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Ways of the World a Global History with S chapter twenty- two The End of Empire The Global South on the Global Stage 1914–present Toward Freedom: Struggles for “During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the Independence African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have The End of Empire in World History Explaining African and Asian fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a Independence democratic and free society in which all persons live together in har- Comparing Freedom Struggles mony and with equal opportunity. It is an ideal which I hope to live The Case of India: Ending British Rule for and to achieve. But, if need be, it is an ideal for which I am pre- The Case of South Africa: Ending 1 Apartheid pared to die.” Experiments with Freedom Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s nationalist leader, frst uttered Experiments in Political Order: Party, these words in 1964 at his trial for treason, sabotage, and conspiracy Army, and the Fate of Democracy to overthrow the apartheid government of his country. Convicted of Experiments in Economic Development: Changing Priorities, Varying Outcomes those charges, he spent the next twenty-seven years in prison, some- Experiments with Culture: The Role of times working at hard labor in a stone quarry. Often the foor was Islam in Turkey and Iran his bed, and a bucket was his toilet. For many years, he was allowed Reflections: History in the Middle of one visitor a year for thirty minutes and permitted to write and re- the Stream Portrait: Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Muslim ceive one letter every six months. When he was fnally released from Pacifist prison in 1990 under growing domestic and international pressure, Considering the Evidence he concluded his frst speech as a free person with the words origi- Documents: Contending for Islam nally spoken at his trial. Four years later, in 1994, South Afr ica held Visual Sources: Representing Independence its frst election in which blacks and whites alike were able to vote. The outcome of that election made Mandela the country’s frst black African president, and it linked South Africa to dozens of other coun- tries all across Africa and Asia that had thrown of European rule or the control of white settlers during the second half of the twentieth century. variously called the struggle for independence or decoloni- zation, that process carried an immense signifcance for the history Independence and Development: In the eyes of most Asians and Africans, the struggle for national independence from European colonial rule was but a prelude to and prerequisite for the even greater struggle for modern develop- ment, symbolized here by some students in a computer lab of a small technical college. (© Anna Kari/In Pictures/Corbis) 1087 1088 part 6 / the most recent century, 1914–2012 of the twentieth century. It marked a dramatic change in the world’s political archi- tecture, as nation-states triumphed over the empires that had structured much of the world’s political life in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It mobilized mil- lions of people, thrusting them into political activity and sometimes into violence and warfare. Decolonization signaled the declining legitimacy of both empire and race as a credible basis for political or social life. It promised not only national freedom but also personal dignity, abundance, and opportunity. What followed in the decades after independence was equally signifcant. Politi- cal, economic, and cultural experiments proliferated across these newly independent nations, which faced enormous challenges: the legacies of empire; their own deep divi- sions of language, ethnicity, religion, and class; their rapidly growing numbers; the competing demands of the capitalist West and the communist East; the difcult tasks of simultaneously building modern economies, stable politics, SEEKING THE MAIN POINT and coherent nations; and all of this in a world still shaped by the powerful economies and armies of the wealthy, already indus- In what ways did the experience of the “global trialized nations. The emergence of these new nations onto the south” during the past century register on the larger stage of world history? world stage as independent and assertive actors has been a distin- guishing feature of world history in this most recent century. Toward Freedom: Struggles for Independence In 1900, European colonial empires in Africa and Asia appeared as permanent features of the world’s political landscape. Well before the end of the twentieth century, they were gone. The frst major breakthroughs occurred in Asia and the Middle East in the late 1940s, when the Philippines, India, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel achieved independence. The period from the mid-1950s through the mid- 1970s was the age of African independence as colony after colony, more than ffty in total, emerged into what was then seen as the bright light of freedom. The End of Empire in World History ■ Comparison At one level, this vast process was but the latest case of imperial