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Table of Content

Topic Sub - Topic Page No

1.1 Rock cut architecture – Badami, Barabar, Chaitra, Vihar 3

1.2 Sculpture – Mathura, Gandhara, Amravati 11

1.3 Bronze Sculpture 18

1.4 Medieval Sculpture (Rashtrakuta and beyond) 28

Indian architecture and 1.5 Jain Architecture 42

sculpture 1.6 Buddhist Architecture 50 1.7 Temple Architecture (Dravida Style, Nagara Sytle, 62

Vesara Style)

1.8 Indo Islamic Architecture 76

1.9 Modern Architecture (including colonial architecture) 93

2.1 Indus Valley Civilization – Red and Black Pottery 104

2.2 Iron Age Pottery 107

Painting/Pottery 2.3 Mural/Wall Painting 109

2.4 Miniatures 114

2.5 Modern Painting 126

3.1 8 Classical Dances 132 Indian Dance forms and

3.2 Folk Dances of India 146 theatre

3.3 Local and Regional theatre forms 160

4.1 Hindustani Music 173

Indian Music 4.2 Carnatic Music: Differences, Swar, ragas, personalities 177

4.3 Music instruments – Wind, Stringed, Percussion 182

5.1 Vedic Literature – Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva 191

5.2 Aranyak 196

5.3 Puranas 198

5.4 Buddhist Literature 201

Indian Literature 5.5 Jain Literature 206

5.6 Sangam Literature 211

5.7 Bhakti literature 216

5.8 Nationalist Literature 220

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1.1 Rock cut architecture – Badami,

Barabar, Chaitra, Vihar

1.1.1 Rock-Cut Architecture of Ancient India The exercise of creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock is known as Rock-cut architecture. In this, the rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the desired structure is obtained. Compared to any other form of rock architecture in the world, Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and found in greater abundance (more than 1,500 rock cut structures in India). Moreover, the religious character of Indian Rock-cut architecture is another feature to be noted. The Mauryans excelled in cave architecture and they are considered as the pioneers of rock-cut cave architecture. Buddhist Influence on Rock-cut Architecture Buddhism became the dominant religion in the 3rd to 2nd century B.C. There were three characteristic forms of Buddhist architecture which developed around this period – the monumental funerary mound or Stupa, hall of worship or the Chaitya and the monastery or Vihara. Since the Buddhist and Jain Monks usually stayed away from the cities and towns, therefore, Chaityas and Viharas were developed along the hillside.

Chaitya

 Chaityas were places of worship for Buddhist and Jain Monks. It had a rectangular prayer hall with stupa placed at the centre of the hall. Entire Chaitya had three divisions – Central Chaitya and two aisles. Central Chaitya was separated from the two aisles by a row of pillars. Internal walls of Chaityas were polished and the ending of Chaitya was apsidal in shape.

Vihara

 The Viharas or monasteries were excavated near Chaityas for the residence of monks in rainy seasons. The sculptors here depict various scenes from the life of

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the Buddha. An important point to note here is that Viharas, unlike Chaityas, did not have stupa.

1.1.2 Cave Architecture in India can be divided into 3 different phases 1st phase (2nd B.C. to 2nd Century A.D.)

 In this phase the construction was exclusively related to Buddhism and Buddha was represented symbolically e.g. Lotus, Wheel etc.

 The examples of this phase include Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa caves.

 It can be concluded that an important connection existed between the religion and commerce, as Buddhist missionaries often built monasteries (caves) in closer proximity to the major trade routes. Some of the caves were also commissioned by wealthy traders resulting in the interiors of the caves being more elaborate.

2nd phase (5th to 7th century A.D.)

 Buddha was personified and the plan of excavations-specially for chaitya remained the same as before but viharas underwent some changes like an image of Buddha was housed.

 By the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel along with free-standing structural temples.

3rd phase (7th to 10th century A.D.)

 The Buddhist architectural traditions were also extended by Hindus and Jains along with some modifications which were suitable for their rituals.

1.1.3 Barabar Caves Western Indian Architecture of Rock cut caves was influenced by the Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves which were excavated around 250 BC in Barabar Hills in Bihar (Jehanabad district) during Mauryan Period and are considered the oldest example of rock-cut architecture in India.

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 In Barabar hills there are four caves and these caves were constructed during Mauryan Period, particularly reign of Asoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha.

 Initially, the caves were made for the Ajivika sect, but later hundreds of rock- cut caves were made for the Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical traditions. In this manner, the Barabar caves were associated with all the major religious ideologies existing at that time e.g. Ajivika sect, Buddhism, Jainism as well as the Hindu religions. This also showcases the policy of religious tolerance, from the two emperors (Ashoka, Dasratha) who themselves were Buddhist.

Four Major Caves at Barabar Hills

1. Sudama cave

2. Lomas Rishi cave

3. Karan Chaupar

4. Visva Zopri

Out of these 4 caves, Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves are most important from the architectural point of view. Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India. Both Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves have wood imitating chambers with their walls polished like a glass mirror.

Bhaja Caves

 In western India, early Buddhist cave is found at Bhaja (near Poona). It is a group of 22 rock-cut caves and depicts a typical early phase of Buddhist architecture marked by deep apsidal hall cut in solid rock, with a row of plain octagonal pillars near the walls.

 The most important structure of Bhaja caves is chaityagriha having an open horseshoe-arched entrance. Another prominent part of the cave is a group of 14 stupas. The stupas have relics of monks who resided and died in Bhaja caves.

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Karle Caves

 The Karle caves were made around the beginning of the Christian era and its pattern is similar to the Bhaja caves but is much more developed in size and splendor.

 The Chaitya at Karle is cut 124 feet deep into the rock and it is situated at a distance of two miles north of the Bombay- Poona highway.

 The most prominent cave is Great Chaitya (Cave no. 8). It is the largest rock-cut chaitya in India.

Kanheri Caves

 The Kanheri caves are situated near Bombay and the Chaityas of Kanheri follow the pattern of the Karle Chaitya.

 It comprises of 109 caves carved out of basalt rock. The larger caves were Chaityas, however, most of the caves were viharas.

 Further, the influence of Mahayana is evident, as the outer walls of the caves bear images of Buddha.

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (situated over two adjacent hills, Udaygriri and Khandgiri) are located near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha and built around 2nd century BCE during the reign of King Kharvela.

 These caves are supposed to have worked as residential blocks for Jain monks.

 Udayagiri means “Sunrise Hill” and has 18 caves including Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathigumpha, Vyaghra Gumpha etc., of which Rani Gumpha is the largest cave while Khandagiri has 15 caves which include Navagiri, Devsabha and Anant Gumpha etc.

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Nasik Caves

 These caves also known as Pandavleni caves are a group of 24 caves dating from the 1st century A.D.They were built during the reign of the Satavahana ruler Krishna.

 The caves have images of both Buddha and Bodhisattvas

 Pandavleni caves are symbolic of Hinayana influence since Buddha is represented only through symbols.

Bagh Caves

 These caves are a group of 9 rock-cut monuments situated in Madhya Pradesh, some hundred miles north of Ajanta. They are more impressive than even those of Ajanta.

 All the caves are Vihara and out of 9 caves, only 5 have survived. The most significant cave is Rang Mahal cave (Cave no. 4).

 These caves are famous for their mural paintings as on the walls of the veranda of a cave, a procession of elephants and a scene of a dancer and women musicians are depicted.

Ajanta Caves

 Ajanta (near Aurangabad, Maharashtra) has 29 entirely Buddhist caves. They were excavated in the horseshoe curve of a hillside.

 The earliest caves date from 2nd century B.C. while others are of as late as 7th century A.D.

 The Ajanta caves can be divided into 2 phases i.e. Saatavahana phase and Vakataka Phase.

 In the first phase, Chaityas and Viharas were carved out in the second century BC, under the patronage of Saatavahana Kings and this phase is often known as the Hinayana phase, as a symbolic representation of Buddha was done. In this phase more, the focus was given on stupa and figurative sculpture was

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neglected. The construction under the second phase was done during Gupta and Post Gupta periods (in 5th and 6th century AD) under the rule of the Vaktaka Kings. Since in this phase Buddha was depicted as a human thus it was also known as Mahayana Phase.

 The caves include both paintings as well as rock-cut sculptures. The mural paintings, in particular, are extremely expressive and depict various emotions through forms, poses and gestures. They are based on Jataka tales narrating the lives of Buddha.

 Mural paintings of Ajanta use fresco technique. In fresco technique, the surface wall is coated with a thin layer of lime plaster on which the paintings are drawn with watercolor when the surface is still wet.

 The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani from cave 1 is a renown masterpiece.

 In 1983 Ajanta cave was declared as the UNESCO World Heritage Site and according to UNESCO, these caves are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art and further influenced Indian art that followed.

Ellora Caves

 Ellora caves are situated near Aurangabad is a group of 34 caves constructed in between 5th to the 8th centuries A.D during the rule of the Kalachuri, Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties.

 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cave temples. The 17 Hindu (caves 13–29, Caves No. 14 and 15 are famous and are known as ‘Ravan Ki Khai’ and ‘Dasavatar caves’ respectively), 12 Buddhist(caves 1–12) and 5 Jain (caves 30–34, Jaina caves include ‘Indra Sabha’ and ‘Jagannath Sabha’) caves, built in proximity, demonstrate the religious harmony prevalent during this period of Indian history.

 Kailasa Temple – Cave 16 in Ellora is the largest single monolithic excavation in the world.

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Badami Cave temples

 Badami (in Northern Karnataka) cave temples are an excellent example of Chalukyan Architecture, which dates back to the 6th century AD and adorns decorative pillars, embellished brackets, intricately carved sculptures and finely chiseled ceiling panels.

 It is a group of four rock-cut cave temples – 3 Brahminical and 1 Jaina. The Jaina cave temple was built around a century later from the earlier temples.

 The largest cave is Cave no. 3 which is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It is also the oldest Badami cave.

 Most of temple building activity of Chalukyas was concentrated in Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka.

Elephanta Caves

 The cave temples of Elephanta, (a little island off the coast of Bombay) belong to the 8th century A.D and they are in the same style as those of Ellora.

 The Elephanta Caves were originally supposed to be a Buddhist site but later these caves were dominated by the Shaivite faith.

 They are famous for their sculpture (show slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark effects) especially for the great Trimurti figure of Shiva (Shiva is akin to the Trimurti figure of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh) and some other notable sculptures include Ravana shaking the Kailash, Tandav dance of Shiva, Ardh-narishwara etc. Additionally, it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

 There are two groups of caves at Elephanta, the first one being a large group of five Hindu caves containing rock cut sculpture and representing Shaiva, while the second one, is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.

 These caves also show some resemblance with 8th-century Kailasha Temple built by Rashtrakuta dynasty.

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1.1.4 Monolithic rock-cut temples Kailasha temple

 It is famous across the world for being the largest single monolithic excavation in the world. It is located in Ellora.

 The Kailasanatha temple (Cave 16; is one of the 34 caves of the Ellora) was constructed by Krishna I (757–773) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty and it is a splendid achievement of Rashtrakuta architecture.

Pancha Rathas

 Pancha Rathas (Five Chariots) (five monolithic pyramidal structures named after the Pandavas (Arjuna, Bhima, Yudhishtra, Nakula and Sahadeva) and Draupadi) is an example of monolith Indian rock-cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 The five rathas were not assembled, while each of them was carved from single piece of stone and each of the different ratha was carved in a different style.

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1.2 Sculpture – Mathura, Gandhara,

Amravati

1.2.1 Schools of Art in Ancient India During the start of Christian era (1st and 2nd centuries), the Buddhism expanded substantially and had stimulated a renewed artistic passion to illustrate the message of Buddha and this lead to the development of three main “schools” of sculpture in India which had evolved their own styles and distinctions. These were named as the Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati school of art, after the places of their prominence.

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Gandhara school of art

 The Gandhara school of art had grown around Peshawar (Presently in Pakistan) in Northwest India, during the rule of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of Gandhara school of art were the Sakas and the Kushanas, Kanishka in particular.

 Many artists from West Asia had settled down in the north-west of India after the Greek invasions and during the period of the Kushanas further, they were deeply influenced by the Graeco-Roman art.

 The Kushana kings, especially Kanishka, motivated the Gandhara artists to carve the themes from Buddha’s life and the jatakas thus a large number of the images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas were produced.

 Due to the application of Greek Techniques of art to the Buddhist subjects (beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas) the Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art.

 Almost all kinds of foreign influences like Greek, Roman, Persian, Saka and Kushan were assimilated in Gandhara style.

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 Jalalabad, Begram, Hadda, Bamaran & Taxila were the main centres where art pieces of Gandhara School have been found and the Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan considered as an example of the Gandhara School.

Characteristics of Gandhara School of art

 The reliefs of the Gandhara Sculpture depict Buddha’s birth, his renunciation and his preaching and the best of the sculptures were produced during the first and second centuries A.D.

 The drapery was thick with large and bold fold lines also the human body was cast in a realistic manner with minute attention being given to physical features like a moustache, muscles, and curly hair.

Since ruins of about fifteen monasteries were found in and around Peshawar and Rawalpindi thus it can be concluded that during first to fourth centuries A.D a large number of monasteries were built. The graeco-roman architectural impact was seen in form of an increase of height and additional ornamentation of the Buddhist stupas erected between first to fifth centuries. Moreover, these changes further made the stupa attractive.

Mathura School of Art Initially, in Gandhara style, a complex form of symbolism was present and Mathura style deviated from it by establishing the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form accordingly Buddha’s first image can be traced to Kanishka’s reign.

 In Mathura, an indigenous style of sculpture developed, and it mostly used red sandstone.

