka 2 Doori Higashi 2 Doori Higashi 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 Year Plant Name

Subsidies

( 2012

General Budget

) and Provided to the Development of Nuclear P

1,798 1,811 1,833 1,859 1,820 1,696 1,764 1,790 1,780 1,70 1,700 1,240

983 806 699 667

RIST Construction 4 Start Year of

TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD 2011 2008 2005 2003 1999 ( 2010

)

. is ordered by the start year promo research installation, operation Subsidies for NPPs

tion First Year of ,

Operation and

131(total of special budget) 1,165 1,066 1,088 1,062 N/A

991 864 747 681 580 450 120 116 85 62 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD 2009 2006 55

Special Budget

, of con of Capacity Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University NPPs communities hosting Subsidies for the (1G struction. 1.59 1.37 1.37 1.40 1.39 1.39 1.54 1.54 1.39 1.38 1.37 0.91 1.21 ower (unit: 100 million JPY) W)

915 795 681 652 578 505 408 433 353 320 282 188 115 108 112

Waiting for construction approval construction for Waiting approval construction for Waiting cons for Waiting approval construction for Waiting approval construction for Waiting approval construction for Waiting Waiting approval construction for Waiting of of

Operating Situation after

Under construction Under construction Under construction Under

for construction approval construction for Fukushima Suspended Suspended truction approval truction 3,878 3,672 3,602 3,573 3,389 3,065 2,919 2,904 2,713 2,474 1,982 1,548 1,214 Total 999 873 798

CEU eTD Collection acci first the was Japanese which The 1999 2008). Nanasawa in 2005; (JAER accident Japan in nuclear causalities Tokaimura the and 1995 in fire and NPPs domesticaccidentsthe disasterleak Chernobyl sodiumincludingaccidentand Monju 1986, of the the 1979, in to close resided who those toparticularl opposition limited The 2008). mostly (Nanasawa against was opposition this increasing although the public, despite the 1974 among after power nuclear capacity production their and NPPs of number the mission ANRE’s the thus ac nuclear ANRE,regulate and promote both to the became within organized was (NISA) Agency Safety Industry and Nuclear as addition, In 2013). (CAS operations NPPs Minister of MI im Enerand ResourcesNatural for Agency the 1974, In Data from Annual White P Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the rv Jpns eeg scrt b dvlpn "lentv eeg sucs (IT 200 (RIST sources" energy "alternative developing by security energy Japanese prove 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 Year

TI was granted theresponsibility toapprove new installations of NPPs and regulate the existing General Budget

1,161 1,159 1,247 1,304 1,281 1,361 1,435 1,498 1,455 1,732 1,817 1,916 1,938 2,033 2,043 2,002 1,917 1,892 1,844 1,826 1,798 apers yearly

published from AEC

promo research installation, operation Subsidies for NPPs y increased as a response to the Three Mile Island accident in accident Island Mile Three the to response a as increased y tion a part of the central government reform of Japan in 2001, the 2001, in Japan of reform government central the of part a ,

and

tivities (CAS 2013). Figure 4.18 Figure 2013). (CAS tivities 1,365 1,326 1,430 1,441 1,37 1,308 1,363 1,282 1,319 1,257 1,367 1,455 1,424 1,385 1,386 1,521 1,426 1,319 1,393 1,385 1,357

gy (ANRE) was organized under MI underorganized was (ANRE) gy

4 56 between 1975 and

Special Budget

, NPPs communities hosting Subsidies for the nuclear elites nuclear

2010

1,500 1,427 1,445 1,462 1,454 1,244 1,258 1,096 1,795 1,94 1,964 1,835 1,737 1,843 1,846 1,882 1,815 1,722 1,632

989 899 , compiled by the author. , including the MITI, the mass the MITI, the including , 3 of of

shows the steady i steady the shows

TI with a mission tomission a with TI ) I 17, the 1978, In 5). et ht caused that dent 4,778 4,691 4,908 4,946 4,831 4,469 4,513 4,260 4,097 3,954 4,323 4,557 4,635 4,524 4,404 4,725 4,707 4,699 4,663 4,839 4,805 Total

ncrease of ncrease CEU eTD Collection time. of period certain a in electricity) generating (thus operating is plant power a that time of amount the to 4. Figure. power companies after their "retirement" (Ooshika 2011). ME of ministers vice (2011).after1973seen Thisthe movementministry fromto instituti and companies Ooshika fact, 2012).In(Moe "clients" theircompanies, as examplepower influential forsectors, the serveto ministrythe in to move and METI and further that bureaucracy Japanese of path career customary n the on industries the of influence the and era this in Japan of demand energy increasing the to correspondingly grew industries related and energy nuclear The Data from JNES Figure opposition from the hosting communities. government the that suggests which details), for 4.9 TheTable. (See 2011). Nakano 2008; (AEC Japan in ind the for happenprovided amount the exceededcommunities hosting the ever for subsidies could Chernobyl or accident Mile Three the top like world the resilience, structural the highlightedoperati theand standards, frequently sector, power the and media, national energy policy energy national 4 19 . 18

shows the energyf availabilitythe shows .

N eeld ht vr 0 ps mnsr ofcas o officials ministry past 100 over that revealed umber of NPPs ( 2012

high profile positionprofilehigh TI and a head of ANRE of head a and TI ) , compiled and re ons in the last 60 years 60 last the in ons onal and management excellence of Japanese NPPs, and claimed that nothing majornothingclaimed that andNPPs, Japanesemanagement excellence of and onal - making. For the ministry officials of METI, it has been a tradit a been has it METI, of officials ministry the For making.

and nuclearpower generation - calculated by the author s in private corporations.privateT in s

actor (EA actor ,

, and

who all became the president or vice president of Japanese of president vice or president the became all who ational energy policy energy ational F) of Japanese NPPs between 1978betweenNPPsJapanese of F) that 57

an .

increasing number of this "career change" can be can change" "career this of number increasing thepower sectorincludesfive cemented Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University used MT wr re were METI f hus it is it hus

subsidies to help quash the increasing the quash help to subsidies the relationsh the - making got stronger. There is also a also is There stronger. got making in the in ustries in 1995 and onwards and 1995 in ustries

interest of those who workwhothose ofinterest - ie b nuclear by hired ip between the industry the between ip

and 2010. EAF refersEAF2010. and past administrativepast ion to ion -

ee safety level retire from retire - related

CEU eTD Collection Japanese NPPs from 1979 to 1987. the of EAF the of increase steady the in resulted which 1979), (AEC power nuclearincreasing of importance nat the ofplan revisedaissued ACEdeclaration, the afterthe months 2010). (MOFA achieve” to hard be will employment higher and growth economic decades, coming the nuclear of importance the When Data from RIST Figure power companies inorder to (1986) scholars and articles media t andprovided subsidies of amount the betweencorrelation declined policies energy published the up speeding or running, while inspection possible perform plants, the of management quality and equipment the improving break. any without mean 100%and periodcertain duringelectricitya generatednois means there 0% Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the ,

re 4 wih eutd n utn i bc t aohr nraig t increasing another to back it putting in resulted which , . vealed that there was there that vealed 19 5 . Energy availability f th

7 umt a hl i Tko n 99 te elrto o te 7 edr adesd the addressed leaders G7 the of declaration the 1979, in Tokyo in held was Summit G7 ( 2011

The Japanese government and the power sector had tried to increase to tried had sector power the and government Japanese The routine inspections (AEC 1986; RIST 2008). RIST 1986; (AEC inspections routine ) .

The average EAF alof energy. It states It energy.

