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Home , Alois Kaiser, Canaanite shift, Cantonist, Christian Hebraist, David Shimoni, Encyclopaedia Judaica

PREVIEW Encyclopedia of and

Editor-in-Chief: Dan Diner, on behalf of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in Editorial Staff: Markus Kirchhoff (Head), Philipp Graf, Stefan Hofmann, Ulrike Kramme, Regina Randhofer, Frauke von Rohden, Philipp von Wussow Consulting Editors of the English Edition: Cornelia Aust, Philipp Lenhard, Daniel Mahla

Print Edition (7 vol. Set) • ISBN 9789004309401 • First volume, of 7 total, published in October 2017 • Complete set planned to be published by June 2021

From to America to the , North topics like autonomy, , emancipation, , Africa and other non-European Jewish settlement liturgy, music or the science of . The seventh areas the Encyclopedia of Jewish History and volume index offers a detailed list of persons, places Culture covers the recent history of the from and subjects that creates a reliable reference for 1750 until the 1950s. working with the encyclopedia. The encyclopedia Translated from German into English, approximately provides in an overall context and offers 800 keywords present the current state of academics and other interested readers new insights international research and depict a complex portrait into Jewish history and culture. It is an outstanding of Jewish life - illustrated by many maps and images. contribution to the understanding of Judaism and About 40 key articles convey central themes on modernity.

Online Edition • ISSN 2468-8894 • More information and purchase options: brill.com/ejhc

This booklet is a preview of Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture. The format and paper used for this preview are not indicative of the final printed version of the Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture Volume 1 A-Cl

Editor in Chief Dan Diner

On behalf of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in Leipzig

Philipp Graf Ulrike Kramme Simon Mahling Christian Otto

Frauke von Rohden Philipp von Wussow Alexandra Schröder, Alexandra Tyrolf (Assistants)

Consulting Editors of the English Edition Cornelia Aust Philipp Lenhard Daniel Mahla Editor in Chief Dan Diner

Advisory Board Jacques Picard () Gertrud Pickhan () Marion Aptroot (Düsseldorf) Anthony Polonsky (Waltham, MA) Barnai () Renée Poznanski (Beer Sheva) Bartal () Peter Pulzer () (Providence, RI) Aron Rodrigue (Stanford) Benbassa (Paris) Manfred Rudersdorf (Leipzig) Dominique Bourel (Paris) Salamander () Brenner (Munich) Winfried Schulze (Munich) Matti Bunzl () Marcos Silber (Haifa) Lois C. Dubin (Northampton, MA) Gerald Stourzh (Vienna) Todd M. Endelman (Ann Arbor, MA) Stefan Troebst (Leipzig) Engel (New ) Feliks Tych* () Shmuel Feiner (Ramat Gan) Yfaat Weiss (Jerusalem/Leipzig) Norbert Frei () Christian Wiese ( am Main) Friedländer () Carsten L. Wilke (Budapest) Sander L. Gilman (Atlanta) Susanne Zepp (Berlin) Frank Golczewski () Moshe Zimmermann (Jerusalem) Andreas Gotzmann () Steven J. Zipperstein (Stanford) Michael Graetz () Raphael Gross (Berlin) Heiko Haumann (Basel) * deceased Johannes Heil (Heidelberg) Susannah Heschel (Hanover, NH) Yosef Kaplan (Jerusalem) Cilly Kugelmann (Berlin) Mark Levene (Southampton) Leonid Luks (Eichstätt) Mendelsohn* (Jerusalem) Paul Mendes-Flohr (/Jerusalem) Dan Miron () Motzkin (Jerusalem) David N. Myers (Los Angeles) Publisher’s Note to the English Edition

Brill’s Encyclopedia of Jewish History and sheds new light on established ones. Brill’s Culture (EJHC) is the English edition of the Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture original Enzyklopädie jüdischer Geschichte continues and extends this tradition into und Kultur (EJGK), published by Verlag J.B. the . Metzler from 2011 to 2017. The innovative The entries have been translated by an approach and high academic standard of the international team of professionals. We encyclopedia, as well as its clear and acces- have aimed at producing a reliable transla- sible presentation, make the Encyclopedia of tion which follows the style of English lan- Jewish History and Culture an irreplaceable guage encyclopedias. We have also tried to reference work for the history and culture of accommodate the English-speaking read- modern Jewry. ership by updating and adding new bib- Why an English edition of the Enzyk- lopädie jüdischer Geschichte und Kultur? The encyclopedia is less a classic work of collect- have been responsible for editing the English edition. new approaches to the experience of - We would like to thank the editor of the ish existence in the modern world follow- EJGK Professor Dan Diner of the Hebrew ing three central areas of Jewish knowledge: University of Jerusalem, the Saxonian Acad- text, institution, and the world of everyday emy of Sciences and Humanities, and former life. Along those concepts, the articles pro- director of the Institute at vide academics, as well as the general pub- Leipzig University (1999–2014), the editorial lic, with a complex portrait of Jewish life team of the original edition based in Leipzig, from all of Europe to America, the Middle East, and other non-European zler and its editorial team in for Jewish settlement areas. The editor in chief their continuous support of the English edi- of the Enzyklopädie jüdischer Geschichte und tion. We are also grateful to the authors who Kultur has taken on the challenge to com- have provided new bibliographic references bine erudition in its best sense with new for their entries. Many thanks also to Diana approaches of cultural studies and cultural history. Through its innovative approach, lish text and to Kayli Brownstein for orga- the encyclopedia develops new topics and nizing the smooth work routines. Introduction

Assigned to preserve Knowledge, encyclope- The EJHC considers itself a canonical dias record its respective temporality. Com- project of post-canonical quality. It upholds monly they arise at the threshold of changes in meaning and understanding. The Ency- knowledge that have taken place over time clopedia of Jewish History and Culture (EJHC) and have become consolidated in the mod- ern period, while at the same time allowing respect to a complex transition. More than for deconstructionist disassociations from a lifetime has passed since the manifesta- these conventions when this mode of eva- tion of an ultimate rupture in civilization sion promises a genuine improvement in was brought about by the catastrophe of understanding. This choice of approach in the – a veritable epistemological an encyclopedic endeavor in the domain crisis. That exceptional event generates a of , combining traditional unique phenomenon of perception, by vir- approaches and post-traditional disasso- tually dragging all previous epochs of Jew- acknowledging that fundamental crisis in Zeitgeist but, rather, is a proper response historical comprehension bonded with the event’s vigor, the EJHC simultaneously being treated. For Jewish Lebenswelten, the attempts to regain a perspective of proper habitual and social living environments of historical understanding in its aftermath. Jews and Jewries, are, by and large, manifes- Jewish history, or, more precisely, the his- tations of an eminently diasporic condition tories and of the Jews, are to be whose substance is traditionally enshrined attained onto new foundations both in face within a sacral textual culture. This dia- of this disastrous obliteration and aloof to sporic condition is accompanied by clusters its reverberating devastations. Such a para- of phenomena of spatial transposition and doxical constellation nurtures the expecta- territorial transgression. These textually tion of the formation of a new canon. generated Lebenswelten and their proper Canonization, however, does not appear concepts of understanding and interpreta- topical nowadays, and the prestige of bequeathed wisdom raises suspicion. Thus, majority cultures surrounding them, which the task of canon formation is challenged were largely grounded on concepts of tel- by ubiquitous currents striving toward cul- lurian authority. While the latter generate tural diversity and modes of interpretation themselves by analogy with the geometric and meaning that go along with it. This ten- axiom of a power-supported of terri- dency undermines the authority of arsenals tory, so to say, the corresponding analogy for Jewish diasporic existence is contained Western tradition and its proper concepts, in the axiom of the unshielded point – juxta- going back largely to the early modern era posing a culture of land to a culture of text. as the provenance of generated knowledge. Perspectives and Meanings ing argument of the meaning of History, which governs by and large the construction The encyclopedic canon of Jewish history of knowledge and the modes of understand- and culture exposed in the EJHC expresses a ing, originating in Enlightenment tradition. perspectives: the internal perspective of Jew- ish self-understanding and self-awareness, ism were incorporated into Jewish inter- the external perspective on Jewish matters nal discourses on self-understanding and as mediated by academic disciplines, and a self-awareness. perspective that transcends Jews and Juda- The third perspective taken by this ency- ism in its particular sense to trace the uni- clopedic endeavor oversteps the perimeters of Jewish history and culture in the more The internal and external perspectives at those components of Jewish existential ented approaches to understanding one and experience that are ascribed a profoundly the same thing. Ideally, a distinction can be universal human and, in a sense, anthropo- made between existential participation on logical validity. Through the optic of such the one hand and impartial observation on existential experience, it becomes possible the other. So, the Jewish-internal discourse to open a special window of understand- ing onto the convulsions and upheavals of as a lived experience, an expression of the modernity. Thus the Jewish constellation, constant negotiation of those emblems of by dint of its diasporic , fragile and Jewish belonging that were considered man- symbolized by the axiom of the unshielded datory in varying proximity to a revelation- geometric point, can be understood as a based tradition. The external perspective, highly sensitive seismograph for detecting although it treats the same thematic mate- social and cultural upheaval in an era of rap- rial, does so within a disciplined scholarly idly accelerating changes and the crisis phe- nomena accompanying them. between participation and observation, Jewish existential awareness exposes, between “internal” and “external,” the two furthermore, an arsenal of future universal perspectives tend to become enmeshed. experience most particularly because its Such a transition is a consequence of sec- multilayered, fragmented sense of belong- ularization. Traditionally, Jewish belonging ing, already arising in modernity, anticipated and the regulating of everyday Lebenswelten the complex phenomenon of the subse- are negotiated solely on the basis of Jew- ish and the sacredly imbued of the postmodern personality. Such a con- textual corpus springing from that matrix. With the loss of transcendental certainty, experienced in high modernity (essentially the historical thinking that comes to sup- the period from the end of the long 19th century until well into the short, cata- although it holds out little promise of cer- strophic 20th century), was sensed within tainly. As a result, the recourse to history individual Jews between their vocations in emerging in modernity progressively under- acting as universal pioneers of modernity mines the distinction between ‘interior’ and while simultaneously retaining traditional, premodern residual features that exposed manners of speaking fuse: on the one hand, their Jewish collectivity. This experience of the engaged, participatory internal Jewish temporally unequal modes of existence, discourse on belonging; on the other hand, that often manifested within one and the the observation of the same, grounded on same person, corresponds to the prevalent the academic disciplines. This latter obser- postmodern situations of the present day. vation is nourished by the discourse about belonging, while the academic, the scholarly tions, cultures, and linguistic communities. and belonging evoke the recollection of understanding since the symbolism or ico-

title enables a shift in perspective regard- modern era. ing the long-accepted reading of a subject Proceeding from Jewish existential experi- matter. ence in modernity, the EJHC devotes special attention to the processes of transformation, Periodizing Jewish History displacement, dissolution, liquefaction, and disintegration of traditional emblems of The EJHC presents the state of knowledge related to Jewish existence at the tempo- conceptualized as a secondary conversion ral threshold of transition from the 20th to from the sacred core of Judaism, preserving the 21st century. The epistemological and Jewish belonging, into preformed profane representative method of the encyclope- Lebenswelten. Consequently, a look at the dia is appropriate for this complex epoch modes of transformation concentrates, in of change in that it endeavors to splice and the main, less on phenomena of a religious balance modern and postmodern modes self-identity unscathed by the course of in interpretation. It covers primarily, but time, and more on its reverberating echoes not exclusively, the period between 1750 in a post-traditional era. Belonging is thus and 1950. These delimiting dates are not precipitated as a part of something more, symbolic, basic parameters of a period that tion. In its form, this is in keeping with the encompasses the Jewish lived experience kaleidoscopic principle valid, in any case, in the modern era between the initiation for encyclopedias, namely, the alphabetic ordering of articles that dissolves a presup- catastrophe. Meaningfully juxtaposed, these posed totality and where the leitmotif of symbolic dates create a periodization that dissolution or the structure of a particulate treats the history of Jewish existence in the can also be found manifested in the struc- modern era from its beginning to its end. turing of the lemmata themselves. These The cipher 1750 stands for the profound bear less allegiance to the traditional Jewish historical changes emanating at that junc- canon of knowledge; rather, they endeavor ture, the transition from the premodern to correspond to a form of representation to the modern. Primarily this involved the measures for the “civil improvement” of passage, shifting, and liquidity. Of course, the Jews introduced by the late absolutist regimes of continental Europe: their trans- entries whose designation directly matches formation into “useful” subjects – the begin- their content. Other lemmata, especially nings of an that was decreed those whose primary focus is a person or a from on high. While these late-absolutist creation, may not disclose their actual con- designs dealt mostly with stipulations of partial modernization and, in any case, the case when they cover phenomena of only brought about gradual changes, the secondary conversion and transformation. epochal transformations resulting from But these delays in identifying the true sub- the , with its declaration ject never reach the point of impenetrable of universal human and civil rights, would arcana, nor do they require a previously ultimately promise the Jews absolute equal- informed reader. Finally, these lemma titles ity of participation in the body politic. This pledge was combined, however, with the The cipher 1950 interlocks events prin- demand to abrogate the centuries-old tradi- cipally associated with the years 1933, tion of institutional Jewish autonomy and 1939/1941, 1945, 1948, and 1952 – a temporal its broad array of rules and regulations pen- arc containing the dawn of National Social- etrating all spheres of life and grounded on tsi ,elur no revo eht kaerbtuo dna dne fo religious law. That constituted a profound WW II, conjoining with the all-devouring caesura – away from a regime of premodern, catastrophe, moving ever more unto the vertically oriented corporative collectivity, center of consciousness, and extending on toward a form of (state) citizenship and the to the establishment of the State of Israel political order regulating it, established on and the Luxembourg Agreement with Ger- the principles of horizontality and formal many on material reparations, guaranteeing equality, and the insulating of the individual the ’s further existence. person. The transformation initiated in the The glance turned to the past that springs context of the French Revolution and the events colors the historical retrospective an epochal way as well and brought to light on the anticipations of emancipation ema- all the known Jewish questions of the mod- nating from the mid-18th century and ulti- ern era. It spread from to mately thwarted and shattered in the course the Jewish heartlands of Central and East- of the 20th century, unescapably along , all the way to , and teleological lines. Moreover, as a result of leaving faint traces on the Muslim East. eht etamitlu ,ehportsatac eht ,tsuacoloH a The consequences of this groundbreaking (re-) of Jews who had been change are largely causal for determining individualized afore by tokens of modernity the thematic arrangement of the two- and had been integrated in variously com- hundred-year period at the center of the pacted institutional formations as citizens encyclopedia’s focus – that epochal era in into their respective national cultures takes Jewish history between emancipation and place, shifting to a Jewish collective analo- catastrophe. Whether and how the Jews, gous to a . both as individuals and citizens and also as a collective, were actually equal during this of the subjects of Jewish history and culture, “Jewish epoch” of the modern era, and how the EJHC also contains entries that devi- the non-Jewish cultures surrounding them ate from its core, centered on the modern reacted to provisions and implementations era. These are entries dealing with spaces for Jewish equality, are among the central and times imbued with a special value of questions regarding the modern era of the noitaterpretni dna gninaem nihtiw lanretni . Jewish discourse. Thus, for example, the The cypher 1950 stands for a historical lemma “” – a Greek word for a dis- interval, which has, in large part, at its center tinctively Jewish condition – looks princi- the experience of fused with pally at a constellation in , an the establishment of the Jewish state. A mul- era that is of great relevance both because tiple failure of expectations of emancipation of the unfolding separation of unfolds in this temporal domain, encom- from Judaism and because of the rabbinical passing the revocation of individual equality transformations of Judaism itself. Addition- and the withdrawal of civil protection of the person as a denial of universally anchored point of reference for modern Jewish self- promises in civil rights, and extending on awareness. The lemma “” desig- to the catastrophe of collective destruction. nates the spatial direction taken by a Jewish moving from Western Europe – the area of disapproving projections onto through Central Europe into the deep Jews from the outside, emanating from tra- reaches of East-Central Europe. “” ditional anti-Judaic animosity toward Jews stands for the late medieval/early modern ; existential experience of the Jews and con- – the area, separate from the preceding, versos emigrating from the Iberian penin- focusing on the history and impact of the sula toward the eastern Mediterranean and Holocaust. ultimately also into northwestern Europe, while touching on the . The times and places referred to in this relation to each other like concentric circles way are inserted into the customary peri- of decreasing holiness emanating from a odization of the general course of history; at sacral core. Judaism as a of the Law is at cally Jewish spatiotemporal consciousness the core of everything Jewish. The Law is because of the diasporic existence that is inscribed with divine timelessness. The con- their background. ceptual worlds saturated with sacredness Important departures from the encyclo- which underpin Judaism retain their valid- pedia’s periodization, stretching from the ity over and beyond all temporal and spatial mid-18th through the mid-20th centuries, conditions of Jewish existential experience. also arise where it is necessary to account In this they are subject to adaptations for the sacral canon of Judaism beyond his- anchored in religious law. tory. Despite all contours of change, this The circle immediately beyond the sacral sacral canon continues to determine Jew- canon at the center focuses on phenomena ish life in its innermost core. Thus, the EJHC fo – noitaziraluces eht lautca citameht -noc as a profane enterprise provides appropri- nection that characterizes the encyclope- ate space to Judaism in terms of its sacred dic work of the EJHC. There are two areas ’timelessness’ as a world of grounded of secularization to be distinguished here: on revelation and on the validity of Jewish the textual and the institutional. Secular- halakhah over and beyond historical time. ization of textual culture essentially began at the beginning of the 19th century with Pansophy of Jewish Modernities the academic treatment of sacred scrip- tures, especially in the . The EJHC subdivides the corpus of knowl- This treatment, which constituted a form edge on Jewish life experience in the mod- of conversion of religiously based wisdom into Enlightenment knowledge, established to become the tradition of Wissenschaft des consistency: Judentums. Its way was prepared by the pre- ceding intellectual movement of the Jewish- – the area of Judaism as a religion of the internal Enlightenment culture of , Law and how this was transformed by itself inspired by the secular thought of the secularization and profanation; non-Jewish surrounding culture. Haskalah – the area of an array of Jewries, ethnically acquired the connotation of a primarily and spatially diverse; intellectual movement, oriented toward – the area of individual Jews, or persons secular education and aimed at Jewish self- of Jewish origin, emancipated in civil transformation in the modern era that was terms and caught up in the process of just getting underway. This went along with individualization; the intrusion of History as a secular mode of understanding, or, more precisely, of his- and a simultaneous increase of ethnic self- torical thinking, in the world of revelation awareness generated developments under and in the sovereignty of the divine law. whose impact Jews either turned to Zionist This tendency cut to the foundations of tra- leanings or, competing with this, claimed ditional Judaism. The Jews stepped out of the sacred text and into the profane world. ity, to be granted a corresponding national- The reverberations associated with this cultural autonomy. In the post-imperial permeated Jewish intellectual life emblem- period after WW I and within the frame- atically in the period that followed. Within work of newly emerged or enlarged nation- the encyclopedia, this transformation, seen states consolidated mainly in line with the as a collective act of a secularizing, primary vision of ethnic homogeneity, Jewish collec- process, is given ample attention in a large tive rights as an ethnic-religious minority number of lemmata. became ubiquitously required. Or, and in Parallel to the intellectual movement of contrast to those espousing Jewish-national the transformation of Law into History, a agendas, Jews as individuals joined social- dissolution of the corporate institutional au- revolutionary movements to overthrow the tonomy of the Jewish communities enacted existing social order as a whole. by the respective worldly authorities at the threshold of modernity took place succes- entiation of various Jewries in the eman- sively. This secularization of the formerly cipation period took place under varying self-governing holy community (kahal), conditions. These included, importantly, beholden to religious Jewish law led to a and under cameralistic survey, the mea- weakening of its traditional representatives. sures of “civil improvement” introduced In Western Europe, where the Jews had by the authorities in late and enlightened received civil equality or had held out the absolutism, especially in association with prospect of receiving it, Jews were emanci- the establishment of state-sponsored edu- pated as citizens and began to acculturate cational institutions for language instruc- within the surrounding national cultures tion and other educational purposes in the as individuals, simultaneously being recog- service of acculturation and integration. nized simply as members of a confessio or The presentation in the EJHC ascribes to the denomination among other denominations. In , however, especially tion to the process of Jewish transformation within Russia, and after the partition of Po- so initiated. It is explicated in terms of the land and the incorporation of a greater por- tion of its lands into the Czarist Empire, a far respective Jewries. larger number of Jews were living compactly The diversity of the distinctive linguistic in nodes of settlement, albeit not contigu- cultures of the Jews is notorious. It encom- ously. There corporative institutions, again, passes the sacredly imbued combination of were in demise without any compensation Hebrew and common for relative to civil equality and the freedom of and textual ; regional Jewish vernac- movement that went with it. ulars like and Ladino as a means of The decline of the corporative vessel of everyday communication; and the imperial Jewish existence led to a visible change or cosmopolitan languages of government, in Jewish self- understanding and self- academia, and literature adapted as edu- awareness and up to the modern phenom- cated – German and, to a comparatively lesser extent, also Russian, The conjunction of thwarted modernization in the Middle East in many contexts, and also French as a language of accultura- and profanation. In the process, the evident, tion. In the 19th century, German emerged strong presence of Jews in the realm of intel- as the language of Jewish scholarship, the lectual activity and achievement in the peri- training of , and the Jewish Reform odic time frame, principally in the arts and movement in Central Europe, but it also sciences, is shifted closer to the complex of Jewish existential experience, although without establishing any reductive causal ferent Jewries can be seen particularly man- connection between the two. ifest in the successes of acculturation in the The next circle in the encyclopedia’s the verge of being transformed into nation- that preceded. In fact, the large complex of states. In this process of change and trans- lemmata contained within it are not part of formation, the realization of equality and a canonical collection of the present state equal treatment that was either attained, in of knowledge about Jews and Judaism. Nev- prospect, or postponed was of constitutive ertheless, the subject of this thematic circle