 Mathura School of art is famous for its assimilative character since the images of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths along with Buddhist images are in prevalence in Mathura style.

 The images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi were also carved out in the Mathura school moreover the female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved too. One

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thing to note that the images of Shiva and Vishnu were depicted by their ayudhas (weapons).

 The records of Jain Tirthankars are also found in Mathura Style.

 In Mathura School of art which is noted for its vitality and assimilative character, Sarnath and Kausambi also emerged as important centres of art production while the traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site. Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders, and the halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha images and the halo around the head is heavily decorated.

Characteristics of Mathura School of Art

 In Mathura style more, the focus was laid on the internal beauty and facial sentiments rather than bodily gesture.

 There is boldness in carving the large images as the first Mathura image creators never aimed to sculpt an anatomically correct human Buddha.

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Progression in Mathura School of Art

 Initially, in early stages the images of Buddha and Bodhisattva are fleshy, with little spirituality and more happiness (faces are round and smiling), garments clearly visible, close-fitting robes almost entirely devoid of folds.

 Later in 2nd, 3rd and 4th Century AD the extreme fleshiness kept on reducing progressively and images got sensual. Additionally, the halo around the head of Buddha was excessively decorated.

1.2.2 Differences Between Mathura School of Arts and Gandhara School of Arts

 Mathura Style was indigenously developed while Gandhara Style had strong Greek influence and it was based on Greco-Roman Norms (known as Graeco- Buddhist School of Art).

 In Mathura School material used was Spotted Red Sandstone while in Gandhara School, Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone was used.

 In Mathura School, during Early period light volume having fleshy body was carved. In later Periods flashiness got reduced and Buddha was carved out in various Mudras. While in Gandhara School images were carved with finer details (Curly hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening) and Buddha carved out in various Mudras.

 In Gandhara Style, the Halo is not decorated, in general, and the images are much expressive while in Mathura Style the halo around the head of Buddha was heavily decorated and the images are less expressive.

In due course of time, it appears that the Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized, and the result of this synthesis refined and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period.

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Amravati School of Art

Amravati Style of Art, evolved in Amaravati, (Andhra Pradesh), was patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus and also by other groups, flourished for nearly six centuries starting from 200-100 BC. Buddhist art and a large religious complex of Buddhism grew around Amravati which represent the revival of uniquely different regional art style. The doctrine changes in Buddhism well as rise and fall of dynasties influenced the evolution of the Amravati School of Art.

Characteristics of Amravati School of Art

 The material used in Amravati stupas is a distinctive white marble and Amaravati sculptures have a sense of movement and energy with profound and quiet naturalism in human, animal and floral forms.

 Prominent places where this style developed are Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi.

 Symbolic representation of Buddha’s life, the Buddha almost always being represented by a symbol, though in two or three places he is personified.

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 Like the Sanchi Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshina patha enclosed within a vedika on which many narrative stories from the life of Buddha and bodhisattva dominating such episodes relating to the Birth, the miracles, Enlightenment and the victory over Mara, Sundari, Nanda, Tushita heaven and Angulimala are depicted.

 Sculptural form in Amravati Art is characterised by intense emotions as the figures are slim, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural anatomy is more complex than at Stupa of Sanchi.

 Both religious and secular images were present in this style.

 Later, this style got transformed into Pallava and Chola architecture.

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1.3 Bronze Sculpture

1.3.1 Bronze sculpture in Ancient India Bronze is an alloy which is obtained from the mixing of Copper and Tin and the Indians has mastered the bronze sculpture and casting process as much they have mastered carving in stone and terracotta sculpture. Most of the Bronze Sculpture used for ritual worship are distinguished by elegant beauty and aesthetic appeal and simultaneously the metal-casting process kept on being utilised for making articles of daily use, such as utensils for cooking, eating, drinking, etc. The lost- wax process of Bronze Casting is also being utilised by present-day tribal communities ‘for their artistic expressions. Lost Wax process of Casting

 The ‘lost-wax’ is also known as cire-perdu.

 Lost wax technique used for making objects of metal, especially in Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal and it was learnt by Indians as long ago as in the Indus Valley Culture (Perhaps the ‘Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture from Mohenjodaro is the earliest bronze sculpture datable to 2500 BCE).

 In this casting process, manually with the help of pure beeswax, a wax model of the image is prepared which has first been melted over the fire and then strained into a basin of cold water where it gets resolidified immediately. Once it is pressed through a pichki or pharni, which squeezes the wax into wires like the shape and then around to the shape of the entire image these wax wires are wound.

 Molten Metal which is largely scrap metal is poured into the mould, which has been created through the wax model, then the clay-plastered wax model is exposed to firing. Due to the melting of wax inside, the metal flows down the channel and forms the shape of the wax image and the image is later shaped with files and given a finish.

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 It is a painstaking task to cast a bronze image and it demands a high degree of skill and sometimes an alloy of five metals like gold, copper, silver, brass and lead is used to cast bronze images.

The Bronze Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization

 The earliest bronze sculpture in India perhaps dates back to 2500 BCE in the form of Dancing Girl’ in tribhanga posture (Mohenjodaro). The limbs and torso of this female figurine are simplified in tubular form.

 At Daimabad (archaeological site in Maharashtra on the left bank of the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari River) a similar group of bronze statuettes have been discovered which dates back to 1500 BCE, in which ‘Chariot’, the wheels of which are represented in circular shapes; driver or human rider has been elongated, and the bulls in the forefront are modelled in muscular forms.

Kushan Period Bronze Sculpture

 Interesting images of Jain Tirthankaras have been discovered from Chausa, Bihar, during second century CE and these bronze sculptures show how the Indian sculptors had mastered the modelling of masculine human physique and simplified muscles.

 Although the Tirthankaras are noted by their short curly hair the depiction of Vrishabhnath or Adinath (Adinatha a title of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism) is remarkable, who is identified with long hairlocks dropping to his shoulders.

Gupta and Post Gupta Bronze Sculpture

 Many standing Buddha images with right hand in abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness, the gesture of reassurance and safety) were cast in North India, during the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods (5th, 6th ,7th Century AD).

 The sanghati (Monastic Robe) is wrapped to cover the shoulders which turns over the right arm, while the other end of the drapery is wrapped over the left arm and the whole figure is treated with refinement; there is a certain delicacy

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in the treatment of the torso (the head and limbs). In comparison with the Kushana style, the figure appears youthful and proportionate.

 In the typical bronze from Dhanesar Khera, Uttar Pradesh, (Dhaneswar Khera Buddha image inscription provides an important documentation on the local Gupta dynasty) the folds of the drapery are treated as in the Mathura style, i.e., in a series of dropping down curves.

 The outstanding example of Sarnath-style bronzes which have foldless drapery is that of the Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar, a monumental bronze figure and the typical refined style of these bronzes is the hallmark of the classical quality.

Vakataka Bronze Sculpture

 Vakataka bronze images of the Buddha from Phophnar, Maharashtra, show the influence of the Amaravati style of Andhra Pradesh in the third century CE and are contemporary with the Gupta period bronzes simultaneously, there is a significant change in the draping style of the monk’s robe.

 Buddha’s right hand in abhaya mudra is free so that the drapery clings to the right side of the body contour and at the level of the ankles of the Buddha figure the drapery makes a conspicuous curvilinear turn, as it is held by the left hand.

 As the Gupta and Vakataka bronzes were portable and thus monks carried them from place to place to be installed in Buddhist viharas or for the purpose of individual worship and due to portability also the technique of creation of Bronze Sculpture, spread to different parts of India and to Asian countries overseas.

 The hoard of bronzes discovered in Akota near Vadodara (represent a rare and important set of 68 Jain images) established that bronze casting was practised in Gujarat or western India between the sixth and ninth centuries and two images of Jivantasvami, (representation of Mahavira as a prince), are widely mentioned examples of the early western Indian school of art. A new format was invented in which Tirthankaras are seated on a throne; they can be single

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or combined in a group of three or in a group of twenty-four Tirthankaras and most of the images represent the Jaina Tirthankaras (teacher) like Mahavira (Twenty-fourth Tirthankara of Jainism), Parshvanath (23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism) or Adinath (first Tirthankara) etc.

 Female images were also cast representing yakshinis or Shasanadevis (also known as Ambai, Amba, Kushmandini and Amra Kushmandini i.e. dedicated attendant deity) of some prominent Tirthankaras. Stylistically they were influenced by the features of both the Gupta and the Vakataka period bronzes. Chakreshvari is the Shasanadevi of Adinath and Ambika is of Neminath.

Bronze Sculpture of Himalayan and Kashmir Region

 Most of the bronze images of Buddhist deities as well as Hindu gods and goddesses in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir area were cast during the 8th,9th and 10th centuries and have a very different style in comparison with bronze sculptures from other regions of India.

 An important development is the growth of different types of iconography of Vishnu images since four-headed Vishnu, also known as Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu, was worshipped in these regions; Central face represents Vasudeva, other two faces are that of Narasimha and Varaha.

 The Mahishasuramardini Durga (Goddess Durga, shown as saving the world from the demon Mahishasura) and Narasimha avatar (Vishnu, shown in the form of a part lion and part man) images of Himachal Pradesh are among the very dynamic bronze sculpture from that region.

Bronze Sculpture during Pala Dynasty

 During the rule of the Pala Dynasty in Bihar and Bengal regions at the Buddhist centres like Nalanda, a school of bronze-casting emerged around the ninth century.

 In the gap of a few centuries, the sculptors at Kurkihar near Nalanda (Kurkihar was a major Buddhist site which has yielded some of the best examples of the Indian bronzes) were able to revive the classical style of the Gupta period. A

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remarkable bronze is of a four-armed Avalokitesvara (a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas), which is a good example of a male figure in graceful tribhanga.

 Worship of female goddesses was adopted which is part of the growth of the Vajrayana phase in Buddhism and images of Tara (female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism) became very popular who was shown as seated on a throne, she is accompanied by a growing curvilinear lotus stalk and her right hand is in the abhaya mudra.

1.3.2 Bronze Sculpture during Pallava Period

 The bronze casting technique and the making of bronze images of traditional icons reached a high stage of development in South India during the medieval time.

 Among the Pallava Period bronzes of the eighth century is the icon of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling) (Paryanka ” denotes ” cross-legged) in which the right hand is in the achamana mudra gesture, suggesting that he is about to drink poison.

The Bronze Sculpture of the Cholas

 Starting during the late Pallava period, (eighth and ninth centuries) the bronze sculpture reached heights of glory during tenth to the twelfth century under the Chola Rule in Tamil Nadu.

 The technique and art of fashioning bronze images are still skillfully practised in South India, particularly in Kumbakonam (a town in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu & Tamil Nadu Handicraft Development Corporation had been established to train bronze artisans).

 During the tenth century, the distinguished patron was the widowed Chola queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi.

 The image of Nataraja (the Lord of Dance) is a superb masterpiece of the Chola bronze sculpture and is considered one of the most significant contributions of

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the Cholas to Indian art. There are many images of Nataraja in different dance poses and the magnificence of its, symbolism, composition, charm and artistic excellence have influenced connoisseurs throughout the world.

 During Chola period, in Thanjavur (Tanjore) region of Tamil Nadu, a wide range of Shiva iconography had evolved which included the ninth century kalyanasundara murti which is highly remarkable for the manner in which Panigrahana (ceremony of marriage i.e. accepting the hand) is represented by two separate statuettes. Parvati’s (the bride’s) right hand is accepted by Shiva (the groom) with his extended right hand, Parvati is depicted with a shy expression and taking a step forward.

 In the ardhanarisvara murti in a single image, the union of Shiva and Parvati is very creatively represented.

 Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati have also been modelled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture (consists of three bends in the body; at the neck, waist and knee & body is oppositely curved at waist and neck which gives it a gentle “S” shape).

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Nataraja

 During the Chola Period, the famous dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja (Shiva performs the Tandava i.e. Dance in which the universe is created, maintained, and dissolved) was evolved and fully developed, since then many alterations of this complex bronze image has been cast.

 Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing position is associated, and Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara (the demon who represented ignorance or forgetfulness).

 At the same time, he raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance (one of the 108 karaṇas (minor dance movement) mentioned in the Natya Shastra), which represents tirobhava, that is kicking away the veil of Maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind and at the same time his four arms are outstretched, and the main right hand is posed in abhaya hasta (protection-affording hand-pose) or the gesture suggesting.

 The upper right holds the damaru his favourite musical instrument to keep on the beat tala and the upper left-hand carries a flame while the main left hand is

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held in dola hasta (All fingers extended straight and joined together is Patak Hasta Mudra and When the pataka hasta is placed to the sides of the thigh we get the Dola hasta Mudra) and connects with the abhaya hasta of the right hand.

 His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala mala (the garland of flames or cyclically closed arch of flames known as prabha mandala) and the entire dancing figuration is surrounded by the Jvala Mala.

1.3.3 Bronze Sculpture in the Vijayanagar Kingdom

 During Vijayanagar Period (sixteenth century), in Andhra Pradesh, the sculptors experimented with portrait sculpture (artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant) in order to preserve knowledge of the royal patron for posterity and at Tirupati, life-size standing portrait statues were cast in bronze, depicting Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, Chinnadevi and Tirumalamba.

 The sculptor has combined the likeness of the facial features with certain elements of idealisation and the idealisation is further observed in the manner

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the physical body is modelled to appear imposing as well as graceful. The standing king and queens are shown in praying posture (namaskara mudra i.e. both hands folded together).