, which

such as Asah as such encourage an immense amount of amount immense politicized

actor ofNPPs in Japan

these communities that “w that i (2014 i l NPPs in Japan wasusedthis for

h iprac o ncer power nuclear of importance the ithout the expansion of nuclear power generating capacity in capacity generating power nuclear of expansion the ithout a, 2014b a, 58 off

- to follow the demands of the power sector ), the he movement of the EAF. H EAF. the ofmovement he Weekly Post Weekly - book

Perhaps even mo even Perhaps

money ion’s energy policy and re andenergypolicy ion’s ed (See rend

given to th to given figure. (2011)

, Ishida (2014) Ishida ,

s a power plant is operatingis plant power a s re tellingly, the government the tellingly, re vr time every iue 4.19 Figure e hosting communities hosting e owever, a number ofnumber a owever, the EAF of NPP by NPP of EAF

) after . and -

addressedthe hr i no is There

. Uchihashi h EAF the

Two

CEU eTD Collection 2003 revised in regular a basis (at least within every three years). Accordingly, the first ”Basic Energy Policy” came out in gover 29 environme and efficiency, nucl before policy energy last its released (2010) METI 2010, June In security energy fuels and and change climate addressing to means n regard countries These a concerns. as programs power nuclear in interests their ( H 2011). 2008, Another generating electricity (2003). self nation’s the increase will thus fuels, nuclear recycle to possible is it (4) stockpile; to easy not will uranium of fluctuation price potential the that level a at high very is uranium of intensity energy the (2) area; stable politically in distributed widely na the strengthen Additionally, 2003). (METI future nation’s the for energy of source quasi a is which nuclear, positions nation the that stressed METI in past its to back went again EAF the target, climate nation’s the meet and security energy Japan’s improve both to order in measure mitigation a as energy nuclear of importance entitl policy, energy nation’s renewed the issued (2003) METI after However, 2011). 2008, (RIST facilities nuclear their of results inspection safety the Power Electric Tokyo the after in drop significant a was There combating global warming S Energy Term “Long document, policy the revising by policy energy nation’s the revised ACE Accordingly, levels) 1997 Combat Global Warming", and further emphasizedto Measures on Guideline "Policy entitled statement political a released government the Protocol, s nation the CO emit not does nuclearpower that 1990)(ENV 1990 in policy their claimedin governmentJapanese CO reduce to measure a nuclea as 1998, in 84% over reached and 1990s inincreased further EAF The Japan pl ad ead ulo” i 19 and 1998 in Outlook”, Demand and upply

The JapaneseThe government passed lawa called “Basic Act on Energy Policy” in 2002 and declared that the ear power as a measure to achieve all their energy objectives, most importantly energy security, economicsecurity, energyimportantly most objectives, energy their all achieve to measure a as power ear , revised in 2007, and furth nment (ANCRE in METI) should construct and publish basic a plan on the national energy which should be )

where the G8 leaders declared leaders G8 the where

safety inspection after the Chuetsu offshore earthquake in 2007 decreased the decreased 2007 in earthquake offshore Chuetsu the after inspection safety hence greenhouse gas emissions , in order to both achieve sustainable development and development sustainable achieve both to order in , ol pru is ute dvlpet I 19, n ya atr h nto sge te Kyoto the signed nation the after year one 1998, In development. further its pursue hould owever, it soon it owever, tion’s energy security because of the following advantages of nuclear power: (1) uranium is uranium (1) power: nuclear of advantages following the of because security energy tion’s 2

emissions. This linking between nuclearbetween linking emissions.This

tl osrain I te plan the In conservation. ntal (RIST 1998

- er revised in2010. reliance of energy supply and; (5) nuclear (5) and; supply energy of reliance began

Company (TEPCO) was accused of the past cover past the of accused was (TEPCO) Company the EAF the

uclear power as an essential instrument in reducing dependence on fossil on dependence reducing in instrument essential an as power uclear

to rise again after 2008 after again rise to ; Keidanren 1998 (MOFA 2008) (MOFA ” after the year the after ed Basic Energy Policy Energy Basic ed

the necessity ofincr (G8 Leaders, 8 affect the price of nuclear energy (or negligible); (3) uranium is uranium (3) negligible); (or energy nuclear of price the affect stated

that ht ula power nuclear that ). 2002 due to the emergent safety inspections of NPPs of inspections safety emergent the to due 2002

th : ,

July 2008). “ nild Srtgc nry ln f aa” the Japan”, of Plan Energy “Strategic entitled , A

when easing nuclear power by 150% (as compared to

they can be can they growing number of countries have expressed have countries of number growing Fukushima Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University 29 power - domestic source of energy, as the primary the as energy, of source domestic

of Japan in 2003 and 2003 in Japan of METI described nuclear power as power nuclear described METI Japan led Japan the

creasing trend. creasing and climate change started when thewhen started changeclimate and nation’s climate target (ENV 1998). (ENV target climate nation’s power does not produce CO produce not does power a domestic energy resource whichresource energy domestic a ol b a rmr maue in measure primary a be would

and reiterated the importance of importance the reiterated and r power had gained attention as attention gained had power r another G8 another - ups and manipulations of manipulations and ups

In this energy policy energy this In

level of EAF (RIST EAF of level

S re ummit - emphasized the emphasized in Toyako

2 2 key to key , thus, when ,

CEU eTD Collection b electricity.Rollingof shortage serious go core GreatEarthquakeEast Japan The following11 tsunamithe on and 4.4 Data from Figure aftersector its formation in 2001 until installatisafety the 2010. of point the at Japan of sector 4.2 Figure EAF host nuclear the to subsidies of amount higher pay to and months 18 to months propo METI 2010, in year same the Also, CO the reduce to order in 2030 by 90% by EAF the increase to aimed also nation the and proposed, was NPPs 14 another for plan construction The governme 2030 by productionelectricity whi power nuclear increase to aimed government Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the vernment

(METI 2010; Nikkei Post Post Fukushima (2011 f ratr of reactors 3 of 4 . CAS nt itself will continue taking the taking continue will itself nt 20 0

lutae te etaie powe centralized the illustrates . Theregulatory frameworkoftheenergy industriesin2010 gradually

( 2013 ons and operations of NPPs,operations and of ons ) , METI ceased the operations of operations the ceased the Newspaper ( 2013 uuhm Dici ula pwr plants power nuclear Daiichi Fukushima -

from 10% to 24% in the share of the nation’s PES nation’s the of share the in 24% to 10% from ) , and Nip JX -

Although )

2010). Fukushima

l ackouts 2

emissions by 80% by 2050 (METI 2010 (METI 2050 by 80% by emissions

sed to sed lead in lead o EIa a oenetl euaoy niy vr h energy the over entity regulatory governmental a as METI of r

its there were additional units organized in the Cabinet to ensure to Cabinet the in organized units additional were there

pon Oil NISA was the practicalauthorityNISAwasof the were introduced as a mitigation measure that intentionallycutthat mitigationmeasure a asintroducedwere expand the time span for routine inspections from every 13 every from inspections routine for span time the expand

(CAS 2013). 50 the furthe the h cone fr bu 3% n 00 o 3 o total of 53% to 2010 in 30% about for accounted ch existing 60 & Energy

r development of nuclear energy nuclear of development r NPPs for safety inspection safety for NPPs

( 2014c th

March 2011 causedMarch2011 themeltdown )

Atr h dsse, h Japanese the disaster, the After .

ing communities with higher with communities ing ; The Cabinet Office 2011 Office Cabinet The ;

- regulation over the powerover the regulation

and announced that “thethat announced and s, which resulted in a in resulted which s, ”

(ME TI 2010) TI s in s

the ). .

CEU eTD Collection 2013 (ANRE Indonesia and China from imported oil of amount be in oil of demand in 2010 in 8% to 1973 in 74% from reduced continuously been had (See 2012 in 2% to 2010 in 29% from mix electricity the in share its decreased be to had However,a the national vital energy systems asa whole. consideredwas as ( 2007 of level the to comparedgeneration, power nuclear of development further the reducing to contribute that claimed government the document, the In 2010). the releas METI 2010, policy In generation. electricity for power nuclear with them substituting (See production steel and iron for f 4.3.1 coal section and cooking, and heating for gas natural transportation, for oil as in functioncritical a serves fuels fossilimported the of each Since 4.4.1 nuclear power in Japan iscritical the for nation’s energy future. economy of growth continual nation’s power economic and political in people the how demonstrates after resources vi the describes section This energy mixtarget and the role nuclear power will play. future country’s the including ways many in ambiguous is which 2014, in government the by released policy nation the concerning confusion sudden The economic non and of problem The disaster. the causing for and dependent nuclear country the making to started media the and public The and Wassener 2011). 2014 March on historyin drops biggest their disrupted the supplyelectricityofoff to came total electricity supply by 2030 in order to increase its share in the nation’s PES from 10% to 24% (METI24% to 10% from PES nation’sthe in share itsincrease to order in 2030 byelectricity supply total

