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Bioethics Library The Joseph and Rose Kennedy Institute of Box 571212, Georgetown University Washington, DC 20057-1212 202-687-3885; fax: 202-687-8089 [email protected] http://bioethics.georgetown.edu

Animals in Research and S Education: Ethical Issues

Laura Jane Bishop C Anita Lonnes Nolen Revised March, 2001 O Scientific enquiry is inexorably tied to experimentation in the popular imagination and history. Many, if not most, of the spectacular innovations in the medical understanding and treatment of today’s human maladies have been based on research using . P However, the use of animals in research and experimentation has been debated, defended, and protested by both individuals and organizations at various levels. Responses range from personal lifestyle decisions and fervent philosophical treatises to strident arguments, violent E demonstrations, and direct action. The continuum of attitudes about animals and the human relationship with animals spans the range between those who support no regulation of the human use of animals and those who advocate absolute from all human use (see II, Orlans N 1993, p. 22). History O The first recorded experimentation on animals occurred in ancient Rome, but not until the Renaissance did scholars begin serious study of how the body works. (1452-1519) and other artists and anatomists pursued anatomical investigations of muscle and bone structure. T William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered the circulation of the blood via his experiments on live . During this period, much live animal experimentation both in England and France was based on the view of French René Descartes (1596-1650) that animals are incapable E of feeling . (1748-1832), the English utilitarian philosopher, thought otherwise. In his “Introduction to the of 40 Morals and Legislation” in 1789, Bentham declared, “The question is not can they reason? Nor, can they talk, but can they advocates, laypersons, scientists, lawmakers, and suffer.” Despite Bentham and others, the belief animals themselves, have created that animals could not perceive pain persisted in many quarters into the twentieth century. Nineteenth century French physiologist Claude TABLE OF CONTENTS Bernard (1813-1878)–and his teacher, François Introduction...... 1 Magendie (1783-1855)–conducted wide-ranging I. General Resources animal experiments including surgery, use of A. Databases...... 5 drugs, and removal of body parts from many species. Bernard argued that while no amount of B. Websites, Journals, Books...... 6 benefit could justify any harm to human research II. Philosophical and Religious subjects, even extreme harm and pain for animal Perspectives...... 8 research subjects could be justified by the III. Regulating Animal Experimentation. . . . . 12 potential benefit to human beings. Although he IV. Special Topics did use anesthetics in his work after their A. Genetic Manipulation of Animals. . . . . 12 discovery in 1847, even Bernard’s later work was B. Great Apes...... 14 controversial because of the numbers of animals used and the repetitive nature of his research. The C. Rats, Mice, and ...... 16 experiments of Magendie and Bernard both laid D. Education and the Use of the foundations for animal experimentation as a Animals...... 16 practice for scientific advance and contributed in E. ...... 17 large measure to the emergence of the anti- vivisection movement. Public protests over animal experiments conducted in France and the fear that the interesting, complicated, and complex these might come to England led to the passage of history of animal and over the first controlling animal experimentation, the last several decades. the “1876 Act” in England. This history and the dynamic tension between scientific inquiry and public concern set the stage Current Statistics for the activism and scholarship of the twentieth century. Worldwide, approximately 35 million animals are used in research each year; the United States Since the 1960s, the amount of attention, alone uses 12 million animals annually--more than activism, and scholarship related to animal use has any other country. In 1998, the official number of increased at a rapid pace. The modern animal research animals recorded in the United States protection movement, led by the Australian was 1,213,814. However, this number must be philosopher in his book, Animal increased tenfold to account for laboratory rats, Liberation (II, 1975), based its advocacy on mice, and birds, which comprise about 90 percent animals’ ability to experience pain and of all animals used in research, but are not (Bentham’s argument). Singer’s book and other covered by the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), and investigations into animal research, such as LIFE therefore, are not counted. The most frequently magazine’s photojournalism piece on theft, used species in the United States is mice, followed animal cruelty, and animal experimentation by rats, , guinea pigs, pigs, , , (Concentration Camps for Dogs. LIFE (4 primates, and . The annual Animal Welfare February 1966), pp. 22-29), brought the use of report prepared by the U.S. Department of animals in research, testing, and education to the Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection attention of the general public. Activists, Service contains annual statistics for animals used

2 in U.S. research (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/ agencies. The full text of these and other publications.html). Animal research data for other regulations is available online at: http: countries may be found at national web sites, but //www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislat/awicregs.htm. reporting requirements vary around the globe and generally emanate from regulations governing the The PHS regulations, which are rooted in the use and treatment of animals in research. 1963 standards for animal care and use developed Nowadays, the purpose of most experiments is to by scientists gathered by the Institute of help treat human disease; a small amount of Laboratory Animals Resources of the National experimentation involving animal pain or is Research Council and in the 1971 guidelines for educational purposes. Although some issued by the National Institutes of Health, were countries still conduct unregulated animal first published in 1973 and revised in 1979 and research, more than 20 countries have specific 1986. Although the policies at first were voluntary legislation governing the humane use of animals and addressed only standards for animal in biomedical research and education. These husbandry, under the Health Research Extension include the U.S., Canada, all countries in the Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-158), the guidelines European Union, Australia and New Zealand, and became law and now describe requirements for Japan. Much of this legislation is more stringent experimental animal procedures conducted by all than that in the U.S. Typical legislation requires federal agencies. NIH, a branch of the PHS, has adequate housing conditions, controls on animal been responsible for administering federal grants pain, and critical prior review of experimental for animal experiments since 1946. The PHS protocols. Some countries, such as the U.S., also guidelines established the oversight system of include provisions for the use of animal Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees alternatives (see the 3 R’s below), and a few (IACUCs) to evaluate research protocols, review require some explicit ethical justification for the care programs and inspect laboratory facilities, use of animals in harmful experiments. Several assess and educate laboratory personnel, and websites list international animal welfare investigate complaints about the misuse or legislation and guidelines, along with explanations mistreatment of animals. ( s e e h t t p : / / a l t w e b . j h s p h . e d u / science/regs/reg.htm). The Animal Welfare Act, first adopted in 1966 as a result of mounting public concern about animal research, and amended in 1970, 1976, 1985, and Main Features of U.S. Legislation 1990, compels registration of animal research facilities with the USDA, sets minimum standards In the United States, the use of animals in for the general and veterinary care of animals used biomedical research is regulated by two federal in research, requires inspections of laboratory laws, the Service Guide for the Care facilities, and adopts the use of local IACUCs to and Use of Laboratory Animals, administered by review research protocols for compliance with the Office for Laboratory Animal Welfare of the regulations governing research and measures to National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the promote animal welfare. At first, the law (Public Animal Welfare Act, administered by the 89-544) regulated the humane treatment in and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of research of only six species: dogs, cats, hamsters, the United States Department of Agriculture guinea pigs, rabbits, and nonhuman primates. The (USDA). The AWA controls research involving 1970 amendment authorized the Secretary of only the specifically named animal species, while Agriculture to include additional warm-blooded the Public Health Service (PHS) guidelines animals within its purview, and gave the regulate any animal research supported by federal legislation its current name. As a result of this funds—e.g., animal research in all federal amendment, research on farm animals is governed

