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By Maurice Cranston REFLECTIONS Few scholars deny the influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) on modern Western ideas, from Marxism to educa- tional theory, even as arguments persist over exactly what he gave us. Part of the problem comes from Rousseau's style. Be- lieving himself incapable of cold, systematic thought, he relied on personal insight, intuition, and the powerful "impression of the moment." Critics accused him of inconsistency. But the Geneva-born writer who conceived both the "noble savage" and the "social contract" insisted upon the underlying unity of his work. Here, political philosopher Maurice Cranston agrees, as he describes Rousseau's life and two of his major preoccupa- tions-music and civil society. by Maurice Cranston Rousseau has returned in recent acutely aware today of problems that years to public esteem. Between the Rousseau in the 18th century was two World Wars, he was condemned almost alone in discerning. by Right and Left alike, seen as the This renewed popularity has its forerunner at once of fascism and of negative aspect: There is a danger of communism, an enemy of science Rousseau's being transformed again and of reason, responsible for both from a philosopher into an ideo- the excesses of romanticism and the logue, the prophet of the alienated, horrors of the French Revolution. the inspiration of revolutionary But fashions change, in philosophy yearnings. Ironically, this is just the as in clothes, and events have con- impact that Rousseau wished not to spired to make many of the main have. He sought not to propel men themes of Rousseau's writings dis- forward to revolution but to urge turbingly topical. them to retrace their steps and to re- The invention of nuclear weapons cover the moral virtues that had has undermined faith in the benevo- been valued in the ancient world. lence of science; the pollution of na- Rousseau was born in Geneva-the ture by industry has made many city of John Calvin - in 1712; his people question the benefits of mother having died after his birth, technology; the enlargement of bu- he was brought up by his father to reaucracy has thwarted men's hopes believe that the city of his birth was a of participatory democracy. We are republic as splendid as ancient The Wilson QuarterlyINew Year's 1983 REFLECTIONS: ROUSSEAU Rome, and that it was surrounded by Warens, who not only provided him decadent kingdoms. with a refuge in her home, and em- Rousseau senior had an equally ployment as her steward, but also glorious image of his own im- furthered his education so that the portance. After marrying above his boy who had arrived on her door- modest station as a watchmaker, he step as a stammering, unschooled was led into trouble with the civil apprentice developed into a phil- authorities by brandishing the sword osopher, a man of letters, and a that his upper-class pretensions composer, and, what is more, into prompted him to wear, and he had to one who was able to propel philoso- leave Geneva for good. The boy phy and the arts into new channels. Rousseau remained behind in The Madame de Warens who thus Geneva for six years as a poor rela- transformed the adventurer into tion of his dead mother's family, pa- a philosopher was herself an tronized and humiliated until he, adventuress. A Swiss convert to too, at the age of 16 fled to live the Catholicism, she had stripped her life of an adventurer, and a Catholic aristocratic husband of his money convert, in the decadent kingdoms before fleeing to the kingdom of Sar- his father had taught him to despise. dinia with the gardener's son to set He was fortunate in finding in An- herself up in Annecy as a missionary, necy, in the kingdom of Sardinia, a persuading young Protestants to benefactress named Madame de obey Rome. A portrait of Rousseau painted in 1766 by Allan Ramsay for English philosopher David Hume. When the two philosophers later quarreled, Rousseau complained that the painting made him look like "a Cyclops." The Wilson QuurrerhlNew Year's 1983 147 REFLECTIONS: ROUSSEAU Her morals distressed Rousseau, ress in technology, art, commerce, even when he slept with her, but she and industry. "Science will save us" had remarkable taste, intelligence, was the motto not only of Diderot and energy, and she brought out in but of all the philosophes who domi- him just the talents needed to con- nated the Enlightenment. quer Paris at the time when Voltaire had made radical ideas fashionable. Civilization's Discontents Rousseau reached Paris at the age But it was a motto with which of 30, and he quickly rose to fame as Rousseau could not remain comfort- a member of that group of intellec- able. At the age of 37, while walking tuals who are known