, named “Strategic Energy Plan of Japan”, of Plan Energy “Strategic named , the Vital energy systems and theirrelian vulnerabilities:further

dependent on dependent -

rnprn ntr o te ains nry policy energy nation’s the of nature transparent

electricity mix goes against the pas the against goes mix electricity

the national economy and society by decreasing the IIP and consumer spending which recorded which spending consumer and IIP the decreasing by society and economy national the power, most notably METI, finally came to the knowledge of the public (Tanaka 2011; ISEP 2013).(TanakapublicISEP 2011; the the knowledge of cameto notablyfinally METI,most power,

consumed for electr for consumed fter electricity. H electricity. or details), the nation had aimed to reduce the dependence on those fuels those on dependence the reduce to aimed had nation the details), or Fukushima Fukushima a quasi

the the consumption of imported oil, natural gas, coal by 85%, 52%, 57% 52%, 85%, by coal gas, natural oil, imported of consumption the owever, it rebounded to 18% in 2012 (EDMC 2014; ANRE 2013 ANRE 2014; (EDMC 2012 in 18% to rebounded it owever, - domesticenerg , an Middle East Middle ad xlis h sbeunl rsn rss f nry dependence. energy of risks rising subsequently the explains and , householdsandcompanies bycertain regionsatime.periodof This for severely

t inc l nry ytm o Jpn that Japan of systems energy al icity generation in order to substitute the sudden loss of nuclear power nuclear of loss sudden the substitute to order in generation icity reased oppose ern

amountenerimportedof y, toy, supplythe n idsra cmeiiees who competitiveness, industrial and

oil once again by more than 85% since 2000 due to the decreasingthe to due 2000 since 85% than more by again once oil

t energy strategy of Japan that was taken from taken was that Japan of strategy energy t - ’s energy future caused by caused future energy ’s 15% and 9% respectively (Shirespectively 9% and 15% h gvrmn, h pwr sector power the government, the

that METI 2010 METI

61 plann

majority - ed to increase nuclear power to generate 53% of 53% generate to power nuclear increase to ed aig cnrle b tho by controlled making, ). Raising the reliance on nuclear energy, which energy, nuclear on reliance the Raising ). securitizes this securitizes

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University of po of gy resources,gy particularly andoil nrae te eine n xenl energy external on reliance the increased the th a different energy systems of Japan, such Japan, of systems energydifferent ). wergenerationwas e

Fukushima electricity mix despite the increasing the despite mix electricity n diin t addition, In modoi and Hidaka 2011; Tabuchi2011; Hidaka and modoi ce on fossil fuels ce onfossil

ru ta te eupin of resumption the that argue

Figure 4.2 Figure depe ,

n ncer nutis for industries nuclear and

resulted in a new energy new a in resulted ndence as threats to the to threats as ndence the e ail increasing rapidly he e ih oiia and political with se d rvsd energy revised a ed 1 a highly bureaucr highly the after the 1970s the after ) ). This increase of increase This ).

. In particular, oil particular, In . 1973. The nation The 1973. respectively keysecuringto oe would power

natural gas,natural t then It

that atic for by

CEU eTD Collection reused after importing itsraw material, uranium. 31 inspection in September 2013. 30 Japan’s PES (See t comparable 2013 systems energy nation’s the downshut inMay 201 energy Nuclear fuels. 2014), (EDMC 2010 of loss the With 4.4.2 D Figure the dependence on gas natural of consumption Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

ata from MITI This includes nuclear power, Japan as considered it quasi as Two NPPs in Fukui Prefecture resumed their operations in July 2012, however ceased once again for safety a

. hs a b osre i the in observed be can This ). Energy security threats 4 . 21 . Electricity mix ofJapan,s te al 1980’s early the o ( 2013

nuclear generated power generated nuclear Figure 4.2 the )

Japanese energy Japanese , re finally 2 Middle East

for safety inspection -

calculated by the author. 30 3

as a substitute for substitute a as ).

. As a result, the self the result, a As . fell

to 0 to (

e Fi See : i

by 30% by the end of 2013 (ANRE 2013 ncreasing energy andcapital price loss

as a percentage of the energy mix energy the of percentage a as systems have been predominantly fueled once again by imported f imported by again once fueled predominantly been have systems ue 4.2 gure erae n h D lvl f h nto’ eetiiy i t those to mix electricity nation’s the of level DI the in decrease

since udden increase ofoilandnatural gas . For the first timein

nuclear p nuclear Fukushima 2 - . hs erae n h D as ngtvl afce ta of that affected negatively also DI the in decrease This ). reliance ratio of energy declined from declined energy of ratio reliance 62

ower became ower - , which accounted for 11% of the nation the of 11% for accounted which , domestic resource since the fuel

42 years, t

another concern since it also it since concern another when the last NPP in ope in NPP last the when here was no nuclear power fueling a ).

20 s can recycledbe and % 31

to 4% (ANRE 4% to ration was ration ’s PES in PES ’s increased ossil

CEU eTD Collection 2013, In 2012. to 2010 from 24% by production electricity of share their collectivelyincreased which power, gas natural and oil by power nuclear of loss the supplemented Japan Data from ANRE Figure Data from Figure 4 4

. . ANRE 23 22 . Decline in diversity index of Japan’s PES . Decline in diversity index of Japan’s electricity system

( ( 2013 2013 a a ) ), , calculated based onthe Shannon calculated based onthe Shannon - - 63 Weiner di Weiner diversity index by the author.

versity index by the author. Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

Japan depended on depended Japan

the Middle East for East Middle

CEU eTD Collection 18.85 JPY/kwh (EDMC 2014). security nucl substitute to resources imported the of consumption in seen pric the both addition, In Original f Figure Eastof Asian countries including Jap 4.24 Figure pass that imports share increasing the Therefore, 2012). (Tanaka regions the in instability geopolitical could that points choke as internationally considered through 80 83% Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the % of % of its o its of

Figure 4.2 Figure 4 igure the but also increased the price of electrici of price the increased also but ihr r oh h Sri o Hru ad h Strait the and Hormuz of Strait the both or either . 24

shows the high disruption risk that is associated with the Strait of Hormuz for the oil importationoil the for Hormuzof Strait the associatedwith is that risk disruption high the shows

total oil supply goes supply oil total il supply il . Dependence ratio ofimported oil passing the energy choke p from METI 5

hog tee hk pit bring points choke these through (the sudden decline in 2008 was triggeredsuddenwas2008 (the declinein and 30% and ( 2010 es of imported oil and natural gas have been rising almost constantly since 1998 since constantly almost rising been have gas natural and oil imported of es ) , translated by the author. of its natural gas natural its of

th r an in the last four decades (METI 2010). o

ugh the Strait of Hormuz, and 65 and Hormuz, of Strait the ugh

ty by 13% between 2010 and 2012, and 2010 between 13% by ty (ANRE 2013 (ANRE

ihr ik o dsuto t Jpns nry security. energy Japan’s to disruption of risks higher

impede ear power ear

by the world financialcrisis); world the by a ).

f Malacca of h spl o eeg rsucs u t the to due resources energy of supply the According to ANRE to According has % of total natural gas suppl gas natural total of % not only weake only not

today Tee tat hv been have straits These . oints from 16.70 JPY/kwh to JPY/kwh 16.70 from s

(2014 of oil and natural gas natural and oil of

ned Japan’s energy Japan’s ned thus a ), ,

approximately this increased this y passes y

, as ,

CEU eTD Collection 35 34 33 obtained from Petroleum Association of Japan 2014) 32 the and Energy for Strategy “Innovative entitled 2012 in policy Environment” (NPU 2012). the documIn energy national a released disaster, the was which (DPJ), Japan of government Party Democratic the within doors closed behind mak After 4.4.3 and fossilimported fuels. amountThe trade ofdeficit further increased to approximately 2011, In capital. natural and oil imported of amount increasing This Data EDMC from Figure

Conversion ratio 1USD 98.65= JPY ( Conversion ratio 1USD 80.82= JPY ( Conversion ratio 1USD The amount of crude oil was converted from barrel to tonne by dividing 1.176.by (the conversion ratio was ing was suddenly opened to the general public in contrast to the to contrast in public general the to opened suddenly was ing 11 trillion

Fukushima Energy system governance 4 . 25 . Theimported

JPY JPY (116 2 .6 trillion trillion .6 , as the government and government the as , ( 2014 o te is tm i 3 yea 31 in time first the for )

