The Social Construction of Sanitation Technologies: an Analysis of the Technology Selection and Implementation Process in District Mansehra, Pakistan

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The Social Construction of Sanitation Technologies: an Analysis of the Technology Selection and Implementation Process in District Mansehra, Pakistan The Social Construction of Sanitation Technologies: An analysis of the technology selection and implementation process in District Mansehra, Pakistan. Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines DOKTORS DER PHILOSOPHIE (Dr. phil.) von der KIT-Fakultät für Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften des Karlsruher Instituts für Technologie (KIT) angenommene DISSERTATION Von Adeel Jalal Malik KIT-Dekan: Prof. Dr. Michael Schefczyk 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Armin Grunwald 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Stefan Böschen Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 16. Juli 2018 Abstract Over the last few decades sanitation has been the focus of many development projects and strategies in the international development community for the strong connection of poor sanitation to several developmental outcomes such as health, poverty, economic productivity and safety amongst others. With regard to the Sustainable Development Goals the situation is not satisfying. A strong barrier to establish such technologies exists, as there are not only diverse technological approaches to tackle the problem, but also a complex social situation. Typically, each of the stakeholders involved have their own agendas, ideas, preferences and internal policies, which may or may not be in line with local expectations and ground realities. It is therefore important to understand how technologies are selected and organized between different actors and then implemented within the given context and the challenges faced in the process, from the perspective of the different actors involved. Due to the perceived value of sanitation projects in development, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have increasingly taken up the responsibility of service provision where the governments of developing countries have lagged far behind. NGOs have become the preferred organizations for foreign funded development in the sector, playing a more decisive role in the development and implementation. Funded by foreign donors, International NGOs (INGOs) implement water and sanitation projects through local NGOs, in the context of local regulation and policy, creating a multifaceted governance structure. Using the social construction of technology as the main guiding theory enables the understanding of the roles of different social groups, the politics of their engagement and the different meanings associated with the technology from different perspectives. This provides an insight into how the different actors ultimately shape technologies and their implementation and what outcomes in different communities are generated by these dynamics. Methodologically, this thesis is based on case study research while putting focus group discussions with key informants at the core of the empirical analysis. These were used as entry point into the village communities and to understand existing practices, preferences and the experiences with the development projects. In-depth interviews were conducted with individual households at the community level, with project managers and WASH experts at the I/NGO level and with donors funding WASH projects. Different sanitation approaches implemented in at least two villages each were covered in the study. A total of 9 villages were selected based on four different technological approaches to sanitation development. A focus group discussion was conducted in each village, whereas the number of interviews depended on the beneficiaries (and non-beneficiaries) of the project. Related staff from eight different I/NGO and donors were also interviewed. ii In most cases technologies are selected by donors and INGO, who assert substantial influence over governments to ensure sector policies to favor preferred technologies. Sanitation policies now favor approaches requiring less investment, however do not necessarily translate to better outcomes and in many cases were observed not to be accepted by the local communities. Local NGOs have huge responsibilities however enjoy very little autonomy in key decisions. Important tasks relegated to community organizations allow for existing power and class structures and political influence present in the communities to be replicated in the projects, thus potentially undermining the purpose of development. Stricter government regulation related to the socio- political conditions of the region, such as terrorism, have adversely affected the ability of organizations to work freely, thereby making the already challenging process of implementation even more cumbersome. Based on the challenges faced by the different actors, recommendations to overcome some