1 Table of Content Topic Sub - Topic Page No 1.1 Rock cut architecture – Badami, Barabar, Chaitra, Vihar 3 1.2 Sculpture – Mathura, Gandhara, Amravati 11 1.3 Bronze Sculpture 18 1.4 Medieval Sculpture (Rashtrakuta and beyond) 28 Indian architecture and 1.5 Jain Architecture 42 sculpture 1.6 Buddhist Architecture 50 1.7 Temple Architecture (Dravida Style, Nagara Sytle, 62 Vesara Style) 1.8 Indo Islamic Architecture 76 1.9 Modern Architecture (including colonial architecture) 93 2.1 Indus Valley Civilization – Red and Black Pottery 104 2.2 Iron Age Pottery 107 Painting/Pottery 2.3 Mural/Wall Painting 109 2.4 Miniatures 114 2.5 Modern Painting 126 3.1 8 Classical Dances 132 Indian Dance forms and 3.2 Folk Dances of India 146 theatre 3.3 Local and Regional theatre forms 160 4.1 Hindustani Music 173 Indian Music 4.2 Carnatic Music: Differences, Swar, ragas, personalities 177 4.3 Music instruments – Wind, Stringed, Percussion 182 5.1 Vedic Literature – Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva 191 5.2 Aranyak 196 5.3 Puranas 198 5.4 Buddhist Literature 201 Indian Literature 5.5 Jain Literature 206 5.6 Sangam Literature 211 5.7 Bhakti literature 216 5.8 Nationalist Literature 220 NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 2 NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 3 1.1 Rock cut architecture – Badami, Barabar, Chaitra, Vihar 1.1.1 Rock-Cut Architecture of Ancient India The exercise of creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock is known as Rock-cut architecture. In this, the rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the desired structure is obtained. Compared to any other form of rock architecture in the world, Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and found in greater abundance (more than 1,500 rock cut structures in India). Moreover, the religious character of Indian Rock-cut architecture is another feature to be noted. The Mauryans excelled in cave architecture and they are considered as the pioneers of rock-cut cave architecture. Buddhist Influence on Rock-cut Architecture Buddhism became the dominant religion in the 3rd to 2nd century B.C. There were three characteristic forms of Buddhist architecture which developed around this period – the monumental funerary mound or Stupa, hall of worship or the Chaitya and the monastery or Vihara. Since the Buddhist and Jain Monks usually stayed away from the cities and towns, therefore, Chaityas and Viharas were developed along the hillside. Chaitya Chaityas were places of worship for Buddhist and Jain Monks. It had a rectangular prayer hall with stupa placed at the centre of the hall. Entire Chaitya had three divisions – Central Chaitya and two aisles. Central Chaitya was separated from the two aisles by a row of pillars. Internal walls of Chaityas were polished and the ending of Chaitya was apsidal in shape. Vihara The Viharas or monasteries were excavated near Chaityas for the residence of monks in rainy seasons. The sculptors here depict various scenes from the life of NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 4 the Buddha. An important point to note here is that Viharas, unlike Chaityas, did not have stupa. 1.1.2 Cave Architecture in India can be divided into 3 different phases 1st phase (2nd B.C. to 2nd Century A.D.) In this phase the construction was exclusively related to Buddhism and Buddha was represented symbolically e.g. Lotus, Wheel etc. The examples of this phase include Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa caves. It can be concluded that an important connection existed between the religion and commerce, as Buddhist missionaries often built monasteries (caves) in closer proximity to the major trade routes. Some of the caves were also commissioned by wealthy traders resulting in the interiors of the caves being more elaborate. 2nd phase (5th to 7th century A.D.) Buddha was personified and the plan of excavations-specially for chaitya remained the same as before but viharas underwent some changes like an image of Buddha was housed. By the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel along with free-standing structural temples. 3rd phase (7th to 10th century A.D.) The Buddhist architectural traditions were also extended by Hindus and Jains along with some modifications which were suitable for their rituals. 