cance. This is where the phenomenon of The third concentric circle in the EJHC, hostility toward Jews is considered in its var- moving even further from the sacred core ious manifestations throughout the period of Judaism, is a cluster of lemmata focusing from antiquity up to modern antisemitism. largely on phenomena of acculturation in The fact that this concentric circle comes connection with individuals and personali- next after the one that deals with the detach- ties who tended toward a more individually ment of Jews and persons of Jewish heritage articulated self-identity and at an increas- ing distance from the Jewish collective. invisible Jews, so to speak, is a result of the As a rule, such persons came from back- observation that antisemitism, as the mod- grounds of more intense secularization in ern ideological consolidation of anti-Jewish connection with largely successful projects resentment, had a strong tendency to imag- ine that it was precisely alleged invisible erly assess the nature of their weakening Jews who were the true agents of a Jewish intrigue for power and international domi- grounded in religious Judaism and its crite- nation. In its modern formulation as anti- ria and categories. In order to do adequate semitism, traditional attitudes of hostility justice to the complexity and ambiguity of toward Jews took on the interpretations of a worldview centered on conspiracy theories. tex of modernity, the EJHC does not include Thus antisemitism capitalizes on Jews and explicit entries on individuals, precisely for Judaism as a foil for illustrating the phenom- this reason. Lemmata that refer in an indi- enon, characteristic of the modern era but still poorly understood in its socially gener- atic motifs and formulae in the entry title ated abstract complexity. This misguided perception of the distortions of modernity the individual. Such an approach is in keep- is exceedingly closely connected with the ing with the conceptual intention of the emergence of antisemitic imagery – a con- encyclopedia to emphasize in a suitable junction that reaches far beyond Jews and manner the transformations in Jewish self- Jewish-related matters. understanding and sense of Jewish belong- The thematic area of the Holocaust ing in modernity as a result of secularization pulls away from the systematics of Jewish knowledge captured in the image of con- On the other hand, representation of this centric circles of declining holiness and knowledge makes use of the mode of iconic sacred content, just as it likewise impacts on those systematics. As a catastrophic event of sical delineation of factual articles, based recent history, it also has a powerful impact on mere positive knowledge, these iconic on the modes of representation of com- plexes of events preceding the mass murder. tematic scope, deliberately taking account Viewed in its full reality, the description of of the motivating forces, i.e. the conceptual Jewish history from the mid-18th to the mid- dynamics involved in Jewish experience in 20th century stands under the spell, as it the modern era, namely, the factual blurring were, of this harrowing rupture in civiliza- of boundaries, the practice of overstepping, tion. In a larger number of entries, the EJHC and the dissolution of traditional emblems endeavors to do justice to the core of the of belonging, which is the habitual liquid- ity so characteristic for the Jewish subject Some entries on the events of the destruc- in modernity. For such lemmata the EJHC tion are factographic; others deal with the primarily, if not exclusively, adduces the post-history of events. Many are dedicated to questions of its literary representation. the subject of Jewish history and culture, The lemmata thematizing the Holocaust try of sites of memory, or lieu de mémoire. The to avoid the mode of representation of the concept of sites of memory in fact develops industrial annihilation as a constant repeti- substantial epistemic potential for repre- tion of one and the same. They do this by senting phenomena of Jewish history and linking the iconic site of the mass murder culture, since it is in keeping conspicuously with the narratives of its impact which are with the axiom mentioned above of the later inscribed into memory there. unshielded point, and that in contradistinc- tion to the axiom of the power-based plane, is also acknowledged in that there are lemmata devoted to authors and their particularities and complexities of Jewish creations who were neither Jewish nor of Lebenswelten. Additionally – and this gener- Jewish origin but who, as humanistically ates knowledge to just as great an extent – minded artists of words or enlightened vir- the category of site of memory is not only tuosi of thoughts, made it possible to the- isomorphic with an actual geographical des- matize the event poetically or to treat it employed as a topographical symbolization at the time or at some point thereafter. of texts iconic for Judaism, Jewries, and Jews. eht ni noisulcni rieht rof sisab eht si sihT si eht sisab rof rieht noisulcni ni eht Jewish canon. thought and textual fragments represent- ing author and oeuvre is not only that the Modes of Representation person who is thus initially concealed is integrated within an expanded context, but The EJHC is distinguished by a dual con- ceptual approach to its topics. On the one hand, it provides knowledge based on a also invoked. Association and resonance are large number of factual entries on questions approaches capable of expressing the poly- of Judaism, the various Jewries and indi- semies and ambiguities inherent in Jewish vidual Jews, as well as on distorting, antise- existence in the modern era – along with mitic projections transposed onto the Jews. those very same phenomena of dissolution, transgression, and liquefaction of formerly memory. Lieux de mémoire and, with a small modal displacement, lieux d’œuvre can Such an appropriate mode of conceptually merge with one another. Both memory of obscuring and blurring is conveyed by the place and memory of text receive emblem- manifest intuition, as regards the designa- atic interpretation. Since in tion of the lemmata, avoiding on principle its origins and essence is a textual culture the complex of terminology spawned by based on religious law, from which the Jews the political and social semantical cultures entered the outside world through profa- of the 19th century characterized by the nation of the text and secularization of the living environment in a historically acceler- ated experience of time, the of a place fully express phenomena of dynamic transi- and the title of a text often merge together. tions and intermediate stages. Instead, they Additionally, the concept of a site of mem- tend to codify a state of understanding and ory expresses the diasporically shaped Jew- ish spatiotemporal understanding of the moment of events; but, even more impor- tantly, they tend to oversimplify binary tions, that inevitably also correspond to sov- constellations and classify keen distinc- ereign powers with their telluric character. Instead, as indicated, it follows the axiom- notions of Jewish history and culture their atic concept of the point as the geometrical use seem to be less expedient. That also for the fragile Jewish experience holds true to the term ‘antisemitism,’ which of existence, bereft of any protection usually emerged in the semantic milieu of the 19th anchored in territorial space. From these century and whose subject matter is funda- various spatially disparate but virtually, mental to the purpose of the encyclopedia. or rather textually, connected points, the In the EJHC, the phenomenon of modern EJHC allows a landscape of remembrance animosity towards the Jews, of Judenfeind- to emerge through the themes of its lem- schaft, to which the word refers, is treated mata. This sort of imagined topography, more reasonably under the lemma titled structured through complex spatiotemporal “Conspiracy.” entanglements, undercuts the usual chro- nology of the familiar historical narrative. Thus, the emblematic place might evoke a of change while retaining substantial posi- constellation of time-layers embedded in a tive knowledge. This strategy is also used sort of a palimpsest of memory, composed for traditional, clearly established Jewish of a variety of deposits of Jewish time. icons of thought that have been raised to The topographic places of remembrance the status of lemmata, and for lemmata and third order. First-order sites of mem- factual material, but in reality extend far ory are those self-evidently familiar in the beyond this in their elucidatory substance. Jewish memory, such as “Worms” (Hebr. Instead of breadth, their argumentative Warmaisa) for and his com- characterizations reach to the depths. mentary as the spatial-temporal icon of The delineation, scope, and restrictions of memory for the medieval Ashkenazic Jew- the presentation are mostly given in the ish culture of knowledge; or “Vilna” for the emblematics attached to the lemma term. Gaʿon and his guidance on the erudition of The of the emblematic entry is the 18th-century; or “Smyrna” for Sabbatai especially faithful to the mode of sites of Zevi, the “false Messiah,” who converted to , and the movement he spawned. Second-order lieux are those that, although themes of everyday life. In the context of no less familiar as Jewish icons of memory, social history, for example, the entry “New York” mainly deals with the remarkable liv- ing conditions experienced by immigrant such as “” – a lemma that could have Jews at the turn of the 19th and 20th cen- been taken in the traditional direction as a turies in the textile industry, the so-called sweatshops. The entry on “” gives a his Golem, but that, with a temporal shift cursory overview of the history of the Jews to the modern era (and hence as a second- in and goes on to emphasize the enor- order site), also evokes the person and work mous contribution of Jews to Arab musical culture. Third-order lieux In accordance with the overall concept second-order sites of memory in that they the text in Jewish life, memory of site and cant patina of memory, but strongly sug- memory of text can merge and stand for gest themselves to such a ranking. They are one another. In keeping with the latter are largely drawn from the tapestry of events entries on iconic authors that are, in an obvi- of the 19th and 20th centuries, such as the ous manner, designated by titles or title frag- ments of emblematic works: “Guide for the the attention of the Jewish world at the Perplexed” for , “Bi’” for time, associated with the site “”; Mendelssohn, “Divre ve-Emet” for or “Salonika,” linked with the suggestion Naphtali Wessely, “Angelus Novus” for Wal- raised by Jews to internationalize the city ter , “” for Gershom Scho- in the wake of the 1912/1913 Balkan wars; lem, “Law” for , or, somewhat and “” evoking the mass shooting further removed, “Judgement” for Hannah of the Jews of Kiev by German extermina- Arendt. The same is true for lemmata from tion squads but also mediated by the poetry of Yevgeny Yevtushenko and its recep- and architecture. Thus, is tion as a prism of Soviet discourse on the presented in the lemma “Resurrection,” and Holocaust, or, more precisely, its ideologi- is the focus of cally prompted avoidance. “Stalingrad” too, the entry “Biedermeier.” The Hebrew icon which is self-evidently the site of memory Ḥ. N. Bialik can be found under the entry “ for an ultimate battle of the Second World ha-tsippor.” War, also becomes iconic through the works of Vassily Grossman, while “Munich” is fun- Fields of Knowledge damental to the history of Jewish Displaced Persons in after 1945. The structuring of the lemmata of the EJHC Thus, the concept of lieux de mémoire as is a result of systematic comparisons within used in the encyclopedia constructs a kind the Jewish corpus of knowledge. This process of a universal Jewish topography of remem- took as its starting point three macro-level brance that undeniably goes beyond such areas of Jewish knowledge, here designated types of dramatic event that suggest them- as Text, Institution, and Lebenswelt. Follow- selves in extraordinary quantities for the ing the historical dynamics of the transi- presentation of the history of Jewish exis- tional epoch between the premodern and tential experience in the Second and the Holocaust. In fact, the concept of step, hints at an initially binary delineation between sacral and secular subdivisions. with religious law. These are joined by the Expanding from there, additional distinc- topic area of Jewish erudition, structured tions are drawn within the corpus of Jewish in the form of lemmata on iconic works, knowledge that enable the systematic dif- important periodicals, and institutions for ferentiation of a complex topography with scholarship on Judaism (→ Wissenschaft des multiple cross-references and longitudinal Judentums) and the intellectual culture of connections. Thus, a number of thematic Haskalah that preceded it. domains were assigned to the three spheres The process of secularization is presented, of knowledge. The area of knowledge Text is central religious currents that come about in thor- for a diasporic, non-territorial culture. oughly paradoxical reaction to emergent “Text” denotes both the substance and the modernity. These include lemmata that medium of Jewish existence. To a certain trace the distinctions between Reform Juda- extent Jewish existence is, by , textual. ism (→ Reform), → , Consequently, the sphere of textual culture → Orthodoxy, and the mystical movements is extensively represented within the EJHC. within Judaism, and lemmata that engage Both religious and worldly texts are at with various phenomena of deviance going the center of this area of knowledge. Prob- beyond → Hasidism such as → , the ably in no other domain in the EJHC is the → Karaites, or the → Dönmeh. Entries on distinction between sacred and profane events such as the → Burial controversy or and the intermediate gradations so evi- the → Hamburg Dispute examine dent. The lemmata dealing with the sacred as well reactions to the demands of moder- encompass entries on the various corpora of nity that were perceived as an imposition. Judaism – proceeding from the central entry Processes of secularization and moderniza- on the Hebrew (→ Tanakh), to articles on → , on to the Mishna treated the world of Jewish educational culture (→ Bildung, → Middle Class) and the estab- key article on the rules of → Halakhah, which lishment of institutions of contemporary further opens up a transitional corridor to scholarship, including and especially in the complex of law and institution. This the- the New World (→ Hebrew Union College, matic area also includes entries on texts that → University, → Brandeis Univer- are situated at the threshold to the profane, sity), and in /Israel (→ Hebrew Uni- such as the article dedicated to the history versity, → Weizmann Institute). of → Bible . The context of text The rapport between Judaism and Islam and hermeneutics also embraces the mean- also belongs in the context of the sacred ing and importance of the and is described in entries on the institu- and Hebrew numeration (→ Alef ). Suit- able space is delegated to the material world by the Jews under the (→ Ahl of book publishing and the transitions from al-kitāb, → Dhimmah) along with forms of sacred to profane text culture that publish- ing accelerated, up to and including the cultures (→ Kalām, → Falsafah). In the 19th publishing industry and the press (→ Print- century, appraisals of the engagement with ing) and extending on to → publishing and newspapers. Lemmata that focus on insti- ures of such as tutions for imparting sacred knowledge Geiger (→ ) and the Nestor of Islamic (→ Talmud ) serve as an intermediary ,pihsralohcs zangI rehizdloG milsuM →( between text and institution, both imbued Studies). The thematic area of text and textual cul- directed legislative and jurisdictional organs ture contains a whole cluster of lemmata along with the outwardly aligned advocacy addressing literary works and authors of of intercession oriented to the respective iconic status in the Jewish tradition. These local authority, are of distinct importance are distinguished according to genre, motifs, (→ Ban, → Bet din, → Kahal, → Shtadlanut). places, languages, and literary movements. Another thematic area is devoted to the These entries, among them the many lem- dissolution of autonomy at the threshold of mata named after titles or parts of titles the era of → emancipation and primarily to of works, are especially important in the the legal status of the Jews. Lemmata such scheme of the encyclopedia for the thema- as → of Toleration or → Sanhédrin tization of phenomena of secularization examine the initial circumstances while entries such as → Paulskirche, → Duma, as displacing and dissolving emblems of and → Sejm treat iconic sites that were sig-