 The image of Shiva and a Parvati, Vijayanagar, brilliantly represent South Indian bronze casting. Although their stylistic precursors, the renowned bronze sculptures created under the Chola king (9th to 13th century), are often considered to exemplify the peak moment of such art, post-Chola sculptures such as of Vijaynagar can also be considered as a peak of Bronze Sculpture.

 In Vijayanagar bronze casting tradition, there is a powerful and movingly feminine envisionment of Shiva’s consort Parvati, (represents shakti the generic women), the tangible and noblest form of cosmic divine power and is the kind aspect of Kali.

Kerala Bronze sculpture

 Kerala Bronzes Range from flamboyantly rich, darkly patinated figures (such as the dvarapalas) to austere, often nobly spare utilitarian objects like charakku (used for cooking and serving feasts at religious festivals and at marriages).

 The bronze lamp found in Kerala once glowed in the central shrine of a temple, has a shape of a two-story wooden temple, raised from the wick and oil container by two pairs of horses and hanging from chains of continuous links cast in a single mould.

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1.4 Medieval Sculpture (Rashtrakuta and

beyond)

1.4.1 Medieval Sculpture (Rashtrakuta and beyond) Sculptures were one of the most favoured media of artistic expression in India. The subject matter of Indian sculpture is almost invariably religious based on legends and myths. The pivot of the early medieval sculpture is the human figure, both male and female in the form of gods and goddesses and their attendants.

Regional variations in style of sculpture Medieval period (c. 8th–12th centuries) was marked by a large number of states and dynasties such as Pratiharas in the north, Palas in the northeast, Chandelas of north-central India, and Rashtrakuta in the Deccan etc.

Most of the dynasties of medieval India followed Hinduism, though they also patronised Buddhism and Jainism. The consolidation of Islamic empire took place only in the late twelfth century. However, due to their religious beliefs did not patronize the art of sculpture.

The style of Indian art sculpture is largely determined not by a dynasty but by region. Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images, largely independent of any particular dynasty that happened to rule over a specific region.

Stylistically, schools of artistic depictions of the human form developed in eastern, western, central and northern India. The distinctive contribution also emerged in the Himalayan regions, the Deccan and the far South.

Medieval Indian sculpture in North India Two broad trends can be observed in sculptures of this region: one exhibits the decline and disintegration of classical forms established during the 5th and 6th centuries; and the other, the evolution of new styles that began to stabilise only in the 10th century.

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With the 10th century, the conventions of North Indian sculpture became fairly well established. This period marks the figures covered with a profusion of jewellery that tends to obscure the forms it decorates. These features are further accentuated in the 11th century, when many temples of great size, adorned with prodigious amounts of sculpture, were erected all over northern India. The sculptures of the 10th-11th century were mainly used for the architectural decor of the temples.

Pratiharas The Gurjara-Pratiharas had a vast kingdom that embraced the territory of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh. The surviving structural temples of the eighth and the ninth centuries in Central India and Rajasthan belong to the Pratihara style. This style is derived from the Gupta style albeit with some regional variations.

The Pratihara temple walls are decorated with a single band of sculpted niches, pillars with lotus designs and elephants on walls carved beneath luxuriant scroll work. Notable sculptures of this period include Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj, the image of Laksmi-Narayana etc. Beautifully carved panels are also seen on the walls of temples standing at Osian, Abhaneri and Kotah.

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Chandelas During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Chandellas were the greatest power in Central India. They were great builders of temples and tanks, forts and palaces etc. The Chandellas constructed towering temples in central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev temple and Laxman temple at Khajuraho. These were sculpted with human representations of endless variety. The sculptor here preferred the slender taller figures with a considerable accentuation of linear details.

The sculptures of Khajuraho are great masterpieces of Indian sculptural art. Khajuraho, the capital of Chandellas was a principal site of sculptural activity and was a high point of building activity. The Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic relief panels which may illustrate the tantrik practices of certain medieval cults. In these temples, the many charms of the female body are revealed in most contorted and provocative poses. Geometric and floral designs, too, are abundant.

Khajuraho’s sculptures are highly stylised with typical features: they are in almost full relief, cut away from the surrounding stone, with sharp noses, prominent chins, long slanting eyes and eyebrows.

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1.4.2 Medieval Sculpture in Eastern India Sculpture in eastern India has its own distinct style of sculptural art though it shares a broad pattern of development with the rest of northern India. The figures in this region have a sense of mass and weight while the flatness of plane is less prominent. This is clearly seen in sculpture from Konark in Orissa.

Ninth century was the most flourishing period for sculptural art in this region. the sculptural art had become much more decorative towards the tenth and eleventh century. In the 13th century, when sculpture in northern India had assumed a wooden appearance, the sculptural style in eastern India remained graceful. In Bihar and Bengal, bronze sculpture was also developed during this time.

Palas The style of the sculptures during the period between the ninth and eleventh centuries in Bengal and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 32 dynasty at the time, while the style of those of the mid-eleventh to mid- thirteenth centuries is named after the Sena kings.

The Palas were Buddhists by faith and patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites. The ninth-century Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar is an example of the early Pala style. The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration. Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal.

Odisha By the middle of the 9th century A.D. especially in Orissa, there developed a school of sculpture which, among other things, took sensuous delight in the lovely forms of women. There are numerous sculptures of beautiful female figures on the face of walls. The Odisha temples have many such representations of young and charming creatures with a seductive smile, luxurious hair full of jewellery, they are, called Nayikas.

The famous temple at Konarak was built by Narasimhavarman in the middle of the 12th century and dedicated to the sun-god. It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses. Its presiding deity, the sun-god as seen here, is depicted in the typical north Indian manner, wearing boots, chain-mail armour, holding a lotus in each hand. He is riding a chariot driven by seven horses.

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1.4.3 Medieval Sculpture in Western India Solanki Sculptures in western India and Rajasthan were highly ornate, with the Jain Dilwara temples of Mount Abu attaining a marvellous architectural perfection in stone. They were built by Solanki rulers. The Dilwara temples at Mount Abu are the outstanding productions of the western school in the Jain tradition. They are not monuments of architecture but are sculptural masterpieces. The ceiling of the Dilwara temple, especially, is one of the world’s masterpieces of intricate sculptural carvings.

The traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the abundance of intricately carved sculptures which decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Palitana and Girnar. The beautiful image of the four-armed Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation, was customised in the 13th century A.D.

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Medieval Sculpture in Southern India and the Deccan In the South, the art of sculpture flourished under the patronage of many great dynasties such as Pallavas, Cholas and Rashtrakutas etc. The sculptural art in this region followed the classical tradition and simultaneously a freshness and vitality are also seen in the sculpture of this region.

Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakutas and the Ratha temples of Mahabalipuram, built by the Pallavas are examples of famous rock-cut temples in the South. Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the patrons of art and builders who decorated these temples with beautiful sculptures.

Chalukyas Early Chalukyan activity takes the form of rock-cut caves while later activity is of structural temples. The notable temples built by Chalukyas are the Vishnu

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 35 temples at Badami and Aihole and the Virupaksha Shiva Temple at Pattadakal. The cave temples, particularly those at Badami includes fine sculptures of Vishnu

The earliest example of Chalukyan art is probably the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole which is known for its distinctive sculptural style. One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by larger-than-life-size depictions of the saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.

The figures of the Chalukyan period are characterised by graceful, slim bodies, long, oval faces they are distinctly different from contemporary western Deccan or Vakataka styles.

Rashtrakutas They created the greatest wonder of medieval Indian art in their Kailash temple at Ellora, a monolithic rock-cut architecture. The bold and magnificent carving in this temple shows the Rashtrakuta style of tall and powerfully built figures, reflecting with spiritual and physical poise.

The sculpture of the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora is dynamic and distinct from contemporary regional styles, the figures often larger than life-size, infused with unparalleled grandeur and the most overwhelming energy. An example of this is the famous Nandi Shrine in Kailash temple.

Another magnificent sculpture at Ellora is a panel depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa. In this remarkable scene, the quivering of the mountain can be felt, and Parvati is shown greatly agitated, turning to Siva, grasping his hand in fear

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The cave-shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous Maheshmurti (three-faced Shiva).

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Pallavas The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture.

An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi and they are credited with having built the seven monolithic pagodas, the Rathas, in Mahabalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as Rathas in Mahabalipuram.

Some of the outstanding sculptures that are credited to their patronage are the Mahishasuramardini, Girigovardhana panel, Trivikrama VishnuArjuna’s penance or the Descent of the Ganga, Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam.

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Cholas The Mighty Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to 13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at Thanjavur, Gangai Kondo Cholapuram, Darasurama, which are a veritable treasure house of their art.

At the Brihadesvara temple at Thanjavur, the most mature and majestic of the Chola temples, the sculpture has attained a new maturity which is evident in the gracefully modelled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, delicate ornamentation, pleasing faces and certain freshness, all of which add charm to the work.

Gajsurasamaharamurti is one of the best examples of Chola craftmanship in the 11th century. It depicts the vigorous dance of the irate god after he killed the elephant – demon.

Hoysalas The Hoysalas were another South Indian dynasty who asserted themselves in the Mysore region about the beginning of the 12th century. The temples they built at Halebid and Belur look like lacework in stone. Most of these sculptures were carved out of soapstone, so the artists were able to make intricate carvings.

This type of work can be observed in the jewellery of the god in the temple wall. The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body. Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold.

A spectacular example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain Govardhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra.

Around the 13th century, A.D. love for the beauty of the human figure has been completely dampened. The artist no more took delight in the depiction of the beauty of a handsome male or the loveliness of a female body. On the other hand, the human body sculpture almost ceased to exist under a fantastic mass of decoration and ornamentation which become more important than the human figure.

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Vijayanagara Vijayanagara was the last great Hindu Kingdom in south India. Several beautiful temples were constructed at places like Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc. during the regime of Vijayanagara empire.

The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors to immortalise them in the vicinity of their favourite deities. One such fine example of this can be seen in sculptures of Krishnadevaraya at Gopura in Chidambaram. During this period representations in narrative forms of the Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila became favourite themes.

Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesises the centuries-old Dravida temple architecture with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring sultanates. Their sculpture too, although fundamentally derived from, and consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals, occasionally shows the presence of foreigners

1.4.4 Bronze sculpture of South India South Indian bronze sculpture has a special place in the history of Indian art. In bronze, as in stone, the 9th and 10th centuries were periods of high achievement, and many images of excellent quality have survived. Most South Indian bronze images are representations of Hindu divinities, notably Vishnu and Shiva.

They are all cast by the lost-wax, or cire perdu, process (in which a wax model is used). In the early stages, the forms were smooth and flowing, with a fine balance maintained between the body and the complex jewellery, the lines of which follow and reinforce every movement of the plastic surface. The bronzes of the later period lose this cohesiveness, the ornament, by virtue of its hardness, tending to divide and fragment the body it covers.

Chola period is famous for its bronze sculptures. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja (a four-armed Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), shown within a flaming halo).

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Nataraja Bronze Sculpture – Features

 Natarajan a depiction of the Hindu God Shiva as the cosmic dancer. He performs the divine dance to destroy a weary universe and make preparations for the god Brahma to start the process of creation.

 It is widely believed that Nataraja bronze sculptures were Chola innovation

 The image of “the Lord as the Cosmic Dancer” is shown at the Chidambaram temple in Tamilnadu

 He dances within an arch of flames.

 The surrounding flames represent the manifest Universe.

 There is a snake around his waist

 The figure has 4 hands

 The upper left hand contains Agni or fire, which signifies destruction.

 The second left-hand points towards the raised foot which signifies upliftment and liberation.

 Upper right hand contain Damaru

 The second right-hand shows the Abhaya mudra

 dwarf on which Nataraja dances is the demon Apasmara

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 As the Nataraja performs the tandava, the dance in which the universe is created, maintained, and dissolved.

1.4.5 Sculptures under Sultanate and Mughal rule The spread of the Muslim power in India gave a set back to the art of sculpture. The Islamic law considers it sinful to produce the images of living human and even more sinful to have those of the god. Hence the Muslim invaders considered it their religious duty to forbid the making of images of gods or goddesses, human beings or animals. They resorted to large-scale destruction of the images and sculptural representation.

As a result, most of the sculpture pieces of the time were destroyed and only such sculptural pieces could survive which were buried underground or were located in inaccessible places. In a nutshell, we can say that the art of sculpture suffered maximum at the hands of Muslim rulers during the medieval times.

Though traditions of stone sculptures continued, no major sculpture movement survived under the Mughal and the other Muhammadan rulers Under the Muhammadan rulers great impetus was given to architecture, but sculptures are rarely found and even those available are products of local chieftains. During the British regime, no proper patronage was provided to sculptors and the whole tradition of Indian art almost came to a standstill.

During the British regime also sculptural art suffered a great loss due to loss of patronage to sculptors and the whole tradition of sculptural art almost came to a standstill.

Related terms: Iconography – The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them.

Cire-perdu – also called the “Lost-wax” process is a technique for making metal objects using melted wax. It is still in use in different parts of India.

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1.5 Jain Architecture

1.5.1 Jain Architecture in India 6th century B.C. in India marked a significant phase of history with the beginning of new religious and social movements in the form the shraman tradition which included new Buddhism and Jainism etc. Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism contributed significantly in the development of early architectural style in India. Under this new architectural style, stupas and viharas were constructed on a large scale.

The art and architecture of the Jains have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. Jain architecture especially their temple architecture is one of a kind in India. The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan are world- renowned. Jain temples at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan are among the most spectacular Jain temples.