as the philo- to Vincennes to visit Diderot (who sophes and who were reforming, had been imprisoned on charges of iconoclastic pamphleteers as much irreligion), Rousseau had what he as they were metaphysicians. called an "illumination." Rousseau says it came to him in a From Idol to Hermit terrible flash that the arts and sci- Rousseau, the most unconven- ences had corrupted-not improved tional of them all in his thinking, and - men's morals, and he promptly the most forceful and eloquent in his lost all faith in progress. He went on style of writing, was soon the most to write his first important work, the conspicuous. His music, full of Discourse on the Arts and Sciences novelty, attracted the admiration of (1749), in which he argued that the King and court; his writings, full of history of culture had been a history daring, made him the idol of the sa- of decay. lons. But something in his Calvinist This Discourse is by no means blood rejected worldly glory, so that Rousseau's best work, but its central as soon as he won it, he began in- theme was to inform almost every- creasingly to retreat from society thing else he wrote. Throughout his into an almost hermit-like life with life, he kept coming back to the idea his illiterate mistress, Therese Le that man is good by nature but has Vasseur, whose five children (whom been corrupted by society and civili- he believed to be his) he dispatched zation. Rousseau did not mean that at their birth to an orphanage. society and civilization were inher- The society that Rousseau at- ently bad but rather that both had tempted to reject, like the larger taken a wrong direction and become world of 18th-century Europe, was a harmful as they had become more progressive one. The great Ency- advanced and sophisticated. clopidie, which Rousseau's best This idea in itself was not unfamil- friend Denis Diderot edited, and for iar. Many Christians, especially which he himself wrote many arti- Catholics, deplored the direction cles, was fully and enthusiastically that European culture had taken committed to the doctrine of prog- since the Middle Ages. Disapproving Maurice Cranston, 62, is professor of political science at the London School of Economics and a former Wilson Center Guest Scholar. Born in London, he was educated at Birkbeck College and Oxford. Among the many books he has written or edited are John Locke (1957), John Stuart Mill (1962), and Philosophy and Language (1970). The first volume of his biography of Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (Norton),will appear this winter. The Wilson Quarte+/New Year's 1983 148 REFLECTIONS: ROUSSEAU Francois-Louise de La Tour, Baronne de Warens (1699-1 769), was 29 when she first took in the 16-year-old Rousseau. Only two years before their meeting, she had converted to Catholicism and left her husband. The oil portrait was executed around 1730; the artist is unknown. of modernity -the Renaissance, the from both the progressives and the Reformation, and the rise of science reactionaries. Even so, he remained -they shared the hostility toward for several years after the publica- progress that Rousseau expressed, tion of his first Discourse a close col- though very few shared his belief laborator with Diderot, and one of that man is naturally good. the most active contributors to suc- But it was just his belief in natural cessive volumes of the Encyclopidie. goodness that Rousseau regarded as Rousseau's specialty in the Ency- the most important part of his argu- clopkdie was music. It was in this ment. He may well have received the sphere that he first established his inspiration for it from Madame de influence as a reformer, although Warens, for although that unusual scholars seem to have forgotten the woman had become a communicant importance his musical writings had of the Catholic Church, she trans- at the time they were published. mitted to Rousseau much of the sen- Rousseau's Confessions (1782) con- timental optimism about human tains a paragraph that has puzzled nature she had learned from mysti- many readers: "In 1753, the parle- cal German Pietists who had taught ment of Paris had just been exiled by her as a child. the King; unrest at its height; all the At all events, this idea of man's signs pointed to an early uprising. natural goodness, as Rousseau de- My Letter on French Music was pub- veloped it, set him even further apart lished, and all other quarrels were The Wilson QuarterlyINew Year's 1983 REFLECTIONS: ROUSSEAU immediately forgotten. No one gone into a political rebellion? thought of anything but the danger Others besides Rousseau believed it. to French music, and the only upris- Louis Sebastien Mercier in his Ta- ing that took place was against me.
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