The thematic areas of and given to scandalous events of the era such theory have a similar purpose. In addition as the → Berlin Debate on Antisemitism to their main entries (→ Philosophy, → The- ory), numerous additional lemmata are pre- → focuses on the legal posi- sented (such as → Deconstruction, → Style tions of the various Jewries in the newly of Thought, → Phenomenology, → Psycho- established or extended nation states after analysis), in which both Jewish experience the First World War. and Jewish knowledge are carried over into A further thematic area takes the perspec- universal knowledge. tive of external legislation to examine both the modern political experience and Jewish focus on forms of expression that are tex- . This includes both lemmata that tual, artistic, and more broadly communica- tive, such as the visual arts, theater, music, cant for migration (→ Bremerhaven, → Ellis tecture and → Photography, → Broadway Island) more closely, and those concerned and → Habima, → Badkhn, → Cantor, and with Jewish political organizations and par- → Hollywood devote space both to the spe- ties, such as the → Central-Verein or the → Bund. It also includes the thematic area representational culture and to the forms of diplomacy, that is, the engagement in of transformation from the Jewish to the international politics on behalf of Jewish general. . The modern forms of interces- The second macro-level area of knowl- edge of the EJHC focuses on the Institutions ena of secularization and modernization of Judaism and the Jewish communities primarily in the context of the activity of self-empowered notables who sooner or tics. Here, too, the transition from sacrally later brought about a transformation of the imbued to profane phenomena is in the forms of engagement and generated a sort foreground of the organization of the of Jewish diplomatic tradition. The lemma lemmata. The thematic area of Jewish on → Board of Deputies traces such a transi- → autonomy and its characteristic forms tion while the entry on → Alliance israélite of expression and institutions provides the universelle describes the institution that starting point. Here the regulations of the became the emblematic embodiment of premodern era, with their largely religiously Jewish diplomatic engagement in the 19th century altogether. High-level politics pro- passage such as → , the → / vided the context and, in an age of a state Bat-Mizvah, → marriage, and the regula- system based on the principles of balance or tion of burials and the holy burial societies the “Concert of Europe,” its modes of opera- entrusted with performing them. tion enabled Jewish representatives to bring Systematically contiguous to these the- their concerns before congresses and con- matic areas, segregation in the ferences (→ Congress of Vienna, → Congress of Berlin). In the 20th century, after the First ences are treated under the term → Meḥitsah. World War, when an intensifying process The traditional, patriarchally charged canon of subdivision into myriads of nation states of Jewish religious law requires a contem- was emanating from the collapse of multi- porary encyclopedic treatment that seeks national empires, the limits of such a uni- to shift the standard focus of articles in the versal non-state representation of interests thematic area of sex and gender from their became apparent. The Zionist movement is preoccupation on femininity and to expand located within this context of Jewish politics it to include themes concerned with male physicality. This thematic area includes arti- Herzl, however, receives a lemma via his literary vision → Old New Land, while impor- tions and engage, among other issues, with tant debates of the Zionist congresses are the ritual measures of the clothing laws treated under their place of foundation and (→ Dress Regulations), with issues regarding remembrance, → Basel. female education (→ , → Leipzig The lemmata in the area of Institution, Women’s College), and women’s organiza- Law, and Politics encompass the great imag- tions (→ Jüdischer Frauenbund). inable range of cultural-geographic areas, in analogy with the diasporic disposition of physicality, there are entries devoted to Jewish living conditions and independent of the phenomena of → sports. Various types the total number of Jews living in the vari- of sport that were notably present in Jew- ous places. Special attention is given to the ish Lebenswelten receive attention, espe- fo doirep eroc eht ni tsaE milsuM eht fo sweJ fo eht milsuM tsaE ni eht eroc doirep fo cially those that attained the characteristic 1750–1950 in entries on their legal status and of a ritual of individual social ascent in the on their living environment (e.g. → Millet) context of migration, such as → boxing and even though, from the demographic per- llabesab → ni eht detinU setatS ro reccos → in Europe. The collective gymnastics that the Ashkenazi Jewish communities of the accompanied the nationalization of the same period. Jews of the turn of the 19th and 20th cen- Jewish everyday cultures evince a strong turies, the establishment of Jewish sports tie to the sacred, even in the process of inten- clubs (→ Bar Kochba Berlin), and the later sifying secularization; to a certain degree, noitaluda fo gnidnatstuo nemstrops dna they are mundane vessels of the preserva- sportswomen are also presented. Occupations and professions comprise on everyday life, ritual, and sacredness deal another thematic area. This, too, follows a with this. The tension between religious law selection principle based on a binary distinc- and secularizing life experienced in this con- tion: here between premodern and modern text is brought out by entries dealing with forms of production, management, and piety (→ Piety), dietary laws (→ ), the distribution. Thus there are lemmata rep- ritual of butchery (→ Sheḥitah), the → lit- resenting (openly or hidden behind a place urgy, and the → , along with rites of name) → crafts and → , → Court Jews and → bankers, → peddlers and clockmak- The EJHC is an original academic enter- ers (→ Watchmaker), leaseholders (→ Lease- prise and is not an updating of previous holding) and estate managers, the diamond encyclopedias of Jewish studies. Despite and textile industries (→ Antwerp, → Łódz), all of the post-canonical innovation, it is the railroads (→ Railway) and warehouses nourished by the great tradition of Jewish (→ Department Stores), as well as other encyclopedia-making in the modern era common occupations, functions, and roles. that culminated in the Weimar period with the , conceived in the * German language and only partially real- ized due to the global economic crisis and The Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Cul- ture, commissioned by the Saxonian Acad- pleted in Jerusalem in the 1970s in English emy of Sciences and Humanities in Leipzig and, from the earliest to the more recent editions, it is incontestably the great Jewish Institute for Jewish History and Culture at encyclopedia. Leipzig University, relies conceptually on The EJHC presents a relatively low total the research agenda developed under the of approximately 800 articles of varying direction of the editor in chief, namely, to delineation and scope (as key article, over- interpret Jewish history as an integral con- stituent of general, global, and universal disclosed as such), in six volumes with an history. In this way, the potential for his- index volume. The list of lemmata and the torically guided knowledge inherent to the content-related objectives for the articles Jewish subject as such can be demonstrated. were developed by the scholarly editorial In fact, this has proven to be an epistemic sounding board for other historical subjects Encyclopedia of Jewish Cultures” of the Sax- by means of which the period can provide onian Academy based at the Simon Dubnow information about itself. Finally, the EJHC Institute in Leipzig under the leadership of also sees itself as a project not only to map out the current state of Jewish studies but themselves to the revision and proofreading also to suggest a direction for its further of the original German-language articles in development. close collaboration with the editor and the The EJHC originated as a project on Jew- approximately 550 authors, as well as to the ish knowledge in the German language selection of images and the preparation of medium. Yet it is a universal as well as inter- maps. Editorial activities were carried out in national project. This kind of orientation close coordination with the publisher. not only arises out of the broad academic The editor in chief owes the editorial network of its subject matter but is also and especially due to the nature of the issue. expertise, and engagement in this shared project. spheres of academia and linguistic cultures have contributed to the work, especially from Germany, Israel, and the . Acknowledgments

More than perhaps any other textual genre, the EJGK on the part of the publisher and, an encyclopedia comes about through through his continual exchanges with the the collaboration of multiple participants. editor in chief and his team, made an ines- In the case of the Enzyklopädie jüdischer timable contribution to the development Geschichte und Kultur, these include at the of the work, both in form and in content. institutional level the Saxonian Academy of Thanks are also due to Gabriele Veil and Sciences and Humanities in Leipzig, under Thomas Schröck at the publishers for their whose auspices the work was completed; supervision of the production and informa- the Simon Dubnow Institute, whose agenda tion-technological aspects of the project; provided the framework for the project thanks to Brigitte Egger, chief editor of sev- ohw ,relzteM .B.J ,srehsilbup eht dna ;ngised dna eht ,srehsilbup .B.J ,relzteM ohw eral encyclopedias at J.B. Metzler, for advice are widely acknowledged for their expertise and for sharing her knowledge. in preparing encyclopedic works. Several student assistants helped with lit- Above all, thanks are due to the authors erature procurement and research. Thanks for their readiness to adapt to the special is due to all of them. Thanks also to Jörg demands of the encyclopedic mode of pre- Deventer, Arndt Engelhardt, Petra Gamke- sentation and to the programmatic concep- Breitschopf, Jan Gerber, Stefan Hofmann, tions of the EJGK. The publisher and the Carolin Kosuch, Imanuel Clemens Schmidt, editor in chief are greatly indebted to them and Robert Zwarg, for their support at vari- for their intensive collaboration. Thanks ous stages of the project. also to the translators for their renditions The realization of this encyclopedia was of manuscripts originally written in Eng- made possible through the project “Euro- lish, Hebrew, French, Spanish, Hungarian, pean Traditions – Encyclopedia of Jewish Dutch, and Italian, which represent about Cultures” of the Saxonian Academy of Sci- half of the contributions to the work. Grati- ences and Humanities, which has been sup- tude to the Leibniz Institute for Regional ported since January 1, 2007 as part of the Geography in Leipzig for preparing the program of the Union of the German Acade- maps. mies of Sciences and Humanities, sponsored The initiative for a German-language Jew- by German federal and regional authorities. ish encyclopedia came from the J.B. - The EJGK is one of the endeavors developed ler publishing house, and especially from Bernd Lutz, the former long-time director cation for this project was undertaken at of publications. In conversations with the the Simon Dubnow Institute in close con- director of the Simon Dubnow Institute and sultation with the steering committee and several other researchers at the institute, a the Philological Historical Section of the common perspective developed, that in this Saxonian Academy. In this context, spe- day and age it made less sense to produce cial thanks are due to Nicolas Berg, Arndt an expansion and cross-referencing of exist- ing work – as the press had originally sug- and Susanne Zepp, who formed the team gested – than to develop and implement an that prepared the proposal, along with the encyclopedia based on a new concept. Here, director of the Institute and later editor in special thanks are due to Oliver Schütze, chief of the EJGK. Thanks also for the sup- who supervised the production process of port that the project received, especially in the application and authorization phases, for their advice and support on the project. by the Saxonian State Ministry for Science Thanks also to the international advisory and the Arts. Thanks to the project-related board of the EJGK, whose members aca- commission appointed by the Saxonian demically represent the full range of Jewish Academy, its head Michael Stolleis, and its history and culture of the modern period in members Bernard Comrie, Salomon Korn, their diversity. Manfred Rudersdorf, and Richard Saage Instructions on Use

The EJHC makes no claims to factual com- Cross references are signaled with an pleteness. Its status as an encyclopedia arrow (→). inheres in the topographies of knowledge and remembrance that emerge through its lemmatization. The carefully balanced architecture of entries taken from various ehT eman fo eht rohtua sraeppa ta eht dne spheres of Jewish history and cultures is of the article and is collected in a list of quite independent of hierarchical subdivi- sion of the subject matter by topic area and, list of along with the articles each in many cases, the title is not the obvious translated. choice for the subject matter of the article in Transcriptions in the editor’s introduction. The introduc- tion also contains an overview of the areas Transcribed words are italicized in the arti- cle text. See the notes and lists that follow subject matter belonging to them, along on p. xxv with examples illustrating how the lemmata were named. Place names With the exception of the article Alef Bet, which opens the encyclopedia, the articles The use of place names generally follows in the EJHC appear in alphabetical order. the naming conventions for the place (or The alphabetical list of articles provides region) during the period under discussion. an overview. A detailed list in Volume 7 The conventional English spellings are used indexes the articles in their totality. This for places. In Volume 7, each place is refer- list is especially important for its listing of enced by all the name variants used within persons and places that have no dedicated the encyclopedia. article for conceptual reasons. Orthography and Spelling Article Structure The orthography generally follows the Each article begins with an exposition out- standard of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate lining the central aspects and orientation of Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. In a few cases, the article. The body of the article follows, preceded in the case of longer articles by an example with antisemitism. overview of the subsections. A bibliography is included at the end; this generally begins Abbreviations with source literature (although this is not always explicitly marked), followed by sec- For the sake of readability, the EJHC uses a ondary literature. All bibliographical entries of minimum abbreviations, retaining only are numbered consecutively. standard abbreviations in common use or in Numbers in square brackets within the line with academic norms. text refer to entries in the bibliography. These numbers can include page numbers Figures ro ]261–041 .5[ .g.e ,rebmun emulov a ro a emulov ,rebmun .g.e .5[ ]261–041 ro [5. vol. 1, 450]. on authorship and copyright are shown in the List of Images and Maps, p. xxxvi. Transcription and Spelling

A. Transcription of Non-Latin Writing e.g. ben (Rashi), Israel ben Systems Eliʿezer (Baʿal Tov), but Arabic names are transcribed, e.g. ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, For Arabic and the Slavic languages that use al-Samaw’al ibn ʿĀdiyāʾ. Jews in the Islamic the Cyrillic script, the transcription guide- world often had Arabic as well as Hebrew lines of the are used, names, and so they may be referred to using which are currently the international stan- both, e.g. Ismāʿīl ibn al-Naghrīlah or dard in scholarly works and popular science ha-Nagid. If there is an established spelling, works. The Library of Congress transcrip- that is what is used, e.g. Halevi, Sab- tion style is based on English orthography. batai Zevi, Faisal (the of Iraq), Muham- mad (the prophet). the case of the Cyrillic alphabet (see section Names of persons from modern times D. below). Hebrew transcription follows the are not transcribed but rendered in the YIVO (Institute for Jewish Research, New usual version (e.g. Yitzhak Rabin, Salima York) transcription standard, which follows Murad). The names of modern authors are closely the Library of Congress transcription cited in the spelling most commonly used style with the following exceptions: Library in their publications in the Latin alphabet, with preference for the spelling used in Eng- form (e.g., using k to represent both kaf and lish publications, where available; thus the kuf [qof ], s for both sin and samekh, and American-Yiddish spelling Sholem Yankev t for both tet and tav. Transcription of - Abramovitsh or Mendele Moykher-Sforim, dish follows the transcription guidelines of Sholem Aleichem, and Samir Naqqash. YIVO, which are widely recognized as the standard. C. Notes on Transcription and Transcribed words are italicized, except Pronunciation for personal names, article keywords, and bibliographical items. 1 Hebrew

B. Personal Names in the following ways: A Shwa is only tran- scribed with an “e” when necessary for the The rendition of names presents a special pronunciation of a word (e.g. ke̱hillah); oth- problem. Many individuals spelled their erwise, it is omitted (e.g. b’rit; tshuvah). The named in multiple ways, especially in the Yud in construct forms is only rendered by context of polyglot regions like medieval “e” (bate̱; Nevukhe̱). The Alef and the Ayin or Eastern Europe. Additionally, there are transcribed when within a word (e.g. are various transcription traditions in the baʿal) but are omitted from both the begin- ning and ending of words. The spellings, for For persons from the medieval and early example, of Bezalel, Hannukah, Hasidism, and Seph arad/Sepharadim have been modi- generally rendered in their English forms and according to English orthography, Pronunciation Pronunciation

’ bi’ur stop, as in uh’oh z zamān like z in zest ḥ and kh ḥakham like ch in loch s rasūl like s in sidestep v avodah like v in vote sh shams like sh in shape s musar like s in sidestep ṣ ṣabāḥ emphatic s (voice- sh shanah like sh in shape less and dark; no ts tsedakah like ts in tsar English equivalent) z zakhor like z in zest ḍ faḍl emphatic d (voiced and dark; no English equivalent) 2 Yiddish ṭ waṭan emphatic t (dark; no English Pronunciation equivalent) ẓ ẓalla emphatic dh ay haynt like ai in hide (voiced, dark th; no ey keyt like ay in weight English equivalent) kh tkhines like ch in loch ‘ ya‘lamu guttural (no oy Toyre like oy in toy English equivalent) s mayse like s in sidestep gh mughlaq voiced velar r (no sh shul like sh in shape English equivalent) tsh mentsh like ch in bench q qamar velarized dark v levone like v in vote k (no English z zikhroynes like z in zest equivalent) zh zhurnal like zh in pleasure w waṭan like w in world y yaktubu like y in yesterday aw yawm diphthong like au 3 Arabic in how ay ‘ayn diphthong like ei Pronunciation in sign

’ ra’s, fuqarā’ stop, as in uh’oh ā, ī, ū zamān, dīn, long vowels 4 Cyrillic rasūl The following deviations from the Library th thalāth like voiceless th in of Congress guidelines were adopted for the think Cyrillic letters: the Cyrillic “e” is rendered j jamal like j in James with “ye” at the beginnings of words, after ḥ ḥadīth voiceless, Russian vowel letters, and after soft and pressured h (no hard signs; everywhere else, it is rendered English equivalent) with “e” (e.g. yeyevrei, but entsiklope̱diya). kh kharf like ch in loch The Cyrillic “ë” is rendered with “o” after ж, dh dhimmah like voiced th in ч, ш, щ; everywhere else, it is rendered with the “yo” (yeshcho̱, but vsyoyo). й is rendered “y” r rasūl rolled r (e.g. yevreyyskiyy). ц is transcribed as “ts” (entsiklopediya). Pronunciation zh zhurnal like zh in pleasure z zavtra like z in zest kh a) kharasho like ch in loch (before a, o, and u) b) khimiya like ch in the German dichten (before e and i) (no English equivalent) ch uchit’ like ch in bench sh shkola like sh in shape shch Borshch as in the Russian borschtsch Citation Guide to Biblical and Rabbinical Literature

Citations from the books of the Bible generally follow the Jewish Publication Society (1917). The names and abbreviations of the books of the are as follows:

1 Torah (Pentateuch)

Genesis (Gen), (Exod), Leviticus (), Numbers (Num), Deuteronomy (Deut).

2 Prophets

Joshua (Josh), Judges (Judg), 1 Samuel (1 Sam), 2 Samuel (2 Sam), 1 (1 Kgs), 2 Kings (2 Kgs), Isaiah (Isa), Jeremiah (Jer), (Ezek), Hosea (Hos), Joel (Joel), Amos (Amos), Obadiah (Obad), (Jonah), Micah (Mic), (Nah), Habakkuk, (Hab), Zephaniah (Zeph), (Hag), Zechariah (Zech), (Mal).

3 Writings

Psalms (Ps/Pss), Proverbs (Prov), (Job), of (Song of Solomon) (Song) or Can- ticles (Cant), Ruth (Ruth), Lamentations (Lam), Ecclesiastes (Eccl) or Qohelet (Qoh), Esther (Esth), Daniel (Dan), Ezra (Ezra), Nehemia (Neh), 1 Chronicles (1 Chr), 2 Chronicles (2 Chr). List of Articles (A–Cl)

Cross-reference entries indicate the main entry with an arrow. Cross-reference entries are not included in the main text of the Encyclopedia.