Excellent rock cut architecture can also be found in the caves of Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. A number of rock-cut caves have been discovered in Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra. Rock-cut cave temples Early examples of rock-cut architecture in India include the Buddhist and Jain cave temples (Chaityas), monasteries (Viharas). In the early years, Jain temples were built adjoining the Buddhist sites following the Buddhist rock-cut style. Early cave sites, found in western India were used by Jain monks as places of worship and residence.

Ellora, dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE, is one such cave site located in Aurangabad District of Maharashtra. It is a unique historical site as it has monastries associated with the three religions (Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism).

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The remnants of the rock-cut cave architecture are also found in Odisha. The earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves have inscriptions of Kharavela kings. According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks. Features of Jain temples Jain architecture developed largely as an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. It cannot be accredited with a style of its own. Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain temples are few and spaced out. The regional styles of Jain temple architectural are easily distinguishable in different parts of the country.

Early Jain temple architecture was mostly rock cut and bricks were hardly used. In later years, however, brick temples were constructed in a large scale. At the same time, they also deviated from Hindu and Buddhist sites to build on their own.

The majority of Jain temples in India consist of three core building elements:

 Image chamber – Garbhagriha

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 Hall – Mandapa

 Porch

A fourth element, referred to as Antarala, can also be seen lying between the image chamber and its hall. Antarala, a small vestibule is a space where worshippers can stand and gaze at the icon or follow rituals conducted within the shrine.

Some of the prominent features of Jain temples are listed below:-

 As opposed to solitary Hindu temples, Jain temple architecture are mostly found in the form of ‘temple-cities’. These temple-cities are large temple compounds, which contain large numbers of individual or interconnected temples and shrines.

 Most of Jain pilgrimage sites were built on hilltops which include Palitana temple in Gujarat, Sonagiri temple in M.P. etc.

 The chambers of these temples have pointy domes and wherever there is dome, the pillars are omitted to create an octagonal space within.

 Jain temples are noted for the use of rich materials like marble and ornamentation.

 Domes or shikharas on the top are usually smaller than the ones found in Hindu temples. These multiple dome points, reaching toward the sky give a very distinct appearance to Jain temple cities.

 Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming a square.

 The squares thus formed create chambers or chapels which contains the image of a deity.

 These pillars and roofs of the temple are richly carved and well decorated.

 Unlike Buddhist Viharas, the Jain viharas do not have the assembly or prayer hall surrounded by cells. The cells of Jain viharas are small and plain, designed

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to observe rigorous asceticism by Jain monks. The doorways are also small and one has to bend or crawl to enter a cell.

 Jain temples were mostly built on platforms or terraces, commonly referred to as “Jagati” or “Vedi”. Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms. This was done to elevate the temple above the surrounding surface and create a distinct sacred area.

 Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing high compound walls, called as Prakara.

 Structurally speaking, a Jain temple is constructed on a square plan with openings in four cardinal directions, each of which could lead to the image of a Tirthanakara. The Chamukh temple of Lord Adinath is a characteristic example of the four-door temple.

1.5.2 Jain temples Like their Hindu counterparts, Jains were also prolific temple builders. Their sacred shrines and pilgrimage places can be found across different parts of India.

Some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found in Ellora and Aihole in the Deccan. The famous statue of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is example of rich heritage of Jain architecture in this region. In central India, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi and Gwalior have some marvelous examples of Jain architecture. In the west, Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times. Akota, on the outskirts of Baroda in Gujarat is famous for Jain bronze images.

Dilwara temple Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain Tirthankars. These were built under the patronage of Solanki rulers. It was built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. Their rich sculptural decoration with deep undercutting has a lace-like appearance.

Dilwara temple is also famous for its unique and distinct pattern on each ceiling and the graceful bracket figures along the domed ceilings.

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Ranakpur Temple Ranakpur Jain temple, belonging to the fifteenth century is one of the most splendid architecture of Jains. It is dedicated to lord Adinath, first Jain Tirthankar. The temple is designed as chaumukha—with four faces and all the statues facing one another.

Light colored marble has been used for the construction of this grand temple. The temple, with its unique domes rises majestically from the slope of a hill. This temple is supported by over 1444 marble pillars, carved neatly in exquisite detail. All the pillars are differently carved and no two pillars are the same. It is believed that it is impossible to count the pillars.

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Jain Icons Jain icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. Jain icons are world renowned for the use of rich material such as metal, marble, stone etc. and aesthetic beauty.

Jina’s icons of different sizes (miniature or tall), materials and in varying postures (seated or standing) with attractive meditating faces can be found in different parts of India.

Normally, Jina images were made nude. Also early, Jina idols didn’t have any identification mark, but later idols are adorned by identification marks like lion (Mahavir) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. Footprints also have a special place in Jain art. These footprints have a great significance as they inspire the followers of Jainsim to follow the path led by the Jinas.

There are many Jain idols which are internationally acclaimed for their grandiosity. Idols of Lord Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev at Barvani in Madhya Pradesh need special mention for their magnificence. Palitana is one of the prominent pilgrimage sites of jains known for its variety of idols.

Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is one of the most important Jain pilgrimage site in India, visited by lakhs of followers every year. This is a surrealistic place where

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 48 two strange craggy mountains of Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri are facing each other on both sides of the town. At the peak of Vindhyagiri, there is a 57 feet high, monolithic statue of Lord Gommateshwara, also known as Lord Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara, Adinath in tradition.

It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga Kings of Mysore. The statue, which was carved about 1,000 years ago, depicts legend of Lord Bahubali: he had practiced asceticism in an upright stance until ivy covered his legs and anthills formed at his feet.

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Bawangaja Bawangaja is a famous Jain pilgrim site in the Barwani district of Madhya Pradesh. It is known for the world’s largest megalithic statue (carved out of mountain) of Lord Adinatha, the first Jain Tirthankara. The statue is 84 feet high. It was created early in the 12th century.

The idol of Lord Adinatha is made in brown stone in Kayotsarga posture. The hands of idol are not joined with legs but are made separate. The structural art and style of this idol is unique. The various parts of idol are quite symmetrical. There is balanced depiction of all emotions like joy, mercy and separation on the face of this idol.

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1.6 Buddhist Architecture

1.6.2 Buddhist Architecture in India The Buddhist architecture is related to different aspects of Buddha’s life, symbols representing Buddha and tales and stories associated with him. Ashoka the Mauryan King was the greatest patron of Buddist architecture. During his reign, several stupas and mounds of bricks commemorative of the Buddha were constructed. The three key element of Buddhist architecture is Stupa, Chaityas, and Viharas. However, Under Mauryan rule, several pillars were also constructed to commemorate Buddha. Types of Buddhist architecture The distinctive structures and sculptures have been associated with early Buddhist religious architecture such as

 Stupas,

 Viharas (Monasteries) and

 Chaityas (Prayer halls), which later came to be called temples in some places.

 Stambhas (Pillars)

The details of these structures are discussed below

Stupas The Stupas holds the most important place among all the earliest Buddhist architecture. They offer the earliest sculptural representations of important episodes in the Buddha’s life and of the Jataka stories. A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was used to house Buddha’s relics or to commemorate significant facts and events related to Buddhism.

The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates back to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas.

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Characteristics of Stupas Initially, mounds of Earth are taken to form the core of the stupa. In due course of time, the earthen mound is encased in bricks. The brick encasing is sometimes superimposed by a cover of stones.

 Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone or bricks. On this foundation, a hemispherical dome (anda) was raised.

 In later years, the drum of the stupa became more elongated and elevated. Almost it took the form of a cylindrical vessel.

 On the truncated top of the hemisphere, a harmika is placed, surrounded by a railing.

 The stupa is enclosed by a vedika. At Barhut, Sanchi and Amaravati the vedika consisted of upright pillars with three transverse bars known as the suchi. The railing is provided with four gateways.

 A path of circumambulation (Pradakshinapath) runs around the stupa at the ground level within the railing.

 Toranas were ceremonial gateways around the stupas.

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The Great Stupa (Sanchi)

 The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh is one of the oldest structures in India.

 It is built of large burnt bricks and mud mortar.

 The stupa was built by Ashoka and was damaged during the break-up of the Maurya Empire. In the 2nd century B.C., during the rule of the Shungas, it was completely reconstructed.

 The Great stupa has a large hemispherical dome which is flat at the top and crowned by a triple umbrella or Chattra on a pedestal surrounded by a square railing.

 Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha.

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 Stupa at Sanchi has upper as well as lower Pradakshinapath or circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas.

Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)

 The Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh is believed to have been built by Ashoka and later rebuilt in the Gupta period to commemorate the Buddha’s activities in this location.

 This stupa contains the relics of Buddha and is, therefore, an important place of Buddhist pilgrimage.

 The Dhamek Stupa is said to mark the spot where the Buddha gave the first sermon to his first five Brahmin disciples after attaining enlightenment, “revealing his Eightfold Path leading to nirvana”.

 In its current shape, the stupa is a solid cylinder of bricks and stone.

 The stone basement has eight projecting faces with niches in them. Delicately carved with beautiful floral and geometrical patterns, it is believed to have been put up in the Gupta period.

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Bharhut Stupa

 The Bharhut stupa may have been built originally by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, but many works of art, particularly the gateway and railings, were apparently added during the Shunga period in the 2nd century BCE.

 It has been largely destroyed, and most of the existing remains—railings and entrance gateways—are now in the Indian Museum in Kolkata.

 The central stupa was surrounded by a stone railing and four Torana gates, in an arrangement similar to that of Sanchi.

 The railings of the stupa are carved and have numerous images of the yakshas and yakshinis on it.

 The pillars at Bharhut also depict various Jataka stories associated with Buddha’s life.

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Amaravati Stupa

 The Amaravati stupa was the largest in the Andhra region and is referred to in ancient inscriptions as a Mahachaitya.

 It is a ruined Buddhist monument, probably built in phases between the 3rd century BCE and about 250 CE, at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh

 The stupa at Amaravati was initially encased in bricks and later on covered by carved limestone slabs. The railing and the gateways were built around the principal structure in due course of time as in the case of Sanchi.

 The dome, railings and gateways of the Amaravati stupa were profusely ornamented with beautiful relief carvings.

1.6.2 Rock cut architecture Rock-cut architecture occupies a significant place in the history of Indian architecture. Earliest known examples of rock-cut architecture belong to Buddhism. Numerous caves were excavated by the Buddhist monks for prayer and residence purposes.

The caves were cut out of solid rocks and were in two parts, one called the hall of worship or chaitya and the other the monastery or vihara. The Jain and Buddhist monks lived in these caves and meditated. About 1200 Jain and Buddhist cave structures have been found in India. The most famous among them are at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik and Karle etc.

The Barabar caves in Bihar, built in the third century BCE and credited to Emperor Ashoka, are the oldest example of rock-cut architecture. Many Buddhist caves of the subsequent periods were excavated in eastern and western India.

Chaityas (Prayer Hall) A chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at one end for congregational worship by the monks. The chaitya is entered from one end, and at the other end, a small stupa is situated. Chaityas were commonly part of a monastic complex, the vihara.

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Structures like Chaitya were common in Jainism and Hinduism as well. However, many early examples of chaitya that survive in India belong to Buddhist rock-cut architecture.

These early chaityas are apsidal in the plan. At the centre of the apse was a rock stupa or a large figure of Buddha, sitting or standing. The later Buddhist temples at Buddhagaya (Bodhgaya), Nalanda, Ellora, Ajanta, Kuda, Shelarwadi, Karad etc., consist of a square or oblong ground plan. To provide sufficient light for the interior of the cave a chaitya window was pierced in the facade. In due course of time, the chaitya window had become an ornament to the facade.

Some of the most beautiful Chaitya caves are those at Ajanta, Ellora, Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri etc.

Viharas (Monasteries) Viharas or monasteries were dwelling place for Buddhist monks. The term is also found in Ajivika, Hindu and Jain monastic literature, usually referring to a temporary refuge for wandering monks during the rainy season. These monastic buildings carved out of rocks or built of bricks were self-contained units and had a Chaitya hall attached to it with a stupa – the chief object of worship.

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Viharas were constructed with brick or excavated from rocks. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant for congregational prayer with an open courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. The hall has one or more entrances. The cells served as dwelling places for the monks. Each cell had a door and one or two stone platforms to serve as beds.

The use of images and paintings in these monasteries produces rich iconography not only architecturally, but artistically as well.

Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik, Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami. Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta is the finest of monasteries. The viharas of Ellora are of one, two, and three stories and are the largest of the type. They contain sculptured figures and belong to both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.

Stambhas (Pillars) The tradition of constructing pillars is very old in India. A large number of stone pillars were erected during the Mauryan empire with inscriptions engraved on them. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.

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The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It is also our national emblem. It is carved with considerable care—voluminous roaring lion figures firmly standing on a circular abacus which is carved with the figures of a horse, a bull, a lion and an elephant in vigorous movement, executed with precision, showing considerable mastery in the sculptural techniques.

This pillar capital symbolizes Dhammachakrapravartana (the first sermon by the Buddha) and it has become a standard symbol of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.

Brick Structures While early Buddhist structures were constructed by carving rocks in the form of caves. Gupta period embarked a new chapter in the history of Indian architecture

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Mahabodhi temple Mahabodhi Temple is an example of one of the oldest brick structures in eastern India. It is considered to be the finest example of Indian brickwork and was highly influential in the development of later architectural traditions.

Bodhgaya is a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and became Gautama Buddha. While the bodhi tree is of immense importance, the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that time. The Mahabodhi Temple is surrounded by stone ralling on all four sides. The design of the temple is unusual. It is, strictly speaking, neither Dravida nor Nagara. It is narrow like a Nagara temple, but it rises without curving, like a Dravida one.