, compiled and re billion = JPY (equivalent JPY

78.84 price ofcrudeoiland natural g

USD)

JPY

(the 35 - the the

: s calculated by the author. in 2013 (MOF 2014). yearly tubbornness ofvillage nuclear yearly yearly ent, the DPJ first argued that Mitsubishi Research Institute suggest Institute Research Mitsubishi to 33 billion 33 to - - - average Telegraphic Transfer Selling ‘TTS’ rate

average TTS in 2013 average TTS in 2012 s fe te i cie, aa recorded Japan crises, oil the after rs ic te pre the since

political

gas has also contributed to an to contributed also has gas 65

USD)

32 party

- partially due to the increasing demand of the of demand increasing the to due partially a period war as Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University in power during and immediate and during power in

) )

7trillion

prior way prior

NU 02 MI 02. The 2012). MRI 2012; (NPU

JPY ed

, the nation’s energy policy energy nation’s the , which had been had which

(85 immense loss of national of loss immense

billion a )

rd deficit trade

USD)

ly conducted 34

after the after

in 2012 in

of -

CEU eTD Collection 38 surukoto nadoni yori nihon no boueki shuushi ha akajihaba kakudai wo shitekiteiru. 37 fukaku rikaishiaukoto de sakutei sareru, “kokumintekigiron tsukurude senryaku’ d seifu to kokuminga, hitori hitori noiken, fuan, negaini kyoshin ni mimi katamukeai,wo samazama na shuchou wo 36 w which1973, of levelthe than higher as wasstressed fuels fossil imported was energy cost low and stable national of weakened 20 the after fuels fossil imported the ondependence increasing the vulnerabilities of thenation’s energy security. It refers also tothe recent trade deficit thenationof andaccused and m as aime and policy, energy On (RIETI 2013). in both power political its regained and election 2014 (METI manner” responsible a in policy energy h lower energy its released DPJ the after months Three 2012;(NPU METI 2010 future,whi power and system, electricity it replace of out phase policy nuclear future forums held and surveys conducted DPJ the that, change inv were actors influential economically and politically of number limited policy energy nation’s the that highlighted DPJ The Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

Genshiryoku hatsudensho ga teishishita kekka, shinsaimae kurabete,to kasekinenryou no yunyuu ga zouka Kono aratana enerugii senryaku “hitonigi ha Conversion ratio 1USD 98.65= JPY ( 14 approximately

11 a ore stringent than ever than stringent ore the ). th 37 ouse election ouse

t a t b te n ta i fruae truh te icsin mn al iies wie the while citizens’ all among discussion und opinion, ‘the stakeholder’s every through to listen formulated public general is the that and government one the be to has It not energystrategyshould newnation’s The April 2014, three years and a month after month a and years three 2014, April recession since the world financial crisis in 2008 was mentioned was 2008 in crisis financial world the since recession

with lot 0% eedne n nry imports energy on dependence 100% almost The government argued that the increasing fuel costs due to the loss of of loss the to due costs fuel increasing the that argued government The Japanese energy security and economy, and these costs are responsible for the national capital loss capital national the for responsible are costs these and economy, and security energy Japanese erstand

nuclear

renewable energy (NPU 2012). The plan barely referred to any other energy systems energyotherany to referred barelyplan The 2012). (NPU energyrenewable ch was fiercelywas chcriticized 3 . 6 sincerely

and constructedand trillion in December 2012 December in power ady ecie ay concrete any described hardly d to restart NPPs after meeting th meeting after NPPs restart to d ; Keidanren 2013).

JPY ( JPY by 2040 by (METI 2014 (METI that there

essential to keep improving the economic condition. The depe The condition.economic the improvingkeep to essential

equivalent to equivalent , claiming that it was the demand of the general public and public general the of demand the was it that claiming ,

what they called the “Green EnergyRevolution“Green thecalled theywhat the are various arguments among us. and disregarded the disregarded and a , yearly

). This policy reiterates Japan’s poor endowment with fossil fuels fossil with endowment poor Japan’s reiterates policy This ). particularly ri no hitobito de tsukuru senryaku” deha nai. Naniyori mo mazu, - policy, the LDP took over the political power by winning the winning by power political the over took LDP the policy, average TTS in2013 37 billion 37 the Fukushima -

making had been a been had making be ‘a strategy that is constructed by a handful of people.’ofhandful a constructedisby strategythat ‘a be 66

a pe ad oe hue frte is tm ic 2007 since time first the for houses lower and upper from politicians from o fail maue fr civn te eo nuclear zero the achieving for measures feasible nor . n J In ).

e safety requirements that requirements safety e wih a claime was which , USD) in 2013 (METI 2014 (METI 2013 in USD)

o gathe to , the LD the , l 21, h LP lo o te uppe the won also LDP the 2013, uly DPJ termination of NPPs as its root its as NPPsof termination ) policy by saying “we need to construct a construct to need “we saying by policy

pbi oiin eadn te nation’s the regarding opinion public r P leading government published a published government leading P of other of

relatively unknown relatively

(NPU 2012)(NPU olved (NPU 2012). With an aim to aim an With 2012). (NPU olved , and the policy emphasized that a that emphasized policy the and , as also as e nakerebae naranai

a te root the as d political marked concern were . 36 ” a

) It 38 parties ula pwr have power nuclear

described aimed the completethe aimed as the cause forcausethe as R area where only a only where area ecovery from ecovery ad desire and , ndence ratio on ratio ndence

. and

cause cause (METIcause

plan exceptthe industries by METI by

h r f the of n ed to ed ,

ouse new

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CEU eTD Collection 2020 compared as to 1990 l Additionally the government declaredand in 39 NPPs. nucl against opposition The Data from Figure sect 2013). (CAS operations NPPs one into activities nuclear of authorities regulatory functionandthe toabolished moved was addition,Authority(NRA).Nuclear In the SafetyCommission, which previously belongedCabinet,wasthe to th to METI from function power nuclear of development its about questioned was jur the under organized activitiesnuclear of body governmentalregulatory main the NISA, (METI 2014 after world the that explains policy the security, energy nation’s After companies. compared Japan of price cost energy increasing

Japan Japan opted fromout Kyoto Protocol regime in or andor nuclear activities. Fukushima An i An 4 . 26 CAS ncreasing number of peoplencreasing numberof a .

). The governmentalover thecontrol energy indu

, (

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and the growing CO growing the and

to the U the to effectivenes evels. e Ministry of the Environment (ENV), and reorganized the Nuclear Regulation Nuclear the reorganized and (ENV), Environment the of Ministry e

ear power among the public is no longer limited to the hosting communities of communities hosting the to limited longer no is public the among power ear that the increasing dependence on oil and natural gas importation weakened the weakened importation gas natural and oil on dependence increasing the that

Figure 4.26 Figure

in addition to regulating it regulating to addition in ( 2014

nited ) most Japan’s of one as power nuclear of ole s by the p the by s , NipponJX Oil S have begun to participateto begunhave tates the

presents the current energy governance with a focus on the power the on focus a with governance energy current the presents COP 19 in Warsaw that the nation now aims for a3% increase by NRA as well with an aim to in toaim an as wellwithNRA 2 negatively affects the international competitiveness of Japanese of competitiveness international the affects negatively

emissions. ublic since METI since ublic 2012 and entity ( 67 2014c

39 abandoned its previous CO2 reduction target. (CAS 2013). Therefore, the government moved the moved government theTherefore, 2013). (CAS

in order to strengthen the security framework of framework security the strengthen to order in ) The document also states that the higher energy higher the that states also document The ’s , METI

ihs sft euain have regulations safety highest

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

in energydebates in was stries asof May ( 2012 also b ) in the position for position the in

tegratedistributedandthe parallel across across important energy sources energy important

2014 the nation, and thisnation, the

isdiction o isdiction

promoting the promoting been enforced f METI, f

CEU eTD Collection minaoshi, ninengo wo medoni, dokuritsusei to koudo na senmonsei wo yuusuru aratana kiseisoshiki heto ikousuru. 40 Japan. the implications for the future nuclear policy of power.nuclear It revi 1930s It governance”. system “Energy and threats”, security “Energy vulnerabilities”, their and systems energy “Vital Japan’spolicy: affect dominantly energy that factors explored chapter This strengthened its power since further and maintained has which government, centralpowerful very the by conducted be to continue sector entity thepower by establishing industry a new regulatory essentialis strengthen tofurther the monitoring of system arguesaims,ANRE generation, transmission, and distribution by 2020 ( regulat the abolishing “ entitled the to response a As censors thenational m sector power the with relationship public Shimbun (2011). over and monopolized the criticized have and sector power the and bureaucrats, politicians, Japanese among of number A nuclear without develop can power, and the group that Japan says that group the between battle (political) a is “This argued publicly Prim former the Koizumi, Junichiro when reinforced further was power, nuclear on view 2014 Keizai Toyo 2014; the in stance 2014 Par as decades thirteen energyamonginterestthenationalthegrowing arepolitics in public Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