dissolution, a fate that What was distinctive had overtaken earlier empires, including those of the Assyrians, Romans, Arabs, and about the end of Europe’s Mongols. But never before had the end of empire been so associated with the mobili- African and Asian empires zation of the masses around a nationalist ideology; nor had these earlier cases generated compared to other cases of imperial disintegration? a plethora of nation-states, each claiming an equal place in a world of nation-states. More comparable perhaps was that frst decolonization, in which the European colo- nies in the Americas threw of British, French, Spanish, or Portuguese rule during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (see Chapter 16). Like their earlier coun- terparts, the new nations of the twentieth century claimed an international status equivalent to that of their former rulers. In the Americas, however, many of the colo- nized people were themselves of European origin, sharing much of their culture with their colonial rulers. In that respect, the African and Asian struggles of the twentieth century were very diferent, for they not only asserted political independence but also chapter 22 / the end of empire: the global south on the global stage, 1914–present 1089 A Map of Time 1915 Gandhi returns to India from South Africa 1923–1938 Turkey’s secular modernization initiated under Kemal Ataturk 1928 Muslim Brotherhood established in Egypt 1947 Independence of India/Pakistan 1948 Establishment of state of Israel; apartheid formally established in South Africa 1949 Independence of Indonesia; communist victory in China 1955 Bandung Conference of nonaligned nations 1957–1975 Independence of African countries 1959 Cuban revolution 1960–1970s Wave of military coups in Africa and Latin America 1967 Six-day Arab/Israeli war 1973 OPEC oil embargo 1979 Revolution in Iran 1980s–1990s Growth of democratic movements and governments in Africa and Latin America 1994 End of apartheid in South Africa; genocide in Rwanda 2011 Arab Spring in the Middle East afrmed the vitality of their cultures, which had been submerged and denigrated dur- ing the colonial era. The twentieth century witnessed the demise of many empires. The Austrian and Ottoman empires collapsed following World War I, giving rise to a number of new states in Europe and the Middle East. The Russian Empire also unraveled, although it was soon reassembled under the auspices of the Soviet Union. World War II ended the German and Japanese empires. African and Asian movements for independence shared with these other end-of-empire stories the ideal of national self-determination. This novel idea — that humankind was naturally divided into distinct peoples or na- tions, each of which deserved an independent state of its own — was loudly proclaimed by the winning side of both world wars. It gained an Afro-Asian following in the twentieth century and rendered empire illegitimate in the eyes of growing numbers of people. Empires without territory, such as the powerful infuence that the United States exercised in Latin America, likewise came under attack from highly nationalist gov- ernments. An intrusive U.S. presence was certainly one factor stimulating the Mexi- can Revolution, which began in 1910. One of the outcomes of that upheaval was 1090 part 6 / the most recent century, 1914–2012 ITALY SOVIET NORTH PORTUGAL SPAIN UNION KOREA TURKEY 1948 MALTA 1964 SOUTH CYPRUS 1960 SYRIA CHINA KOREA From G.B. 1944 MOROCCO TUNISIA LEBANON 1944 IRAQ AFGHANISTAN 1948 JAPAN 1957 1932 IRAN 1956 ISRAEL 1948 JORDAN 1946 ALGERIA PAKISTAN WESTERN 1962 LIBYA KUWAIT 1961 SAHARA 1951 EGYPT 1947 (Morocco) 1975 1922 BAHRAIN 1971 From Spain QATAR 1971 INDIA UNITED ARAB 1947 MYANMAR PACIFIC MAURITANIA EMIRATES 1971 (BURMA) LAOS NORTH VIETNAM 1960 MALI NIGER 1949 1954 OCEAN 1960 Unified 1975 SENEGAL GAMBIA 1960 CHAD YEMEN P.D.R. OF YEMEN 1967 PAKISTAN 1947 1960 SUDAN 1965 BURKINA BENIN 1960 BANGLADESH 1973 CAMBODIA SOUTH VIETNAM 1956 DJIBOUTI 1977 1954 GUINEA FASO 1960 1954 PHILIPPINES GUINEA- 1960 1958 IVORY NIGERIA 1946 BISSAU 1960 CENTRAL ETHIOPIA 1974 COAST AFR. REP. 1941 BRUNEI 1984 1960 CAMEROON 1960 SIERRA UGANDA SRI LANKA From Great Britain PAPUA TOGO 1960 SOMALIA MALAYSIA 1963 LEONE GHANA DEMOCRATIC 1962 1960 INDIAN (CEYLON) NEW GUINEA 1961 1960 REP. OF CONGO KENYA 1948 1975 LIBERIA1957 GABON SINGAPORE 1965 EQUATORIAL 1960 1960 1963 OCEAN 1820s GUINEA BURUNDI 1962 1968 From Spain RWANDA 1962 TANZANIA INDONESIA 1949 1964 REPUBLIC OF CONGO 1960 Year of independence 1960 ANGOLA MALAWI EAST TIMOR 1999 1975 ZAMBIA Belgium From Indonesia 1964 1964 ATLANTIC ZIMBABWE MADAGASCAR France OCEAN NAMIBIA 1985 1980 1960 Great Britain From South Africa BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE MAURITIUS 1966 1974 1968 From Great Britain Italy SOUTH SWAZILAND 1968 Netherlands AFRICA (Republic 1961; LESOTHO 1966 Portugal Black majority rule, 1994) United States 0 1,000 2,000 miles Other 0 1,000 2,000 kilometers Map 22.1 The End of the nationalization in 1937 of Mexico’s oil industry, much of which was owned by Empire in Africa and Asia American and British investors.
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