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1.6.3 Nalanda University The monastic university of Nalanda is a mahavihara as it is a complex of several monasteries of various sizes. Till date, only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated as most of it lies buried under contemporary civilisation, making further excavations almost impossible.

Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang which states that the foundation of a monastery was laid by Kumargupta I in the fifth century CE.

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Related terms Harmika – small Square fencing about the anda or semicircular dome of Stupa.

Vedika – Vedika is a stone- walled fence that surrounds a Buddhist stupa and symbolically separates the inner sacral from the surrounding secular sphere.

Torana – Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonial Gateways

Yakshas/Yakshinis – Demi-gods and demi-goddesses

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1.7 Temple Architecture (Dravida Style,

Nagara Sytle, Vesara Style)

1.7.1 Temples Architecture of India Hindu temple architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same. Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism.

Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples were constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches.

The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastra. Shilpa Shastra mentions three main type of temple architecture – Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style. Basic features of Indian Temples The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.

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Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum)

 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum.

 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.

 Later it grew into larger chambers.

 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.

Mandapa

 It is the entrance to the temple.

 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporate space for a large number of worshippers.

 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa and Mahamandapa.

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Shikhara or Vimana

 They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple.

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.

 Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal like structure.

Vahana

 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Amalaka

 It is a stone disc like structure crowning the top of the North Indian style shikhara.

Kalasha

 Wide-mouthed pot or ornamental pot-design decorating the shikhara in North Indian temples.

Antarala (vestibule)

 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).

Jagati

 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

1.7.2 Types of Hindu temples Temple architecture evolved slightly differently in a different region. Shilpa Shastras mentions three main type of temple architecture. Three main styles of temple architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the

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Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are also some regional styles.

 Nagara (in North India) is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.

 Dravida (in South India) is associated with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

 Vesara style as an independent style was created as a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles. It is associated with the land between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna.

Nagara style The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. Nagara style was developed regionally – each region manifesting its own particular qualities. For example, various sub-styles of Nagara architecture are found vis-à-vis Odisha School, Solanki School, and Khajuraho School etc.

 In Nagara style, it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.

 Unlike South Indian temples it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

 The three main distinctive features of Nagar style is Shikhara (Curvilinear tower), Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa (Entrance Hall)

 While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later temples had multiple Shikharas.

 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

 Examples – Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple (Khajuraho), Lakshman Temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Puri)

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Subdivision of Nagara temples based on the type of Shikhara There are many subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.

Rekha-Prasada type or Latina type – This type of temple has square shikhara at the base and its walls curve slowly inward towards the top. They are mainly used to house the main garbhagriha.

Phamsana type – Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than Latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply

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rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve inward. Instead, they slope upwards on a straight incline. Phamsana design is used for the mandapas.

Valabhi type – These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon vaulted buildings’.

Dravida Style Dravida style of temple architecture became popular in South India. Dravida style of temples was developed dynastically, however the major features of these temples remained common across the dynasties.

 Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.

 The shape of the main temple tower known as Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.

 In the South Indian temples, the word “Shikhara” is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is equivalent to the amalaka and kalasha of North Indian temples.

 In the Dravida style temples, one will generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple.

 It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.

 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.

 Unlike Nagara style, at some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.

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 Examples – Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai)

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Sub-divisions of Dravida temples based on shapes There are basically five different shapes:

 Square, usually called Kuta or caturasra

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 Rectangular or shala or ayatasra

 Elliptical or vrittayata also called gaja-prishta or elephantbacked

 Circular or vritta

 Octagonal or ashtasra

It must, however, be remembered that this is a simplistic differentiation of the subdivisions. Several different shapes may be combined in specific periods and places to create their own unique style.

Vesara Style In the mid-seventh century, a distinct style of temple architecture grew in Karnataka region under the patronage of Chalukya rulers. The temples in this region follow a hybridised style which combines the features of both Nagara and Dravida styles.

 Vesara is a distinct stylistic tradition of Indian Hindu temple architecture primarily used in the Deccan and Central India, between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna

 Vesara style does not have an independent origin of its own and said to be an outgrowth of Dravida style.

 The Vesara style contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles. For example, Nagara and Dravida temples are erected side by side in Badami.

 Historians agree that the Vesara style originated in what is today Karnataka. According to some, the style was started by the Chalukyas of Badami. Therefore, it is also known as “Chalukya style” or “Karnataka style” of temple architecture. It was further improvised by Rashtrakuta and Hoysala dynasties.

 The height of these temples was reduced compared to its Nagara and Dravida counterparts. The height of the temple tower over the sanctum is usually shorter than the Vimanas in Dravida temples. They can be referred as miniature Vimanas. The shape of these towers was pyramidal in profile.

 Vimana was crowned by a circular shikhara above the neck.

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 Examples – Badami temple, Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksha Temple (Pattadkal), Keshava Temple (Somnathpur)

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1.7.3 A comparison of Nagara, Dravida and Vesara style

Nagara Dravida Vesara

Deccan region. Between the Northern region Southern region Vindhyas and Krishna river

Admixture of two Developed regionally – styles – Hybrid style. each region manifesting its Developed dynastically It was developed own particular qualities both regionally and dynastically.

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Nagara Dravida Vesara

Pyramidical Tower The shape of tower Curvilinear tower (Shikhara (Vimana) with several was Pyramidical but built over garbhagriha) stories in receding height was reduced gradually curving inward dimension (Miniature Vimanas)

Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or Multiple shrines are Multiple Shikharas located as distinct, present side by side separate small shrines beside the main temple.

At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the Garbhagriha is generally main temple in which the situated below the tallest garbhagriha is situated has, tower (Shikhara) in fact, one of the smallest towers.

sculptures of fierce Terracotta panels & dvarapalas were built at figurine on exterior walls the front of the temple

Squared hall Squared hall Squared hall

Sanctum – Sanctum – Garbhagriha Sanctum – Garbhagriha Garbhagriha

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Nagara Dravida Vesara

Gopurams may or Gopurams are absent Gopurams are present may not be present

A water tank is present at A water tank may or may the front of temple from A water tank may or not be present where water is drawn for may not be present sacred purposes

Compound walls Dravida temple is enclosed Compound walls are absent may or may not be within a compound wall present

Examples - Dashavatara Examples - Badami temple (Deogarh), Examples - Shore temple temple, Durga Vishwanatha (Mahabalipuram), Temple (Aihole), temple(Khajuraho), Brihadiswara temple Virupaksh Temple Lakshman Temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi (Pattadkal), Keshava (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Madurai) Temple temple (Puri) (Somnathpur)

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1.8 Indo Islamic Architecture

1.8.1 Indo – Islamic Architecture in India The advent of the Muslims in India did not immediately make a great impact on Indian architecture as the early Muslim invaders were only interested in loot and plunder. But a noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and traditions and combined them with their own architectural practices.

Later on with Sultanate and Mughal rule a new stream of architecture was evolved in India which combined Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences with prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural and decorative forms.

Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejection or modification of architectural elements. These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo- Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture. MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION The early Muslim invaders of India had come into the country to merely loot and plunder and did not concern themselves with architecture. Consequently, they did not bring with them, architects or masons. The material used by them to build early structures was derived from the destruction of temples in India.

The building material obtained from the destruction of other buildings was used for new improvised buildings such as Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi and the Adhai din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer.

The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was constructed by Qutub-ud-din Aibak around 1197 A.D. and it is clear from the inscriptions that he demolished 27 Hindu and Jain temples and their remains were utilised to construct this mosque.

Some of the major materials used by the Muslim rulers were:-

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 The Muslims were responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for decoration.

 The use of lime as the mortar was also a major element, distinct from the traditional building style.

 The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonry, which was easily available.

 These walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.

 Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.

 An amazing range of stones was utilised for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.

 From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were also used for construction and these imparted greater flexibility to the structures. In this phase, there was more reliance on local materials.

 Mud was generally used for brickwork and large blocks of stones were laid one on top of the other and held by means of iron clamps.

DECORATIVE FORMS The most important factor in respect of Indo-Islamic structures was ornamental decoration. As among the Muslims, the representation of living beings was taboo by way of decoration or ornamentation, they introduced geometrical and arabesque patterns, ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and floral life.

Some of the distinctive decorative forms of Indo-Islamic structures are mentioned below:-

 These forms included designing on plaster through incision or stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.

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 Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs included varieties of flowers, both from India and places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used to great extent in the inner curves of the arches.

 Walls, ceilings, carpets and other textiles were also decorated with floral designs.

 From the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries tiles were also used to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue, green, yellow and turquoise.

 Sixteenth-century onwards the techniques of mosaic designs and pietra dura were made use of for decoration of the surface of the walls. At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.

 Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse use of jails. The high relief carving has a three- dimensional look.

 The arches were plain and squat and sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth century onwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations. Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.

 The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes, chhatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.

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CATEGORIES OF STYLES Indo-Islamic structures were developed under different architectural styles. These categories help in understanding better the specificities of architectural styles. The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorised into:-

 The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate),

 The Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur),

 The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and

 The Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda).

1.8.2 TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES Indo-Islamic architecture across India includes various types of the structure constructed over a period of time keeping in mind religious and secular necessities. Major Indo-Islamic architectural forms are mentioned as below:-

 The architectural building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids

 Tombs,

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 Dargahs,

 Minars,

 Hammams, formally laid out gardens,

 Madrasas,

 Sarais or caravansarais,

 Kos minars, etc.

FORTS

 Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular feature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power of a king.

 When such a fort was captured by an attacking army, the vanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty. This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victorious king.

 Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to construct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of the region, strategic advantage for security, ample space for residential and official complexes while simultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made it impossible to scale.

 Another important feature of Indian forts was concentric circles of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breach these at all stages before getting in.

 Most of the forts had complex defence design arrangements. For example, Daulatabad fort had several strategic devices to confound the enemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not be opened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts, one within the other

 An interesting aspect associated with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and decorative influences were absorbed most liberally.

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 Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.

Here, Chittorgarh fort deserves a special mention as it bears the distinction of being the largest fort in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat of power. It has many types of buildings including stambhas or towers to signify victory and bravery. It was replete with numerous water bodies.

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MINARS

 Another important Indo-Islamic architectural form was the minar, similar to Stambha or tower, a common feature in the traditional Indian architecture.

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 They were typically built adjacent to mosques.

 The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer.

 The phenomenal height of the minar symbolised the ‘might’ and power of the ruler.

 The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery.

Two most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.

Qutub Minar Qutab Ud-Din-Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, started construction of the Qutub Minar’s first storey around 1192. Aibak’s successor and son-in- law Iltutmish completed a further three storeys. In 1369, a lightning strike destroyed the top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the damaged storey, and added one more.

The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The Qutub Minar, built in the thirteenth century, is a 234-feet (72.5 m) high tapering tower divided into five storeys and 399 steps. It is the highest stone tower in India.

The minar is a mix of polygonal and circular shapes. It is largely built of red and buff sandstone with some use of marble in the upper storeys. It is characterised by highly decorated balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

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Chand Minar Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century, is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided into four storeys. Painted peach now, its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile work and bold bands of Quranic verses. Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it was the combined handiwork of local architects with those from Delhi and Iran.

TOMBS

 The tomb architecture is an important feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of the burial of the dead is adopted. Monumental structures were built over graves of rulers and royalty.

 The general pattern of the tomb architecture consists of a domed chamber (hujra), a cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the western wall and the real grave in the underground chamber.

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 The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement.

 This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction, beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, subsequently under the Mughals, the tomb was placed within paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the Taj Mahal.

 Surely though, such vast expanses of structured and stylised spaces could not have been intended only to signify peace and happiness in the next world but to also showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of the person buried there.

Some well-known examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula.

SARAIS

 A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian subcontinent.

 Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan.

 They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.

 Sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of the people.

1.8.3 STRUCTURES FOR COMMON PEOPLE One of the architectural features of medieval India was also a coming together of styles, techniques and decorations in public and private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. These included buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques, khanqahs and dargahs, commemorative gateways, pavilions in buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.

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The architecture of Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly spread in and around Delhi in North India. The rule of the sultanate comprised of five successive dynasties Mamluk/Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty and Lodi Dynasty.

During the rule of various Sultans, several politically significant Hindu temples located in enemy states were vandalised, damaged and desecrated and the development of Indo-Islamic architecture initiated.

The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, founder of the Slave dynasty, was the first structure under Delhi Sultanate. Other remarkable structures of Sultanate include Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, Adhai din ka Jhonpra etc.

Some of the unique features of architectural styles preferred by the Delhi Sultanate

 The material used to build the structures was derived from the damaged temples.

 They built magnificent palaces with decorated arches and domes.

 Teachings from the Holy Quran and various floral patterns are also visible in the arches and walls.

 Swastika, lotus, bells and other Hindu motifs were also widely used in the structures of the Sultanate thus giving them a grand and exquisite appearance.

Mughal Architecture With the advent of the Mughals, Indo-Muslim architecture got a blood transfusion. Mughal architecture is symbolic of synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions. The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum.

Some of the unique features of Mughal architectural styles:-

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 Mughal architecture is a happy blend of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction and ornamentation.

 A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards.

 Another important aspect is building large domes, high walls and arches.

 Pietra dura work was also popularised in India, by Mughals

 The conception of a garden tomb i.e. construction of garden around tombs was a unique feature of tomb construction in India, started by Mughals.

Taj Mahal, Agra Shahjahan was the greatest builder of the Mughal dynasty. He looked upon white marble, expensive and splendid, as the right and proper building material for an emperor of Hindustan. Shahjahan’s buildings are highly sensuous, delicate and feminine. Taj Mahal is an example of the brilliance of Mughal architecture under Shahjanan

 It is an example of conception of a garden tomb

 The Taj is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall minarets at its four comers.