Alef Bet Antwerp Adass Jisroel → Bais Yaakov; Arabic Ultra-Orthodoxy Aramaic Homilies Advertising Agency Architecture Agudat Yisraʾel → Bais Yaakov; Archives → Central Archives of German Ultra-Orthodoxy Jewry Ahasver Arenda → Leaseholding Ahavat Tsiyon Armenian Atrocities Committee Ahl al-kitāb Art Akademie für die Wissenschaft des Art Nouveau Judentums Ashkenaz Al-Andalus → Sepharad Ashkenazim Assembly of Jewish Notables → Sanhédrin Auschwitz Algiers Austrian Imperial Council Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums Auto-Emancipation Alliance israélite universelle Autonomy Alphabet → Alef Bet Avodath Hakodesh Altalena Baʿal Shem Alterity Babel and Bible America Babi Yar American Civil War Badkhn American Jewish Committee Baghdad American Jewish Congress Bais Yaʿakov American Jewish Historical Society Balegule → Esnoga Dispute → Emden-Eybeschütz Ban Controversy Bankers Angelus Novus Bar Kochba Association Anglo-Jewish Association Bar Kochba Berlin Aniconism Bar/Bat Annales Baseball Anthology Basel Anthropology Battleship Potemkin Anti-Defamation League → B’nai B’rith Bavarian Council Republic Anti-Fascism → Braunbuch Bearing Witness Antiquity → Diaspora Beilis Trial → Antisemitism → Conspiracy Berlin Debate on Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung Bernheim Petition Buchenwald Bet din Book Trade → Pakn treger Bet ha-midrash → Talmud Torah Budapest Bezalel Bund Bible → Tanakh Burial Controversy Bible Translation Cabaret Calendar Bibliography Calligraphy → Alef Bet Bibliotheca Bodleiana Campo di Fiori Biedermeier Bikkure ha-Ittim Cantor Bildung Cattle Trade → Rural Jews Bill of Rights Celebrations → Course of the Year Censorship Birth Center of Contemporary Jewish Bi’ur Documentation Central Archives of German Jewry Blood Libel Central Council of Jews in Germany B’nai B’rith Central-Verein Board of Deputies Ceremonial Law Bobe-Mayse Českožidovské listy Bombay Charitable Foundations → Philanthropy Bontshe Chemistry Book of the Dead Chess Bordeaux Children’s Transport Borscht Belt Cinema Botwin Company Circumcision Citizenship Braunbuch City College Breendonk Bremerhaven Civilizing Process Brit Shalom Class Consciousness Broadway Classical Studies Club Babel List of Authors

Abitbol, Michel (Jerusalem): Algiers Fonrobert, Charlotte E. (Palo Alto): Birth, Alroey, Gur (Haifa): Aliyah Circumcision Aptroot, Marion (Düsseldorf): Bobe-Mayse Gamke-Breitschopf, Petra Klara (Leipzig): , Yaakov (Chapel Hill, NC): American Art Nouveau Jewish Historical Society Goldberg, Sylvie Anne (Paris): Calendar Augustine, Dolores L. (New York): Bankers Göpfert, Rebekka (Berlin): Children’s Aust, Cornelia (Jerusalem): Balegule Transport Balke, Ralf (Berlin): Citizenship Gottreich, Emily Benichou (Berkeley): (with Y. Jean) Ahl al-kitāb Bartal, Israel (Jerusalem): Autonomy Gotzmann, Andreas (Erfurt/Frankfurt Bartov, Omer (Providence, RI): Buchach am Main): Ban, Bet din Benninga, (Jerusalem): Auschwitz, Graf, Philipp (Leipzig): Bernheim Petition Baseball (with M. Zimmermann) Greenspoon, Leonard (Omaha, NE): Bible Berg, Nicolas (Leipzig): Berlin Debate on Translation Antisemitism (with M. Zimmermann) Grözinger, Karl Erich (Potsdam): Baʿal Blomert, Reinhard (Berlin): Civilizing Shem Process Hasan-Rokem, Galit (Jerusalem): Ahasver Brenner, Michael (Munich): Akademie Hauszmann, Janos (): Budapest für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, Heil, Johannes (Heidelberg): Anti-Judaism, Central-Verein, Central Council of Jews Ashkenaz in Germany Henschel, Christhardt (Leipzig): Breuer, Edward (Jerusalem): Bi’ur Cantonists Breuer, Yochanan (Jerusalem): Aramaic Heuberger, Rachel (Frankfurt am Main): Breysach, Barbara (Berlin): Campo di Fiori Bibliography, Bibliotheca Bodleiana Brumlik, Micha (Frankfurt am Main/ (Bergen): Classical Berlin): Aniconism, Ceremonial Law Studies Bulgakowa, Oksana (): Battleship Honigmann, Peter (Heidelberg): Central Potemkin Archives of German Jewry Edelman, Marsha Bryan (Philadelphia): Horak, Jan-Christopher (Los Angeles): Cantor Cinema Efron, John M. (Berkeley): Anthropology Horch, Hans Otto (): Book of the Ehn, Michael (Vienna): Chess Dead, Brody (with E. Strouhal) Jasper, Willi (Potsdam): Alexanderplatz Emmerich, Wolfgang (): Jean, Yaron (Haifa): Citizenship Buchenwald (with R. Balke) Endelman, Todd M. (Ann Arbor, MI): Jelavich, Peter (): Cabaret Board of Deputies (Berlin): Bildung Engel, David (New York): American Jewish Kampling, Rainer (Berlin): Adversus Committee, American Jewish Congress Judaeos Homilies Feierstein, Liliana Ruth (Heidelberg)/ Kaplan, Eran (Princeton): Altalena Feierstein, Ricardo (Buenos Aires): Kilcher, Andreas B. (Zurich): Alef Bet Buenos Aires (Part 2) Fiedler, Lutz (Leipzig): Armenian (Leipzig): Archaeology Atrocities Committee (with Y. Shavit), Balfour Declaration Kogman, Tal (): Censorship Kosuch, Carolin (/Leipzig): Bavarian Poznanski, Renée (Beer Sheva): Center of Council Republic Contemporary Jewish Documentation Krauß, Martin (Berlin): Boxing Quirin, James A. (Nashville): Beta Israel Krochmalnik, Daniel (Heidelberg): Burial Rabinbach, Anson (Princeton): Braunbuch Controversy Randhofer, Regina (Leipzig): Blood Libel Kuchenbecker, Antje (Silver Spring): (Parts 2 and 3) Birobidzhan Reinke, Andreas (Berlin/, S.): B’nai Kury, Patrick (): Basel (with E. Petry) B’rith Kvale Eilers, Nicole (Madison): Ristau, Daniel (Dresden): American Civil Bremerhaven War (with. J.D. Sarna) Levene, Mark (Southampton): Rohden, Frauke von (Leipzig): Bordeaux, Anglo-Jewish Association Blood Libel (Part 1) Levinson, (Ann Arbor, MI): America, Roland, Joan G. (New York): Bombay City College Rubin, Joel E. (Charlottesville, VA): Badkhn Lichtenstein, Tatjana (Austin): Českožidovské Scheit, Gerhard (Vienna): Breendonk listy Schiller, David M. (Athens, GA): Avodath Lillteicher, Jürgen (Berlin/Lübeck): Claims Hakodesh Conference Schumann, Ulrich Maximilian (Karlsruhe): Loewy, Hanno (Hohenems): Blackface Architecture Löwy, Michael (Paris): Class Consciousness Schwarz, Johannes Valentin (Berlin): , Sara (): Baghdad Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung Maor, (Ramat Gan): Bar Kochba Shavit, Yaacov (Tel Aviv): Archaeology Association Marx, Dalia (Jerusalem): Bar/Bat Mitzvah Shumsky, Dimitry (Jerusalem): Brit Shalom Miron, Dan (New York): Ahavat Tsiyon, Silber, Marcos (Haifa): Ashkenazim Bontshe Snir, Reuven (Haifa): Arabic Morris-Reich, Amos (Haifa): Assimilation Soltes, Ori Z. ( D.C.): Bezalel, Moyn, Samuel (New York): Alterity Biedermeier Nagel, Michael (Bremen): Allgemeine Somogyi, Éva (Budapest): Austro- Zeitung des Judentums Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Neumann, Boaz (Tel Aviv): Advertising Strouhal, Ernst (Vienna): Chess Agency (with M. Ehn) (Jerusalem): Alexandria Szymanski, Tekla Norwood, Stephen H. (Norman, OK): Civil (with C. Otto) Rights Movement Tamari, Ittai J. (Munich): Alef Bet (Part 1) Oleszak, Agnieszka (London): Bais Yaʿakov Terpitz, Olaf (Leipzig): Babi Yar Olson, Jess (New York): Austrian Imperial Travis, Anthony (Jerusalem): Chemistry Council Urban, Martina (Nashville): Anthology Otto, Christian Ury, Scott (Tel Aviv): Auto-Emancipation (with T. Szymanski) Vanden Daelen, Veerle (Antwerp): Pelli, Moshe (Orlando): Bikkure ha-Ittim Antwerp Petry, Erik (Basel): Basel (with P. Kury) Voolen, Edward van (Amsterdam): Art Pickhan, Gertrud (Berlin): Bund Weigel, Sigrid (Berlin): Angelus Novus Plocker, Anat (Haifa): Club Babel (Waltham, MA): Pollmann, Anna (Leipzig): Bearing Witness Borscht Belt, Brandeis University, Broadway Wiese, Christian (Frankfurt am Main): Zaagsma, Gerben (London): Botwin Biblical Criticism Company Wildmann, Daniel (London): Bar Kochba Zakai, Avihu (Jerusalem): Bill of Rights Berlin Zimmermann, Moshe (Jerusalem): Baseball Wilke, Carsten L. (Budapest): Alliance (with N. Benninga), Berlin Debate on israélite universelle, Breslau Antisemitism (with N. Berg) Zwarg, Robert (Leipzig): Annales List of Translators

Chase, Michael Book of the Dead American Jewish Congress Cabaret American Jewish Historical Society Calendar Angelus Novus Birth Anglo-Jewish Association Birobidzhan Annales Bernheim Petition Anthology Bet din Anthropology Beta Israel Antwerp Bi’ur Arabic Bible Translation Aramaic Bibliotheca Bodleiana Cinema Orton, David Citizenship Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung Civilizing Process Biblical Criticism Class Consciousness Peschke, Janina Harrison, Ela Archaeology Akademie für die Wissenschaft Architecture des Judentums Armenian Atrocities Committee Adversus Judaeos Homilies Bobe-Mayse Advertising Agency Bombay Ahasver Bontshe Ahavat Tsiyon Bordeaux Ahl al-kitāb Borscht Belt Alef Bet Botwin Company Alexanderplatz Boxing Alexandria Brandeis University Algiers Braunbuch Aliyah Breendonk Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums Breslau Alliance israélite universelle Brody Altalena Buchach Alterity Budapest America Bund American Civil War Campo di Fiori American Jewish Committee Center of Contemporary Jewish Anti-Judaism Documentation Art Central Archives of German Jewry Art Nouveau Central Council of Jews in Germany Austrian Imperial Council Ceremonial Law Baʿal Shem Chemistry Bar Kochba Association Chess Battleship Potemkin Children’s Transport Bavarian Council Republic City College Bearing Witness Claims Conference Blood Libel Club Babel Peschke, Julia Českožidovské listy Aniconism Circumcision Ashkenaz Civil Rights Movement Ashkenazim Classical Studies Assimilation Smart, Duncan Auschwitz Balegule Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Bezalel Auto-Emancipation Bibliography Autonomy Biedermeier Avodath Hakodesh Bikkure ha-Ittim B’nai B’rith Bill of Rights Babel and Bible Blackface Babi Yar Board of Deputies Badkhn Bremerhaven Baghdad Brit Shalom Bais Yaʿakov Broadway Balfour Declaration Buchenwald Ban Buenos Aires Bankers Burial Controversy Bar Kochba Berlin Cantonists Bar/Bat Mitzvah Cantor Baseball Censorship Basel Central-Verein Berlin Debate on Antisemitism List of Images and Maps

Images Altalena (p. 69): Ze’ev Jabotinsky (1880– 1940). bpk Advertising Agency (p. 13): Rudolf Mosse’s Alterity (p. 74): Emmanuel Levinas (1906– business premises in central Berlin, (built 1995), photo by Bracha L. Ettinger America (p. 78): Adah Isaacs Menken (1835– 1868). picture-alliance/akg-images/Gilles delsohn), 1933. bpk Mermet Ahasver (p. 20): Boris Schatz (left) and Achad America (p. 80): Mary Antin (1881–1949). Ha’am at the Bezalel School in Jerusa- Public Library lem in front of the painting The Eternal America (p. 87): (1915–2005). Jew by the Polish Jewish painter Samuel ullstein bild Hirszenberg (probably 1911). Israel Mu- American Jewish Committee (p. 95): Louis seum, Jerusalem Marshall (1856–1929). ullstein bild Ahavat Tsiyon (p. 22): Abraham Mapu American Jewish Congress (p. 102): Stephen (1808–1867). YIVO Institute for Jewish Re- S. Wise (1874–1949). United States Holo- search, New York caust Memorial Museum Alef Bet (p. 3): The Hebrew letters Angelus Novus (p. 111): Angelus Novus, (r.) and Bet (l.), plates from the children’s Sketch by Paul Klee (1920). Israel Muse- book Alef-Bet by Levin Kipnis, illustrated um, Jerusalem/David Harris by Ze’ev Raban and published in 1923 Angelus Novus (p. 115): Walter Benjamin in Berlin. Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, (1892–1940). bpk/Charlotte Joel-Marie Leipzig Heinzelmann Alexanderplatz (p. 33): Berlin Alexander- Annales (p. 126): Marc Bloch (1886–1944). platz, photo by (around ullstein bild 1934). , donated by Anthropology (p. 134): (1858– Mara Vishniac Kohn 1942). Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of An- Alexanderplatz (p. 38): Alfred Döblin thropology, Berkeley (1878–1957). ullstein bild Anti-Judaism (p. 141): Late-medieval repre- Aliyah (p. 51): The Jewish May, Lithograph sentation of (woodcut, by Ephraim Moses Lilien (1902). From: , around 1500): a host used by a Lothar Brieger, E. M. Lilien. Eine kün- Christian to redeem a pawned robe (left) stlerische Entwicklung um die Jahrhun- is profaned by Jews (right). Leipzig Uni- dertwende. Mit 226 Abbildungen nach versity Library Radierungen und Zeichnungen des Kün- Arabic stlers, Berlin/Vienna: Verlag Benjamin tion of the Arab-Jewish journal al- 1922, p. 129 Miṣbāḥ, 1924. Babylonian Jewry Heritage Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums (p. 55): Center, Or-Yehuda Ludwig Philippson (1811–1889). ONB/Vi- Architecture (p. 174): The Brighton Termi- enna, PORT_00013780_01 nus of the London & Brighton Railway ac- Altalena cording to David ’s design, color front of Tel Aviv (June 22, 1948), photo by lithograph by Frederick William Woledge Robert Capa. 2001 Cornell Capa/Magnum (1845). ullstein bild Photos/Agentur Focus Architecture (p. 180): Vila “T” in Bratisla- the inauguration of the Hebrew Univer- va, design by Ignác Vécsei and Bedrich sity in Jerusalem, 1925. Beth Hatefutsoth Weinwurm (1928). Institute of Construc- Photo Archive, Tel Aviv tion and Architecture, Slovak Academy Bar Kochba Berlin (p. 315): Members of the of Sciences, Jüdische Turnverein Bar Kochba Berlin, c. Armenian Atrocities Committee (p. 184): 1902. Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem Call for donations of the American Com- Baseball (p. 323): Sandy Koufax (b. 1935). mittee for Relief in the Near East (1917). New York Public Libary Picture Collec- Library of Congress tion, New York Art (p. 191): View of the Berlin residence of Basel (p. 325): on the balcony the Jewish art collector and patron Edu- of the Hotel Drei Könige in Basel, pho- ard Arnhold, around 1920. Archiv Familie tograph by Ephraim Moses Lilien (1901). Wolken picture-alliance/IMAGNO/Austrian Art Nouveau (p. 196): Self portrait of Archives Ephraim Moses Lilien at his drawing Battleship Potemkin (p. 336): Sergej board (pen and ink drawing, 1912), with Michailowitsch Eisenstein (1898–1948). the commemorative sheet designed by picture-alliance/akg-images/IMS Lilien for the 5th Zionist Congress in 1901 Bavarian Council Republic (p. 344): Gustav in the background. Braunschweigisches Landauer (1870–1919). Leo Baeck Institute, Landesmuseum New York Auschwitz (p. 230): Table for registering in- Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung (p. 361): Leo- ternees at the Auschwitz-Monowitz labor pold Ullstein (1826–1899), Painting by camp, January 16, 1945. United States Ho- Oskar Begas (1882). bpk/Jörg P. Anders locaust Memorial Museum Bernheim Petition (p. 367): Title page of the Auto- Emancipation (p. 245): Title sheet Bernheim Petition with the date stamp of of the anonymous 1882 Berlin edition of the League of registry. United Autoemancipation! by Leo Pinsker. Leipzig Nations Library, Geneva University Library, Exeg. App. 2827/156– Bezalel (p. 378): Boris Schatz (l.) and Arnold 172, Titelpage Lachowski in front of the buildings of the Autonomy (p. 251): Privilege issued by Vy- Bezalel School in Jerusalem, 1913. The Is- tautas the Great to the Jews of Brest rael Museum Collection (1388), Latin copy from the Metryka Bibliography (p. 398): Koronna (mid-15th cent.; excerpt). Ar- (1816–1907). Leo Baeck Institute, New York chiwum Główne Akt Dawnych (Central Biedermeier (p. 405): Afternoon, Archives of Historical Records), Warsaw painting by Moritz Daniel Oppenheim Avodath Hakodesh (p. 256): (around 1850). picture-alliance/akg-images (1880–1959). Interfoto Bildung (p. 413): Private tutor with his two Babi Yar (p. 269): Yevgeny Yevtushenko pupils, painting by Moritz Daniel Op- (1933–2017). ullstein bild penheim (around 1828). Deutsches Histo- Baghdad (p. 282): Members of the Iraqi risches Museum, Berlin Radio Ensemble, 1938. Beth Hatefutsoth Bi’ur (p. 431): (1729– Photo Archive, Tel Aviv Balfour Declaration (p. 295): Chaim Weiz- 1770). bpk/SBB mann (front row, 3rd from right) and Blackface (p. 440): Al Jolson (1886–1950). By Balfour (front row, 4th from right) at Photographer-H.A. Atwell, Chicago (eBay item front back), Public domain via Wiki- Buchenwald (p. 553): Buchenwald memo- media Commons rial site, sculptural group by Fritz Cremer. Board of Deputies (p. 459): Sir Moses Mon- bpk/Gert Koshofer Budapest (p. 561): Béla Kun (1886–1939). Bombay (p. 468): Reuben (center, bpk seated) and students of a Hebrew class Bund (p. 570): Vladimir Medem (1879–1923). at Huzurpaga High School for Indian YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New Girls in Bombay, around 1913. From: Nina York Haeems (Hg.), Rebecca Reuben. Scholar, Campo di Fiori (p. 591): Czeslaw Milosz. A. Educationist, Community 1889– Ratkevičiené, Public domain via Wikime- 1957, Mumbai: Vacha Trust, 2000 dia Commons Bontshe (p. 473): I.L. Peretz (1852–1915). Cantor (p. 603): Schmidt (1904– YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New 1942). ullstein bild York Central Council of Jews in Germany (p. 618): Book of the Dead (p. 479): Soma Morgen- The journalist Karl Marx (1897–1966), the stern (1890−1976). German National Li- Secretary General of the Central Council brary. German Exile Archive 1933–1945, Hendrik G. van Dam (1906–1973) and the Frankfurt am Main DGB president Ludwig Rosenberg (1903– Borscht Belt (p. 489): The Barry Sisters dur- 1977) before leaving for Israel (1955; from ing a performance in the Catskills, 1955. the left). Public domain Photo: Ira Goldwasser Children’s Transport (p. 648): Arrival of a Botwin Company (p. 493): A member children’s transport at a London station, of the Botwin Company reading Naye February 1939. Österreichisches Institut Prese (undated). Russian State Archive für Zeitgeschichte (Department of Con- ,)IPSAGR( yrotsiH lacitiloP-oicoS fo lacitiloP-oicoS yrotsiH ,)IPSAGR( temporary History of the University of Vienna) Boxing (p. 498): Daniel Mendoza (1764– Civil Rights Movement (p. 674): Abraham 1836), mezzotint by Henry Kingsbury Heschel (1st row, 2nd from the right.) and (1789). Jewish Museum London King, Jr. (1st row, 4th from Brandeis University (p. 501): The founders the right) at the second Selma to Mont- of Brandeis University, among them Al- gomery Freedom March, 1965. The Image bert Einstein (seated, center). Robert D. Works Farber University Archives & Special Col- Civilizing Process (p. 677): Norbert Elias lections Department, Brandeis University dn2( morf )tfel dna lraK miehnnaM Braunbuch (p. 506): Cover of the Braun- (5th from right) at the latter’s “post-sem- buch with the photomontage “Göring, inar” at the Café Laumer in Frankfurt, the Executioner of the Third Reich” by photo by Gisèle Freund (1932). Photo Gisèle Freund/IMEC/Fonds MCC Breendonk (p. 509): Jean Améry (1912–1978). Claims Conference (p. 683): Members of picture-alliance/akg-images/Binder the Claims Conference and the Israeli Breslau (p. 523): Zacharias Frankel (1801– delegation at the reparations negotia- 1875). bpk tions in Wassenaar in 1952, among them Brody (p. 540): (1894–1939) in Robinson (back row, center) Hotel Foyot, Paris, 1935. Photo: Josef Brei- United States Holocaust Memorial Mu- tenbach. Center for Creative Photogra- seum, courtesy of Benjamin Ferencz phy; Josef & Yaye Breitenbach Charitable Class Consciousness (p. 685): Georg Lukács Foundation, New York (1885−1971). ullstein bild Maps