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the ). Martin (2014) points out that this governor’s race, which focused on the candidates’the on focused which race,governor’s this thatout points (2014)Martin ). important policy targets policy important

oea 2014 Kodera s

says itis necessary for growth freelance n mark on as itrcl eeomn o aa’ eeg pltc wt a ou o focus a with politics Japan’s energy of development historical the late 1930s. argued by Takahara (2011), Kodera ubernatorial elect ubernatorial phase - nw Japanese known

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CEU eTD Collection t industries, of demand energyincreasing the supply massive required also economy growing rapidly This increase 1973. and 1946 between year every 10% almost by society and energy of supplier dominant a became oil era,war post the In constant reminder of to linked from off cut suddenly an on food and lights including necessities daily to access lost gradually a for and 1930s the after went and became continuation military the of function The war. total for mentality by also but law by only not united 20 early the In political priority colonization open policy closed nations. foreign economy by observed been has 1996 a is There developed in the last the ninedecades, inresponse to the national energy security challenges?” answer to order in decades last nine the in energy of concept the of and systems energy Japanese of development the explores section This 5.1 answer for the main question sub Japan does “Why is question the to answers presents and findings the discusses chapter This 5.

questions developed to developed questions Discussion Discussion

)

The development of energy vital systems and the concept of energy . fight that fight the country the

n 1886 in

e was broken when broken was This xternal energy resource that is that resource energy xternal s

in the energy supply. Japan consumed 480 times more oil in 1973 compared to 1946 to compared 1973 in oil more times 480 consumed Japan supply. energy the in (It ainl euiy n ter survival. their and security national persistent

after the war the after ideology o ideology

oh 1996 oh

n dpnec o outside on dependence and of the society the of ,

oil embargos in 1941, the 1941, in embargos oil th ext aim eventually

to T century, this century,

he nation he ernal oil reserves oil ernal for more than more for ing rapidly industrialize and militarize the country

; Hall 1997 Hall ;

ideology the national dependence onoutsiders.

those supply routes, strengthened the sense that a stable supply of e of supply stable a that sense the strengthened routes, supply those independence from foreign influences foreign from independence . The economy grew at a speed that was praised as a miracle and the GDP increased GDP the and miracle a as praised was that speed a at grew economy The . coas in scholars

the U the incorporate incorporate lasted , thus the military the thus ,

also gain a gain ’s energy policy adhere to nuclear power even after even power nuclear to adhere policy energy ’s , which will be reviewed in the following

in Japan in fear of losing of fear nited ; three years and eight and years three exclusively Pyle 2008 Pyle two hundred years hundred two

. better understanding of Japan’s energy policy energy Japan’s of understanding better

When international economic sanctions economic international When aaee policies Japanese S

Japan tates critical to the nation's continuity nation's the to critical that makes its society its makes that first nation rs ;

paid a surprise visit with military ships and ships military with visit surprise a paid

and people, among grew limited Chung 2010 Chung n h wsen rd market trade western the in sovereignty had grown to the point that the n the that point the to grown had sovereignty - sub led government considered government led

plunged into war with war into plunged t h sm time, same the At - usin f the of question

international trade or any inter any or trade international ransportation, and household. This economic growth wasgrowtheconomic This household. and ransportation,

since the early 17 early the since months

n labour on ) . Japan

clannish and clannish once againonce . The war The . and

. to protect Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University is is research

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of protectionism over protectionism of thesis: an e

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the loomin the oil stockpiled of amount limited . country, as a lifeline of of lifeline a as w a Jpns nry system energy Japan’s has ow

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of this thesis this of Te er f potential of fear The . naturally g possibility of being of possibility g

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people wholly to the to ; Itoh tion and

to to

CEU eTD Collection already was economy the to harm potential its and completelydependence again be would nation the that imported fuelsfossil and nuclear power since the good Ja of number increasing was power nuclear suddenly and electricity. of supply its of 30% about lost Japan as citizens, the and industries the frightened and impacted disaster this available, remained yet spiked energy of was was that prosperity economic power nuclear for hope the suddenly, Then, the price energy of inorder to economics and politics national the and competitiveneinternationaleconomy's Japanese ex the of demand growing the and resources and fluctuating 95% than more exceeded coal and gas, natural increasedelectricitythat demand growingThe energy demand deploying nuclear energy. seemingly important been gas natural sector, resour the that revealed also This growth. energy of disruptions in crises oil the Since modern science. re to means a as considered nation the which technology, and desired strongly nation of development the potential energy was linked tothenational economic energy o nation the reminded suppliers energy of action hostile This supply. oil the disrupted intentionally again once suppliers the when interrupted suddenly Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the pan’s future energy future pan’s

o te economy the for ce threatened , presence of a of presence

disruption but rather but relcal fr h gvn etr, aa suh t rdc ter s i eetiiy eeain by generation electricity in use their reduce to sought Japan sectors, given the for irreplaceable

nraig rcs f nry eore, ute pesrd y the by pressured further resources, energy of prices increasing for

the state's sovereignty has been has s

fueled by different energy resources. For example, oil example, For resources.energy different by fueled

iron and steel produc steel and iron derivingthe from ula pwr oig ht t would it that hoping power nuclear the to . Already in the 1950s, nuclear 1950s, the in Already . stable energy supply has been firmly been has supply energy stable h gnrl public general the supply

o fr h environment the for nor be

extin 1970s, the nation pursued the diversification of diversification the pursued nation the 1970s, fixated essential to essential accompanying Japan’s economi

bolster guished from from

in the 1960s the in by seen on the complete phase complete the on contemporary 266%Accordingly, between19732010.dependencethe importoil, andof threatening

the industrial competitiveness

as by immense

and the industries Japan’s Ti sde agr gis ncer oe led power nuclear against anger sudden This . Fukushima tion. growth andthe stabilityof te itrc rgd we te iie ad restr and limited the when tragedy historic the f

politicized dependent - ss. The linkage between the continual growth of growth continual the betweenlinkage The ss.

Since these imported fossil fuels have been have fuels fossil imported these Since

upir nw competing now suppliers daily lives dependenceenergyexternal resources,the natioon h ciia fntos f the of functions critical the post warpost era, theimmediate thus phase nuclear outof means national insecurity, shame, and economic burden among an among burden economic and shame, insecurity, national

energy systems energy Hwvr Jpns nry ytm hv be bit with built been have systems energy Japan's However, . n 95 n onwards and 1995 in and to and This shock wa shock This . 70

Compared to the oil crises in the 1970s when the price the when 1970s the in crises oil the to Compared energy was associated with associated was energy

nuclear power as a savior to sta to savior a as power nuclear

attributed

on - household of

out of nuclear pow nuclear of out rn potential bring c development asserted the xenl upir. h rs o this of risk The suppliers. external - develop its national pride as a l a as pride national its develop citizens were s so s

in to , s recognized

society. order In tomitigate the and the era of for cooking and heating, and coal and heating, and cooking for

severe no longer no Japan’s . During this era, the stable supply of

Jpn perceived Japan . energy in order to prevent potential prevent to order in energy

has been has the nuclear elites nuclear the n h mre, s tra t the to threat a as market, the in can beparticularly observed inthe energy

that it that er ains continuing nation's

ainl euiy pie and pride, security, national globalization. , claiming that it was neither was it that claiming , by

inevitable supplied the independence, vital to the transportationthe to vital h gvrmn, which government, the literally most advanced science advanced most bilize and to decreaseto and bilize h dsuso on discussion the by a single energy single a by

h continuously the

elto o the of depletion who so flipped the coin the flipped

icted eading state in state eading

essential and essential the

emerged in emerged

hc the which n initiatedn economic upy of supply economy immense risks of

has has

CEU eTD Collection all economic activities and of64%controlling was thatMunitionsof Ministry thewithin done was this era, this In voting. public without pe of handful a where field a became politics monopolized the and over Japanese of creation first the was This better. of number a integrated The labor. and materials, related war capital, including resources available all of mobilization government governme Japanese the to power economic passed military, the to resources human and material limited existing of allocation the maximizing by war the continuing of purpose the For mai to order in issues positions in the national security energy politics. energy and security national as policy eco and political in people of number power?” addressesThis section the 5.2 Data from METI Table ( CO the and constructed were plants fired gas natural w connection solid any make H 1990s. firmlyestablisyet environmentnot the is energyand crises, H A NPPs in May 2012. highlighted See Table 5.1 (1 Mt CO)(1 Mt CO2 emissions (1 billionkwh) Production Electricity Year n owever,

increasing number of people started to started people of number increasing

The centralized political and economic power

h tastos f nry ytm rqie eae t acmls. utemr, h lnae between linkage the Furthermore, accomplish. to decades require systems energy of transitions the 5 the National Mobilization Law Mobilization National the