3 by the AWA. Other amendments to the AWA techniques used in order to decrease the incidence required the use of pain-relieving drugs (Improved or amount of animal pain and distress. Russell and Standards for Laboratory Animals Act of 1985), Burch believed that following the 3 R’s would adopted the IACUC oversight system, and result in more ethical and humane treatment of extended coverage to include college and animals. These concepts have been adopted by a university student work with animals. The U.S. number of scientists and many animal advocacy National Agricultural Library established the organizations and have been written into the laws Animal Welfare Information Center in 1986 to of several countries. serve as a resource and education center about animal welfare and the AWA. Animals in Education One difficulty with this present situation is that animal research conducted by pharmaceutical Another area in which animal alternatives are companies or firms often falls sought is in education. At the graduate or outside the federal regulations. Because it neither professional level, experimentation or surgery on involves named species nor is supported by live animals (vivisection) raises a host of concerns federal funds, this research is not governed by the about unnecessary pain and suffering and the requirements of law. This fact is one of the main unethical use of animals. At some veterinary and driving forces behind the efforts to include rats, medical schools, students have refused to do mice, and birds under the AWA. A lawsuit filed nontherapeutic surgery on healthy animals or to against the USDA in 1998, ARDF v. Glickman kill them. Several veterinary schools now teach (U.S. Secretary of Agriculture), eventually won animal surgery by using only animals that are in coverage of those species when it was settled out need of surgery. Similarly, many medical schools of court in September 2000. However, although have eliminated their live-animal labs or have the USDA is now ready to draft regulations, the reduced the number of healthy animals they use FY 2001 Congressional appropriations bill for surgical practice. At the middle, secondary, specifically states that no USDA monies can be and college levels, the major focus has been to used for this purpose, thereby effectively delaying eliminate all experiments that involve infliction of any further action. pain on live vertebrate animals and to reduce or eliminate animal dissection, which became a regular part of the American high school The “3 R’s” curriculum in the 1920s, and was common in U.S. colleges as early as the late 1800s (IV. D., In recent years, the concern within the scientific Balcombe 2000). Animal dissection raises many community and in the general public over the use ethical and environmental concerns: the practice of nonhuman animal subjects in research and involves the unnecessary killing of animals; education has taken focus and direction from the undermines conservation efforts; ignores welfare 1959 book, The Principles of Humane standards during animal capture, preparation, and Experimental Technique by W. M. S. Russell and shipping; releases formaldehyde into the R. L. Burch, which laid out the concept of the environment; focuses on descriptive biology to the “Three R’s” for the first time, and thereby, detriment of creative scientific thinking and inspired the movement for alternatives to the use research; causes some students to abandon further of animals in biomedical research and testing. The science education or careers; and weakens the “Three R’s” are: replacement of conscious living respect for life and the humane treatment of animals with nonsentient animals or materials, animals. Justification for the use of dissection and reduction of the number of animals used in an vivisection in education may be lessened by experiment or procedure, and refinement of the Balcombe’s distinction that in education, animals

4 generally are used as a means to transfer existing body, to produce specific or hormones, to knowledge from one person (the teacher or test the toxicity of drugs or other interventions, instructor) to another (the student), either by and/or to improve growth and yields in demonstration or by direct experience, rather than agriculture. This type of genetic alteration goes as a method to advance existing knowledge. He beyond selective breeding for desired traits does acknowledge, though, that what students because it inserts genetic material foreign to the learn may enable them to advance human animal’s genome. One potential use for this knowledge in the future. Persons who support is to create animals with organs or dissection and vivisection argue that these t i s s u e s u i t a b l e f o r t r a n s p l a n t t o practices provide better quality education, offer —xenotransplantation. Nuclear transfer or the best preparation for scientific careers, and are other techniques can be used to clone animals justified if the animals are treated humanely. either to preserve a genetically altered animal or to create identical animal lines. Polly, a sheep Alternatives to the use of live or dead animals, created by PPL Therapeutics of Edinburgh, such as interactive 3-D computer models, video Scotland (who also created Dolly, the first cloned footage, and plastic life-size models, have been animal), was the first transgenic animal to be shown to be as effective as traditional methods. A cloned. Born in September 1997, her genome number of states have humane education laws that contained a human that would cause her to require teaching students about the important role produce alpha-1-antitrypsin, a human blood of animals and birds in the natural universe and used to treat cystic fibrosis, in her milk. teaching them that kind, just, and humane ANDi, the first genetically-altered primate was treatment and protection should apply to all born in January 2001. animals. Some states also have dissection choice legislation, which permits students to select Although this Scope Note focuses on animal use educational alternatives to dissection. Discussion in research and education, other areas also raise materials, alternative resource catalogues, and ethical concerns about and animal guidance on creating dissection choice policies welfare. These include the use of animals as are available from organizations such as the companions, in agriculture, in zoos, for Ethical Science and Education Coalition (ESEC). entertainment or sport, and the treatment of The role animals play in education now is just as and endangered species. This likely to include a featured role in courses on bibliography contains only a small portion of the , animal welfare, and animal rights at vast amount of materials available; more can be all educational levels and fields. found in the resources that have been included.