Alliance israélite universelle (p. 63): Network of Alliance israélite universelle schools in individual countries and important locations, 1912 Ashkenaz (p. 200): Distribution and centers of Ashkenaz, 8th–17th centuries Birobidzhan (p. 422): The Jewish autonomous area of Birobidzhan and its location within the , around 1935 Bremerhaven (p. 516): System of the control and registration stations for emigrants in the and - and their travel routes to Hamburg and Bremer- haven, around 1905

All maps were created by the Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography (IfL), Leipzig. The Eng- lish version maps were created by Erik Goosmann. Milestones in Church Doctrine Concerning In October 1864, the 21-year-old Rudolf Mosse arrived in Leipzig, the center of Ger- man publishing at the time, from Berlin. He Secondary literature had been invited by the publisher Albert [4] R. Kampling, Hinsehen. Biblische Grundlagen Henry Payne to manage the new newspa- und patristische Quellen als Hintergrund antijü- per Der Telegraph. A little later, he became discher Motive in religiöser Kunst, in: C. Zöhl/M. acquainted with Robert Apitsch, the editor Hofmann (eds.), Von Kunst und Temperament. Festschrift für Eberhard König, Turnhout 2007, magazine, the family journal Die Garten- 119–130. [5] R. Kampling, “… zumal nur eine laube work as head of advertising acquisitions for von Mailand). Die Judenfeindschaft der Alten Die Gartenlaube. This was the beginning of Kirche und ihre Rezeption, in: R. Kampling, Im his career. Angesicht Israels. Studien zum historischen und Mosse came from Graetz in the province theologischen Verhältnis von Kirche und Israel, of Posen, where he had been trained as a Stuttgart 2002, 183–194. [6] H. Schreckenberg, book dealer. He had some work experience Die christlichen Adversus-Judaeos-Texte und in Berlin in publishing houses and book- ihr literarisches und historisches Umfeld, 3 vols., stores. Mosse, however, was convinced that Frankfurt am Main 1982–1994. [7] H. Schrek- the newspaper, and not the book, was the kenberg, Christliche Adversus-Judaeos-Bilder. publishing medium of the future. He found Das Alte und Neue Testament im Spiegel der advertising and promotion to be an espe- christlichen Kunst, Frankfurt am Main 1999. cially lucrative business. Dissemination of advertisements was a complicated process at the time, from the search for an appropriate publisher, through protracted negotiations, - Advertising Agency tion of the advertisement. Consequently, advertisements were relatively expensive, In the 19th century, the advertising agency their placement design depended on the (Annoncen-Expedition) was an emerging whim of the publisher, and their scope was commercial enterprise in which an agency limited to local readerships. received orders for advertisements and Mosse persuaded Apitsch to append passed them on to newspaper or magazine a separate advertising supplement to Die publishers. The Zeitungs-Annoncen-Expe- Gartenlaube, the Allgemeinen Anzeiger, and dition Rudolf Mosse (Advertising Expedi- set about soliciting advertisers for the new tion), founded in 1867 by Rudolf Mosse publication in Germany, Austria, and Swit- (1843–1920) pursued a new business model zerland. This type of communication of advertising copy from advertisers to publish- mass-market product through its broad dis- ers had its beginnings in London in 1800 and tribution system, comprehensive ancillary had developed into a busy industry. The new services, and low prices. Mosse’s Advertis- ing Expedition became one of the most had fewer associated costs both for adver- successful media enterprises of the German tisers and for publishers: both sides only Empire and remains to this day a symbol had to deal with one person, the advertis- of the rise of German Jews in the merchant ing promoter, and the advertisement could middle class after their emancipation in the appear in various domestic and foreign 19th century. newspapers depending on the preference of

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 11 14/07/2017 9:54:13 PM the advertiser, expanding the hitherto local new advertising trend and became business scope. The advertising promoter was paid in partners. Mosse introduced a lease system price discounts that the newspaper publish- whereby he obtained a permanent contract ers granted based on the original price for to publish the entire advertising section, so the advertisement. Now the newspaper no creating an additional market advantage: longer relied on individual purchases and the exclusive right to place advertisements - in those newspapers. This enabled him to tising above all else, which secured higher

- able advertising service that provided infor- 60 newspapers and periodicals through mation of to the target audience. lease contracts; by - a hundred. In 1917, Mosse’s company, with sitions manager to solicit customers abroad, and abroad, was the sole collection point for him a partnership in Die Gartenlaube. Mosse advertising copy for eleven daily newspa- declined and returned to Berlin instead, pers. The lease contracts were the founda- where he thought he would have greater tion of Mosse’s assets. scope for entrepreneurial expansion due to Mosse also proved to have good instincts the city’s higher level of economic activity. for innovation in marketing. He expanded On January 1, 1867, he founded the Zeitungs- his Advertising Expedition into a clearing Annoncen-Expedition Rudolf Mosse (Rudolf house for advertisement design, translation Mosse Newspaper-Advertising Expedition) of advertisements, advertising in foreign (and gave his name to the business). Within languages, and consultation, forwarding, a few years, Mosse had built a network of and settlement services. In 1867, he pub- , Austro-Hungary, and . The intended for use by advertisers. This com- Advertising Expedition remained the central prised a directory of newspapers and peri- odicals in Germany and abroad in which the Advertising Expedition placed advertise- His preference for structuring his business ments, including additional information on as an open trading company enabled him to circulation, format, cost for advertisement appoint family members to important posi- tions. This model, based on mutual trust catalogue enabled his customers to devise and solidarity, was a key to Mosse’s success. targeted advertising strategies. Mosse intro- Mosse’s enterprise was not a complete duced the line analyser to make it easier to innovation, but he developed the advertis- calculate the cost of an advertisement. This ing business in creative ways and opened set the number of lines that an advertise- up a new market. Initially, he recognized the ment would occupy in a given newspaper; potential of providing professional advice it was included in the newspaper catalogue to his customers. His business followed a from 1893 on. primarily decentralized model so that every In addition to his advertising business, - Mosse was also active as a publisher. He ences and requirements of advertisers and built up one of the most important German consumers in their own regions. newspaper and periodicals publishers and, Other newspapers, periodicals, and pro- along with fessional journals soon incorporated the Zeitung) and August Scherl, became one

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 12 14/07/2017 9:54:13 PM Rudolf Mosse’s business premises in central Berlin, (built 1900–1903 to plans by Cremer &

by ), 1933

of the largest publishers in Berlin. Mosse’s formed the foundation for other prod- publications had a progressive bourgeois ucts from Mosse’s business. From 1898, his intellectual-political orientation, as primar- book-publishing press began to produce the ily represented by the Berliner Tageblatt, Deutsche Reichs-Adressbuch für Industrie, Gewerbe und Handel established itself as Germany’s leading lib- business directory of its kind, which soon eral newspaper. Other newspapers followed became indispensible for economics and targeting other social classes, among them trade. The Bäder-Almanach (1882), a com- the Berliner Morgen-Zeitung (1889) and the Berliner Volkszeitung Allge- and their locations represented a new instru- meine Zeitung des Judentums, which Mosse ment that appealed to doctors, patients, and tourists. Mosse’s successors, his son-in-law publisher Ludwig Philippson, was aimed at Hans Lachmann-Mosse (1885–1944), and a Jewish audience. Additionally, there were his nephew Martin Carbe (1872–1931) intro- about 130 professional journals, and he had duced the “Rudolf Mosse Code” in 1922, a his own book press, equipped with the most modern machinery. the telegraph in German-speaking lands. The concept of communication that lay behind the Advertising Expedition also

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 13 14/07/2017 9:54:13 PM communication and was later developed years, i into an international code. crisis wiped out the majority of his private As well as being an entrepreneur, Mosse was an art collector, patron of the arts, and donor donations to institutions and individuals the world economic crisis and the boycott His mansion on Leipziger Platz contained a of Jewish businesses, included a series of valuable collection with over 300 art objects poor decisions by the management of the including paintings (mostly from the 19th company, which led to the collapse of the century), furniture, tapestries, porcelain, business empire. The predatory competition glass, and small pieces of art; it was the big- of the Allgemeine Anzeigen GmbH, estab- gest private art collection in Berlin. In the lished in 1916 and pursued by the German years before the First World War, Mosse national Krupp director Alfred Hugenberg acquired the library of Erich Schmidt, the - literary historian and former director of the University of Berlin, containing volumes by National-Socialist takeover, Mosse’s busi- German authors. He moved the library to his ness was “Aryanized.” mansion and opened it to the public. Mosse sent money to the Anatomical Institute of Bibliography the University of Heidelberg, supported the Royal Saxon Institute for Cultural and Sources Universal History in Leipzig, and donated [1] Fest-Schrift zu Feier des fünfzigjährigen money to the Austrian scholar of Pre-Islamic Bestehens der Annoncen-Expedition Rudolf Arabia, Eduard Glaser. In 1917, he endowed Mosse. Zum 1. Januar 1917 gewidmet von den a scholarship foundation for the exchange Geschäftsführern, Berlin 1917. of law students between the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg; in 1918 he established Secondary literature the Rudolf Mosse Foundation/Institute for [2] F. Härtsch, Rudolf Mosse. Ein Verleger revo- historical jurisprudence at the University of lutioniert das Werbegeschäft, Zurich 1996. Heidelberg. [3] E. Kraus, Die Familie Mosse. Deutsch-jüdi- His numerous charitable activities included sches Bürgertum im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, the foundation of a hospital and an asy- Munich 1999. [4] W. E. Mosse, Rudolf Mosse lum in his home town of Graetz in 1891, the and the House of Mosse 1867–1920, in: Leo Baeck building of a cross-community, interdenom- Institute Year Book 4 (1959), 237–259. [5] H.-H. inational educational institution in Berlin- Zabel, “Mosse, Rudolf,” in: Neue Deutsche Bio- Wilmersdorf for needy children in 1893, and graphie, vol. 18, Berlin 1997, 213–216. the establishment of support and pension funds for his employees. On his 70th birthday alone, in May 1913, Mosse donated almost 1.6 million marks to charitable causes. Heidel- berg’s law department presented him with Ahasver an honorary doctorate in 1917 in recognition of his philanthropical work. Rudolf Mosse died in September 1920 in the Eternal or which has Schenkendorf near Berlin. In the following constituted the most important symbol of

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 14 14/07/2017 9:54:13 PM 2001. [11] A. S. Nakhimovsky, Russian-Jewish persons at all – remained a riddle, if not an Literature and Identity. Jabotinsky, Babel, Gross- illusion. Thus, the narrator of René Des- man, Galich, Roziner, Markish, Baltimore 1992. cartes’s Second Meditation establishes that when he interprets the hats and clothes he sees going ahead of him down the street as people, this is solely a result of his subjec- tive judgment [3. 21]. The radical otherness Alterity so denied could be rehabilitated through the concept of alterity. The term alterity (Fr. altérité, other ness) In modern thinking, the idea to justify is meant to articulate the philosophical that which is alien to one’s own self (an demand that every person, in his unique old concept in more general form), did not always take on personalized form or inter- Although the problem had existed long personal terms. Thus, ’s before, the French Jewish philosopher Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995) gave it the Der Andere (“The Other,” 1930) show that most decisive emphasis and contributed otherness does not just occur in the form to its dissemination. According to him, of other people, but also within the depths Western philosophy had succumbed to of the psyche. But although otherness can the temptation of reducing “the other to assume a great variety of forms, the problem the same.” By mediating between arises in its most typical and troublesome of the interwar period and contemporary aspect when, instead of complying with the ethics, Levinas ensured the humanization, obligatory and binding ethical claims of the secularization, and of the term alterity of our fellow humans, we treat them alterity within the philosophical tradition of as mere objects of conquest, dominance, phenomenology. and violence. In Levinas’s view, the re-estab- lishment of these claims enables both a ref- 1. ormation of philosophy and the rediscovery 2. Emmanuel Levinas 3. Transformations of the concept of alterity 2. Emmanuel Levinas 1. Emmanuel Levinas was born on January 12, According to its proponents, the term alter- 1906, in (Kovno), , which ity refers to whatever lies outside the sphere was then part of the Russian Empire. Aside of interests and intentions of the individual from instruction in , he self but can challenge and obligate that received no serious education in Jewish tex- self – especially the “otherness” represented tual traditions as a young person; his family by human beings. The roots of the concept of alterity can be traced back to the Neo- of the Czarist Empire. He went to university platonic problem of unity and plurality, in in 1923 to a Western educa-

the philosophical tradition since the mod- desired for their children. At the suggestion ern era, with its emphasis on the dualism of his there (especially Jean Hering, of mental representation and extra-mental an important post-liberal Protestant theolo- existence, the subjective concept of the exis- gian), Levinas decided to continue his stud- tence of other consciousnesses – or of other ies with in Freiburg. His

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 73 14/07/2017 9:54:19 PM had been conversant from the beginning of his university studies. The 19th century project of liberal theology undertaken by Protestants, but also powerful among a few Jewish thinkers such as Hermann Cohen

for undermining the of with respect to his creation. Among the most important of these critical voices was that of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth, whose Römerbrief (1919, “,” 1922) caused a sensation with the thesis that in the 19th century, the “completely other” God of the Bible had been forgotten. The arguments of Levinas’s important source, - tion), are somewhat similar: he condemned the Jewish thought of the 19th century as “atheistic theology” and demanded that not ethical codes but God’s revelation should be Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995), photo by Bracha L. at the center of Jewish theology [7]. A deci- Ettinger sive factor in these developments was the stir caused by the ideas of Sören Kierkeg-

- Barth. Barth’s central demand was observa- tion was with the school of phenomenology, whose founder, Husserl, had rediscovered in thought and action, referring to Kierkeg- the Cartesian problem of the status of oth- - ers in his later work and had formulated the ference” between God and man [1. 10]; [4]. concept of intersubjectivity. Husserl retired Levinas’s close friend, the Jewish (but decid- in 1928, and Levinas passed to the supervi- edly secular) philosopher Jean Wahl, played sion of , who took over an important part in making Kierkegaard Husserl’s position and reinterpreted his accessible to French academic philosophy - (Études kierkegaardiennes, 1938). toral dissertation Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (1930; “The 3. Transformations of the concept of Theory of Intuition in Husserl’s Phenom- alterity enology,” 1973), Levinas set himself the task of introducing phenomenology, which had Levinas’s phenomenology of Autrui, or the been applied in a new context by Heidegger, Other, developed over a long period of time into French philosophy. This project reached through non-sequential stages. An impor- a crisis in 1933, when Levinas learned, to his tant step took place during the war, which horror, of Heidegger’s National Socialist Levinas survived in a German camp in the involvement as Rector of the University of Lüneburg Heath after being captured in Freiburg. 1940 as a member of the French army. (His A second point of connection came with family in went into hiding, but his contemporary theology, with which Levinas extended family in Eastern Europe fell victim

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 74 14/07/2017 9:54:19 PM to the Holocaust.) The work De l’existence à (“ - l’existant (1947, “Existence and Existents,” 1978), partly written during the war, presents university system. This work contains the an explicit reversal of Heidegger’s famous presentation par excellence of his famous argument that philosophy, ever since its philosophy of being rather than so-called Greek beginnings, had persistently reduced “ontic” entities; already in 1947, the “dif- “the other to the same” [6. 42]. Transformed ference” in which Levinas was exclusively by his encounter with the mysterious wan- interested was one of other people. dering Talmudic scholar Shushani shortly Interestingly, this concept of alterity did after the war, Levinas began to include read- not yet bring the metaphilosophical pri- ings from the Talmud at annual conferences macy of ethics with it. Levinas’s philosophy of French Jewish intellectuals beginning in reached that stage of moralization during 1960. With these readings, the ethic of alter- the time of the Cold War, when a transcon- ity was seen to be already present at the core fessional interdenominational movement of the millennial Jewish tradition. responded to claims that political revolu- At the time of his , Levinas had tion mandated the suspension or postpone- achieved international recognition, primar- ment of moral norms with an insistence on - the strict priority of these norms – even in rida, who continued his mentor’s insistence such cases when this suspension or post- on ethical otherness (with many creative

creates the conditions for social justice. The 2004. Derrida’s famous and critique example of his close colleague, the Christian of Levinas led him to an extensive revi- existentialist , who followed sion of his philosophical defense of alter- a similar line of thought, demonstrates that ity, which resulted in Autrement qu’être ou the moralization of the term alterity tran- au-delà de l’essence (1974, “Otherwise than scended religious boundaries. Levinas’s Being or Beyond Essence,” 1978). In the late insistence on the ethical claim of the other, 1970s, Levinas was also taken up by the “Nou- with the Cold War in the background, has velle Philosophie,” and Jewish intellectuals left in doubt what kind of doctrine could like Bernard-Henri Lévy and Benny Lévy applauded him in their rejections of Marx- years after the founding of the Jewish State, ism in favor of morality. Additionally, with Levinas had hoped that Israel would be able his ongoing readings of the Talmud, which to concretize regard for the other by some- how enshrining interpersonal morality in national policy by somehow substituting Jewish studies. statist politics with interpersonal morality. And yet, the question to what extent But eventually, in some interviews and texts alterity is “Jewish” in its origins or essence Levinas came close to denying the Palestin- ians the status of others – a stance that has its concrete conceptual origins would have led to controversial discussions among his been very small. The phenomenological interpreters. problem of “the other” as raised by Husserl Levinas had been active in the Jewish aid existed for a long time with no Jewish con- organization nection. The localization of the immediate since the interwar period, and after the War origins of Levinas’s strong and asymmetrical he headed its École normale israélite ori- conception of alterity within a theological entale. The publication of revolution, which – although with Jewish

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 75 14/07/2017 9:54:19 PM collaboration – was led by Protestants, leads on First Philosophy, translated by John Cot- to the conclusion that the concept should tingham, 1996. [4] S. Kierkegaard, best be treated as a cultural conglomerate, Kierkegaard’s Writings, IV, Part II: Either/Or. and not as a Jewish correction of “Greek” Part II, translated by H. and E. Hong, Princeton metaphysics, as Levinas sometimes claimed [2]. Levinas’s ethical reinterpretation of the on Judaism, Baltimore 1990. [6] E. Lévinas, term after the Second World War was based on his intensive engagement with Jewish texts and traditions with Shushani, but also Rosenzweig, Atheistic Theology, in: F. Rosen- on a widespread, interdenominational per- zweig, Philosophical and Theological Writings, ception of the necessity for moral absolutes 2000, 10–24. during the Cold War. So, there is an irony in Levinas’s conversion of the alterity of Secondary literature God into a human ethic: the concept itself [8] M. Morgan, Discovering Levinas, Cam- was originally directed against the attempt bridge 2007. [9] S. Moyn, Origins of the Other. to reduce theology to ethics, and Levinas Emmanuel Levinas between Revelation and was now not too far from doing just this. Ethics, Ithaca 2005. [10] M. Theunissen, The “Ethics is not the corollary of the vision of Other. Studies in the Social Ontology of Husserl, God,” he wrote, in 1956, for example; “It is Heidegger, Sartre, and Buber, Cambridge 1984. that very vision” [5. 17]. Herein lay Levinas’s most important contribution to the theory of alterity and to its humanization or secu- larization, its Judaization and moralization. Obviously, other Jewish thinkers of the mod- ern period have interrogated self and other in various ways, which in Levinas’s view were worthy of criticism (as in the case of

of Redemption). In any case, the strange

– without in any way diminishing its con- nection to today’s Judaism – the general rule, that cultural cross pollination and cre- ative adaptation permeate to the innermost

period.