 The tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary chambers at the angles and the tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome.

 There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious multicolour stones in its floral and arabesque pattern

 The beauty of the building comes from its orderly, simple plan and elevation, amazingly perfect proportions or symmetry

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Jama Masjid, Delhi

 Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built the Jama Masjid in seventeenth century.

 The mosque has three great gates, four towers and two minarets.

 It is constructed of strips of red sandstone and smooth white marble.

 The minarets consist of five storeys, each with a protruding balcony.

 The first three storeys of the minarets is made of red sandstone, the fourth of marble and the fifth of sandstone

 The courtyard can accommodate 25,000 worshippers

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1.8.4 Comparison of Indo-Islamic and early Indian architecture The Islamic rule in India saw the introduction of many new elements in the building style. This was very much distinct from the already prevailing building style adopted in the construction of temples and other secular architecture.

Indo-Islamic architecture Early Indian architecture ornamental decoration was vital ornamental decoration was vital

As among the Muslims the representation of living beings was ornamentation is largely naturalistic taboo, they introduced geometrical and showing human and animal forms arabesque patterns and representation of plant and floral life.

Muslims were forbidden to replicate Hindus adorned all surfaces with

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Indo-Islamic architecture Early Indian architecture living forms on any surface sculptures and paintings

Open court in many cases was Similar structures were built in Chaityas surrounded by colonnades. and Viharas

Extensive use of lime as mortar Very limited use of lime

Arcuate style of construction using Trabeate style of construction using arches and beams pillars and beams and lintels

The mosque was light and open the temple was dark and closed

A cell to house the image of the deity, the Islamic form of worship, with its garbha-griha, and often small halls in emphasis on congregational prayer, front for the worshippers as Hindu form requires a spacious courtyard with a of worship emphasizes on individual large prayer hall prayer

Related terms: Motif – a decorative image or design, especially a repeated one forming a pattern.

Stucco – fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces or moulding into architectural decorations.

Turquoise – A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale green in colour, highly prized for its use in jewellery by many ancient cultures.

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Pietra Dura – Pictorial mosaic work using semi-precious stones. Found on walls, cenotaphs and marble jalis in the Taj Mahal.

Lapis Lazuli – A rich blue semi-precious stone sometimes flecked with gold. The main source in the ancient world was the mountains of Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, from where it was traded widely. Lapis lazuli was used as inlay in ornaments, jewellery, seals, etc.

Sarai – Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge

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1.9 Modern Architecture (including

colonial architecture)

1.9.1 Indian Architecture 18th century onward Before the arrival of British in India, traditional architecture involved the creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone. The aim of building such architectural monuments was glorification. In contrast, the every-day needs of a common man were ruthlessly neglected.

Then the British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first introduction to elementary modern building construction and planning was introduced into India. Their aim, however, was to house their organisations, and their people and whatever was necessary to control an empire as big as India. Apart from self-serving military cantonments and civil lines, they also left the basic problems well alone.

In contemporary architecture, we have marched ahead and have built an impressive number of houses and other buildings which can cater to needs of the common man and our society at large. In the process, there have been attempts to bring us closer to the building of forms more suitable for the Indian climate and socio-economic conditions. Colonial Architecture The colonial architecture spanning about 150 to 200 years under the British Empire attained its golden age in the second half of the 19th century, representing an important phase in the modernization of the country, modification of a stark medieval lifestyle got to ultimately become a democratic one at the dawn of Independence in 1947.

Colonial architecture in India manifests the penetration of colonial ideas/policies and their impact on local institutions, ways of life and building processes which created situations of confrontation between the foreign and indigenous values.

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Characteristics of Colonial architecture

 The British viewed themselves as the successors to Mughals and used architectural style as a symbol of power.

 The buildings they constructed in India were the direct reflection of their achievements in architecture back home.

 The aim of colonial architecture under British rule was to build structures to house their people and their organisations to control Indian empire.

 Under colonial architecture, new residential areas like Civil Lines and Cantonments came up in towns.

 Colonial architectural style in British India witnessed another feature of rare usage of stone especially marble.

 Later stone was replaced by brick as the prime material of British architectures in India, slate, machine-made tiles and steel girders came in vogue, galvanised iron revolutionised the Anglo-Indian roof.

1.9.2 Different Colonial Architectural Styles Neo-classical Style

 This architectural style is reflected in the late 19th century structures in British India.

 It is an imitation of the classical Greeko-Roman style of architecture.

 It involved recreation, revival, re-adaptation of building architecture in ancient Greece and Rome.

 The Mediterranean origins of this architecture were thought to be suitable for Indian tropical climate.

 It was characterised by the construction of geometrical structures fronted with lofty pillars.

 An early example of this style is Town Hall in Bombay.

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Neo-Gothic Style

 The neo-Gothic style was a revival of the early Gothic style of architecture which had its roots in buildings, especially churches, built in northern Europe during the medieval period.

 It was characterised by high-pitched roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration.

 This style was adapted for building infrastructure in Bombay.

 An impressive group of buildings facing the seafront including the Secretariat, University of Bombay and High Court were all built in this style.

 Many Indians merchants gave money for some of these buildings. They were happy to adopt the neo-Gothic style since they believed it was progressive and would help make Bombay, a modern city.

 The British invested a lot in the design and construction of railway stations in this style, an example of which is Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, Mumbai

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Indo-Saracenic Revival Style

 It was a hybrid of Indian and European style which developed in an early twentieth century.

 “Indo” was shorthand for Hindu and “Saracen” was a term Europeans used to designate Muslim.

 The Indo-Saracenic revival architecture drew elements from native Indo-Islamic architecture and combined it with Neo-Classical styles favoured in Victorian Britain.

 The inspiration for this style was medieval buildings in India with their domes, chhatris, jalis, and arches etc.

 ‘Chepauk Palace’ situated in Chennai (erstwhile Madras) was the first Indo- Saracenic revival building.

 The Gateway of India is the most famous example of this style. The industrialist Jamsetji Tata built the Taj Mahal Hotel in the similar style.

Chepauk Palace, Chennai Art-Deco Style

 Art Deco in India (and especially in Mumbai) evolved into a unique style that came to be called Deco-Saracenic.

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 Essentially, it was a combination of the Islamic and the Hindu architectural styles.

 Art Deco is one of Mumbai’s least noticed architectural styles, though Mumbai and its suburbs possibly have the largest number of Art Deco buildings in the world.

 Deco details touch every architectural aspect –flooring, wood panelling, railings, weather shades, verandahs, balconies and facades that are very airy and built in stepped -back style, etc.

 The interiors have Victorian influences while the exterior was Indian.

 Art Deco architecture in Mumbai developed during the 1930s and produced distinctly angular shaped buildings with facades.

 The Art Deco style is also extremely popular amongst various Cinema halls that sprung up in the early to mid 20th Century including Metro Cinema, Eros Cinema etc.

 Some examples of this style are – The Mahalakshmi Temple, Regal Cinema, The High Court building in Mumbai

Contributions of Sir Edwin Lutyen and Sir Herbert Baker

 The British government, experiencing a sense of crisis due to rising anti- imperialist wave in India, declared Delhi to be its new capital in 1911.

 Thus the British leading architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker were invited to design the city of New Delhi and its important edifices.

 The architects designed a monumental urban street complex that was essentially alien to Indian cities.

 Their architectural style involved a fusion of classical European and Indian elements.

 Lavish colonnades, open verandas, tall, slender windows, chhajjas (wide roof overhangs) and cornices jaalis (circular stone apertures) and chhatris (free-

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standing pavilions) were used at the same time as decorative elements from typical historic Indian architecture.

 Lutyen designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It is built of sandstone and has design features like canopies and jaali from Rajasthan

 Lutyen designed many other monuments in Delhi including India gate. In recognition of his contributions, New Delhi is also known as Lutyens Delhi.

 Similarly, Baker, who came to India to work with Lutyen, had also designed many buildings in New Delhi such as Central Secretariat building, Parliament House, Bungalows of MPs etc.

Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi

1.9.3 ARCHITECTURE AFTER THE INDEPENDENCE India became independent from the British Empire in 1947 and Indian architecture immediately parted from European classical styles and rushed into modernism. Modern Indian architecture still honours and upholds the traditions of India, but the architectural form works to better meet the needs of modern- day society. Modern Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region.

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Characteristics of post-independence architecture

 Today we see a traditional character in Indian architecture, but with modern form and style.

 Buildings are less ornate and more utilitarian and expressive in form.

 Building materials used in construction are a basic and locally available but cutting edge. The use of steel and glass to erect innovative building forms is very popular and striking in the landscape.

 Urban centres in India are booming, bringing along with it a rise in population and property demand.

 High rise buildings have also become very common in these dense urban areas where space must be maximized.

 Another modern characteristic in India is building of structures which are more responsive to its ecology and climate.

 Also, many architects in India including Laurie Baker and Charles Correa have concerned themselves with building low-cost housing for poor households.

Architects of Modern India Le Corbusier

 He was a Switzerland born French architect

 Le Corbusier’s largest and most ambitious project was the design of Chandigarh.

 It was one of the early planned cities in post-independence India. The master- plan for Chandigarh was prepared by Le Corbusier.

 Chandigarh’s Capitol Complex, designed by Corbusier was declared by UNESCO as World Heritage in 2016.

 Le Corbusier’s design called for the use of raw concrete, whose surface not smoothed or polished and which showed the marks of the forms in which it dried.

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 Not only his radical reimagination of urban life left its imprint all over the world, but also the architectural work of Le Corbusier is an outstanding contribution to the “Modern Movement” in Indian architecture.

Post-1947, Indian architecture was at a standstill in terms of progression; there was no unique identity being formed. However, when the Indian Punjab government took on world famous architect Le Corbusier to design the city of Chandigarh, an architectural breakthrough began.

Architects working in India began to draw inspiration in the years following Le Corbusier’s work, and thus began a more rapid evolution of modern architecture.

Capitol complex, Chandigarh B V Doshi

 He is considered an important figure of South Asian architecture and noted for his unfathomable contributions to the evolution of architectural discourse in India

 He contributed significantly in the development of modern Indian architecture

 In his initial years, he worked for Le Corbusier in his projects

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 His noted works include Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, Amdavad ni Gufa and Tagore Hall in Ahmadabad etc. Charles Correa

 He was a Secunderabad born Indian architect

 Correa was a major figure in contemporary Indian architecture. With his extraordinary and inspiring designs, he played a pivotal role in the creation of post-Independence Indian architecture.

 He is known for his adaptation of Modernist tenets to local climates and building styles.

 In the realm of urban planning, he is particularly noted for his sensitivity to the needs of the urban poor and for his use of traditional methods and materials.

 Correa’s work in India shows a careful fusion of local vernacular tradition with a modernist approach

 Correa’s urban planning projects and land use planning present a solution to third world problems and try to go beyond that

 His famous works in India include Mahatma Gandhi Memorial in Ahmedabad, the Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, the planning of Navi Mumbai etc. Laurie Baker

 He was a British-born Indian architect. He became an Indian citizen in 1989.

 He was Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi in his life and work

 Due to his social and humanitarian efforts to bring architecture and design to the common man, his belief in simplicity in design and in life, he has been called the “Gandhi of architecture.”

 His life’s work follows economical, ecological and sustainable criteria in building and is devoted to people in lower income groups.

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 He is known for his initiatives in cost-effective energy-efficient architecture and designs that maximized space, ventilation and light

 He promoted the revival of regional building practices and use of local materials

 He was a pioneer of sustainable architecture as well as organic architecture

Indian traditional architecture has produced many architectural marvels which are admired the world over. In comparison to traditional architecture, modern Indian architecture is a new phenomenon and it has been consistently evolving not only to produce architectural marvels like Lotus temple, planned cities etc. but also to tackle the contemporary needs and challenges of our society like low- cost housing, energy efficient and climate responsive architecture etc.

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2.1 Indus Valley Civilization – Red and Black Pottery

In Indus Valley Civilization, pottery was an important industry and the significance of the pottery can be noted from the fact that harappan pictographical scripts were mainly found on potteries. Indus Valley Civilization Pottery, remained plain most of the times and it further enabled us to understand the gradual evolution of various design motifs as employed in different shapes, and styles.

Indus Valley Civilization consists chiefly of wheel made wares (although potters’ wheels, being made of wood, have not survived) both plain and painted while the plain pottery (usually of red clay with or without a fine red slip) is more common than the painted ware (of red and black colours). 2.1.1 Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilisation Pottery

 The painted decorations consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness, scales, chequers, leaf patterns, lattice work, palm and pipal trees. Additionally, Birds, fishes and animals are also shown.

 Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls.

 The uniformity in the forms and paintings on the pottery is difficult to explain and normally the explanation of this uniformity is the fact that the local potters made the pottery. However, it is still unclear how such a large area exhibited a uniform pottery tradition.

 Although the Indus pottery is mostly represented by the plain bases but few ring bases discovered were on handmade pottery, which was supposed to be baked at home.

 Pottery made on potter’s wheel and burnt in kilns, has shown marks of stamp which might indicate that a few varieties of vessels were traded also.

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2.1.2 Types of Pottery

 Different types of pottery such as glazed(earliest example of its kind in the ancient world), incised, polychrome, perforated and knobbed were used by Harappan people.

 Polychrome pottery (created when 3 or more mineral colors are used to decorate a hand built ceramic) was rare and mainly comprised small vases decorated with geometric patterns mostly in red, black and green and less frequently in white and yellow simultaneously incised ware is also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans.

