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The New Cambridge Modern History THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY VOLUME VI THE RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA 1688-1715/25 EDITED BY J.S.BROMLEY CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1970 CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION By J. S. BROMLEY, Professor of Modern History in the University of Southampton Periodization and changes in political geography page 1-2 The Baltic and the Levant 2-3 Russia and Europe 3 The Northern kingdoms and the Western powers 3-4 The Habsburgs between East and West 4-6 Decline of the Ottoman empire 6-7 Hungary and the Habsburg lands 7-8 Rivalries in Spain; the Bourbon rule 8-9 Rivalries in Italy. ........ 9-10 The Mediterranean 10-11 Rivalries in America n-12 War and peace in North America 12-14 The balance of trade; merchants and governments 14-15 World trading; the South Sea and Canton 15 Britain and the Peace of Utrecht 16-17 William Ill's European aims 17-18 Strategy in western Europe 18-19 Privateering war 19-20 The strain on manpower 20 Mercenaries and conscripts 20-1 Care of soldiers 21 Upkeep of navies 21-2 The strain on finance 22-3 Profiteers and projectors 23-4 Tensions in Church and State 24-5 Significance of the English Revolution of 1688 25-6 Louis XIV: the question of 'decline' 26-8 Louis XIV: domestic legacy in European perspective 28-9 Economic distress; climate and harvests 29-30 Social distress; mobility of populations 30-1 Town and country 31 Aristocratic and middle-class tastes 31-3 The scientific movement 33-5 Europe and the world overseas 35-6 va CONTENTS CHAPTER II THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENTIFIC IDEAS, 1688-1751 By A. C. CROMBIE, Senior Lecturer in the History of Science in the University of Oxford and MICHAEL HOSKIN, Lecturer in the History of Science in the University of Cambridge Change in scientific movement page 37 The Royal Society and the Académie des Sciences 3$ The Royal Society at home and abroad 38-40 The Académie des Sciences and the State 40-2 Societies in other countries 42 Teaching and research 4^-3 Science in the universities 43~4 The new German universities 44~5 Diffusion of scientific knowledge: journals and other publications . 45-7 Emphasis on measurement; Political Arithmetic 47-8 An aggregate of autonomous movements ... .... 48 Advances in mechanics and related branches of mathematics .... 49 The Newtonian-Cartesian debate 49-5° Newtonian physics attacked by Leibniz and Berkeley 50-1 Spread of Newtonian ideas 5i~2 Astronomy; optics; sound 52~3 Chemistry: * phlogiston* 53~4 Improvement in instruments and apparatus 54~5 The calculus: Newton and Leibniz 55 Biological sciences in search of theoretical principles 55~6 Collection and classification in botany and zoology 56-8 Ray and Tournefort 58 The'sovereign order'of Linnaeus 58-60 Geology: fossils and the Flood 60-1 Evolutionary ideas; Maupertuis, Buffon, and the microscope .... 62-4 Rival theories of reproduction and heredity 64-5 Physiological experiment and its competing models: Reaumur, Hales, Boerhaave and von Haller 65-7 Technology 67 Problem of longitude at sea 67-8 The New Husbandry 68-9 Organization of manpower 69 Inventions . 69-70 Science and society: the Scientific revolution* 70-1 CHAPTER III CULTURAL CHANGE IN WESTERN EUROPE I. TENDENCIES IN THOUGHT AND LITERATURE By W. H. BARBER, Professor of French Literature in the University of London Anglo-French co-dominance 72 Spain and Italy 72-3 viii CONTENTS Germany page 73-4 The Netherlands ... 74~5 Russia 75 The reading public 75-6 Academies and journals 76 The salon and the coffee-house ... 7^-7 International contacts 77-8 Publication and distribution of books 78 Orthodox literary canons 78 Classical standards in England 79 French literature: ancients and moderns 79 'Reason' 8o-i Aristocratic conceptions . 81-2 Effect of rationalist attitude 82-3 Effect of scientific thought 83-4 The growing prestige of science .........· 84-5 The religious motive in popular science ........ 85 Science and metaphysics 85-6 Historical scholarship . 86-7 Scepticism 88 Biblical criticism 88-9 Restoration comedy of manners . 89-90 The prose portrait 90-1 Towards the novel 91-2 The philosophical approach 92~3 Fenelon 93 The periodical essay 93~4 French drama 94-5 Contacts with the wider world 95 Narratives of travel 95-6 Oriental studies ..... 9^-7 The invented travel narratives 97-8 Contacts with non-Christian religions 98^9 The Noble Savage . 