Bibliography

Sources [1] K. Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, Lon- don et al. 1968. [2] J. Derrida, Violence and Metaphysics. An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel Levinas, in: J. Derrida, Writing and

1978, 79–153. [3] R. Descartes, Meditations

1-260_EJHC_A.indd 76 14/07/2017 9:54:19 PM memorial was built in 1976, to a design by literature], Moscow/Jerusalem 2003. [11] L. Mikhail Lisenko, implemented by the archi- Dobroszycki/J. S. Gurock (eds.), The Holocaust tect Anatoly Ignashchenko, complete with in the Soviet Union. Studies and Sources of the an inscription in Yiddish, it made no men- Jews in the Nazi-Occupied Territories of the tion of the Holocaust. Only with perestroika USSR 1941–1945, New York 1993. [12] J. Gar- did public debate over the event and dis- rard, The Nazi Holocaust in the Soviet Union. cussions of Jewish belonging become pos- Interpreting Newly Opened Russian Archives, sible. In 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the secession of , 3–40. [13] Z. Gitelman (ed.), Bitter Legacy. a memorial for the murdered Jews was put Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR, Bloom- up at Babi Yar, this time in the form of a ington 1997. [14] S. Markish, The Role of

Reawakening of Jewish National Consciousness Bibliography (1953–1970), in: Y. Ro’i/A. Becker (eds.), Jewish Culture and Identity in the Soviet Union, New Sources York 1991, 208–231. [15] S. Redlich, War, Holo- [1] I. Ehrenburg, Babi Jar, in: I. Ehrenburg, Laß caust and Stalinism. A Documented History of mich nicht sehen, was ich sah, Berlin 1983, the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee in the USSR, 78 f. [2] V. Grossman/I. Ehrenburg (eds.), The Luxembourg 1995. [16] E. R. Wiehn (ed.), Die complete black book of Russian Jewry. Trans- Schoah von Babij Jar. Das Massaker deutscher lated and edited by D. Patterson, New Bruns- Sonderkommandos an der jüdischen Bevölke- wick 2002. [3] N. S. Khrushchev, Vysokaya rung von Kiew 1941 fünfzig Jahre danach zum ideinost’ i khudozhestvennoe masterstvo – Gedenken, Konstanz 1991. velikaya sila sovetskoi literatury i iskusstva [High ideals and artistic mastery – the great power of Soviet literature and art], in: Noviy Mir (1963), 3: 3–33. [4] A. Kuznetsov, Babi Yar. Roman-dokument, in: Yunost’ (1966), 8: 7–42; Badkhn 9: 15–46; 10: 23–51. [5] A. Markov, Moy otvet [My answer], in: Literatura i zhizn’, September The badkhn (Yiddish, badkhonim or 24, 1961, 9. [6] V. Nekrasov, Pochemu eto ne badkhones; “jester,” “entertainer”; from Ara- sdelano? [Why was it not done?], in: Literat- maic bedaḥ, “be happy”) is a professional or urnaya Gazeta (1959), 125: 2. [7] D. Starikov, semiprofessional entertainer who appears Ob odnom stikhotvorenii [On a poem], in: Lit- at certain parties and festivities, particularly eratura i zhizn‘, September 27, 1961, 3. [8] Y. at weddings. The tradition of the badkhn Yevtushenko, Babi Yar, in: M. Teichman and S. arose in the 16th century in Eastern Europe, Leder (eds.), Truth and Lamentation: Stories and where it also enjoyed its heyday in the 19th Poems on the Holocaust, Chicago 1994, 478–480 and early 20th centuries. From the 18th cen- [Originally published in: Literaturnaya Gazeta tury, it spread to Palestine with the emigra- (1961), 112: 4]. [9] Y. Yevtushenko, A Precocious tion of Jews from Russia, and the waves of Autobiography, London 1963. a century later also took it to

Secondary literature Hasidic communities after World War II. [10] Y. Arad, Kholokost. Ubiystvo yevreev v 1933– 1945 gg. Antologiya, dokumenty, svidetel’stva, In traditional Ashkenazi societies of East- literatura [Holocaust. The murder of the Jews ern Europe, the badkhn 1933–1945. Anthology, documents, testimonies, apparently contradictory, key functions at

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 273 14/07/2017 9:53:34 PM - the intentionally incorrect use of words, tions: those of the fool, the master of cer- phrases, and sentence structures, spooner- emonies, and the moral preacher. That of isms, mixed , and gematria (num- the fool derived from the tradition of earlier ber mysticism; Ashkenazi entertainers in Central Europe, the badkhn had an exclusively Jewish audi- called in Yiddish leyts (plural leytsonim; ence, who would understand and appreci- “jester,” “joker”) or nar (“fool”) The roles ate such , whereas entertainers like of these entertainers resembled those of leytsonim and klezmorim ( the fools, gleemen, dancers, minnesänger, performed for non-Jews. The appearances of and players who were found throughout the Badkhones also contained a strongly the- atrical, performative element that included mentioned in a Jewish context in the 13th the use of gesture, grimaces, costumes, and century. Jollity was thought inappropriate proper, along with all manner of shenani- at most Jewish festivals because of grief at gans and music. the destruction of the , but The occupations of badkhn and weddings were one exception: according were closely related. Badkhonim not only to the interpretations of leading rabbini- sang, but frequently also played instru- cal authorities like Jakob ben Moses Molin ments. Some were members or leaders of (d. 1427), it was even a duty to delight the klezmer kapelyes (klezmer ensembles). The bride and groom. The function of the mas- crossover between badkhn and klezmer - arose not only from the proximity of their ure of the marshelik (from MHG marschalc functions, but also from the fact that both denoting someone holding the position of a occupations were handed down within supervisor). The complex wedding customs the family, and marriages often occurred necessitated the guidance of an expert. In between families belonging to each group. later centuries, this task waned in impor- The heyday of the badkhn was the 19th tance, and the distinction between the bad- khn and the marshelik popular that it was frequently mentioned The function of the moral preacher, who in memoirs of East European Jewish intel- presented moral verse and songs at festive lectuals and writers, such as , occasions, may have come about in reaction Grigory Isaakovich Bogrov, Ezekiel Kotik, to despair at the violent - Abraham Bär Gottlober, Pauline Wenger- tions (1648–1654) and disappointment over Abraham Cahan. At this period, the pseudo-Messiah, (1626 – c. the badkhn had a central function in the 1676, traditional wedding. The performances of A key element of the songs of the badkhn the badkhn and klezmorim accompanied the was the muser-zogn, a kind of sermon. It ceremonial that began on the evening of the before the wedding day and lasted which enjoyed great popularity between until the end of the sheve brokhes, the seven the mid-16th and early 18th centuries. A blessings over the course of the week that badkhn would generally have a thorough followed it. When important guests arrived religious education, and even sometimes at the festivities, it was the job of the bad- khn to present them in his gramen (songs often quote and comment on the scriptures with rhymed texts), in which he was often in his rhymes. He sometimes distorted the accompanied by klezmorim. Gramen were text for purposes of by exaggeration, performed during the forshpil festivities in

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 274 14/07/2017 9:53:35 PM honor of the bride on the eve of the wed- The badkhn - ding, the khosn-mol, the meal in honor of opment of the Yiddish song and entertain- the groom, or the assembly in the marriage ment culture that established itself from hall on the wedding day itself. One of the the mid-19th century. Many of the broder- main rituals in which the badkhn took part zinger (popular singers and songwriters) was the kale bazetsn (seating of the bride), which took place immediately before the outdoor restaurants, and taverns of East- kale badekn (veiling). The badkhn intoned ern Europe came from the ranks of the his muser-zogn, to prepare the bride for the badkhonim. Former badkhonim were also sacred character of the wedding ceremony found among the early singers and play- and to convey to her the importance of this wrights of the professional Yiddish theater step from girlhood to womanhood in her Ab- life. His lyrics would compare the wedding raham Goldfaden in 1876 at Iaşi (; day with and the forgiveness of sins, and invoke the souls of deceased rela- legacy lives on in the secular American tives. During the muser-zogn, the accom- Jewish entertainers like the tummlers who panying klezmer would improvise virtuosic entertained in Jewish vacation regions like soli between the verses. The khosn bazingen the Catskill Moun- aimed at the groom was similar in content. tains, and especially in the form of stand-up During the khupe vetshere, the evening meal comedians. before the wedding ceremony, the badkhn badk- had two main duties: he held the droshe- honim of the late 19th century felt an obliga- geshank ( sermon), apparently a parody tion to the aims of the Enlightenment, and of the bridegroom’s speech, introducing the along with their appearances at weddings, while presenting satirical caricatures they began to publish verses and songs of of those giving them. At the end of the eve- a reformist character. The best-known of ning, he also summoned the male relatives these was Eliakum Zunser (1836–1913). and guests for the mitsve-tants (obligatory The function of the badkhn dance) with the bride. Apart from the wed- ding, the other important event was the America. His primary task is to summon the festival (joyous by its very nature), guests for the mitsve-tants. The badkhn often at which the badkhn would appear during appears without klezmorim, accompanied the banquet and perform short theatrical instead on a keyboard. Badkhonim often sketches, mostly with reference to historic have a high religious status in the Ḥasidic events ( congregation, and may belong to the family The music of the badkhonim was eclectic. of the (or the badkhn and rebbe may The singing of the gramen resembled the be one and the same). Although the badkhn formulaic incantation of , especially sometimes has negative connotations in the the kinot (laments for the Tishʿah be-Av non-Hasidic world, he seems to provoke no day of mourning; negative reactions in Hasidic circles. Con- music also borrowed from Yiddish, Hebrew, temporary badkhonim still sing in the style and other religious and secular folk songs, of the muser-zogn, but the kale bazetsn no klezmer melodies, and non-Jewish pastoral longer takes place, and attention tends to be paid to the bridegroom rather than the niggunim bride – presumably because of the stricter the gramen. gender segregation in Hasidic society.

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 275 14/07/2017 9:53:35 PM Bibliography 1. Jewish Baghdad in the modern period 1.1 Expectations of integration [1] A. Krasney, The Badkhn. From Wedding Stage 1.2 Incipient national consciousness to Writing Desk, in: Polin. Studies in Polish Jewry 1.3 Nationalism and National Socialism 16 (2003), 7–28. [2] E. Lifschutz, Merrymakers 2. Jews in Iraqi musical life and Jesters Among Jews (Materials for a Lexi- 2.1 Music in Islam con), in: YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science 2.2 Classical musical tradition 7 (1952), 43–83. [3] S. Liptzin, Eliakum Zun- 2.3 ‘Modern style’ ser. Poet of His People, New York 1950. [4] Y. 2.4 The al-Kuwaity brothers and Salima Mazor, The Badkhn in Contemporary Hasidic Murad Society. Social, Historical, and Musical Obser- 2.5 Cairo Congress of Arab Music, 1932 vations, in: Polin. Studies in Polish Jewry 16 2.6 Daqqaqa ensembles (2003), 279–296. [5] A. Wood, (De)con- 3. Exodus structing Yiddishland. Solomon and SoCalled’s HipHopKhasene, in: Forum 16 1. Jewish Baghdad in the modern period (2007) 2, 243–270. 1.1 Expectations of integration

Jews of Baghdad opened themselves to their surrounding Arabic culture. They moved out Baghdad of Jewish quarters, joined in with the Arabic literary scene Until the middle of the 20th century, Bagh- musical life. This development was stimulated by a from Europe, the Jews of Baghdad under- push for modernization and secularization went a process of secularization in the late that had begun in the 19th century. There 19th century, acquiring a high level of educa- had been an unbroken presence of Jewish tion and involving themselves in the culture inhabitants in for over two and politics of the country in a way that was thousand years since the Babylonian Exile unique in the . One expression (598–538 BCE), despite regime changes. In of this uniqueness is found in musical prac- the Ottoman period (1534–1918), Baghdad tice. Jewish musicians were the architects was a center for policies emanating from of musical life, nurturing . During the from traditions while also acting as the driving 1839 to 1876, a period of political reform by forces of musical innovation and modern- the Ottoman sultans, attempts were made ization. The growth of to modernize the empire by introducing and hostility to the Jews, combined with the European institutions. This led to a change consequences of the Arab-Israeli War, led to in the status of non-Muslim populations in an exodus of the Jewish population of Iraq the country, which brought greater oppor- to the newly-founded state of Israel in the tunities for Jews, especially in regard to early 1950s. education (

-

Founded in 1860 in France by a group of Jews of liberal religious and political persuasions,

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 276 14/07/2017 9:53:35 PM (1871–1948) succeeded him as the authority Steinschneider, Gesammelte Schriften, eds. H. on the Jewish bibliography and published Malter/A. Marx, vol. 1: Gelehrten-Geschichte, important bibliographies and catalogs Berlin 1925. - schneider’s students was Solomon Schechter Secondary literature (1847–1915), the discoverer of the [3] S. Brisman, A History and Guide to Judaic of Cairo, President of the Jewish Theologi- Bibliography, Cincinnati 1977, 40–44. [4] I. cal Seminary in New York, and founder of Elbogen, Moritz Steinschneider. Der Vater der Conservative Judaism in the United States hebräischen Bibliographie, in: Soncino-Blätter 1 (1925/26), 155–158. [5] A. Goldberg, Nachtrag students was (1878–1953), zu G. A. Kohut, Bibliography of the Writings of who worked as a lecturer in history at the Professor Dr. Moritz Steinschneider, in: Zeit- Jewish Theological Seminary and also for schrift für Hebräische Bibliographie 5 (1901), 50 years as its head librarian. The Orthodox 189–191; 9 (1905), 90–92; 13 (1909), 94 f. [6] G. A. Heinrich Brody (1868–1942) continued Kohut, Bibliography of the Writings of Professor the Zeitschrift für Hebräische Bibliographie Dr. Moritz Steinschneider, in: Festschrift zum together with Aron Freimann and in 1933 Achtzigsten Geburtstage Moritz Steinschnei- assumed the leadership of the Institute for ders, Leipzig 1896, 5–39. [7] A. Marx, Moritz the Research of Jewish Poetry in Jerusalem Steinschneider, in: A. Marx, Essays in Jewish founded by Salman Schocken. Other stu- Biography, Philadelphia 1947, 112–184. [8] A. dents were Samuel Abraham Poznanski Marx, Steinschneideriana II, in: S. W. Baron/A. (1864–1921), a Warsaw rabbi who specialized Marx (eds.), Jewish Studies in Memory of George in the history and literature of the - A. Kohut, New York 1935, 492–527. [9] S. ites; the Hungarian Orientalist Ignaz Goldzi- Schechter, Moritz Steinschneider, in: Publica- her (1850–1921), founder of modern Islamic tions of the American Jewish Historical Society 17 (1909), 229. [10] M. Schmelzer, Moritz Stein- American Reform rabbi Judah L. Magnes schneider. An Appreciation, in: Quntres 1 (2009), (1877–1948), who also served as a president 23–39. [11] G. Scholem, Wissenschaft vom Judentum einst und jetzt, in: G. Scholem, Judaica, Steinschneider’s universal knowledge and Frankfurt am Main 1963, 147–164. [12] S. Shu- productivity remained unsurpassed. In the nami, Bibliography of Jewish Bibliographies, 2 20th century, the increasing number and vols., Jerusalem 1965. -

vented the creation of further Hebrew uni- versal bibliographies. They were replaced by publications of thematically oriented specialized bibliographies and by printed inventory catalogs of the Judaica or Hebra- Bibliotheca Bodleiana ica collections of mainly American libraries. The main library of Oxford University and Bibliography the second-largest library in . The Bodleian Library (Bibliotheca Bodleiana), Sources named for its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley [1] M. Steinschneider, Die arabische Literatur (1545–1613), has one of the most extensive der Juden. Ein Beitrag zur Literaturgeschichte special collections of Hebrew manuscripts der Araber, grossenteils aus handschriftlichen and books. Primarily due to the collections Quellen, Frankfurt am Main 1902. [2] M. catalogue Catalogus librorum Hebraeorum