 Perforated pottery was probably used for straining liquor since it has small holes all over the wall and a large hole at the bottom.

 The decoration on the outside with knobs is a special feature of Knobbed pottery.

 The Harappan pottery includes goblets, basins, flasks, dishes, cylindrical bottles, tumblers (flat-bottomed), narrow necked vases, spouted vases, corn measures and a special type of dish on a stand which was a offering stand or incense holder.

Mature Indus Valley Civilization Pottery

 Mature Harappan pottery technology was quite advanced with most of the pots being wheel-made and it represents a blend of the ceramic tradition of the pre- Harappan culture of both Saraswati area and the west of the Indus region.

 Big storage jars were also produced during mature Harappa phase and pots were excellently painted in black on the bright red surface with geometric patterns, animals, plants, and sometimes paintings also seem to depict scenes from stories.

Location of Pottery Site?

 The black and Red ware pottery has been found at the highest levels of the Saurashtrian Indus site. Indus experts speculate that these sites probably escaped the general decline of the Indus civilization because they were not

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located on Indus River, and thus, did not have to go through the destruction that Mohenjo-daro and many other settlements went through.

 In Harappa a pot obtained from a cemetery shows hunting scene with two antelopes and a hunter.

 A scene of two birds perching on tree holding a fish on its bleak has been depicted on a jar obtained from Lothal.

 Traces of Harappan Pottery (2300 to 2000 BC) were also found at archaeological sites in Bahrein and some of the coastal points of the Gulf and further representation of ships and boats are found on Pottery.

 In areas like Gujarat and Rajasthan a variety of other kinds of potteries continued to be produced along with the Harappan pottery.

Pottery in Post Harappan Period

 Some characteristic pottery of post Harappan period are Ochre Coloured Pottery (The OCP shares many shapes with the Harappan ware.) (c. 2000-1500) Black and Red ware, Painted Grey Ware (c. 1200-600 B.C.) etc.

 By about seventh century B.C., Northern Black Polished (N.B.P.) ware came to be manufactured.

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2.2 Iron Age Pottery

Iron Age succeeds Late Harappan Culture in the Indian Subcontinent. Painted Grey Ware (1200-600 BC) and Northern Back Polished Ware (700-200 BC) were the main archaeological culture of Iron Age Pottery in present day Northern India. 2.2.1 Painted Grey Ware

 This culture lasted roughly for 600 years (1200BC to 600 BC) in the Ghaggar- Hakra Valley and Western Gangetic Plain.

 There have been more than 1100 PGW sites discovered and most of them were small farming villages, several dozen sites emerged as relatively bigger settlements and had characteristics of Towns. The time period of PGW culture corresponds to middle or late vedic period i.e. Kuru-Panchala Kingdom.

 Painted Grey ware is the successor of the Black and Red ware (BRW) in the Western Gangetic Plain and it is contemporary with the continuation of the BRW Culture in Central India and Eastern Gangetic Plain.

 The PGW culture majorly being associated with village and town settlements, ivory-working, domesticated horses, the advent of iron metallurgy was characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black.

 Latest surveys by archaeologist suggest Mathura was the largest PGW site also recently excavated Ahichatra (some area) belong to PGW period.

 There have been evidences of existence of Painted Grey Ware culture during Mature Harappan phase like an excavation done by University of Cambridge and Banaras Hindu University at Alamgirpur near Delhi, suggested that PGW early phases are much older than previously thought.

What followed PGW? Northern Black polished ware(NBPW), which was connected with the rise of Mahajanpadas and Great Magadha Empire, succeeded painted Grey ware (PGW)

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culture and many of the PGW settlements grew into large town and cities of Northern Black Polished Ware Period. 2.2.2 Northern Black polished ware (NBPW)

 It developed beginning around 700 BC, in the late Vedic Period (Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)) and was an urban iron age culture of Indian Subcontinent.

 Northern Black Polished Ware, was a luxury style of burnished pottery used by elites and the NBP Wares were of well levigated (smooth paste) clay, has a glossy surface with a thin core and ware was usually unpainted.

 NBPW was produced by Iron-Age culture which was centred around the area of Central India and it was at its height when Buddhism was also on rise.

 Since the Northern Black Polished Ware pottery is found in the south India as well as in the north and it is sometimes brown in colour too, thus in totality NBPW is considered misnamed.

 But typically, NBPW has a black, shiny, almost metallic sheen and exactly how it was made remains unexplained and it was first produced in Magadha (an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar) and reached its most developed form between 500 and 300 BCE, which correspond to the beginning of Buddhism.

 NBPW coincided with the reurbanisation and massive embankments and fortifications, increased social stratification significant population growth, wide- ranging trade networks, specialized craft industries and during NBPW period for the first time in South Asia large cities emerged after the decline of Indus Valley Civilization.

 Some important NBPW sites, associated with the mahajanpadas are- Delhi or Ancient Indraprastha, Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Mathura, Ahichatra, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Sravasti, Varanasi, Ujjain, Vidisha.

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2.3 Mural/Wall Painting

• Mural comes from the Latin word ‘murus’ which means wall.

• Murals are significant as they bring art into a large public sphere as they are put up on a large wall and hence an effective tool for social emancipation.

• Also murals can add to the scenic beauty of a place where they are painted.

• It started from around 2nd century BC to 10th century AD.

• They were basically rock cut chambers.

• They were also found in natural caves earlier.

• Examples of mural paintings include Jogimara caves, Ajanta caves etc.

• In India they are of sheer size, found in Ajanta, Ellora, caves and temple walls etc.

2.3.1 AJANTA CAVE PAINTINGS

• They are oldest in India.

• They were found in 4th century BC in 1829 in Aurangabad.

• They are horse shoe shaped.

• They are found in volcanic rocks.

• They are basically Buddhist in theme

• They are carved in perpendicular cliff.

• There are 4 chaityas and 25 viharas. Hence total of 29 caves are present in Ajanta.

• There was social fabric along with costume and ornaments.

• Animal and birds figures can be found here in these paintings/

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• Female figures had unique hairstyles.

• Red ochre was in outline while contours had black, brown etc

• The great Bodhisattvas are painted upon the walls of Ajanta.

• The ancient tradition of painting is documented as the Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara Purana.

2.3.2 KASHMIRI PAINTINGS

• The paintings here were made in two phases. The oldest date to around the 2nd century B.C. The latter phase was around the 5th century A.D., under the patronage of the Vakatakas who ruled the Deccan.

• The curving strings of the purse that Princess Madri dangles are a marvelous depiction of movement in Visvantara Jataka, Cave 17, and Ajanta.

• Nine caves were excavated on the slopes of the Vindhya hills during the reign of the Guptas.

• Pallava kings gave glorious expression to themes relating to Siva in the paintings in the temples of Panamalai and Kailashanatar in Kancheepuram.

• The niches in the outer ambulatory path of the Kailashanath temple were once covered with paintings in brilliant colours.

• There are also paintings of the late 9th century in the Jain caves at Ellora.

• In the heart of the Brihadeeswara temple in Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu, are the finest paintings of the theme of Siva ever painted.

• In keeping with ancient traditions, the guru is given importance and the king is shown standing behind him in King Rajaraja Chola and Guru Karuvurar Brihadeeswara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century

• King Yeshe Od of Guge built 108 monasteries across his kingdom in Ladakh, western Tibet, Kinnaur and Lahaul-Spiti. Craftsmen in 11th century.

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• The dhoti of an Avalokitesvara statue in the three-storeyed temple of Alchi has some of the most gorgeous paintings. One of the masterpieces of the Alchi paintings is the Green Tara.

2.3.3 ELLORA CAVE PAINTINGS

• These are the largest rock cut paintings.

• 34 caves are present here.

• It has trends of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.

• There are 5 caves in total.

• Kailash temples are one of them.

• Shiva is depicted in many forms.

• Vishnu, Laxmi, Garuda are found too.

2.3.4 BAGH CAVE PAINTINGS

• They are found in Madhya Pradesh.

• It is an extension of Ajanta school.

• There are 9 rock cut caves.

• They are tightly modeled.

• These are more earthly and humane.

• These are Materialistic paintings rather than anything spiritual or religious themes. • Reddish brown gritty and thick mud and plaster is found.

• Lime priming also found.

• Buddhist and jataka tales are also found.

• Paintings are both secular and religious.

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2.3.5 ARNAMALAI CAVE PAINTINGS

• Found in places like Ambur, Vellore, Tamil nadu etc.

• They are basically Jain temples.

• Found in 8th century AD.

• Fresco and tempera techniques were used.

• Tamil brahmi inscriptions were found

• Images of asthika palaces are found here too.

2.3.6 SITTANAVASAL CAVES

• These are found in Tamil nadu

• Jain temples are the main features here.

• These are abode of great saints

• Vegetable and mineral dyes used

• During pallava period these caves were found.

2.3.7 LEPAKSHI PAINTINGS

• Found in Karnataka

• These paintings belonged to the Vijaynagar period

• These paintings are the largest in Asia

• Badami rulers ruled here.

• Absence of primary colours can be seen here.

• Black outlined costumes were used.

2.3.8 RAVAN CHHHYA ROCK SHELTER PAINTINGS

• Shadow of ravana is made here.

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• Found in Odisha

• Half opened umbrella shape can be found.

• Royal hunting lodge can be seen

• It was done during the Chola period.

• Royal procession can be found here.

2.3.9 NAYAKA PAINTINGS

• Depicting the story of Mucukunda, a legendary Chola king.

TRADITIONAL FORMS OF MURALS

• Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

• Mithila paintings, Mithila region, Bihar

• Warli paintings, Maharashtra

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2.4 Miniatures

Miniatures are the small sized, handmade, very colourful paintings and main feature of these Miniature paintings include complex and gentle brush work which provides them unique identity. In the eastern and western India miniature Paintings developed in the 9th to the 11th century as a reaction to large scale wall painting. The colours used in Miniature were handmade from vegetables, minerals, stones, indigo etc.

2.4.1 Miniature Schools in India

Pala School

 During 9th to 12th century Palas of Bengal and Bihar patronised this school and this is considered the earliest example of miniature painting.

 The symbolic use of colour which was taken from tantric ritual was highlighted by this school of painting and almost all illuminations were inspired by Vajrayana Buddhism.

 The Pala school used natural colour for painting human skin.

 They developed pictures on paper manuscripts, wooden covers and palm leaf.

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 Flat heads, sinuous finishing lines, attention on mostly lone human figure, paintings with no name are the features of this school of painting.

 During the first half of 13th century the Buddhist monasteries were destroyed at the hands of the Muslim invaders which led to the abrupt end of the Pala school of miniature painting.

 Although some of the artists and monks escaped to Nepal and assisted in strengthening the prevailing art tradition there.

Jaina Miniature Painting

 In this school excessive emphasis was given on the style and stylish figure of women, use of strong and pure colours, heavy gold outlines, square shaped hands, enlarged eyes were the unique characteristics of this school.

 In Rajasthani and Mughal Paintings also, the impact of Jaina Painting is seen.

Apabhramsa School

 This school is considered the counterpart of the Pala School in the western India and developed in Mewar and Gujarat during 11th to 15th century.

 In the beginning the painting was done on Palm leaves but in later stages it shifted to paper.

 Lack of Natural scenes, bulging eyes, angular faces and decorated margins are the features of this school of painting.

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Gujarat School

 In the miniatures of this school the content is mostly taken from the books related to Jainism and particularly from the Biography of Mahavira known as Kalpasutra.

 These paintings were created in long, narrow palm leaves and included the fine drawing of outlines.

Deccan School

 This school had Bijapur as a main centre, which rose to prominence under Ibrahim Adil Shah and this painting style although contemporary to the Mughal Style, continued to grow independently of it, in the beginning.

Miniature Paintings during Mughal Era

 Mughal School of Painting originated during the rule of Mughal Emperor Akbar, who was deeply interested in the art of Painting and Architecture and a workshop of painting was established under the supervision of two painters of

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the Persian origin, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who formerly were employed by Humayun.

 Mughal school of painting has materialised from the Persian miniature (Safavid school of Persian Painting) and had influences of Hindu, Buddhist and Jains and this school of painting is considered the landmark in the history of painting in India.

 In the miniature painting the attention was on adoring the ruler and displaying his life rather than portraying the God and this style of painting largely remained secular marked by supple naturalism based upon close observation of nature and delicate drawing.

 Court events, hunting scenes, historical events were the main subjects of the miniature painting in the Mughal era.

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Akbar

 Akbar awarded the painters, looked upon the paintings as a media of study and enjoyment, and he established Karkhanas where the artist work and could develop their own style.

 During Akbar’s time the use of calligraphy and 3 Dimensional figures in the painting were much prevalent.

 The illustrated manuscript of Tuti-nama (Tales of a parrot) shows Mughal style in its formative stage and considered as the first work of Mughal School, the illustrators were Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. Later Mughal Painting appeared more refined and developed in Hamzanama (Amir Hamza, was uncle of the Prophet Muhammad); pictures were painted on the paper and then glued to the cloth backing.

 Along with Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali the painters of this period include Daswant, Baswan, Kesu.

Jahangir

 Jahangir was exceptionally great patron of painting and during his reign Mughal Painting reached its pinnacle.

 The theme of painting during this time were based on the events from Jahangir’s own life and he also gave emphasis on bringing naturalism to the painting and being a naturalist, he preferred the painting of flowers, trees, birds, animals etc.

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 More refinement in the brushwork, use of lighter and subdued colours, decorated margins which were as elaborate as the paintings themselves are considered as the unique feature of Mughal painting during Jahangir period.