. It also It 1 owever, the initial purpose was to legitimize to was purpose initial the owever, . as of as of

CO the immediate increase of electricity price electricity of increase immediate the in ,

2 2013 it only20131%offorit accounts presents the hi the presents

(

atclr h Mnsr o Munitions, of Ministry the particular Emissions from the Power Sector Between 1990a 2014

1990 290 738 energy a )

and NIES energy business entities into entities business energy

secondthesis sub 79% of the national budget in 1944. almost 1992 299 774 ith a transition intotransition a ith economy ruled by ruled economy storical transition of Japan’s energy politics energy Japan’s of transition storical

e ( verything 2014 1994 319 836 who everything, deciding power nomic during WWII. This law legitimized law This WWII. during

), compiled by the author.

1996 view 873 309 - question: t n h nm o defending of name the in nt became

pe n oiia ad cnmc oe could power economic and political in ople

theelectricityshare of production,and a limited number of actors. N actors. of number limited a renewable energy as a potential substitute potential a as energy renewable a 1998 renewable - 902 292 centralized politics with politics centralized hed. It suddenly became a part ofsuddenly part becamehed.a It

71 s onl ne te cont the under “Whatdrovedrives)(andstill Japan

2 and the mounting trade deficit trade mounting the and

continuing

msin taiyicesdee before even increased steadily emissions a gatd every granted was y 2000 937 321 a - few organizations few based low carbon society. Inst society.carbon low based

Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University 2002 945 341 investment in nuclear power nuclear in investment

o o rol

nd 2012 2004 971 353 ti ad ute srnte their strengthen further and ntain , te eta gvrmn we it when government central the f

which became a field of a limited a of field a became which nation centralization the an ih ad oe t control to power and right

ational politics inc politics ational extreme power in bureaucracy in power extreme

so that it could it that so 2006 rqety euiie energy securitized frequently 996 362

l sovereignty al

the after shutting down shutting after as learnedas 2008 992 387 energy policy in energypolicy to investintonuclear for ead, new coal andcoal new ead,

government alsogovernment decide

of of nuclear power. nuclear

1,006 2010 , luding energyluding Te central The . control them control 373

political and political and did not did and from Fukushima

anything

the oilthe 2012 478 941

the the all

CEU eTD Collection them to the hosting communities in order to encourage the NPPs to be constantly gener electricity of production actual the on but NPPs of capacity the not on based subsidies provide TEPCO and industriesandin1995onwards ( in climate change significantly,rather decreased 2011). Nakano 2008; (AEC Japan in happen managerial safe and resilient more far are NPPs Japanesethat emphasizedsector, power the and media, mass the MITI, including elites, nuclear Japanese The peak T government. Japanese the by provided subsidies F communities collectively received 13.6 tri powerpublicnucleartotal,sector,industries,nuclearrelatedsupportforthe In more power. andhosting NPP th when provided were subsidies to started government decarbonize the 1990, since Additionally, 1980s. secure "to as such rhetoric political power and gas, oil, including industries energy the against created frameworks regulatory of series a by observed be can This 1970s, the in crises oil the Since energy companies yet the MITI, to democratizing reorganized was Munitions than of Ministry rather communism against ally an as Japan remained sector energy the in monopolies industrial the and Munitions of Ministry the in power centralized over This Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the igure 5.1 shows the time the shows 5.1 igure

this peri this ed rwh f ula pwr hn h opsto wa opposition the when power nuclear of growth

after the oil crises in the 1970s and 1980s, and were not affected by the Chernobyl d Chernobyl the by affected not were and 1980s, and 1970s the in crises oil the after e energy tax was first introduced, in order to construct more NPPs, to raise to NPPs, more construct to order in introduced, first was tax energy e ’s scandals in the late 1990s and 1990s late the in scandals ’s

after the post war era, which era, war post the after od and od excellence of the Japanese experts Japanese the of excellence

energysystems while by the government andby industry thegovernment

which were t sectors. he subsidies provided to the hosting communities exceeded the amount provided for the for provided amount the exceeded communities hosting the to provided subsidies he

for scale for the for scale At the same time, MITI time, same the At

nuclear power development power nuclear although nuclear energy started to be to startedenergy nuclear although privatized See MITI maintaining economicmaintaining growth Table 4.9).Tablepoliticalwas a Thisresponse ensureto continual the

a regarding the structure of the plants, in addition to the operational and operational the to addition in plants, the of structure the regarding

stable supply of energy for for energy of supply stable

further strengthened its power to control the energy politics of Japan. of politics energy the control to power its strengthened further was

but construction llion (137.8JPY billionUSD) between 1974 and 2010. early 2000s. It also echoes also It 2000s. early

deeply allowed

. H inside, thus asserting that nothing like Chernobyl could ever could Chernobyl like nothing that asserting thus inside, fe tee eid, the periods, these After owever, influenced by the US political decision to rapidly re rapidly to decision political US the by influenced pursued e construction he for monopoly.

72 it f NPPs of

kept the regulating power over the s the over power regulating the kept , icesn de o ula rltd ciet and accidents related nuclear to due increasing s the ih a with the further development of nuclear power nuclear developmentof further the amount of subsidiesamount of , their collective capacity, and the amount of amount the and capacity, collective their ,

. Accordingly,. securitize 1% nraei 00cmae o 1974 to compared 2010 in increase 613% sustainable growth" in the 1970 the in growth" sustainable publicized

METI announcing their plan in 2010 to 2010 in plan their announcing METI n the and

ains oiis n economy and politics nation's number

ula pwr as power nuclear

an aaiy rwh f Ps h NPPs of growth capacity as a mitigation measure mitigationa as increasing amount of annualofincreasingamount operational f new of continued toincrease even their output their Ps constructed NPPs . mall number of number mall

isaster in 1986 in isaster

measure a , and to gain to and , s operation

and the and

ated by ated against , using, - The . build

the ad to . CEU eTD Collection On maintaining schools, an airport andhospitals plants power obtained Prefecture Fukushima the example, For and areas secu or subsidies NPPs joinedof industry the in industries influential construct government the as power nuclear and members board afterwards increasing the alsoobservedin be can sector The Data Figure ishi ishi 2011

bu close from from JNES ies which siness, 5 .