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 401 14/07/2017 9:53:45 PM in Bibliotheca Bodleiana (1852–1860) pub- Steinschneider traveled to Oxford several lished by Moritz Steinschneider for research times for his research; he worked on the cat- purposes, it has been a central knowledge alogue for thirteen years in Berlin. The 1700- base for the study of Jewish history and lit- page work, whose printing spanned from erature since the mid-19th century. 1852 to 1860, created an international repu- tation for Steinschneider as the founder of The genesis of the Hebraica collection in the the Hebrew Bodleian Library dates back to the 17th cen- which was written in Latin, listed the title of tury. With its purchase of the Huntingdon the classical Hebrew work and the name of Collection in 1692, the library, which opened the author in two separate alphabetic regis- in 1602, acquired a manuscript from Mai- ters; several entries also named co-authors, monides’s place of publication, and title in Hebrew Perplexed) that was clearly in his own hand. and Latin nomenclatures. The entries were - furnished with detailed biographical infor- tion of over 110 Hebrew manu- mation about the writers, their published scripts from the estate of the Venetian Jesuit works, and their manuscript works. How- Matteo Luigi Canonici in 1817. This acquisi- ever, the amount of information presented, tion was also the largest single purchase in as well as Steinschneider’s extremely lapi- the library’s history. dary formulations and abbreviations, made The centerpiece of the Bodleian’s inven- tory is the collection of David Oppenheimer The catalogue listed the printed Hebrew (1664–1736), the of Prague works in the Bodleian Library’s collection and state rabbi of Bohemia and Mora- up until 1860. It also accounted for all books via, acquired in 1829. It comprises around printed in Hebrew up to 1732, regardless of 780 Hebrew manuscripts and 4220 books whether or not they were part of the library’s collection. Steinschneider’s catalogue rep- including many unique items and excep- - graphic compendium of traditional Hebrew editions. The Johann texts. It contributed to the canonization Christoph Wolf (1683–1739) had earlier used of Hebrew writings and also formed the the collection to assemble his four-volume foundation for the research activities of the bibliography of Hebrew writing, Bibliotheca Hebraea. At the request of the inheritors, just getting underway at that time. It served - as a model for later catalogues of large col- lections of Hebraica in European libraries. in 1775 and estimated its value at around The chief librarian of the Bodleian, Arthur 50–60,000 reichstaler [10. 67]. In 1848, the Ernest Cowley, used it as the basis for a com- Bodleian Library expanded its holdings by piled and more user-friendly catalogue of all adding the collection of the Hamburg bib- Hebrew books held by the library in 1927 liographer Heimann Joseph Michael, which [1]. Unaltered reprints of Steinschneider’s contained 862 works and nearly 1300 special original work were also published in 1931 editions. In 1890, it acquired about 5,000 of and 1964. the approximately 200,000 manuscript frag- As well as the printed works, the inven- ments of the Cairo tory of Hebrew manuscripts at the Bodleian In 1848, Moritz Steinschneider (1816– Library is among the most important of its 1907) was tasked with cataloging the kind worldwide. Steinschneider inventoried Hebrew works of the Bodleian Library. an initial partial sample of 500 manuscripts,

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 402 14/07/2017 9:53:45 PM which was published in 1857 as Conspectus. Materialien zur Geschichte der Bibliothek David A more comprehensive catalogue of the Oppenheims, in: Soncino-Blätter 2 (1927), 66 f. Hebrew manuscripts with 2602 entries and

40 facsimiles was prepared by Adolf Neu- bauer (1831–1907) and published in 1886 [2]. The second volume appeared in 1906 as a collaboration between Neubauer and Cow- ley; it contained all Hebrew manuscripts Biedermeier acquired up to 1906 [3]. The Biedermeier period (1815–1848/1849) Bibliography coincided with the development of a Jewish bourgeoisie in the German-speaking area Sources whose self-understanding was also articu- [1] A. E. Cowley, A Concise Catalogue of the lated in the visual arts. One of the most Hebrew Printed Books in the Bodleian Library, well-known painters of this time is Moritz Oxford 1929. [2] A. Neubauer, Catalogue of Daniel Oppenheim (1800–1882). His works the Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and the College Libraries of Oxford. Includ- community since the early 19th century; the ing Manuscripts in other Languages, which Biedermeier style with its preferred display are written with Hebrew Characters, or Relat- of domestic idylls in the bourgeois environ- ing to the or Literature; and ment providing him with the opportunity to a few Samaritan Manuscripts, vol. 1, Oxford express himself artistically. 1886. [3] A. Neubauer/A. E. Cowley, Cata- logue of the Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodle- The retreat into the private and domestic ian Library and the College Libraries of Oxford. characteristic of the art and literature of Including Manuscripts in other Languages, the Biedermeier period conformed with the which are written with Hebrew Characters, political climate which had been marked by or Relating to the Hebrew Language or Litera- the restoration of the pre-Napoleonic order ture; and a few Samaritan Manuscripts, vol. 2, since the . This Oxford 1906. [4] M. Steinschneider, Catalogus time saw the development of an advanc- librorum Hebraeorum in Bibliotheca Bodlei- ana, Hildesheim 1964 [Reprographic reprint of in which a disproportionately high number the edition Berlin 1852–1860]. [5] M. Stein- of Jews were represented when compared schneider, Conspectus codd. mss. Hebraeorum, with their share of the total population. The Hildesheim 1964 [Reprographic reprint of the edition Berlin 1857]. [6] J. C. Wolf, Bibliotheca the visual arts of the era: the typical scenes Hebraea, 4 vols., Bologna 1967 [Reprint of the of everyday life of the Biedermeier period – edition Hamburg/Leipzig 1715–1733]. mostly portraits or paintings in which scenes from daily life were elevated to genre Secondary literature pictures by adding moral messages – also [7] S. Brisman, A History and Guide to Judaic expressed the Jewish inside view against Bibliography, Cincinnati 1977. [8] I. Elbogen, the background of the newly acquired bour- Moritz Steinschneider. Der Vater der hebrä- ischen Bibliographie, in: Soncino-Blätter 1 In the societies of Europe of the 17th (1925/26), 155–158. [9] A. Marx, Moritz Stein- century, which allowed more freedom to schneider, in: A. Marx, Essays in Jewish Biogra- the Jews, Jewish artists started to develop phy, Philadelphia 1947, 112–184. [10] H. Meyer, their talents. D

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 403 14/07/2017 9:53:45 PM ’s request in 1807 during the meet- lived in the city; Saint-Esprit, which had ing of the Grand Sanhédrin by the delegates already become the second largest Jewish- of the Jews of France. They also decreed the Portuguese community in the 17th century founding of a system - and where Jews temporarily made up the ite Central Consistory) which determined majority of the population, still had a Jew- the subordination of all previously inde- ish population of around 900, while almost pendent Jewish communities of France to all of the other smaller Jewish communities a centrally and regionally organized Jew- from the former Guyenne province had left ish, state-funded authority. This system of religious self-government under quasi state immigration from Eastern Europe as of the supervision was in force from 1812 until late 19th century and from northern Africa

in 1905. The foundation of a consistory of Bordeaux in 1808 meant the institutional lesser extent the emerging urban centers equality between the Jewish community of and Marseille. Bordeaux and the other Jewish communi- During the Second World War, Bordeaux ties in France. was occupied by the ; between 1942 In 1808, after repeated complaints about and 1944, almost 1,560 Jews were deported alleged exorbitant interest rates of Alsa- from the city to the tian Jews, a law was passed which became from there mostly to known as the responsible for the was Mau- an amended version, was in force for ten years. It included extensive restrictions for general of the Gironde prefecture. French Jews in the banking sector and the obligation to apply for a trade patent annu- Bibliography ally. However, the Jews of the Départements Gironde (to which Bordeaux belongs) and [1] E. Benbassa, The Jews of France. A History from the country, meaning the former Guyenne Antiquity to the Present, Princeton 1999. [2] J. province, were explicitly exempted from Cavignac, Les Israélites bordelais de 1780 à 1850. the law. The decree marked the temporary Autour de l’Emancipation, Paris 1991. [3] S. relapse into the pre-revolutionary discrimi- Marzagalli, Atlantic Trade and Sephardim Mer- nation of French Jews on the one hand and chants in Eighteenth-Century France. The Case the privileged treatment of Jews from Bor- of Bordeaux, in: P. Bernardini/N. Fliering (eds.), deaux on the other hand. The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the In general, the Napoleonic legislation West, 1450 to 1800, Oxford/New York 2001, 268–286. [4] G. Nahon, Juifs et judaïsme à Bor- of the Jewish-Portuguese community in deaux, Pamplona/Bordeaux 2003. Bordeaux. They had already been largely assimilated to the public life of the Chris- tian majority society and, even under the new legal conditions, neither changed their professional areas in the banking sector and Borscht Belt trade nor their preferences for endogamy and social contact within their own com- Region of Jewish summer resorts in the munity. Unlike the Jews of the Comtat, the Catskill Mountains around 160 kilometers Jews from Bordeaux did not migrate. At the northwest of which received end of the 19th century, almost 2,500 Jews its colloquial term from Borscht, one of the

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 487 14/07/2017 9:53:53 PM favorite dishes of its guests. From the inter- been established by several farmers and war period to the 1960s, over 1,000 hotels their children and boasted an especially haimish atmosphere, and the Concord, a large-scale modern complex that the owner to Jewish vacationers. Most of them appre- Arthur Winarick tried to develop into the most luxurious hotel in the whole district. Such an atmosphere attracted great inter- in particular for aspiring comedians. Many est among New York’s Jewish population. By the mid-20th century, respectable American popular culture who were to characterize hotels often accepted only ; warning the American entertainment sector started signs such as “ and consumptives their careers in the Borscht Belt. unwanted” were not only legal but com- monly used. In the Catskills, however, Jews In the early 20th century the Jewish Agri- were safe from such , and cultural Society and the Workmen’s Circle their signs read: “We comply with the dietary founded chicken and dairy farms in vari- laws.” ous districts of the Catskills which provided The hotel owners attracted the New work to Jews throughout the year. However, Yorkers with package deals. The three daily since only a few farms meals were sumptuous and were in contrast owners began to take in pension guests. with the hunger and deprivation in the Rus- Tourism had soon become a more important sian Lower source of income than agriculture. Individ- - ual buildings were transformed into kuch- lies still had vivid recollections. After their alayns (Yidd. for “cook alone”) where guests vacation, many guests bragged about their could rent a room and share the kitchen and weight gain. Besides exercise, outdoor activi- dining room with other guests. Almost all ties, and day camps for children, the Borscht guests spoke or understood Belt vacation package promised evening shared the love for certain kosher dishes entertainment. It was the responsibility of the tummlers tum- beetroot which could be eaten hot or mlen, make a racket or commotion) to keep cold and was often garnished with several the guests happy, who expected nonstop cucumber slices and sour cream. It gave the entertainment in the Catskills. The tum- region, which was also called “the Jewish mlers were all-around entertainers; their alps,” its moniker. tasks included helping when the meals were The kuchalayns, accommodating up to served, dancing with single women, telling 40 guests, often developed into bungalow jokes all day long and, if they could think complexes whose cottages, usually consist- of nothing else, clumsily falling into the ing of two rooms, provided respite to New swimming pool wearing all their clothes. Yorkers during the hot summer months. On Thursday and especially Saturday eve- Often the bungalows were arranged in the nings, which had a mandatory variety-like shape of a circle or oval, with a swimming show, the tummlers were required pool and a handball playground in the cen- to provide large-scale entertainment. Their ter. Some kuchalayns and pensions were job called for versatility: they acted as show later expanded into hotels, others were built masters, producers, directors, and often as anew, the timber being fetched from the leading actors at the same time. In the sum- nearby forests. mer of 1950, around 600 shows were staged The two most famous hotels in the in the Borscht Belt every Saturday evening Borscht Belt were Grossinger’s, which had with the help of the tummlers.

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 488 14/07/2017 9:53:53 PM The Barry Sisters during a performance in the Catskills, 1955

It is therefore not surprising that many Jew- Borscht Belt; he later got together with the Italian-American pop singer Dean Martin skill in the Catskills. Some of them were and did imitations of them. Lewis and - , Red Buttons, Buddy Hackett, Jan Murray, and Henny Youngman. Danny in 1949. When they parted ways in 1956 they Kaye also worked as a tummler in his teens were the highest-paid entertainers in the sector. The entertainer Joan Molinsky Riv- UNICEF ambassador). Judy Holliday started ers grew up as the daughter of a doctor in her career in several hotels in the Catskills the suburbs, she did not speak Yiddish and before she became famous as a movie was fully assimilated to the American cul- actress, especially with the movie Born ture. Nevertheless she started her career Yesterday (1950) for which she received an in the Borscht Belt. For the audience to Oscar for best actress in the same year. had seen his parents’ shows in the she employed an interpreter who repeated

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 489 14/07/2017 9:53:53 PM every joke in Yiddish – which meant, in achievements of the prosperous postwar Rivers’s opinion, that she could land twice period were reasons for the Catskills suc- as many punchlines. The hotels of the cessively losing their status as a for Borscht Belt were also the starting point Jewish tourists. Now they could travel to of the career of the Bagelman Sisters, who, Miami Beach, for example, where the most later as The Barry Sisters (Claire Barry/Clara famous hotel, the Fontainebleau, belonged Bagelman, born in 1923, and Myrna Barry/ to the son of the owners of a Catskills resort. Minnie Bagelman, 1925–1976 (see image They could also travel to Las Vegas and stay above), became internationally famous with in luxury hotels such as the Bellagio. Steve Yiddish songs in jazzy arrangements. Wynn, the contractor who had it built, had In the mid-20th century the spread of been a regular at Grossinger’s in the sum- television brought the electrifying humor mer. Alternatively, vacationers could relax of the Borscht Belt directly into the houses on a cruise ship, whose set-up was similar to of millions of . Two variety shows that of a resort. Many Borscht Belt bungalow with Yiddish characteristics wrote success resorts still exist, but their guests are almost stories: ’s Texaco Star Theater exclusively Orthodox and Hasidic Jews. The (1948–1953) was the most popular show at term Catskills comic is also still common, peak viewing times; its star was nicknamed but this genre can hardly be found in the “Mr Television” due to the surprising popu- Borscht Belt itself. shtik (trick, routine). Unlike Berle’s show, ’s Bibliography (1950–1954, rebroadcasted until 1958) is still considered a classic of television entertain- [1] P. Brown, Catskill Culture. A Mountain Rat’s ment, mainly thanks to its contributing Memories of the Great Jewish Resort Area, authors such as , , Philadelphia 1998. [2] P. Brown (ed.), In the , , and his Catskills. A Century of the Jewish Experience brother Woody Allen. It in “The Mountains,” New York 2002. [3] L. J. was quite common for Jewish comedians Epstein, The Haunted Smile. The Story of Jewish starring in the leading The Ed Comedians in America, New York 2001. [4] S. Sullivan Show on Sunday evening to appear Kanfer, A Summer World. The Attempt to Build on the following Saturday evening at the a Jewish Eden in the Catskills, from the Days of Concord Hotel. Ultimately, however, tele- the to the Rise and Decline of the Borscht vision played a role in the decline of the Belt, New York 1989. Borscht Belt: in 1950 a television set still cost 500 dollars but could be bought for a deposit of 20 dollars. On television people could see the shows for free in their own living rooms, while in the Catskills they would have had Botwin Company to pay for it. Moreover, New York apart- ments were increasingly furnished with air The Botwin Company (originally Naftali conditioning. Therefore, New Yorkers no Botwin Company) was a Jewish military longer had to escape to the Borscht Belt due unit which fought on the side of the Repub- to unbearable summer temperatures. lican government in the Spanish Civil War Increasing mobility also made as part of the (short: and the Southwestern United States alter- Interbrigades). Its development and short native vacation destinations for people liv- history is closely linked with the activities of ing in the Northeast. Air travel and other the Jewish section of the French Communist

261-577_EJHC_B.indd 490 14/07/2017 9:53:53 PM the literature and historiography, which established during the development of the was now also being used by the emerging synagogue rite; it correlated with the need . Authors such as Yehudah Stein- berg (Ba-Yamim ha-hem, 1905, “In Those who led the community through the rite as Days,” 1967), Jacob Kahan ( , 1904), a prayer leader or lead singer (Hebr. ḥazzan, David Shimoni (Doron, 1934), and many oth- pl. ḥazzanim). At the end of the 19th century, ers portrayed the Jewish child soldiers as the → Reform of the Rite (→ Organ) in Central national heroes or who stood for Europe and the rise of a cantoral art in East- the Hebrew rebirth. The literary portrayal ern Europe led to the golden age of cantors. of the system as a virtually apoca- Particularly in the growing communities of lyptic experience led to the military service , cantors became the favorites of the audience who not only shone in syna- of Jews under the Czars also outside of Rus- gogues but also turned towards secular art sia. In many family stories of emigrants, the escape from military service was described as the main motive of emigration. 1. From prayer leader to lead singer 2. Professionalization Bibliography 3. In the New World 4. Concert singers [1] W. Benecke, Militär, Reform und Gesellschaft 5. 6. In the present 1874–1914, Paderborn 2006. [2] D. Beyrau, Militär und Gesellschaft im vorrevolutionä- 1. From prayer leader to lead singer ren Russland, Cologne 1984. [3] J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar. Army and Society in Rus- Since biblical times, music has been of great sia, 1462–1874, Oxford 1985. [4] E. Kimerling, importance in the Jewish service. Written Soldiers’ Children, 1719–1856. A Study of Social sources testify an institutionalized temple Engineering in Imperial Russia, in: Forschun- music for the First as well as for the Second gen zur Osteuropäischen Geschichte 30 (1982), → Temple which required professional train- 61–133. [5] O. Litvak, Conscription and the ing: an orchestra which – in contrast to the Search for Modern Russian Jewry, Bloomington shrill instruments of Canaanite cults – pre- 2006. [6] A. Ofek, Cantonists. Jewish Children dominantly used string instruments accom- as Soldiers in Tsar Nicholas’s Army, in: Modern panied a of singers. The practice of Judaism 13 (1993) 3, 277–308. [7] Y. Petrovsky- temple music was in the hands of the Lev- Shtern, Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917. ites. The participation of laypeople who had Drafted into Modernity, Cambridge 2009. not received special training in the ritual practice was restricted to throwing in quick responses such as “Amen” or “Halleluyah.” After the destruction of the Second Temple (around 70 CE), most temple cult traditions Cantor were abandoned due to grief over the loss of the shrine and political autonomy. The The cantor designs and leads the musical temple was replaced with the synagogue for parts of the Jewish religious service. The which new forms of service had to be devel- term “cantor” was established in modern oped. In contrast to the temple, it was – at least initially – purely a laypeople institu- after the destruction of the Temple and was tion. It basically was the responsibility of

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 597 14/07/2017 9:53:10 PM each (male) member of the community to lead a service. The sheliaḥ tsibbur (repre- knowledge of liturgy and prayer books were sentative of the community) was expected only available in a limited number before to know the rite and be of impeccable the invention of → printing, the ḥazzan read character; however, his musical talent was the prayers out loudly and the community circumstantial. responded with “Amen.” The community In the diaspora, texts were created for was thus actively involved in the service and the designing of the new service. They were supposed to replace the rites for the by the ḥazzan.

which could no longer take place without the ḥazzan the shrine. Over time, a main body of Jewish community. The concept that every mem- prayers ( ) was created ber of the community could lead through which forms the foundation of all services the liturgy with the necessary aptitude had (→ Liturgy). The synagogue practice also never been abandoned. The regular visit of made room for the public presentation of the service on weekdays and on → Shabbat spontaneous prayers by the prayer leader. quickly led to the required familiarity with However, this gave rise to the problem that the texts and hymns. The situation was quite most members of the community could lead shliḥe tsibbur but were especially for the High Holidays and Days of overchallenged with the writing and singing Repentance Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kip- of decent liturgical poetry (→ ). pur (→ Course of the Year Over time, a cadre of professional prayer text and melody corpus as well as for several leaders, ḥazzanim, was formed. They were the special Shabbat services, itinerant ḥazzanim unchallenged leaders of the synagogue rite who often brought a singer to accompany and were joined by rabbis (→ Rabbinate) them were employed. Such an ensemble only in modern times. The term ḥazzan was usually consisted of a bass who provided the harmonic foundation and a boy with a called such practiced a range of activities. high voice – usually a son or nephew of the A ḥazzan could act as a kind of warden of ḥazzan – who was training to become a can- the synagogue responsible for tasks such as arranging the chairs for the service or rolling → Bar Mitzvah at the age of thirteen, which up the Torah scrolls at the right place for the made him a full member of his community. on holidays. As prayer leader, Centuries after the destruction of the he was sometimes admonished for unnec- Temple, Jewish communities still contented essarily prolonging the service with impro- themselves with crude vocal recitals in the vised compositions and an inappropriate synagogue service. The work of laypeople demonstration of his vocal power. in combination with experienced ḥazzanim The training as a ḥazzan did not follow a - the modest musical needs of the communi- rienced ḥazzanim who often belonged to the ties. In the course of the centuries, however, family circle. It was the task of the ḥazzan the expectations to the vocal qualities of to maintain the local habits and customs ḥazzanim (→ ) which had developed in the vocal artistry, the ḥazzanut, was eventually diaspora over the course of centuries for his developed.