Genetic Manipulation of Animals Note: Included below are databases, Websites, print and online periodicals, and general books. Advances in have produced cloned The format of resource information is often animals (not covered in this Scope Note) and overlapping, so we have included all types of transgenic animals, in which there has been a general information in this one list. Annotations deliberate modification of the genome so that it have been omitted when information is readily contains foreign DNA. In transgenic animals, available to researchers with Internet access. recombinant DNA technology is used to make a Finally, these URLs were last accessed in January heritable or nonheritable modification so that the 2001. We regret that some addresses may be resulting animals, or their offspring, might be used changed before you use this document. to study the biology of genetic regulation and the influence of certain proteins or hormones in the I. General Resources

5 A. Databases org; offers AWI Quarterly online.

Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Animals’ Voice Online, bimonthly, online at Testing [CAAT]—http://caat.jhsph.edu http://www.animalsvoice.com This site is the home of Altweb—an international online clearinghouse of Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care alternatives resources— http://altweb.jhsph.edu. o f A n i m a l s i n R e s e a r c h a n d Teaching—[ANZCCART]; http://www.adelaide. National Reference Center for Bioethics edu.au/ANZCCART/; offers a quarterly (NRCBL), Kennedy Institute of newsletter online. Ethics— http://bioethics.georgetown.edu. To search the BIOETHICSLINE database of Bekoff, Marc, with Meaney, Carron A., eds. journal articles and other document types for Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal literature on: animal care committees, animal Welfare. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998. experimentation, animal organs, animal rights, 446 p. alternatives, or transgenic This collection of short essays covers many animals, enter the selected term from the above topics relating to animal welfare and the use of list in the “search query box” provided using the animals by humans, including “Laboratory following format: /*animal care committees Animal Use,” “Antivivisectionism,” (kw). BIOETHICSLINE and the other Internet “Alternatives to Animal Experiments,” and Grateful Med databases will not be available “Education and the Use of Animals.” An after June 2001. We encourage you to search appendix lists numerous organizations as and download the animal experimentation additional resources that can provide literature before then. After that time contact educational materials concerning animal rights NRCBL for assistance. and animal welfare.

To access citations to hundreds of books on: Bridging the Gap: Newsletter of The Great Ape animal rights, animal experimentation, or animal Project–International, full-text online at: production, search 22.1, 22.2, or 22.3, http://www.greatapeproject.org/newsletters/. respectively, as SUBJECTS in the GEORGE catalog (http://library.georgetown.edu/search/). Canadian Council on Animal Care. Ethics of Animal Investigation. Ottawa: The Council, 1989. [Online]. http://www.ccac.ca B. Websites, Journals, Books Donnelly, Strachan, and Nolan, Kathleen, eds. Animal Welfare, quarterly, Universities Federation Animals, Science and Ethics. Hastings Center f o r A n i ma l W e l f a r e ( U F A W ) a t Report. 20 (3, May/June), 1990. [Special http://www.ufaw.org.uk or http://journal@ufaw. Supplement]. 32 p. org.uk. This report discusses the moral status of animals; justification of animal experimentation; Animal Welfare Information Center [AWIC], animal suffering; policies and practices in using National Agricultural Library, United States animals for research and education; alternatives Department of Agriculture; http://www. nal. to animal use; and regulation and the role of usda.gov/awic/; offers the quarterly AWIC animal care and use committees. Bulletin online. Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Animal Welfare Institute; http://www.awionline. Experiments [FRAME] (United Kingdom);

6 http://www.frame-uk.demon.co.uk; publishes the [NCA]; http://prex.las.vet.uu.nl/nca/; publishes journal ATLA (Alternatives to Laboratory NCA Newsletter. Animals), bimonthly, partially available online. New Scientist, weekly, Reed Business Humane of the United States [HSUS]; I n f o r m a t i o n , o n l i n e a t http://www.hsus.org. http://www.newscientist.com.

Kraus, A. Lanny, and Renquist, David, eds. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals; Bioethics and the Use of Laboratory Animals: http://www.peta.org. Ethics in and Practice. Dubuque, IA: Gregory C. Beniot, 2000. 233 p. Psychologists for Ethical Treatment of Animals; http://www.psyeta.org: Journal of Applied Animal Lab Animal: Information, Ideas, Methods & Welfare Science (JAAWS), quarterly, Lawrence Materials for the Animal Research Professional, Erlbaum Associates, some abstracts online; and 11 issues per year, Nature Publishing, partially Society & Animals: Journal of Human-Animal online at http://www.labanimal.com/. Studies, three times per year, Brill, free, full-text online for volumes 1-8. Manzo, Bettina. The in the United States, 1975-1990: An Annotated Reich, Warren T., ed. Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, New York: Macmillan, 1995. 5 volumes. 1994. 296 p. See articles entitled: “Animal Research,” “Animal Welfare and Rights,” “Veterinary Murray, Thomas H., and Mehlman, Maxwell, J., Ethics,” and “Xenografts.” “Ethical Directives eds. The Encyclopedia of Ethical, Legal, and Pertaining to the Welfare and Use of Animals” Policy Issues in . New York: John comprises Section V of the Appendix. Wiley & Sons, 2000. 2 volumes. See any of the many articles that address a broad Rollin, Bernard E. An Introduction to Veterinary array of issues arising from the intersection of : Theory and Cases. Ames, IA: biotechnology and animals, e.g., “Patents and Iowa State University Press, 1999. 417 p. Licensing, Ethics, of Animals and Plant ;” “Research on Animals, Law, Russell, W. M. S., and Burch, R. L. The Legislative and Welfare Issues in the Use of Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Animals for Genetic Engineering and London: Methuen & Co., 1959. 238 p. Xenotransplantation;” and “Transgenic The authors introduced the concept of the 3 Animals: An Overview.” R’s–Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.

National Association for Biomedical Research; Shapiro, Kenneth Joel. Animal Models of Human http://www.nabr.org/labanimalissues.html. Psychology: Critique of Science, Ethics, and Policy. Seattle: Hogrefe & Huber, 1998. 328 p. National Research Council. Institute of Using eating disorders as a case study, Shapiro, Laboratory Animal Resources. Committee on Pain the Executive Director of Psychologists for the and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Recognition Ethical Treatment of Animals, examines ethical and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in issues in psychology’s use of animals in Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National research and provides the field’s official Academy Press, 1992. 137 p. position on animal welfare and use.

Netherlands Centre Alternatives to Animal Use SSEA Newsletter, biannual, online, Society for the

7 Study of Ethics & Animals at http://www.phil. animals is ethically indefensible” and vt.edu/ssea.html. incoherent. Drawing on philosophical theory and empirical data, he affirms a of University of California, Davis, Center for Animal equal consideration for animals, but identifies Alternatives (UCCAA); http://www.vetmed. relevant differences between individuals who ucdavis.edu/Animal_Alternatives/main.htm and bear moral status, even as he demonstrates that the Center for Animal Welfare; http:// self-awareness, language, and other features of animalwelfare.ucdavis.edu. mental life can be found in animals.