1 most of most output their raise or NPPs more ties ties were . T ) .

ime ewe 17 ad 2009 and 1974 between , which again increases the power of the industries the of power the increases again which , between the between

the circle of nuclear elites and chronologically increased theirdependence onNPPs for getting (

(Moe 2012) (Moe to welcomed 2012 ring employ ring prioriti the scale the communities accepted more more accepted communities the

then try then national measure in order to improve to order in measure national ) and sequentially

ze of construction

RIST ula pwr and power nuclear . government

ments (Nakano 2011 (Nakano ments There to strengthen strengthen to join ( 2010

reinforces the former “client” nuclear related companies related nuclear “client” former the

is a is ), compiled and re wih a ue fr ulig od ad rde, constructing bridges, and roads building for used was which , positive feedback positive bureaucracy and the nuclear related industries including the powe the including industries related nuclear the and bureaucracy

of NPPs their ,

or maintainingor numbe which hi ifune on influence their

rvd sbiis for subsidies provide relationship with the bureaucracy who bureaucracy the with relationship ). Figure 5. Figure ). the total of of total the

r of former ministry o ministryformer of r than two than , t in turn in - 73 calculated by the author. he

ir collective c loop

energy security. For example, For security. energy the makes them makes 2 NPPs to be constructed to get more subsidies. more get to constructed be to NPPs

270

shows that NPPs in Japan are located in rural in located are Japan in NPPs that shows among the among sewerage system

. Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University h nation’s the At the same time, the hosti the time, same the At billion JPY in subsidies for its ten nuclear ten its for subsidies in JPY billion

its apacity

wealthier an wealthier fficials who retiredwhofficials

eeomn. hn h industries the Then development. nuclear elites nuclear nry oiis y securitizing by politics energy

, and subsidiesprovided ( and institutions as institutions and Atsunobu d more influential. T influential. more d lat , both in both , the nuclear elites in elites nuclear the er

2012;

put more money more put from METI andMETIfrom ng communitiesng

bureaucracy Fackler and executive and he

CEU eTD Collection en to independence” subsidies as industries 5.3 Figure threats, security Energy energypolicyaffect Japan’s that keyfactors three that indicates also power nuclear on dependence economic and political This Image from Figure Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the ergy system ) .

For example, For 3.1 5 Tee epe n po in people These . . 2 Global Nuclear Fuel . However, it goes in the opposite direction from the perspective of people in powe in people of perspective the from direction opposite the in goes it However, . . Nuclear power p

en n the in seen to be the vital energy system fueled by nuclear energy give energy nuclear by fueled system energy vital the securitize more more

a nd (3) Energy system governance, system Energy (3) nd nuclear dependent, which then rwn ncer energy nuclear growing

( certain a 2009 e dvlp n uiie ideologies utilize and develop wer lants )

and theirlocations energy threat - making

akt s el s h icesn ncer oe related power nuclear increasing the as well as market sc a ipr dependence, import as such , 74

, gives additional power to them. (1) Vital energysy Vital (1) in Japan does not does

uh s ssanbe rwh o “energy or growth” “sustainable as such only

s 2009

power to power go in one direction, as illustrated as direction, one in go stems and their vulnerabilities,(2)their and stems

the co the

METI and nuclear and METI o further to - ev

olving nature of the of nature olving encou r

( See Figure See rage - related the in

CEU eTD Collection “Does Fukushima a bring paradigm sections two previous the summarizes section This 5.3 feedback waswhich 1960s, 1950sand the firm arelationshipin built nuclearelites the numbe limited a toconcentrated been has power economic and political (2014). 31% up makes only cost fuel 2014 (METI power nuclear substitute to cost fuel increasing the to due was 2013 of deficit trade the that asserts complet very power economic and political with people of stubbornness The in Therefore, Developed by the author. Figure the

influential on developing the nation’s energy strategy or national politics in general, represented by the by represented general, in politics national or strategy energy nation’s the developing on influential a The implications of ). However, this is a la a is this However, ). nuclear business by controlling the national energy politics with politic with politics energy national the controlling by business nuclear

t ih tk tm ad fot o ra ti chain this break to effort and time take might It un akplc fteLP with LDP the of policy back turn e 5

. loop 3 Fukushima .

Positive feedback energyJapan’s in loop politics after theoilcrises

m ust have immensely have ust rge exaggeration of exaggeration rge

of the total deficit recorded by MOF in 2013, as rightly pointed out by out pointed rightly as 2013, in MOF by recorded deficit total the of between the 1970s and Fukushima shift

to Japan’s energy policy?”

agitated regard to the nation’s nuclear policy. nuclear nation’s the to regard numbers since the increase of 3.6 trillion JPY for additional for JPY trillion 3.6 of increase the since numbers

to Japato , and answers and ,

75 those people who were protecting each other's interest other's each protecting were who people those

the 2000s n’s future energy policy f uorc i autocracy of to adhere to nuclear power is still active and active still is power nuclear to adhere to Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University .

the last thesis last the

r of r n

further reinforced Japan’s people al power and capital influence. capital and power al

sub

since WWII since nry politics energy The latest energ latest The - question of this thesis: this of question

by the positivethe by . In addition, In .

ic the since y policy y

Saito

CEU eTD Collection oriented or government led); (2) policy goals; (3) polic following four areas of energy politics; (1) interpretation of energy and how it should governedbe (e.g. market 41 ashowtopolicycomm the depend the reduce to aim will strengthen“Japan that state to order “in policy latest the in nation” with security energy national the of source power load base “important an as order METI, from ENV of jurisdiction the to activities nuclear over power “safety” prioritiz to claims now policy the Although METI. of community closed the within again constructed was veryresistant. T poweris theofnuclearregime Nonetheless,the nuclear industries and the government (Nanas shut mouth their keep still media mass national Japan’s of majority rela Accordingly, became communiti hosting NPPs’ the in seen was power nuclear against Resistance strong to begun groundbreakingmovementstarteda and has after observed are There agreement a As opinion outside to closed again once was door the m 30 After METI. than of Minister less of consisted which 1967, in METI) (current weretargets, energymix includingpolicies, METI 2001, in mechanismmarketusing of intentionthe Although their of energy seeing market, energy the regulated government The of economic post the in economic priority since supply theearly 20 stable the sections, previous the in discussed As Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the

They argue that Japanese politics (Johnson 1982; Moe2012). tionship between the government, METI, and nuclear related industries one after another, although the although another, after one industries related nuclear and METI, government, the between tionship

to legitimize the resumption of of resumption the legitimize to the by force into came and ANCRE within formulated again was policy energy latest the result, bureaucratic

strong association with national security and with the nation’s long nation’s the withand security national associationwith strong a political subject political a for as hi oc gis th against voice their raise development and the continuous growth of industrial competitiveness ha competitiveness industrial of growth continuous the and development in theCabinet by theLDP Ministers no - a ea hs lo eae to related also this era war ainl nry policy energy national freelance journalists and magazines have begun to reveal the unhealthy nature of theinterlocking unhealthy of reveal naturethe magazinesbegun have freelanceandto journalists

usata changes substantial Fukushima was always the do the always was a paraa

nature with vested interest vested with nature itmentdependenceto reduction digm shift in energy policy can be observed if substantial changes observed are in the

Fukushima

as with

the minimized economic burdens economic minimized the a major focus for national election national for focus major a

regard to regard

minant regulatory entity in entityregulatory minant

th yet

(METI , the DPJ tried to open this open to tried DPJ the , e current nuclear energy regime energy nuclear current e century.

acrig o h faeok f Kern of framework the to according , curren

rnprain idsra eeg and energy industrial transportation, oeta aaimsit of shift paradigm potential a developed

n tly non tly 2014

awa 2008; Takahara 2011; Kodera 2014). If inthepre If increasingnumb s ence on nuclear power,” there are there power,” nuclear on ence

in April2014. in a national ) y instruments;y and governance(4) institutions. s as soon as the LDP came back to political power in 2012. in power political to back came LDP the as soon as , -

operating can be observed, as in the case of opening the oil marketoil the openingof case the in as observed, becan n te oenet accordingly government the and 76 by ACE (current ANCRE), first organized within MITIwithinorganized first ANCRE), ACE(current by or thedeadline it or for

war era this energy f nry a be Jpns tot oiia and political utmost Japan’s been has energy of

politics and economics and politics Japanese energy economics. The national energy national The economics. energy Japanese

er of politicalerofparties ” NPPs. mes h wr drcl apitd y the by appointed directly were who embers

he latestenergypolicyhe (METI closed policy , perhaps , or even the Tokyo gubernatorial election. gubernatorial Tokyo the even or

, particularly aft particularly ,

Indeed, was this

2014 community to the to community making Japan’s energy politics. energy Japan’s

- particularly related tomilitary fuels, term economic developmentplan.economicterm may

because of the pressure from thefrom pressure the of because (METI es in the past, however it never it however past, the in es a nuclear power is still described still is power nuclear ).

t al. et , and tried to make a change. a make to tried and , Even though Even only

no concrete numbers in the in numbers concrete no electricit

and the generalandthe public

as ve always been the focus the been always ve 2014 (2013) er the DPJ revealed DPJ the er be a be , released in April 2014, April releasedin ,

state business, becausebusiness, state oe te regulatory the moved a y.