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 598 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM 2. Professionalization role model of the Temple with a German rite like the Jacobson opened in With the start of the era of → emancipa- Seesen in 1810 following French Reform pro- tion from the beginning of the 19th century visions (→ Dispute), cho- onwards, liberal Jews in Central Europe tried ral singing in the national language began to reform Judaism and adapt it to modern to catch on in the . Psalm scoring times (→ Reform). This initially concerned and other melodies of Christian composers the outer form of the rite and thus also its were consulted and adapted to the texts. In music, which was viewed as frozen due to every community, the service was a mirror of its traditional character. The role model of the possibilities and the taste of the respec- the reformers was the Protestant service tive cantor. The spontaneity of the prayer in whose center were chorales and congre- led by the ḥazzan was lost like the unifor- gational singing in the German language mity of the rite across congregations and accompanied by the organ. They especially communities. obtained their inspiration from Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), the master of title was (1804–1890). In Protestant church music and epitome of addition to a traditional Jewish upbringing, the church conductor. Bach was known as Sulzer received secular musical training. As the cantor of St. Thomas Church in Leipzig a highly talented singer, he could also have whose tasks included the composition and pursued a secular career as a musician but rehearsal of the music for the service. With when he was sixteen he took over a job the appointment of comparable Jewish in his home community of Hohenems in cantors, the decorum of the synagogue rite Austria (he is said to have been saved from was expected to improve, and Judaism was drowning when he was twelve and urged expected to be continually viewed in a posi- by his mother to serve in the Jewish com- tive light. munity out of gratefulness). In 1826, he was However, the transformation of tradition- appointed to be lead cantor of the presti- al ḥazzanim to cantors gave rise to problems. gious Stadttempel (City Temple) in Vienna. It was not hard for the reformers (at whose noticed Sulzer’s exceptional top there were rabbis, not representatives of voice and allowed the young cantor to give the community) to do without the tradition- al melodies; the new cantors were expected compositions in the → salons of Vienna. to provide a replacement. The ḥazzanim However, Sulzer’s greatest importance dominated the traditions of the synagogue was not in his singing but in his composi- but had neither skills in score reading nor tions. He was raised in a religious family and - had come to know traditional Jewish melo- cally founded cantor schools were supposed dies during childhood which had provided to provide an appropriate training to the for the unity of the Ashkenazic (→ Ashke- naz) tradition. He was educated in Western music for the arrangement of the services. music, familiar with the contemporary taste, Musicians such as Bach continually created and was convinced that a fundamental revi- new works for the church but not all Jewish sion of synagogue music was necessary in cantors were composers, even if they had the order to preserve the best melodies of the new ideal of a great voice. For some time, the cantors had to make their own choices when wishes of the community as well as the re- it came to the music in the rite. Based on the quirements of the liturgy. In his two-volume

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 599 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM work Schir (“Song of Zion”), Sulzer pre- looking into art music, which was practiced sented his vision of a music for the whole by the Russian and Polish aristocracy and liturgical year which included cantor solos of operatic drama as well as challenging gradually introduced elements of the Re- pieces for a polyphonic choir. While the form music into the synagogue. The kor shul (choir synagogue) became a popular alter- choral works, Sulzer added parts for the native to the traditional synagogue. With → organ in the second volume (1865), which its combination of male , ḥazzanut, had by then been accepted in the Reform German composition, and Eastern Euro- synagogue. pean modality, it represented a moderate Sulzer’s popularity beyond the borders Reform. of the Jewish community contributed to his Lead singers with a strong voice were cantor colleagues demonstratively imitating sought after and appreciated in the East and him. They did not reach his singing quali- in the West. Over time, many of them began ties but his publications still allowed them to emulate contemporary opera singers and to sing his pieces. It was even more decisive imitate their performance style and some- times even their diva attitude. The ḥazzan that had occurred after the old liturgical or cantor developed from the lead singer or music was abandoned. In his work, he pre- leader of prayers to the star who was primar- served the most valuable traditional melo- ily appreciated due to his vocal skills. Not a dies such as the mi-Sinai melodies (→ Kol few risked their jobs by overstraining the Nidre) that formed the core of the High Hol- patience and budget of their communities idays and Days of Repentance. At the same but they were still the leaders of the ser- time, he introduced new, challenging chants vice and many members of the community which were quickly adopted by cantors in chose their synagogue for the musical qual- their own communities. Some of his pieces ity presented there. are still among the repertoire of Jewish com- munities all around the world. 3. In the New World While many synagogues in the West re- acted to the Reform’s strives by changing The concept of the lead singer as the “main their ritual practices and replacing the tra- attraction” of the synagogue soon found its ditional ḥazzanim with colleagues with a way to → America where the star cult had Western musical education, the Eastern its peak. When the United States admitted European countries in which Jews did not about two million Jewish immigrants during enjoy the freedoms of their fellow Jews the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the in the West preserved the traditional cus- congregations in New York and other urban toms. In Eastern European communities, the ḥazzan was one of the most respected seats of newly built large synagogue build- ings, stars were much sought after. Employ- expressive, virtuoso art of the ḥazzanut had ing a virtuoso lead singer from Europe, the developed there which often had a greater heart of musical as well as Jewish culture, impact on the hearts and minds of the be- guaranteed the congregations cultural con- lievers than a lecture by the rabbi. However, tinuity and expertise. reform also came to be known in the East Before the major immigrant movement, and caused several ḥazzanim to wish for a the leading singers in the New World had renewal of their musical repertoire, albeit to exclusively held the service in traditional a lesser extent than in the West. They began form. Most congregations had followed the

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 600 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM works dedicated to the synagogue such as to North America in 1654 were Sephardim compositions by Sulzer and the German- from → Recife, followed by Sephardim from Jewish composer . Amsterdam (→ Esnoga) and Great Britain. Kaiser’s counterpart on the American The communities were small and isolated west coast was Edward J. Stark (1856–1918) and the ḥazzan often was the only person who worked at the Reform Temple Emanu- responsible in questions regarding the rite. El in San Francisco. His father Josef Stark, Like in the early days of the ḥazzanim, he who also was a cantor, had received his train- was not only the lead singer but also the ing from Sulzer and taught his son the spirit kosher butcher (→ Sheḥitah), circumciser of Reform Judaism. The young Stark wrote a (→ Circumcision), , as well as leader few works for the service but also included of the ceremonies at weddings (→ Badkhn) compositions by Sulzer, Haydn, Gounod, and funerals. Schubert, and Mendelssohn as well as Prot- Ashkenazic communities in estant hymns. For his choir, Stark also solic- the United States were established follow- ited non-Jewish singers. The congregation ing the immigration of German-speaking of the Emanu-El picked up his preference Jews between 1840 and 1860. The newcom- for innovations and continued it by com- ers brought with them the liberal philoso- missioning compositions and performing phy of the Reformers and founded Reform new music. Stark’s successor was Reuben with choir singing and organ play- R. Rinder who worked as a cantor for the ing which were soon preferred over Sep- congregation between 1913 and 1963. Rinder hardic rites. The early Reform congregations commissioned composers such as Ernest employed cantors from Europe who quickly Bloch (→ Avodath Hakodesh), Darius Mil- distinguished themselves with their modern haud (→ Polytonality), as well as the Israeli musical repertoire. musicians and Paul Ben-Haim (1842–1908) is considered to (→ Mediterranean Style) with the composi- Szo- tion of works for the choir and orchestra for the Shabbat liturgy. Vienna; when he was a boy, he sang in Sulzer’s At the turn to the 20th century, numerous choir. Between 1859 and 1863, he worked as Jews from Eastern Europe, who were com- the assistant of a cantor in a Viennese sub- mitted to tradition and not familiar with urb and eventually became cantor at the the reforms from Western Europe which Old- in Prague (1863–1866). However, he then decided to seek his fortune country. Faced with the variety of musical in the New World. In 1866, he became the idioms they were surrounded with in poly- cantor of the Congregation Ohev Shalom in glot America, the traditional synagogue Baltimore in which he worked for 42 years. music represented a refuge of the familiar. The rite he established there was practiced Therefore, the demand for ḥazzanim from by most American Reform congregations up the old home who met the requirements of until the 20th century. Kaiser also edited the these new congregations was high. Many Union Hymnal which was published observant ḥazzanim from the , in 1897 by the Union of American Hebrew however, were reluctant to take on the ini- Congregations (today ). In addition to his own composi- a completely new environment. As the fast tions, the book included compositions by increase of American Jewry required ritual Mozart, Haydn, Arthur Sullivan, and other guidance, the congregations were often (non-Jewish) American composers but also ready to invest large sums in order to move

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 601 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM reluctant ḥazzanim to a change in the New from Eastern Europe. Their followers put World. them on a level with the Italian tenor (1873–1921), one of the best singers of 4. Concert singers his time. Because of their skill, these cantors were The ḥazzanim from Europe who worked for often asked to exchange the synagogue for American Orthodox congregations were not the secular world of concerts or even the willing to accept the innovations of their Reform colleagues. They continued to pray the role of Elazar in a production by Jacques in the Hebrew language, resolutely main- Fromental Halévy’s La juive at the opera in tained the traditional synagogue hymns Chicago. The contract drawn up for him and refused to change the texts just to suit the musical taste of a community or a com- religiously grounded demands. His employ- poser. On the other hand, they loved to show ers were even willing to hire exclusively Jew- ḥazzanut ish soprano singers for his performances. performances supported by male a cappella However, Rosenblatt still refused so as not choirs. The constraints of tradition, but also to endanger his unassailability as kli kodesh the limited patience of the congregation for (holy instrument). He went on numerous lengthy rites, made sure that the length and tours, recorded more than two hundred number of their artful improvisations were records and even participated in movie proj- kept within limits in regular services. In con- ects, but stayed true to Jewish tradition. trast to this, concerts with cantoral music Cantors who were not obliged to the were very popular as they took place outside Orthodox practice had fewer scruples of of the liturgical framework and also allowed crossing the border between synagogue and instrumental accompaniment. stage. Jan Peerce (Jacob Pincus Perelmuth, The rise of cantors giving concerts coin- 1904–1984) and Richard Tucker (Rubin cided with the development of the music Ticker, 1913–1975), both of whom were born industry (→ Gramophone). On both sides in → New York, were stars at the Metropoli- of the Atlantic, disc recordings contributed tan Opera; they had started their careers to the development of a golden age of the in the synagogue. After turning towards ḥazzanut. People raved about the vocal the opera and celebrating successes on the qualities and the liturgical sensitivity of stage, they only appeared as cantors on the their preferred ḥazzan as if he was an opera High Holidays and in the hotels singer or a pop star. The divide between the of the Catskill Mountains (→ Borscht Belt). leader of the service and the virtuoso giving Moishe Oysher (1907–1958) who was born in concerts became increasingly blurred; some Bessarabian Lipkon, was from a family that of the most famous ḥazzanim were popu- had produced six generations of ḥazzanim. lar as concert singers, pop stars and prayer In 1921, Oysher, who was more attracted to leaders. The congregations competed for the stage, moved to and pursued the most famous ḥazzan for services on the a career at the Yiddish theater (→ Pomul High Holidays and in local newspapers, the Verde; → Sibirya) and later in the movies. biggest stars were announced in full-page In 1934, he started a second career as can- advertisements. The most renowned artists tor. When he applied at the First Rouma- included Gershon Sirota (1874–1943), Joseph nian-American Congregation in New York (Yossele) Rosenblatt (1882–1933), as well as as ḥazzan, people questioned the sincer- the brothers Moshe (1899–1966) and David ity of his motives due to his huge acting Koussevitzky (1912–1985), all of whom came success; he was summoned to a rabbinical

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 602 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM court (→ Bet din sincerity of his intentions before being con- sidered worthy of representing a traditional congregation. The German-speaking tenor (1904–1942) also dedicated himself to concerts. Born in in an Ortho- dox family, Schmidt sang in the synagogue choir already as a child. He completed vocal training in Vienna and Berlin, temporarily worked as a cantor in the synagogue of the Berlin Adass Jisroel community and made a name for himself during the late 1920s and early as a record and broadcast- ing performer of popular songs by famous entertainment composers. He enjoyed international success as a concert singer and movie actor with occasional excursions

Joseph Schmidt (1904–1942) Switzerland as an illegal , the local authorities brought him to Girenbad intern- ment camp in the canton of Zurich where he soon after died of heart failure. (played by Moishe Oysher) comes to New York and becomes a popular entertainer. 5. Popular representations in music and For the golden wedding of his parents, he returns to the where he was born and meets his family and his childhood love Due to his public role, the cantor became a again. He also visits his father’s community - and leads the prayers there. The older mem- tion of the subjective views of the cantor bers of the community are as enchanted by his voice as the young ladies in the women’s shown in the folk song A khazendl of shab- gallery and the pain he caused many years bos: a lead singer comes to a small village ago with his farewell dissolves in the face of and sings there on Shabbat. Three members his inspiring prayers. of the community, a tailor, a cobbler, and a Dem khazn’s zindl is said to be the answer coachman, describe his talent with words to the movie The Jazz Singer (1927; → Black- face; → Hollywood) produced ten years - bler to pulling strips of leather and ham- cantor’s son. In this movie, the son, played mer blows, and for the coachmen his voice by Al Jolson (Asa Yoelson, 1886–1950), also sounds like pulling the reins and cracks of prefers musical entertainment to the melo- a whip. dies of the synagogue and thus breaks with Some cinematic representations of the cantor were particularly focused on the cha- risma of his voice. In the movie Dem khazn’s the famous → (from the liturgy zindl (The Cantor’s Son, 1937), a cantor on the eve of Yom Kippur) in this movie but

578-697_EJHC_C.indd 603 14/07/2017 9:53:11 PM of the Cantorial Art, in: I. Heskes, Passport to over the part. Rosenblatt eventually still . Its History, Traditions, and Cul- appeared in Jazz Singer: in a role specially ture, Westport 1994, 56–68. [4] A. Z. Idelsohn, written for him (but remunerated consider- Jewish Music in its Historical Development, ably lower) he played himself as a concert New York 1929. [5] E. Mandell, Salomon Sul- singer and performed a Yiddish song. zer 1804–1890, in: J. Fraenkel (ed.), The Jews of Austria. Essays on their Life, History and 6. In the present Destruction, London 1967, 221–229. [6] M. Slo- bin, Chosen Voices. The Story of the American The cantor of the present combines aspects Cantorate, Urbana 1989. of the past with a variety of modern possi- bilities. Most cantors receive their training in academic training programs which con- vey general music history and theory and musical practice as well as knowledge in Censorship Jewish history, philosophy, liturgy, and law, the Hebrew language and Jewish music. Since the , church and The cantor, a respected representative of state authorities in Europe made use of cen- religious concerns, works as a professional sorship for the control and observation of musician together with the rabbis and heads Jewish books. At the beginning of the early of the communities and thus provides for a modern times, faced with the distribution service in the spirit of Jewish tradition which of → printing, censorship authorities were at the same time meets the requirements of established. Parallel to this, an inner-Jewish the members of the community. Like in the censorship developed which was practiced by rabbinical guidance by means of appro- variety of tasks: cantors teach children and bations (haskamot) and shaped the Jew- , lead choirs, read from scrolls, and act ish book market up until the 19th century. as ministers and advisors to members of the The approbations printed in the books community (and others). They are expected - enforcement of rabbinical authority and ish music outside of the synagogue and if control over the Jewish reading culture. The possible also be able to perform folk and → Haskalah emphatically questioned the art songs in → Yiddish or → Ladino, popular practice of censorship in the 18th century repertoire from Israel and their own com- and initiated a fundamental change in the munities or even their own compositions. practice of approbations and of the whole Their repertoire can also include non-Jewish Jewish book market. music. Today, the terms cantor and ḥazzan are used interchangeably. 1. Censorship by the authorities 2. Inner-Jewish censorship Bibliography 3. Haskalah 3.1 Reactions by rabbis [1] M. B. Edelman, Discovering Jewish Music, 3.2 Jewish Lumières Philadelphia 2003. [2] G. Goldberg, Jewish Liturgical Music in the Wake of Nineteenth- 1. Censorship by the authorities

Sound and Social Change. Liturgical Music in Since the Middle Ages, ecclesiastical, as well Jewish and Christian Experience, Notre Dame as governmental, institutions made use of 1992, 59–83. [3] I. Heskes, The Golden Age censorship (from the Latin censura; strict

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