Donovan, Josephine, and Adams, Carol J., eds. II. Philosophical and Religious Perspectives Beyond Animal Rights: A Feminist Caring Ethic for the Treatment of Animals. New York: Adams, Carol J., and Donovan, Josephine, eds. Continuum, 1996. 216 p. Animals & Women: Feminist Theoretical The editors argue that care theory is more Explorations. Durham: Duke University Press, appropriate for animals than rights theory. Care 1995. 381 p. theory does not privilege rationality, This collection of essays explores the theoretical acknowledges unequal relationships, values the connections between feminism and animal emotions, and considers , empathy, advocacy and the historical connections between and love to be moral responses. women and animals. Finsen, Lawrence, and Finsen, Susan. The Animal Cavalieri, Paola, ed. Nonhuman Personhood. Rights Movement in America: From Etica & Animali 9, 1998. 127 p. [Special Issue] Compassion to Respect. New York: Twayne, Philosophical essays address the question of 1994. 309 p. whether nonhuman persons exist. Topics Offering an account of the historical include moral principles and , animal antecedents, participating organizations, minds, personhood and great apes, dolphins, and political concerns and tactics, and elephants, and a historical overview of the of and opposition to animal rights, the authors concept of a “person.” also address the influence of environmentalism, , and animal liberation on the Clark, Stephen R. L. Animals and Their Moral movement. Standing. New York: Routledge, 1997. 194 p. In this collection of essays, Christian Frey, R. G. Interests and Rights: The Case philosopher Clarke explores a variety of topics Against Animals. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980. to support his claim that “all creatures with 176 p. feelings and wishes [he argues that animals fall Frey provides an early philosophical account of into this group] should be thought of as ends-in- why animals have no interests, and therefore themselves, and not merely as means.” lack significant moral status.

DeGrazia, David. Taking Animals Seriously: Gluck, John P.; DiPasquale, Tony; and Orlans, F. Mental Life and Moral Status. Cambridge: Barbara, eds. in Animal Cambridge University Press, 1996. 302 p. Research: , Regulation and DeGrazia provides a short philosophical history Laboratory Applications. West Lafayette, IN: and orientation to of animal ethics. He Purdue University Press, Forthcoming 2001. uses a coherence or reflective equilibrium model of justification to argue that “many animals have Greek, C. , and Greek, Jean Swingle. Sacred moral status and that much of our current use of Cows and Golden Geese: The Human Cost of

8 Experiments on Animals. New York: Continuum, service.” He extends theological arguments to 2000. 256 p. animals (including constructing a liberation Anesthesiologist and veterinarian respectively, ), and then addresses specific areas of the authors argue that the continued use of animal abuse: experimentation, killing for food, animals in research is unnecessary to develop genetic engineering, patenting, and sport new drugs, , or medical techniques . beneficial to human beings. Not only is animal experimentation unethical and cruel, but Linzey, Andrew, and Regan, Tom, eds. Animals “extrapolating data from animals to humans is and Christianity: A Book of Readings. New either misleading, unnecessary, dangerous, or all York: Crossroads, 1988. 210 p. three” and the dependence on an animal model Drawn from classical and contemporary writing, is a scientific fallacy supported by mass this anthology explores both the compassion and deception and confusion. indifference toward animals found within Christianity, as well as the meaning of human Isaacs, Ronald H. Animals in Jewish Thought dominion over animals, the purpose for which and Tradition. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, animals were created, and any moral 2000. 250 p. that might arise from the unity of creation. Rabbi Isaacs draws on biblical, Talmudic, and midrashic writing for information about the role Mack, Arien, ed. Humans and Other Animals. and relationship of Jews to animals in thought, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. , liturgy, law, and tradition. The ancient 439 p. text “Perek Shira,” containing songs of praise Appearing first as a special issue of the journal ascribed to animals, is reprinted. entitled “In the Company of Animals,” these conference papers were Kalechofsky, Roberta, ed. Judaism and Animal presented at the New School for Social Research Rights: Classical and Contemporary Responses. in 1995. Marblehead, MA: Micah Publications, 1992. 356 p. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, and McCarthy, Classical and contemporary authors address Susan. When Elephants Weep: The Emotional animal research and experimentation from . New York: Dell Publishing, Jewish perspective; other sections examine 1995. 291 p. and ritual slaughter. This best-selling book written for popular audiences uses scientific research and anecdotes Leahy, Michael P. T. Against Liberation: Putting to argue that animals possess and Animals in Perspective. Revised edition. New a capacity to feel. York: Routledge, 1994. 286 p. Leahy draws on Wittgenstein’s theories of Midgley, Mary. Animals and Why They Matter. philosophy of language to argue that animals Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984. 158 p. lack linguistic ability and, therefore, self- Midgley charges that the rationalist tradition’s consciousness. He characterizes them as absolute dismissal of animals as worthy of “primitive beings.” consideration does not score a clear victory. She argues for an approach that recognizes species- Linzey, Andrew. Animal Theology. Urbana: based bonds and barriers as important and University of Illinois Press, 1995. 214 p. generally operative, but not exclusive, infallible, Linzey holds “that human dominion over or concentric; rather these bonds are animals needs to take as its model the Christ- overlapping and the boundaries are flexible. given paradigm of lordship manifested in Midgley also offers an early examination of the

9 relationship between women and animals. international efforts to measure and reduce animal pain and suffering, and the availability of Miller, Harlan B., and Williams, William H., eds. information about animal research. Ethics and Animals. Clifton, NJ: Humana Press, 1983. 400 p. Orlans, F. Barbara; Beauchamp, Tom L.; Dresser, This book contains original papers by seminal Rebecca; et al. The Human Use of Animals: thinkers presented at the May 1979 conference Case Studies in Ethical Choice. New York: “The Moral Foundations of Public Policy: Oxford University Press, 1998. 330 p. Ethics and Animals” at Virginia Polytechnic Sixteen case studies span the broad spectrum of Institute and State University. The essays cover ways humans use animals—e.g., for biomedical, the spectrum and diversity of views on human- behavioral, and wildlife research; safety testing; animal relationships and human uses of animals. education; food and farming; companion animals; and religious rites. The premise that Noske, Barbara. Beyond Boundaries: Humans certain characteristics—e.g., self-consciousness, and Animals. Buffalo, NY: Black Rose Books, pur-poseful actions, and the ability to reason and 1997. 253 p. communicate—confer on a living creature a Anthropologist and philosopher Noske analyzes certain level of moral standing that then the sociohistorical context, cultural notions, and influences ethical choices about animal subtle messages of language and their influences treatment is asserted in the introduction. Schools on human-animal and animal-human of thought, such as , deontological relationships. After exploring continuities and theory, and various animal rights theories, are discontinuities between animals and humans, discussed. Noske concludes with an of animals. Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller, Fred D.; and Paul, Jeffrey, eds. Why Animal Experimentation On Animal Experimentation: Seeking Matters: The Use of Animals in Medical Common Ground. Cambridge Quarterly of Research. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, Healthcare Ethics 8 (1): 9-87, Winter 1999. 2000. 258 p. [Special Section] A series of essays explores the opposing Pimple, Kenneth D.; Orlans, F. Barbara; and viewpoints in the animal experimentation debate Gluck, John P., eds. Ethical Issues in the Use of and how the two sides can compromise and Animals in Research. [Special Issue] Ethics & reach a “common ground.” Behavior 7 (2): 1997. 192 p. This is a collection of articles from Orlans, F. Barbara. In the Name of Science: presentations made at workshops held in 1995 Issues in Responsible Animal Experimentation. and 1996 entitled “Ethical Issues in Animal New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 297 p. Research.” The first four essays explore the Convinced equally of the benefits of research on questions of whether animals have rights, how animal subjects and of the need vigorously to such rights are derived, and whether animals are pursue alternatives to harming and killing members of a moral community. Other essays animals, Orlans provides a comprehensive, cover animal experimentation from a religious balanced, and clear overview of the history, point of view and look at the role of Institutional current status, and attitudes toward animal Animal Care and Use Committees. experimentation and alternatives. She also offers the facts about legislation, protocol review, and Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights. animal use in education, as well as community Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. participation in animal review committees, 425 p.