) . I political

public 41 n diin the addition, In nthe policy,itis

, the policy does policy the

which However, a However, . Howeve . gesture

can

has

be be its in r, e

CEU eTD Collection everything behindclosed doors has politics in change substantial a make amo debates energy of boom recent the whether Therefore, the considering implemented, actually be can it much how potential resistance from the very powerful power sector. unknown still is it however 2012, in ANRE abolished not suspended, only indeed generate” should nuclearpower that impliedeven

been that the

field

nation may n which in the

for for the last ninedecades, is this

constructNPPsdependingnew theon “appropriate proportionelectricity of nuclear energy paradigm is still uncertain. still is paradigm energy nuclear

lmtd ubr f pe of number limited a (METI .

In addition, the reform the addition, In

2014 a ), and the plans for the construction of eight new NPPs are NPPs neweight construction the of for plans the and 77

ng Japanese politicians and the general public can public general the and politicians Japanese ng pe n oiia ad economic and political in ople certainly policy of the power sector was proposed by proposed was sector power the of policy Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University

the

However, consider However, start of a change worthfollowing

oe d power ing that energy that ing ecide d .

CEU eTD Collection Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the This page intentionally left blank

CEU eTD Collection a immensely being of out way potential a as power on depending nuclear of view a with 1950s early with reso energy of disruptions potential the of memory ind energy the over MITI of governance powerful economy Law Mobilization government the and quasi particul in government, the to power economic and potential The maintain orgive to independence” po in people These governance. gives power in actors the by formed systems energy vital time, same the of which threats, security energy to exposed are vulnerabilities their in people of perspective the from direction opposite co author the thesis, the in conducted analysis contemporary and historical the Through ro development securi energy 1970s, nature ofthe governance. system energy These have that factors demand, energy increasing author The and (3)“Does the Fukushima disaste nuclearpower?”;in to invest Japandrives) drove“What energysecuritystill national challenges?”; (2) (and the e Fukushima nation’s the of understanding better thesisaim thiswas of The 6. nergy ots of -

energy system system energy vlig aue f h tre atr de not does factors three the of nature evolving Conclusions - national security and security national national corporations national key factors are: factors key this thesis expanded the historical analysis to prior t prior to analysis historical the expanded thesis this policy

the current formation of Japan’s Frhroe t Furthermore, .

in 2011. in se

recognized - y threats. ty

of the nation’s energy systems, the concept of energy, of concept the systems, energy nation’s the of lossof making external energy resources. This notionThis energyresources. external

factors.

additional power tothem had governance Ti cnrlzto o power of centralization This . securitize

Three sovereignty : (1) “How has Japan’s energy system developed in the last nine decades, in response to response in decades, nine last the in developed system energy Japan’s has “How (1) : the most the maximize the nation’s vital energy sy energy vital nation’s the In contrast therecent to studies onthepolicy focusing transitions after theoilcrisesin

ht aa’ gorpia feature geographical Japan’s that hs was This

e ail goig cnm ad h icesn eeg demand energy increasing the and economy growing rapidly he tocomprehensivprovidea economic growth. The nation initiated the development of nuclear power in the in power nuclear of development the initiated nation The growth. economic along with the with along .

sub h tertcl rmwr a dvlpd n re t eaie h co the examine to order in developed was framework theoretical The

The function of the military the of function The cran het o ute fruae h eeg sses n wy ht again that way a in systems energy the formulate further to threat certain a which then which - dominant influence on the nation’s energy policy since the early 20 early the since policy energy nation’s the on influence dominant d questions were d were questions wer develop and utilize ideologie utilize and develop wer of thenationofin

h alcto o ol n wr resources war and oil of allocation the o te ups o aayig how analyzing of purpose the for r r abring paradigm change toJapan’s energy policy?” latest

energy politics.

develop (See section 5.2 and Figure 5.3 for details) closed nry oiy ht tl ahrs o ula pwr vn after even power nuclear to adheres still that policy energy

mentality of of mentality the vlpdi odrt rvd rae isgt into insight greater a provide to order in eveloped s a new energy system energy new a s st was ustries in the 1950s and 1960s. and 1950s the in ustries fet n another one affect ems and their vulnerabilities; energy security threats; security energy vulnerabilities; their and ems urces formed a concept of energy associated very closely very associated energy of concept a formed urces

ar to the Ministry of Munitions of Ministry the to ar

of energy as critical for the sovereigntythe energycriticalfor as of early20 e view of Jap viewe of 79 political and economic power economic and political maintained

was s o WWII when Japan encountered its first major first its encountered Japan when WWII o , poor endowment with energy resources resources energy with endowment poor , th its

centuryencouraged Japancentralizetopolitical politicized people Masahiro Suzuki, Central European University in turn in an’senergy policy s

s mas o re to means a as such as “sustainable growth” or “energy or growth” “sustainable as such and governance and

, n ny n directio one only in

forms the forms

in order to overcome the threats. At threats. the overcome to order in

trigger hs itrcl eid affected period historical this as them vital o t y passing by it to s the power to conduct to power the

the formation of formation the

to the continuity of continuity the to

bottleneck of the thr the of bottleneck By this time, the historical the time, this By . - .

making in order to gainorderato in making Vital energy systems and systems energy Vital and a limited number of number limited a and - system system also aiiae the habilitate

n identified that the that identified

of the nation andnation the of , and created and d increas nd but bolster the also some kind some th -

National evolving

century. national

Japan’s ed society energy ee key ee n the in ingly

and and the the the

CEU eTD Collection demonstratedintopaperprioritizednational beneficial more isthatitislook towhat securitizedaenergy or in region Pacific Asia China. particularly the in role political expected the the the of people, of because mentality closed Japan the resources, for complicated more be may It change. climate Ener anmore in time first the for However, shift. paradigm significant no is There started. finally has process democratize to time take will It public. the among power nuclear instead butparliament the in votingwithout METI formulatedwithin still was 2014, April in published policy, energy present, still is decades th of stubbornness The negatively to measures potential in say a have to interest everyone’s included be to public the among desire the also but electoralcampaigns.usedin issue politicalbecamea of irresponsibility Fukushima transparen the and industries related nuclear and METI, government, the between relationship cozy this However, transportation naturalsector, gas inthehousehold and industrial sector, and coal iniron andsteel production a reduce the was from production electricity the in power nuclear of share the increase to aimed which d of ideology shared a with institu and corporations related regul to used who officials over power influential which demand As nuclear elites inbureaucracy accele the in resulted which further was economy national the developmentof continual the Adherence tothe Past or Hope for Future?the ll eveloping nuclear power. nuclear eveloping other an expected an gy policy is a v a is policy gy most most agreed be d more politicians and ul were fuels affected t A icesn nme o pol satd o atcpt i te nry eae by debates energy the in participate to started people of number increasing An . overall for electricity for aue f h ntoa eeg policy energy national the of nature was flowing i flowing was tween thetweenMinisters, LDPnot thus outcome of the shared ideology. shared the of outcome fossil fuel dependence

Potentially, everything can be an influence to shape a nation’s energy policy. However, thi However, policy. energy nation’sa shape influenceto an be can everythingPotentially, h gvrmn ad h idsre fr th for industries the and government the the daily lives every of citizen.

ery complex field complex ery vital

national energy politics as the growth of the electricity market and the retired ministry retired the and market electricity the of growth the as politics energy national with isiuinl oe which power institutional e

and nto the development of nuclear power. The power industry gained a progress a gained industry power The power. nuclear of development the nto increasedcontinuously ate the industry moved into moved industry the ate Therefore, t Therefore, ration of the increasing deployment of nuclear power nuclear of deployment increasing the of ration and industries METI METI reinforcing hs irreplaceable thus media in. h rlto between relation The tions. at its at have

that is associated with national security, sustainable growth and now and growth sustainable security, national with associated is that he last energy policy developed by METI in 2010 before 2010 in METI by developed policy energy last he

of thenationof by substituting their roles inelectricity generation, since

nutil com industrial core . turned to support the public.

international reputa international Japan’s and

from in

The government securitized nuclear power as a means to means a as power nuclear securitized government The aig udny ae no the into came suddenly making

dominant power dominant sufficiently Fukushima their ch 80

otold h nto’ eeg p energy nation’s the controlled

in the energy policy energy the in 1973, the amount of energy tax revenues increased, of increased, revenues tax energy of amount the 1973, energy history, the history, energy ne observed ange importan

, pet

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CEU eTD Collection

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