of the complexities of the problem in the sector have been elaborated and related to the different actor groups they are intended for. These recommendations would help improve technology selection and implementation for better developmental outcomes in the sanitation sector. iii Zusammenfassung Aufgrund der starken Verbindung zwischen schlechten Sanitäranlagen und mehreren Entwicklungsresultaten wie Gesundheit, Armut, ökonomischer Produktivität, Sicherheit und anderem, waren Sanitäranlagen die letzten Jahrzehnte im Fokus von vielen Entwicklungsprojekten und -strategien in der internationalen Entwicklungshilfegemeinschaft. In Bezug auf die Nachhaltigen Entwicklungsziele ist die aktuelle Situation jedoch nicht befriedigend. Es existiert eine große Hürde zur Etablierung solcher Technologien, da neben diversen technologischen Ansätzen zur Lösung des Problems zusätzlich eine komplexe soziale Situation vorliegt. Typischerweise haben die beteiligten Interessensgruppen ihre eigenen Pläne, Ideen, Präferenzen und interne Regelungen, die möglicherweise nicht zu den lokalen Erwartungen und Wirklichkeiten passen. Deshalb ist es wichtig zu verstehen wie die Auswahl der Technologien erfolgt, wie die Organisation zwischen den verschiedenen Akteuren stattfindet, wie die Einrichtung in der jeweiligen Umgebung umgesetzt wird und welchen Herausforderungen die verschiedenen Akteure im Verlauf begegnen. Durch die wahrgenommene Wichtigkeit von Sanitärprojekten in der Entwicklungshilfe haben Nicht-Regierungsorganistationen (NGOs) mehr und mehr die Verantwortung zum Betrieb solcher Anlagen übernommen, wo die Regierungen von Entwicklungsländern zurückgeblieben sind. NGOs sind die bevorzugten Organisationen für aus dem Ausland finanzierte Projekte in diesem Sektor geworden und spielen eine entscheidende Rolle in deren Entwicklung und Realisierung. Durch ausländische Spender finanziert realisieren internationale NGOs (INGOs) Wasser- und Sanitärprojekte mit Hilfe lokaler NGOs, wodurch im Kontext lokaler Regelungen und Gesetze eine facettenreiche Verwaltungsstruktur entsteht. Social Construction of Technology als Leittheorie ermöglicht das Verständnis der Rollen der verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen, ihre Politik und die verschiedenen Bedeutungen, die die Technologie für die Beteiligten hat. Dies liefert einen Einblick in die Art und Weise wie die verschiedenen Akteure letzlich Technologien und ihre Anwendung formen und welche Ergebnisse diese Dynamik in verschiedenen Gemeinden hervorbringt. Methodisch basiert diese Arbeit auf Fallstudienforschung, bei der Diskussionen in Fokusgruppen mit Schlüsselinformanten im Kern der empirischen Analyse liegen. Diese Diskussionen wurden als Zugangspunkt zu den dörflichen Gemeinschaften und zum Verständnis existierender Praktiken, Vorzügen und den Erfahrungen mit Entwicklungshilfeprojekten genutzt. Tiefergehende Interviews wurden mit individuellen Haushalten auf Gemeinde-Ebene, Projektmanagern und WASH-Experten auf I/NGO-Ebene und mit Spendern, die WASH- Projekte finanzieren durchgeführt. In der Studie wurden verschiedene Ansätze zur Etablierung von Sanitäranlagen betrachtet, die jeweils in mindestens zwei Dörfern umgesetzt wurden. Insgesamt wurden neun Dörfer aufrund von vier verschiedenen technologischen Ansätzen zur iv Entwicklungshilfe bei Sanitärtechnik betrachtet. In jedem Dorf wurde eine Fokusgruppendiskussion durchgeführt, während die Anzahl der Interviews von den begünstigten bzw. nicht begünstigten Personen des Projektes abhing. Außerdem wurden beteiligte Mitarbeiter von acht verschiedenen I/NGOs sowie Spender interviewt. In den meisten Fällen werden die Technologien von den Spendern und INGOs ausgewählt, die substanziellen Einfluss auf die Verwaltungen ausüben, um sicherzugehen, dass lokale Regelungen die ausgewählten Technologien bevorzugen. Regelungen zur Sanitärtechnik bevorzugen aktuell diejenigen Ansätze, die zwar weniger Investitionen erfordern, die jedoch nicht unbedingt zu besseren Resultaten führen und bei denen in in vielen Fällen beobachtet wurde, dass sie nicht von den lokalen Gemeinden akzeptiert werden. Die lokalen NGOs tragen eine riesige Verantwortung, genießen jedoch sehr wenig Unabhängigkeit in Schlüsselfragen. Wichtige Aufgaben an Gemeindeorganisationen abzugeben, ermöglicht es existierenden Macht- und Klassenstrukturen sowie politischer Einflussnahme in den Gemeinden sich in den Projekten zu spiegeln, wodurch der eigentliche Zweck der Entwicklungshilfe potentiell untergraben wird. Striktere Regulierung durch die Regierungen in Bezug auf die sozio-poltischen Bedingungen in der Region, wie z.B. Terrorismus, haben den Organisationen viele Möglichkeiten frei zu arbeiten genommen, was den bereits schwierigen Umsetzungsprozess noch schwieriger macht. Basierend auf diesen Herausforderungen der verschiedenen Akteure wurden Empfehlungen zum Überwinden einiger der Komplexitäten des Problems in diesem Bereich erarbeitet und den jeweiligen Akteuren unterbreitet. Diese Empfehlungen würden
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