10 In this now classic text, Regan offers a Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. New philosophical analysis and argument for animal York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 284 p. rights based on a principle of respect and Ryder presents an interesting history of animals’ concomitant right not to be harmed. humankind’s changing attitudes toward and relationships with animals from the ancient Regan, Tom, and Singer, Peter. Animal Rights world through modern times. Ryder, who coined and Human Obligations, 2d ed. Englewood the term “speciesism,” relies chiefly on British Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. 280 p. history as a framework and emphasizes the This rich collection of essays from important influence of the Victorian era on animal welfare historical and contemporary sources presents in Britain, but does discuss the issue from the both sides of the debate about animal rights. broader world perspective. Sections on the treatment of farm animals, animals in science, and wildlife are included. Scruton, Roger. Animal Rights and Wrongs, 2d ed. London: Demos, 1998. 111 p. Regan, Tom, ed. : Religious Scruton charges that the arguments of Singer, Perspectives on the Use of Animals in Science. Regan, and Ryder are philosophically Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986. insufficient to support their positions on animal 270 p. rights and blur the distinction between moral Scholars draw on scriptural writings, written beings and the rest of nature. Scruton argues that and oral tradition, law, religious parables, and animals are not moral beings and do not possess folklore to explain religious teachings on rights, but finds that human beings often have a animals and their use in science. of care toward animals and always must include: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, , treat them properly as governed by moral Jainism, , and Confucianism. considerations stemming from , sympathy, and piety. Rudacille, Deborah. The Scalpel and the : The War Between Animal Research Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation, 2d ed. New and Animal Protection. New York: Farrar, York: New York Review of Books, 1990. 320 p. Strauss and Giroux, 2000. 390 p. The acknowledged inspiration for the modern Science writer and former research writer at the animal rights movement, Singer argues that the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to “power of ethical reasoning can prevail over the Animal Testing, Rudacille sets in historical self-interest of our [human] species” to cause perspective the contributions made to thinking persons to oppose any infliction of biomedical advances by both scientists and suffering on animals. It is, in fact, the capacity animal protectionists. to suffer that identifies animals as moral beings. Singer describes the unethical pain and suffering Ryder, Richard. Victims of Science. Revised imposed on animals in scientific, military, and edition. London: National Anti-Vivisection commercial animal research and in the food Society, 1983. 180 p. production industry. Ryder’s comprehensive overview of animal experimentation worldwide provides early Smith, Jane A., and Boyd, Kenneth M., eds. Lives statistics on animal use, photographs of animals in the Balance: The Ethics of Using Animals in undergoing experimentation, and a strong Biomedical Research. New York: Oxford argument against continued use of animals in University Press, 1991. 352 p. research. This report of a Working Party that the Institute of Medical Ethics in Great Britain established in Ryder, Richard D. Animal Revolution: 1986 to study the ethical issues in the use of

11 animals in biomedical research covers institutional animal care and use committees to philosophical and moral arguments, pain and find information on the Internet. The listserv distress in animals, benefits of research versus IACUC-Forum supports the discussion of topics harm to animals, and development and use of of interest. nonanimal alternatives. American Psychological Association. Committee World Congresses on Alternatives and Animal on Animal Research and Ethics. Guidelines for Use in the Life . Proceedings from . . . Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals. Meeting 1, Baltimore, MD, November 1993 Washington, DC: The Association, 1993. 11 p. [Education, Research, Testing, 1995]; Meeting 2, [Online at http://www.apa.org/science/ Utrecht, The Netherlands, October 1996 [Animal anguide.html.] Alternatives, Welfare and Ethics, 1997]; Meeting 3, Bologna, Italy, August/September 1999 Canadian Council on Animal Care. Guide to the [Progress in the Reduction, Refinement and Care and Use of Experimental Animals. Ottawa, Replacement of Animal Experimentation, 2000] Ontario, Canada: The Council, Vol. 1, 2d ed., Begun in 1993 by Alan Goldberg of the Johns 1 9 9 3 , V o l . 2 , 1 9 8 4. [ O n l i n e at Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal http://www.ccac.ca.] Testing, the aims of the Congresses are “to review progress made toward refining, reducing, National Research Council. Commission on Life and replacing (the 3R’s) the use of animals in Sciences. Institute for Animal Laboratory education, research, and testing; to develop a Resources. Guide for the Care and Use of realistic understanding of the status of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National alternatives; to create an understanding that in Academy Press, 1996. 125 p. research, , together with clinical studies and in vitro methods, advance science Smith, Adrian. The Regulation of Animal and contribute to our basic understanding of Experimentation in Norway: An Introduction. biology and disease; and to promote dialogue Oslo: Laboratory Animal Unit, Norwegian School between animal protection and scientific of Veterinary Science, 1998; 22 p. [Online at communities.” http://oslovet.veths.no/booklet/Booklet.pdf.]

