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Transport Infrastructure Development, Tourism and Livelihood Strategies An Analysis of Isolated Communities of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan Asif Hussain A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University New Zealand December 2019 i Abstract Geographically isolated communities around the world are dependent upon the limited assets in local subsistence economies to generate livelihoods. Locally available resources shape and give identity to unique cultural activities that guarantee individual, family and community livelihood sustainability. The social structure provides community relationship networks, which ensure access to, and availability of, resources over long periods. Resources are utilised in ways that reduces vulnerability, stresses and shocks while ensuring long-term resilience. Preparedness and adaptation are embedded into cultural memory, enabling communities to survive in isolated, remote and harsh conditions. Communities’ cultural memories, storytelling, traditional knowledge, interdependence and unwritten cultural norms that build resilience to sustain cultures that have limited interactions with the outside world. This thesis aims to investigate the consequences of transport infrastructure development, mainly of roads, on livelihood strategies of isolated communities in a tourism context in Gilgit- Baltistan, Pakistan. The thesis incorporates a review of literature of transport infrastructure development and livelihood security in reference to vulnerability, resilience and sustainability. Research gaps are identified in terms of transport infrastructure development and tourism, the Sustainable Livelihood Approach, resilience and sustainability. The fieldwork was undertaken using qualitative research methods. Ninety-eight participants were interviewed using open-ended semi-structured interview questions to get an in-depth understanding of livelihood systems, livelihood activities and transport infrastructure development within the tourism context. Gilgit-Baltistan is a disputed mountainous territory in the Asia Subcontinent whose ancient trade routes (silk routes) were severed during the geopolitical upheaval of the partition of the Indian Subcontinent in 1947. An alliance between Pakistan and China resulted in transport infrastructure development of the Karakorum Highway between 1958 and 1978, providing the only road access to the regions isolated communities. Karakoram Highway connects China with Pakistan through Gilgit-Baltistan. Gilgit-Baltistan is going through immense transport infrastructure development, including the China Pakistan Economic Corridor. The road infrastructure is expected to link China and other South Asian and Central Asian countries to the world and provide a direct link for Chinese goods to reach the Persian Gulf. China Pakistan ii Economic Corridor is part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative project, which aims to improve connectivity and cooperation between 69 Eurasian countries by investing in infrastructure development. Such an immense infrastructural development is expected to enhance the mobility of people, goods and services. In order to understand the impacts of transport infrastructure development, this thesis has analysed livelihood capital status at macro, and micro levels are examined over two time periods (pre-road and post-road). Results show that sustainable farming practices provided long-term resilience to these geographically isolated communities. Transport infrastructure development has been a significant factor to ensure access and has resulted in changes to social inclusion, socio-political structures and livelihood opportunities with a subsequent dependence upon tourism, imported consumer goods and a monetary economy as people divert valuable farmland to building developments and cash crop monocultures. Gilgit- Baltistan is vulnerable to frequent manmade and natural disasters, such as terrorism, earthquakes and landslides. Shocks impact upon the livelihoods of those affiliated with tourism who are forced to revert to subsistence farming practices and alternative livelihood choices. The dependency on external resources and subsequent loss of the cultural memory and farming techniques has created a vulnerability to the unpredictable shocks and disasters that frequently close the singular access road. The thesis finally presents the ‘Livelihood Framework for Transport Infrastructure Development and Tourism (LF-TIDT)’ a guiding tool to understand the impacts of transport infrastructure development at micro and macro levels for tourism planning, policy formulation and implementation and management. Attention is drawn to the newly introduced ‘Location: a Meta Capital’ and its importance in terms of geographically isolated communities. The research also highlights that livelihood capitals are not equally essential to achieve sustainable and resilient livelihood outcomes. Key Words: Transport Infrastructure Development, Livelihood Strategies, Tourism, Isolated Communities, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan iii Acknowledgements A PhD is considered to be a solo journey that entails great sacrifices, distresses, surprises and rewards. It is a journey that teaches one to be resilient and learn from a wide range of experiences. My PhD journey involved the support, encouragement, cooperation, assistance, guidance and understanding of many people who helped me complete this journey. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Dr David Fisher and Dr Stephen Espiner, for their patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. Their guidance, comments and feedback on countless drafts of chapters taught me a great deal and helped me in all aspects of research and writing of this thesis. I am grateful to have them as my supervisors. I would also like to thank my advisors, Professor David Simmons and Associate Professor Tracy Berno, for their insightful comments and feedback in shaping my thesis. In short, I could not have imagined having better supervisors, mentors and advisors for my PhD study. Besides, I would like to thank Roslyn Kerr, Emma Stewart, and Koji Kobayashi for their support, mentoring and advice in understanding Lincoln University academic culture and research. I want to thank Lincoln University administrative staff, especially Julie Ward, Douglas Broughton, Alyson Gardner, Debbie Park, Myra Manson, for their support and assistance in matters related to administration. Special thanks go to my fieldwork facilitators Mohammad Taqi, Asgar Hussain, Tariq Ali, Ashiq Faraz, Basharat Ali, Ali Askole, Imtiaz Hussain, Abdul Wajid and Ishtiaq Hussain for helping me during my field research. Without their precious support and guidance, it would not have been possible to complete my fieldwork on time. I would also like to thank my brothers Irshad Husain and Dildar Hussain and my cousin Rahman Shan for his guidance and assistance during fieldwork. I always felt that when I needed help, I could count on them. I thank my colleagues Walter Lewthwaite, Richard Moreham, Trudi Cameron, and Julie Clark (informal PhD thesis writing group) for your extraordinary support and simultaneous discussions on various topics which helped me in refining my thoughts during thesis writing processes. I would also like to thank my friends at Forbes 5, especially Yaa Mawufemor Akubiya, Zohreh Karaminejad, Mohammad Shoeb, Ashley Rudkevitch and Tilak Raj, who were always there to remind me that life does exist outside PhD. iv My sincere thank goes to my family members for their prayers and supporting me spiritually throughout writing this thesis and my life in general. I am full of gratitude to my sisters, who would listen to me when I needed to share my feelings. Thank you for understanding! I am thankful to my partner Marie Haley for showing particular interest in my research topic and sharing relevant literature. Thank you for your support and help with the preliminary editing of various chapters of my thesis and making yourself available whenever I needed help. Thank you! I want to thank all the participants of this research whose knowledge and understanding helped me in materialising this thesis. I am grateful to two individual participants who passed away while I was writing this thesis. Your insightful thoughts are documented in this thesis, and I am glad to have met you and learn from your experiences. Thank you! Finally, I would like to acknowledge Lincoln University for the Lincoln University Doctoral Scholarship. Special thanks to Morgan Foundation New Zealand for their encouragement and providing me with the scholarship to peruse my dream. Without the awards, it would have been impossible for me to complete such extensive research. Thank you! v List of Publications The PhD research resulted in number of publications including; a. Hussain, A., Fisher, D., & Espiner, S. (2017). Transport Infrastructure and Social Inclusion: A Case Study of