1.1.3 Barabar Caves Western Indian Architecture of Rock cut caves was influenced by the Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves which were excavated around 250 BC in Barabar Hills in Bihar (Jehanabad district) during Mauryan Period and are considered the oldest example of rock-cut architecture in India. NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 5 In Barabar hills there are four caves and these caves were constructed during Mauryan Period, particularly reign of Asoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha. Initially, the caves were made for the Ajivika sect, but later hundreds of rock- cut caves were made for the Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical traditions. In this manner, the Barabar caves were associated with all the major religious ideologies existing at that time e.g. Ajivika sect, Buddhism, Jainism as well as the Hindu religions. This also showcases the policy of religious tolerance, from the two emperors (Ashoka, Dasratha) who themselves were Buddhist. Four Major Caves at Barabar Hills 1. Sudama cave 2. Lomas Rishi cave 3. Karan Chaupar 4. Visva Zopri Out of these 4 caves, Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves are most important from the architectural point of view. Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India. Both Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves have wood imitating chambers with their walls polished like a glass mirror. Bhaja Caves In western India, early Buddhist cave is found at Bhaja (near Poona). It is a group of 22 rock-cut caves and depicts a typical early phase of Buddhist architecture marked by deep apsidal hall cut in solid rock, with a row of plain octagonal pillars near the walls. The most important structure of Bhaja caves is chaityagriha having an open horseshoe-arched entrance. Another prominent part of the cave is a group of 14 stupas. The stupas have relics of monks who resided and died in Bhaja caves. NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 6 Karle Caves The Karle caves were made around the beginning of the Christian era and its pattern is similar to the Bhaja caves but is much more developed in size and splendor. The Chaitya at Karle is cut 124 feet deep into the rock and it is situated at a distance of two miles north of the Bombay- Poona highway. The most prominent cave is Great Chaitya (Cave no. 8). It is the largest rock-cut chaitya in India. Kanheri Caves The Kanheri caves are situated near Bombay and the Chaityas of Kanheri follow the pattern of the Karle Chaitya. It comprises of 109 caves carved out of basalt rock. The larger caves were Chaityas, however, most of the caves were viharas. Further, the influence of Mahayana is evident, as the outer walls of the caves bear images of Buddha. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (situated over two adjacent hills, Udaygriri and Khandgiri) are located near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha and built around 2nd century BCE during the reign of King Kharvela. These caves are supposed to have worked as residential blocks for Jain monks. Udayagiri means “Sunrise Hill” and has 18 caves including Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathigumpha, Vyaghra Gumpha etc., of which Rani Gumpha is the largest cave while Khandagiri has 15 caves which include Navagiri, Devsabha and Anant Gumpha etc. NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 7 Nasik Caves These caves also known as Pandavleni caves are a group of 24 caves dating from the 1st century A.D.They were built during the reign of the Satavahana ruler Krishna. The caves have images of both Buddha and Bodhisattvas Pandavleni caves are symbolic of Hinayana influence since Buddha is represented only through symbols. Bagh Caves These caves are a group of 9 rock-cut monuments situated in Madhya Pradesh, some hundred miles north of Ajanta. They are more impressive than even those of Ajanta. All the caves are Vihara and out of 9 caves, only 5 have survived. The most significant cave is Rang Mahal cave (Cave no. 4). These caves are famous for their mural paintings as on the walls of the veranda of a cave, a procession of elephants and a scene of a dancer and women musicians are depicted. Ajanta Caves Ajanta (near Aurangabad, Maharashtra) has 29 entirely Buddhist caves. They were excavated in the horseshoe curve of a hillside. The earliest caves date from 2nd century B.C. while others are of as late as 7th century A.D. The Ajanta caves can be divided into 2 phases i.e. Saatavahana phase and Vakataka Phase. In the first phase, Chaityas and Viharas were carved out in the second century BC, under the patronage of Saatavahana Kings and this phase is often known as the Hinayana phase, as a symbolic representation of Buddha was done. In this phase more, the focus was given on stupa and figurative sculpture was NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 8 neglected.