99~ioo Repercussions on political thought 100-1 2. MUSIC, 1661-1752 By FREDERICK W. STERNFELD, Fellow of Exeter College and Lecturer in Music in the University of Oxford Early histories of music 101-2 Later histories 102-3 Absolute and programmatic music 103-4 Public concerts 104-5 Music printing and publishing 105 Opera at the court of France; Lully's tragedies lyriques 105-7 Handel in London; oratorio 107-8 Lully's influence 108-9 The opera at Venice and Naples 109 The orchestra no The libretto: Zeno and Metastasio 110-12 Alessandro Scarlatti U2-13 ix CONTENTS Purcell page u l-H English attitudes to opera * _6 Purely instrumental compositions: overtures and concertos . · n5 ijj Johann Sebastian Bach 116-18 CHAPTER IV RELIGION AND THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE By THE REVEREND J. MCMANNERS, Professor of History in the University of Leicester The threat of Catholic domination · ll9~20 Growth of the spirit of toleration I20~I Isolation of Geneva . · · I2I~2 Religious freedom in Holland 122-3 Limits of toleration in England I23 'Reasonable'religion I24 The right to resist tyranny 124-6 The English bishops 12β Church and State in England 126-7 Missionary enterprise: Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic I28 Jesuit, Capuchin and Franciscan in the New World 128-9 The Far East; the Jesuits at Peking and the Propaganda in Rome . 129-30 Relations between the papacy and rulers; papal elections ..... 130-1 Regalism in Spain and the Spanish Indies *3* Gallican liberties *3i~2 Jansenism at Port-Royal T32 Unigenitus 132-3 Political Jansenism 133-4 • Jansenists* outside France; the Church of Utrecht I34-6 Intellectual tensions 136-7 A crisis within Christianity 137-8 Reason and revelation: scepticism and fideism 138-9 •Natural'morality 139 Biblical criticism *4P Oecumenical scholarship • 140-1 Bossuet 141 Religion and Science: the Creation 141-2 Predestination 142-3 The problem of evil 143-4 Religion and the arts 144-5 Ethical stereotypes; the 'Christian hero' in England 145-6 The 'honnête homme* in France J46-7 Madame Guyon and the conference of Issy : the Quietist controversy ... 147 Bossuet and Fenelon I47~9 Quietism and Quakerism 149-50 Faith and Works: German Pietism 150-1 Pietism and education 151 The State and moral standards in England . 151-2 Christian principles in the economic world: Baxter and Steele .... 152-3 Compromises • 153 X CONTENTS CHAPTER V INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EUROPE By ANDREW LOSSKY, Professor of History in the University of California, Los Angeles Tripartite division of Europe page 154-5 Britain in Europe 155 The principle of 'balance of power* and its origins 155-7 Applications of the principle; the northern balance 157-8 South-eastern Europe 158-9 Equilibrium in Italy: the place of Savoy in 1713 159 The problem of the Spanish monarchy 159 France and Spain * 159-60 France and the Italian States . 160 France and the Netherlands 160-1 Louis XIV and the papacy 161-2 William III and the Mediterranean 162 The Austrian Habsburgs in Italy 162-3 Diplomatic rivalries at Turin and Lisbon 163-4 Humiliations of the papacy 164 Consequences of Italian disequilibrium 165 The western powers and the German princes 165-6 The Emperor's influence 166 Bavaria and Cologne: the Wittelsbachs 167 Effects on the structure of the Empire 167 'Europe* and 'Christendom' 167-8 Influence of dynastic ties 168-9 Legitimist sentiment and aid to rebels 169 The hierarchy of States; diplomatic etiquette 169-70 Methods of negotiation 170-1 Difficulties of coalitions and of mediation 171-2 The art of diplomacy 172-3 International law and diplomatic procedure 173 Contraband and neutral rights I74~5 Conventions between belligerents 175 William Ill's control of foreign policy; Heinsius and Marlborough . 176-7 Vienna's delays 177 Louis XIV's methods and the development of the Affaires Etrangères. 177-8 Communications, codes and ciphers 178-9 Ambassadors, envoys and residents 179-80 The cost of being an ambassador 180-2 Collecting information: secret agents 182-3 'Gratifications'and subsidies 183-4 The efficacy of gifts and pensions much exaggerated 184-5 The protection of nationals: consuls 185-6 Increasing importance of commerce in diplomacy 186-7 Economic motives not decisive . 187 William ΙΠ and commercial interests 187-8 Religious motives in international affairs 188-9 Louis XIV as defender of the Catholic faith 189 Louis XIV and William III compared: basic assumptions and views of the world 190-1 William and 'the liberty of all Europe' 192 xi CONTENTS CHAPTER VI THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION By E. S. DE BEER, C.B.E., D.LITT., F.B.A. Significance of English constitutional dispute in European politics . page 193 Charles II and the House of Commons; the borough charters .... 193-4 Character of James Π 194-5 Changes of ministers *95 James II and Louis XIV 195-6 The Parliament of 1685; situation of the English Catholics 196 Army commissions granted to Catholics 196 The standing army enlarged 197 James II and the Church of England 197-8 James II and William of Orange 198 Dijkvelt's embassy to England, 1687 198-9 The Declaration of Indulgence of April 1687 199 Preparations for a new parliament 199 William's predicament and decision to invade 200 The Seven Bishops acquitted .
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