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3-D Stratigraphic Mapping Using a Digital Outcrop Model Derived from UAV Images and Structure-From-Motion Photogrammetry GEOSPHERE; V

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3-D Stratigraphic Mapping Using a Digital Outcrop Model Derived from UAV Images and Structure-From-Motion Photogrammetry GEOSPHERE; V Research Note GEOSPHERE 3-D stratigraphic mapping using a digital outcrop model derived from UAV images and structure-from-motion photogrammetry GEOSPHERE; v. 14, no. 6 Paul Ryan Nesbit1, Paul R. Durkin2, Christopher H. Hugenholtz1, Stephen M. Hubbard3, and Maja Kucharczyk1 https:// doi .org /10 .1130 /GES01688 .1 1Department of Geography, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada 2Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, 66 Chancellors Circle, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada 3 11 figures; 3 tables; 1 set of supplemental files Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada CORRESPONDENCE: paul .nesbit@ ucalgary.ca ABSTRACT (Jordan and Pryor, 1992; Durkin et al., 2017). Fluvial deposits are highly hetero- CITATION: Nesbit, P.R., Durkin, P.R., Hugenholtz, geneous and challenging to map in outcrop due to lateral and vertical variabil- C.H., Hubbard, S.H., and Kucharczyk, M., 2018, 3-D stratigraphic mapping using a digital outcrop model Fluvial deposits are highly heterogeneous and inherently challenging to ity, as well as inconsistent exposure (Miall, 1988; Labourdette and Jones, 2007; derived from UAV images and structure-from-motion map in outcrop due to a combination of lateral and vertical variability along Pranter et al., 2007; Calvo and Ramos, 2015; Durkin et al., 2015a). Conventional photogrammetry: Geosphere, v. 14, no. 6, p. 2469– with a lack of continuous exposure. Heavily incised landscapes, such as bad- mapping methods commonly include a posteriori correlation (or interpolation) 2486, https:// doi .org /10 .1130 /GES01688.1. lands, reveal continuous three-dimensional (3-D) outcrops that are ideal for between sedimentary field logs, which can result in subjective interpretations, constraining the geometry of fluvial deposits and enabling reconstruction of unquantified uncertainty, and/or oversimplified information between data Science Editor: Raymond M. Russo Associate Editor: Jose Miguel Hurtado channel morphology through time and space. However, these complex 3-D points (Jones et al., 2004; Bond et al., 2007). Supplemental data sets, such as landscapes also create challenges for conventional field mapping techniques, panoramic photographs, have been used to improve interpretations between Received 28 February 2018 which offer limited spatial resolution, coverage, and/or lateral contiguity of isolated sedimentary logs (i.e., Sgavetti, 1992; Arnot et al., 1997); however, this Revision received 20 May 2018 measurements. To address these limitations, we examined an emerging tech- method lacks the geometric and locational accuracy needed for detailed map- Accepted 13 August 2018 nique using images acquired from a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and ping of highly varied fluvial deposits. Published online 2 October 2018 structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetric processing to generate a 3-D Digital outcrop models (DOMs), or virtual outcrops (Trinks et al., 2005), pro- digital outcrop model (DOM). We applied the UAV-SfM technique to develop vide a three-dimensional (3-D) scaled replica of outcrops and can supplement a DOM of an Upper Cretaceous channel-belt sequence exposed within a 0.52 field observations with additional quantitative data sets (Xu et al., 2000;Bellian km2 area of Dinosaur Provincial Park (southeastern Alberta, Canada). Using et al., 2005; Enge et al., 2007; Labourdette and Jones, 2007; Pranter et al., 2007; the 3-D DOM, we delineated the lower contact of the channel-belt sequence, Buckley et al., 2008). Existing techniques used to generate DOMs generally created digital sedimentary logs, and estimated facies with similar conviction incur a spatial coverage–resolution trade-off. Ground-based photogrammetry to field-based estimations (±4.9%). Lateral accretion surfaces were also recog- and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) are common techniques for creating nized and digitally traced within the DOM, enabling measurements of accre- DOMs, but they are often hindered by restricted line-of-sight and require mul- tion direction (dip azimuth), which are nearly impossible to obtain accurately tiple viewpoints to eliminate data occlusions. Although there are exceptions in the field. Overall, we found that measurements and observations derived (e.g., Rarity et al., 2014), ground-based methods are primarily used for sites from the UAV-SfM DOM were commensurate with conventional ground-based smaller than 105 m2 and are not practical for mapping extensive outcrop ex- OLD G mapping techniques, but they had the added advantage of lateral continuity, posures (Hodgetts, 2013; James and Quinton, 2014). Airborne methods, such which aided interpretation of stratigraphic surfaces and facies. This study sug- as aerial photogrammetry and light detection and ranging (LiDAR), are com- gests that UAV-SfM DOMs can complement traditional field-based methods monly considered for mapping larger areas (>106 m2); however, these methods by providing detailed 3-D views of topographically complex outcrop expo- typically have limited spatial resolution (i.e., >0.3 m/pixel), high costs, and dif- OPEN ACCESS sures spanning intermediate to large spatial extents. ficulty resolving geologic detail along subvertical slopes (Bellian et al., 2005; Hodgetts, 2013). Despite some unique solutions (e.g., Rittersbacher et al., 2014; James and Quinton, 2014), few techniques have emerged for detailed mapping INTRODUCTION of sedimentary rocks exposed within laterally extensive (>105 m2), topographi- cally complex, 3-D landscapes. Stratigraphic surfaces resulting from ancient fluvial processes record spa- Small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) paired with structure-from-motion This paper is published under the terms of the tial and temporal changes in river morphology at multiple hierarchical levels multiview stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry have recently emerged as an CC-BY-NC license. and inform our understanding of morphodynamics and paleoenvironments alternative, low-cost, remote-sensing approach for generating high-spatial- © 2018 The Authors GEOSPHERE | Volume 14 | Number 6 Nesbit et al. | 3-D stratigraphic mapping using a UAV-SfM DOM Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article-pdf/14/6/2469/4578900/2469.pdf 2469 by guest on 25 September 2021 Research Note resolution data spanning intermediate spatial extents (Hugenholtz et al., central Canadian Cordillera highlands to the west, with an average paleocur- 2012; Colomina and Molina, 2014; Whitehead and Hugenholtz, 2014; White- rent direction flowing east-southeast into the shallow Western Interior Seaway head et al., 2014; Toth and Jóźków, 2016; Chesley et al., 2017; Nieminski and (Wood et al., 1988; Wood, 1989; Eberth and Hamblin, 1993; Ryan et al., 2001). Graham, 2017). In the geosciences, UAV-based SfM-MVS (hereafter UAV-SfM) There is agreement among investigators that deposition of sediment was from techniques have primarily been used for generating and analyzing two-dimen- fluvial processes; however, the degree of tidal influence is disputed (Koster sional (2-D) and two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5-D) data sets, such as ortho- and Currie, 1987; Thomas et al., 1987; Wood, 1989; Eberth, 2005). mosaic images and/or digital surface models (DSMs; Carrivick et al., 2016). The study area is in the northeast section of the park, ~1 km east of the Although these 2-D and 2.5-D data sets may be suitable for measurement present-day Red Deer River (Fig. 1). This area contains exposures of the upper- and interpretation of geologic features along planar surfaces, they are sus- most Dinosaur Park Formation and evidence of the overlying Bearpaw For- ceptible to compression, distortion, and overgeneralization of details exposed mation. Previous work within the area identified an 8–10-m-thick meandering along planes nonnormal to image acquisition (Bellian et al., 2005; Pavlis and channel-belt deposit with characteristic point-bar and counter-point-bar ele- Mason, 2017; Thiele et al., 2017). Geologic features are commonly exposed ments (Smith et al., 2009b; Durkin et al., 2015b; Weleschuk, 2015). The base of along steep slopes and are particularly susceptible to these effects; therefore, the channel-belt sequence is recognizable by the presence of coarser channel further consideration of data collection and visualization is necessary. An alter- scour and bar deposits (fine-medium sandstone and siltstone) sharply overly- native approach is to use 3-D data sets generated during intermediate stages ing finer floodplain deposits (mudstone-siltstone). This contact represents lat- of UAV-SfM processing, such as the dense point cloud or textured triangulated erally contemporaneous processes (i.e., deposition and erosion) and provides mesh, as DOMs for geologic analysis. These “intermediate” data sets contain a common datum for identifying higher-order stratigraphic surfaces. location (x, y, z) and color information (red-green-blue [RGB]), maintain 3-D The heavily dissected badland landscape, typified by complex drainage topographic integrity, and resemble DOMs created with TLS. networks, hoodoos, buttes, and mesas of various sizes, is characteristic To evaluate UAV-SfM–generated DOMs as supplemental tools for providing throughout Dinosaur Provincial Park (Campbell, 1970). This landscape initi- reliable quantitative information, we compared DOM-derived measurements ated during Wisconsinan deglaciation (~15,000 yr ago) as the Laurentide ice with independently collected field
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