Zurlo, Joanne; Rudacille, Deborah; and Goldberg, United Kingdom. Home Office. Draft Guidance Alan M. Animals and Alternatives in Testing: on the Operation of the Animals (Scientific History, Science, and Ethics. New York: Mary Procedures) Act 1986: Consultation [Online at Ann Liebert, 1994. 86 p. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/ccpd/cons.htm.] The use of animals in toxicity testing, the scientific status of alternatives, and the legal regulations governing animal experimentation IV. Special Topics are discussed. A. Genetic Manipulation of Animals

Bruce, Donald, and Bruce, Ann, eds. Engineering III. Regulating Animal Experimentation Genesis: The Ethics of Genetic Engineering in Non-Human Species. London: Earthscan, 1998. American Association for Laboratory Animal 337 p. Science (AALAS). Institutional Animal Care The Working Group on Genetic Engineering in and Use Committees: A Comprehensive Online Non-Human Life Forms of the Society, Resource. [Online at http://www.iacuc.org.] and Technology Project of the Church of This site provides an organized resource for Scotland discusses ethical and theological issues

12 associated with genetic engineering and biotec12.htm.] considers the broad social context and These Opinions accept the genetic modification implications of this technology. The Group does of animals only when the aims of such not find genetic engineering wrong in itself but technology are ethically justified and the objects to the rapid pace of developments and conditions for the making, use, care, release, and the lack of to the public. An marketing of genetically modified animals and appendix contains models to guide decision their products are ethical as assessed on specific making about biotechnology. points by Member States’ licensing bodies.

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC). Fox, Michael W. Beyond Evolution: The CCAC Guidelines: On Transgenic Animals, Genetically Altered Future of Plants, Animals, 1997, [Online at http://www.ccac.ca/english/ the Earth . . . and Humans. New York: Lyons gdlines/ transgen/transge1.htm] and Transgenic Press, 1999. 256 p. Animals, Animal Welfare and Ethics. Resource Against a historical overview of developments (Supplement) 21 (1, Spring/Summer), 1997. 7 p. in the area of genetic engineering of plants and [Online at http://www.ccac.ca/english/transsup. animals, veterinarian/bioethicist Fox focuses on htm.] the ethical, social, and environmental In conjunction with other CCAC statements, consequences he believes will follow from “the these guidelines pertain to the review of development of a new industry and world order transgenic protocols and the production, use, based on genetic manipulation, control, and and management of transgenic animals. Ethical monopoly.” He urges an approach that treats standards require that the creation and use of animal, plant, and human life with more transgenic animals be justified. compassion.

Donnelley, Strachan; McCarthy, Charles R.; and Maclean, Norman, ed. Animals with Novel Singleton, Rivers, eds. The Brave New World of Genes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Animal Biotechnology. 1994. 266 p. 24 (1) [Special Supplement], January/February Individual chapters examine the actual and 1994. 32 p. potential future contributions of and ethical The first major report under the Center’s Ethics concerns related to transgenic animals, insects, and Environment Program, these essays address , birds, rodents, large , and minor the ethical, legal, scientific, and public policy animal systems in , science, and regulations surrounding the creation and agriculture. protection of transgenic animals and the environment. Mepham, T. Ben; Combes, Robert D.; Balls, Michael; et al. The Use of Transgenic Animals in European Commission. Group of Advisers on the the European Union: The Report and Ethical Implications of Biotechnology. Opinion of Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 28. the Group of Advisers on the Ethical Implication [Online at http://altweb.jhsph.edu/ science/ pubs/ of Biotechnology to the European Commission. ECVAM/ecvam28.htm.] Ethical Aspects of Genetic Modification of Summarizing the current status of transgenic Animals. No. 7. 21 May 1996. 5 p. [Online at animal research in the EU, the ECVAM http://europa.eu.int/comm/secretariat_general/sg Workshop draws conclusions about this c/ethics/oldversion/en/biotec10.htm] and Ethical technology, develops a monitoring scheme, and Aspects of Techniques. No. 9. 28 May proposes recommendations to aid EU regulatory 1997. 7 p. [Online at http://europa.eu.int/comm/ authorities in formulating regulations governing secretariat_general/sgc/ethics/oldversion/en/ the appropriate production and use of transgenic

13 animals. biotech entrepreneurs, animal welfare advocates, and of science ethics Rollin, Bernard E. The Frankenstein address the welfare of transgenic farm and Syndrome— Ethical and Social Issues in the laboratory animals; patenting; production of Genetic Engineering of Animals. Cambridge: transgenic animals for disease models, organ Cambridge University Press, 1995. 241 p. sources, or therapeutic products; and the use of Rollin argues that public ability to understand embryo transfer and reproductive techniques in and think about the scientific and ethical animals. A glossary is included. concerns truly raised by genetic engineering has been stymied because these technologies are too literally equated with the “Frankenstein ” B. Great Apes of monstrous life. He unpacks these concerns and explains the reasons behind the radical Blum, Deborah. The Monkey Wars. New York: change in the dominant social ethic for the Oxford University Press, 1994. 306 p. treatment of animals—from a focus simply on Science writer Blum’s wide-ranging and anti-cruelty and kindness to an ethic of rights balanced exploration of the controversial use of concerned about abuse, suffering, , and primates in research is based on her Pulitzer fairness. Prize winning (1992) newspaper articles. She provides a detailed history of primate research Tudge, Colin. Engineer in the Garden: Genes and the efforts to regulate and/or end it from her and Genetics from the Idea of Heredity to the interviews with scientists and researchers on Creation of Life. New York: Hill and Wang, both sides of the issue, as well as with moderate 1995. 388 p. animal advocates and radical activists, and her Science journalist Trudge offers a history of observations in research laboratories. genetic theory from its classical Darwinian roots in the mid-1800s to its modern day expression in Cavalieri, Paola, ed. The . scientific techniques that “engineer” genetics. Etica & Animali 8: 1-178, 1996. He argues that scientific literacy is a This international, refereed, research journal requirement for citizenship in the global devotes the first issue in its English incarnation community because it has become fundamental to discussing and developing the view that to our ability to discuss deep philosophical nonhuman great apes are the moral equals of questions about the meaning and manner of life. human great apes. Contributing authors address the topic from a variety of cultural backgrounds U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for and position it within contemporary debates in Biologics Evaluation and Research. Points to evolutionary biology, , Consider in the Manufacture and Testing of anthropology, and applied ethics. They address Therapeutic Products for Human Use Derived how dominant world views must change to from Transgenic Animals. 1995. [Online at support a theory of universal anthropoid rights. http://www.fda.gov/cber/ptc/ptc_tga.txt.] This and many other documents regulating Cavalieri, Paola, and Singer, Peter, eds. The Great transgenic animals and xenotransplantation are Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity. New available online at http://www.fda.gov/cber/. York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. 312 p. This book launched the Great Ape Project Wheale, Peter, and McNally, Ruth, eds. Animal (GAP) as an international movement and its Genetic Engineering: Of Pigs, Oncomice and a s s o c i a t e d W e b s i t e Men. London: Pluto Press, 1995. 293 p. (http://www.greatapeproject.org), journal, and Conference papers by scientists, civil servants, newsletter; inspired animal studies courses at

14 universities and law schools; and inaugurated a Laboratory Animal Research. Committee on new chapter in the relationship between ethics Long-Term Care of Chimpanzees. Chimpanzees and . It is edited and written by well- in Research: Strategies for their Ethical Care, respected scholars from the sciences and the Management, and Use. Washington, DC: humanities who are all “committed to the single National Academy Press, 1997. 92 p. goal of including nonhuman great apes within The Committee studied the dilemma of an the moral community” and extending to them overpopulation of U.S. federal research the moral equality and basic rights enjoyed by chimpanzees who were bred and born for human great apes. These 34 persons were the research, but never were, or no longer are, authors and first signatories of the “Declaration n e e ded f o r b iomedical re s e a r c h . on Great Apes,” which was published here for Recommendations include imposing a five-year the first time (see also online at breeding moratorium, not endorsing ht t p : / / ww w . g r e a t a p e p r o j e c t . o r g o r for population control, and assuring lifetime http://www.planet.it/freewww/gap_etica/ape. support for the core population of chimpanzees. html). The declaration contains three principles that must govern relations between human and New Zealand. Animal Welfare Act 1999 (passed nonhuman great apes: (1) the ; (2) into law on 1 October 1999 and operational the protection of individual ; and (3) the beginning 1 January 2000). [Online at prohibition of torture. GAP is undertaking a http://rangi.knowledge-basket.co.nz/gpacts/public/ census of all great apes during 2001, and the text/1999/an/142.html.] organization’s long-term goal is a United This act is the first to grant specific legal Nations Declaration of the Rights of Great protection for nonhuman hominids, Great Apes. Apes. It prohibits the use of all great apes in research, testing, or teaching “unless such use is in the Coetzee, J. M. The Lives of Animals. Princeton: best interests of the non-human hominid” or its Princeton University Press, 1999. 127 p. species and “the benefits to be derived from the Awarded the Booker Prize for this book, use of the non-human hominid in the research, Coetzee argues for according basic legal rights testing, or teaching are not outweighed by the to animals, especially to the great apes. likely harm to the non-human hominid.”

Fouts, Roger, with Mills, Stephen Tukel. Next of Wise, Steven M. Rattling the Cage: Toward Kin: What Chimpanzees Have Taught Me about Legal Rights for Animals. Cambridge, MA: Who We Are. New York: William Morrow, 1997. Perseus Books, 2000. 362 p. 420 p. A 20-year practitioner of animal protection law, Roger Fouts taught American Sign Language to Wise argues that we must expand fundamental Washoe, who became the first chimpanzee to legal and moral rights to encompass great apes communicate with humans by this means. Fouts because their intelligence and emotional has enjoyed a 30-year relationship with Washoe, sensitivity demand it, and because failure to do campaigned to improve living conditions for so is unjust and undermines the foundation of captive research chimps, and founded the . The law must cease its treatment Chimpanzee and Human Communications of animals as “things,” “objects,” or “.” Institute at Central Washington University to train researchers in animal psychology in United Kingdom. Home Secretary’s humane research methods. Supplementary Note to the Home Secretary’s Response to the Animal Procedures Committee. National Research Council [NRC] (United States). 6 November 1997. Commission on Life Sciences. Institute for In response to the Animal Procedures

15 Committee 1997 Annual Report (http://www. Regulation of Rodents [editorial]. Science 284 homeoffice. gov.uk/animact/aspaf.htm), the (5419): 1463, 28 May 1999. British Home Office issued a formal government ban on the use of great apes as Vergano, Dan. Law Injected into Animal laboratory animals. Even though the great apes Testing: Researchers Cite Obstacles If More (chimpanzees, gorillas, pygmy gorillas, Animals Are Protected. USA Today (31 October bonobos, and orangutans) have not been used as 2000). [Online at http://www.usatoday.com/ laboratory animals even under the Animals life/health/general/lhgen108.htm.] (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, this ban, although not a legislative statute, virtually Shalev, Moshe. USDA Agrees to Regulate Rats, ensures that great apes will not be used for Mice, and Birds. Lab Animal 29 (10), November research in the future. 2000. [Online at http://www.labanimal.com/col/ reg1100.htm.] United States. Congress. House. Committee on Commerce. Subcommittee on Health and United States. District Court. District of Environment. Biomedical Research: Protecting Columbia. Animal Legal Defense Fund v. Surplus Chimpanzees: Hearing on H.R. 3514. Madigan [Date of Decision: 8 January 1992]. Serial No. 106-109. 18 May 2000. [Online at Federal Supplement 781: 797-806, 1992. http://com-notes.house.gov/cchear/hearings106. The court found that the exclusion of rats, mice, nsf/hemain/.] and birds from the definition of “animal” under “The Chimpanzee Health Improvement, the Animal Welfare Act was arbitrary and Maintenance and Protection Act” or CHIMP Act capricious and a violation of the act. The court would establish a system of sanctuaries for ordered the USDA to reconsider the plaintiff’s chimpanzees who were bred and used for rule-making petition. This decision was research by U.S. federal agencies, but are now overturned on appeal to the United States Court surplus to the needs of biomedical researchers of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit or are retired from participation in active (Animal Legal Defense Fund v. Secretary of research. Senate Bill, S. 2725 is the companion Agriculture (Mike Espy). [Date of Decision: 20 bill. May 1994]), which held that the plaintiffs did not demonstrate constitutional standing to sue and/or a statutory right to judicial review under C. Rats, Mice, and Birds the APA [Administrative Procedure Act].

Plous, Scott, and Herzog, Harold. Should the AWA Cover Rats, Mice, and Birds? The D. Science Education and The Use of Results of an IACUC Survey. Lab Animal 28 Animals (6): 38-40, June 1999. As part of a recent survey of IACUC members, Balcombe, Jonathan. The Use of Animals in the authors questioned respondents about their Higher Education: Problems, Alternatives and attitudes concerning including rats, mice, and Recommendations. Washington, DC: Humane birds under the AWA definition of warm Society Press, 2000. 104 p. [Online at http://www. blooded animals. hsus.org/programs/research/monograph.html.] Balcombe, then associate director for education Orlans, F. Barbara. The Injustice of Excluding in the animal research issues section of the Laboratory Rats, Mice, and Birds from the Humane Society of the United States, focuses on Animal Welfare Act. Kennedy Institute of Ethics the educational use of animals at the secondary Journal 10 (3): 229-38, September 2000. school and college level, especially when there is significant harm or “cost” to the animal, but Trull, Frankie L., and Rich, Barbara A. More includes middle school through advanced study

16 in graduate, medical, or veterinary schools. He dissections and alternatives databases. makes 28 recommendations for change. Institute for Laboratory Animal Resources. Drone, Jennifer. PCRM Steps Up Campaign to Commission on Life Sciences. National Research End Live Animal Laboratories in Medical Council. Principles and Guidelines for the Use Education. Medicine 8 (1, Winter 1999). of Animals in Precollege Education. April 1989. [Online at http://www.pcrm.org/magazine/ In Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in GM99Winter/GM99Winter5.html.] the Nation’s Schools, pp. 125-26. Washington, Since its creation in 1985, the nonprofit DC: National Research Council, 1990. [Online at Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine http://www4.nas.edu/cls/ilarhome.nsf/web/ (PCRM) has worked to promote alternatives to Principles/.] the use of animals in medical schools and The National Research Council recommends . PCRM’s education and compliance with 10 principles whenever advocacy campaign has been instrumental in the animals are used in precollege education or in decisions of 72 of the 127 U.S. medical schools science fair projects. to use “more clinically relevant, humane, and cost-effective alternatives [to live animal Mukerjee, Madhusree. Trends in Animal research labs].” Research. Scientific American. [Online at http://www.sciam.com/0297issue/0297trends. Ethical Science and Education Coalition (ESEC) html.] and the New England Anti-Vivisection Society The text of this overview article has been (NEAVS); http://www.neavs.org/esec.html and embellished with links to other Web resources. http://www.neavs.org, respectively. The educational affiliate of NEAVS, ESEC National Association of Biology Teachers focuses on dissection and education and (NABT). The Use of Animals in Biology advocates for dissection “choice” legislation, Education. October 1995. 2 p. [Online at offers a guide on “how to pass a student http://www.nabt.org/animals.html.] “choice” dissection policy in your school A membership association whose mission is to district,” and prepares a catalogue of dissection empower “educators to provide the best possible alternatives. Founded in 1895, NEAVS protects biology and life science education for all and advocates for animals used in education students,” NABT’s policy statement through education, legislation, litigation, and “recommends the prudent and responsible use of direct action campaigns. animals in the life science classroom.” Teachers also “should foster a respect for life” and “teach Humane Society of the United States (HSUS). about the interrelationship and interdependency Animals & Society: A List of Courses (animal of all things.” NABT endorses and adopts the 10 ethics, animal rights, animal welfare) [Online at principles developed by the Institute of http://www.hsus.org/programs/research/courses. Laboratory Animals Resources (ILAR) for the html] and Dissection and Related Issues [Online use of animals in precollege education. at http://www.hsus.org/programs/research/ animals_education.html]. Shapiro, Kenneth, and Church, Jill Howard. It’s HSUS provides summaries and contact Academic: The Growing Field of Animal Studies. information about college (and a few veterinary The Animals’ Agenda (15 April 2000). [Online at school) courses concerned with animal ethics, http://www.animalsagenda.org/articledetail.asp? animal rights, and/or animal welfare. Listings menu=News&NewsID=316.] can be reviewed by discipline or by state. HSUS Increasing numbers of animal studies courses links to state dissection choice laws, an are being taught at academic institutions. This annotated list of studies on attitudes toward article provides an overview of these dissection, and other education links to virtual developments; the philosophy behind formalized

17 education about animal issues; a comparison of This report addresses alternatives to British and American approaches to ethics xenotransplants, the likely success of xeno- education by Richard Ryder; and concludes with transplants, concerns regarding the rights and a sampling of animal-related educational welfare of the animals used, the potential for programs, courses, journals, books, conference transmitting infections, and other ethical and series, and university appointments. social implications.

United States. Department of Health and Human E. Xenotransplantation: Transplanting Services. PHS Guideline on Infectious Disease Animal Organs into Humans Issues in Xenotransplantation: Draft—Not for Implementation. Washington, DC: The Cooper, David K.C., and Lanza, Robert P. Xeno: Department, October 2000. 58 p. [Online at http: The Promise of Transplanting Animal Organs //www.fda.gov/cber/gdlns/xenophs1000.pdf.] into Humans. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 274 p. Veatch, Robert M. The Ethics of Xenografts. In his Transplantation Ethics, pp. 259-73. F o x , M a r i e , a n d M c H a l e , J e a n . Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, Xenotransplantation: The Ethical and Legal 2000. Ramifications. Review 6 (1): 42-61, This chapter includes an overview of the issues Spring 1998. raised in xenotransplantation since Baby Fae was given a chimpanzee heart in 1984. France. National Consultative Bioethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences. Opinion The authors acknowledge the advice and on Ethics and Xenotransplantation: Opinion No. contributions of F. Barbara Orlans, Ph.D., Senior 61. Paris: The Committee, 11 June 1999. 16 p. Research Fellow; Harriet Hutson Gray, M.T.S., [ O n l i n e a t h t t p : / / w w w . c c n e - M.S.L.S., Reference and Digital Librarian; and ethique.org/english/avis/ a_061.htm#deb.] Doris M. Goldstein, M.L.S., M.A., Director of Library and Information Services, all at the Great Britain. Department of Health. Advisory Kennedy Institute of Ethics; and John P. Gluck, Group on the Ethics of Xenotransplantation. Ph.D., Professor, Department of Psychology, Animal Tissue into Humans: A Report by The University of New Mexico, in the preparation of Advisory Group on the Ethics of this Scope Note. Xenotransplantation. London: Stationery Office, 1996. 258 p. Produced at the National Reference Center for Bioethics Literature, Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Institute of Medicine [IOM] (United States). Georgetown University, Box 571212, Division of Health Sciences Policy. Committee on Washington, DC 20057-1212. The Center Xenograft Transplantation: Ethical Issues and operates on Contract N01 LM73529 from the Public Policy. Xenotransplantation: Science, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes Ethics and Public Policy. Washington, DC: of Health. Additional support is provided by Grant National Academy Press, 1996. 126 p. P4 1 HG01115 from the ELSI Program, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Nuffield Council on Bioethics Animal-to-Human Institutes of Health, and by other public and Transplants: The Ethics of Xenotransplantation. private sources. London, England: The Council, 1996. 147 p. [Partially online at http://www.nuffield.org/ Reprint issued March 2001. bioethics/publication.]

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