 Jahangir was also influenced by the European style of painting and he encouraged his painters to focus on single point perspective as was done by European artists.

 The famous example of this time include the pictorial illustrations in the biography of Jahangir i.e. the Jehangir-Nama.

 Abdul Hasan, Ustad Mansur and Bisandas were among the famous painters of this period.

Shah Jahan

 Shah Jahan focussed more on architecture than on Painting.

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 Although during Shah Jahan reign, the painting gained technical perfection but at the same time it became static, less lively and more stereotyped and European influence in the paintings was increased.

 Themes of this period consist of terraces, gardens, musical parties, lovers and sometimes even the intimate positions.

 Shahjahan wanted increased use of gold and silver in the paintings and he avoided the use of charcoal to draw and motivated the artists to draw and sketch with the help of pencil.

 Bichiter, Anup Chattar, Chaitaraman, Mohammed Nadir, were the prominent artists of this era.

 Along with portraiture, the paintings of this period showed groups of mystics and ascetics, notable example of manuscripts include Shah Jaha Nama, Gulistan and Bustan of Sadi.

Aurangzeb

 His reign saw the decline of Mughal Painting as he didn’t support the painting.

 A huge number of artists migrated to the provincial courts and the Painting continued to survive due to support from other patrons.

Rajput School of Painting This style of painting originated in Rajasthan around late 16th and early 17th century and had Mughal Influence. A typical style of painting with some common features in every Rajpoot School and illustrations were mostly based on the themes like events from Ramayana and Mahabharata, natural landscape, human beings etc. The colours were derived from plant sources, minerals, conch shells, gold, silver etc. The various centres of Rajpoot art are as following-

Bikaner

 This style of painting has similarity with Mughal and Deccani style.

 Paintings of this school were simple and lacked flashiness and pomposity.

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Marwar

 Paintings of this style were accomplished in a primitive and vigorous folk style and a series of Ragamala in the collection of Kumar Sangram Singh painted by an artist named Virji in 1623 is considered earliest example of painting of this school.

 The themes included portraitures of darbar scenes and nobles on horses.

Amber and Jaipur

 This school of painting has strong Mughal influence.

 Initially Amber was the capital of the Amber state but later it was shifted to Jaipur in the 18th century.

Kota

 This style of painting developed in the late 18th and 19th centuries and considered similar to the Bundi style of painting.

 In the paintings of Kota style most of the space is occupied by the hilly jungle and themes of tiger and bear hunt were very popular.

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Bundi

 The painting in Bundi started as early as in 1625 AD and a painting showing Bhairavi Ragini in Allahabad Museum is considered one of the earliest example of Bundi style of Painting.

 The Mughal Influence is visible in the paintings of Bundi style in terms of refined drawing of the faces and an element of naturalism is present in the painting of the trees.

Mewar

 This school of painting opposing to other Rajpoot painting focussed upon the conservative style and tried to avoid the influence of Mughals.

 Chawand Ragamala of 1605 is considered as the earliest example of the Mewar school.

 Mewar style saw many ups and downs as towards the end of 17th century and 18th century it saw the revival but later in 18th century it witnessed downfall, and from mid-19th to mid-20th century it continued as the court art.

Malwa

 Malwa style was one of the most conservative Rajpoot painting school and was greatly influenced by the Chaura-Panchasika style.

Kishangarh

 In this style of painting a fusion of Mughal and regional style can be seen and the love between the Radha and Krishna used to be the central theme of this style.

 Kishangarh is known for its Bani Thani Paintings.

 Sawant Singh was the leading painter of this school.

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Pahari School of Painting The Paintings in the sub-himalayan states of Himanchal Pradesh and J&K which were under the patronage of Mughals, are known as the Pahari Paintings. Since the Pahari Rajas had the family relations with the Rajput kings of Rajasthan thus, these paintings were heavily influenced by the Rajput style of paintings.

This school of painting flourished during 17th and 19th centuries and paintings can be divided into two distinct categories based upon their geographical range which were- Basholi & Kullu Style, Guler and Kangra Style.

Basholi

 Basholi is a town situated in Himachal Pradesh at the bank of river Ravi.

 Pahari style of painting in its first phase developed in Basholi and under the patronage of Raja Kripal Singh, the individual flavour appeared which was an assertion of the folk-art tradition along with the Mughal Technique.

 Splendid Devi series, Magnificent depiction of Rasamanjari text, are some of the prominent examples of painting under this style.

 Big eyes that are shaped like lotus petals, expressive faces, geometrical patterns, bright colours, glossy enamel characterize Basholi Paintings.

Guler-Kangra Style

 This style developed around the year 1800 and is considered more naturalized version of painting.

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 In Guler style a synthesis of the Mughal and Basholi school is realised and the drawing is light and fluid, poses and gestures play an important role in portrayal of individuals.

 This style highlighted the stylishness and beauty of Indian Women and visible difference were given in the portraying of face and treatment of eyes.

 Under the patronage of Raja Sansar Chand this school of painting reached its pinnacle.

 An abundance of flowering plants and creepers, streams and brooks are featured in Kangra paintings and later it also depicted lightening, storm and nocturnal scenes.

2.4.2 Miniature Paintings in South India

Tanjore Painting

 During 18th and 19th centuries a style of Painting having characteristics like techniques of shading, bold drawing, use of bright colours thrived at Tanjore, and a typical example of this style of painting lies in the collection of National Museum in which coronation of Rama is shown; Rama and Sita are seated in the

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throne attended by his brothers, rishis, courtiers, princes along with Hanuman, Sugriva who are being honoured.

 Typical feature of Tanjore Miniature painting includes a conical crown.

 The paintings are unique in the sense that they are created on glass and board unlike cloth and vellum in North India.

 Presently this school of painting is still functioning.

Mysore Painting

 The painting style was patronised by the rulers of Mysore and continued in the British India also and the major themes include the depiction of Hindu God and Goddesses.

 Delicate lines, graceful delineation, discreet use of vegetable colours, use of lustrous gold leaf, intricate brush strokes are the characteristics of this style.

 Many literary pieces were prepared and most famous being Sritattvanidhi, which was a voluminous 1500 page work.

 These paintings were made in a different style with the use of gesso paste which used to be prepared by mixing of Zinc Oxide with the Arabic Gum.

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2.5 Modern Painting

 Miniature painting declined during end of 19th

 With the advent of Europeans, modern paintings were established.

 These paintings are also called Company school as it emerged under the patronage of British East India Company.

 They are also called as Patna school of Paintings.

 Mains centers of these paintings were– Patna, Murshidabad and other centers were Varanasi, Delhi, and Lucknow etc.

 The paintings depicted themes of social and general lives of the people- for example, festivals, processions, bajars, bangle sellers, fish sellers, carpenter etc.

 There was no royal splendor in the paintings.

 The paintings were simple in nature without much décor or show off.

 It had finishing touches.

 Life like representation was made in the paintings.

 The sketches were light.

 No background was present in these paintings.

 For example, the painting of flying bird- the feathers are painted so clearly which shows how deftly the paintings were sketched.

 Sevak ram, Ishwari Prasad Verma, Raja Ravi Verma, Jamini Roy, Amrita Shergill etc were some of the painters.

2.5.1 Bengal school of Painting

 Abanindranath Tagore and Havell were the pioneers of Bengal School of Painting.

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 To revive the lost values was the main motive of this painting.

 It was against the western influence of paintings.

 Based on local Indian tradition.

 Broke away from the Raja Ravi Verma art of paintings as it was based on western styles.

 Based on historical and religious themes, social and daily life scenes

 Shades were light in color.

 Ajanta pictures were depicted gracefully here.

 It had impact of Mughal and Rajasthani school.

 Abanindranath Tagore’s Arabian Nights series (1930) is among his renowned works.

 Other renowned painters like Nandlal Bose, Jamini Roy, Devi Prasad Roy, Sarada Charan Ukil, and Asit Kumar Haldar also belonged to this school.

 Abstract painters like V.S. Gaitonde, Balraj Khanna and J.Swaminathan emerged on the scene.

 Gulam Muhammed Sheikh, Satish Gujral, S.H.Raza, Akbar Padamsee (Woman), Tyeb Mehta (Figure with Bird), Krishna Khanna (St Francis and the Wolf) are some other prominent names of India’s contemporary art scene.

 Among the contemporary modem Indian women painters, mention may be made of Arpana Caur, B.Prabha, Kamala Das, Anjolie Ela Menon and Lalitha Lajmi.

 The South India saw the proliferation of good painters like K.C.S.Pannikker, K.Madhava Menon,L.Narasimhamurty etc.

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Cubist form of painting

 This form of painting was by Europeans.

 Cube like structures were created in the paintings.

 F Husain was a known painter in this form.

2.5.2 PAINTERS OF MODERN INDIA

Raja Ravi Verma

 Raja Ravi Verma of Kerala was perhaps the first great modern painter in India.

 He combined various regional elements like costumes, jewellery and facial features.

 His illustrations of Ramayana and Mahabharata were the most appealing.

 He won a gold medal at the World Art Exhibition, Vienna, for his picture Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair.

 He learnt Water painting from Ramaswamy Naidu.

 He also learnt Oil painting from Jenson

 His paintings were mostly Western influenced.

 His theme of paintings was that of Indian mythology- Ramayana and Mahabharata.

 His paintings were criticized for being too showy.

 Famous for Shakuntala painting.

 Painting : ‘Lady in The Moon Light’ by Raja Ravi Varma was famous.

 Crater verma on mercury named after him.

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Abhinandanath Tagore

 Swadeshi values were reflected in his paintings.

 Indian style was the main theme.

 Rejected Ravi Verma Style of painting as it was westernized.

 Different pictorial elements were used.

 Shahjahan looking at Taj, Buddha, and Sujata etc were some of his paintings.

 Depth of artists and emotions were reflected in his paintings.

 Arabian night’s series was one of his finest achievements in paintings.

Rabindranath Tagore

 Graphic paintings were his main themes.

 Paintings made by him were small in size.

 Simple bold forms can be witnessed in his paintings.

 Landscape subjects were used.

 Highly imaginative and creative were his works.

 Paintings directly linked with his writings

 Black ink was used for paintings.

Jamini Roy

 She belonged to the Bengal school of art.

 Folk art was focused by her in her paintings.

 Bold and static lines were used in her paintings.

 Jaina influence ‘was witnessed in her paintings.

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 Themes- Jesus, Ramayana etc was used.

 Scenes of santhals were depicted.

 Curves were used by her in her paintings.

Asit Kumar Haldar

 Poetical rhyme were reflected in his paintings

 Masterpiece was Krishna and yoshoda, awakening of mother India etc.

Nandalal Bose

 Indian style was the main theme of his paintings

 His paintings were Influenced by murals, mughals etc

 Bold lines were used for paintings.

 Simple colors were used

 Shiva parvati, Krishna, Arjun etc were some of the examples of his paintings

Sharda Ukil

 Reviving traditional past was the main aim of his paintings

 Historic themes were used.

 Day to day lives were depicted of men and women in his paintings

 Natural scenes were sketched.

 Buddha Krishna was depicted.

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3.1 8 Classical Dances

Classical Dances of India Dancing is one of the most ancient art in Indian culture. Classical dance established its roots from as early as the Vedic time. It is mainly associated deeply with the religious rites, the performance of gods and goddesses and maintaining the divine and spiritual concept of race.

All these dances are mainly governed by the guidelines laid down in the Natyashastra written by Bharatamuni. The principal rule is that the knowledge is transferred through gurus. Gurus pass the knowledge of different traditions called sampradayas to the disciples. This guru-shishya parampara is the core of classical art form in India.

Presently there are eight classical dance forms in India.

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3.1.1. Bharatnatyam

 It is the oldest classical dance form of all dance forms. Bharatnatyam derives its name from Bharatamuni and Natyam which means dance in Tamil.

 The origin of this dance is traced to the solo dance performance of Devadasis(Temple dancers) in Tamil Nadu.

 The art became nearly extinct after the decline of devadasi system. The efforts of prominent freedom fighter E.Krishna Iyer revived this dance form.

Classification of Bharatnatyam Alarippu: It is the beginning of dance with simple posses and movements. It seeks to get the blessing from the God. It helps the dancer to get ready for the performance.

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Jatishwara: It is the pure form of dance in which body movements are synchronized with the Swara of Raga and Tala.

Shabda: It includes abhinaya in the song which generally praises the glory of God.

Varnam: Dance and emotions synchronized with Raga and Tala.

Padam: It is a mastery over abhinaya expressed by the performer.

Jawali: Short love-lyrics performed at a faster tempo.

Thillana: It is the last stage of performance which comprise of pure dance, high spirited body movements and complicated variation in rhythm.

 Movements of Bharatnatyam resemble that of the dancing flame.

 Rukmini Devi Arundale, a famous proponent Bharatnatyam bought global recognition for this dance form. She bought radical changes in the costumes of dancers.

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3.1.2. Kuchipudi

 Kuchipudi was originally performed by the group of actors going from village to village known as ‘Kusselavas’. Kuchipudi derives its name from the Andhra village called Kusselavapuri.

 The advent of Bhagavatism made the dance a monopoly of male brahmins and began to be performed at the temple. The recital is based on Bhagavata

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Purana but has a secular theme and dancers came to be kError! Hyperlink reference not valid.nown as Bhagathalus.

 Kuchipudi became prominent under the patronage of Vijayanagara and Golconda rulers.

 Kuchipudi consists of divisions such as Adavus, Jatis, Jatiswara, Tirmanas, and Thillanas. The dance also expresses through Padas, Varnas, Shabdas, and slokas. These features are also found in Bharatnatyam also.

 Lasya and tandava elements are important in kuchipudi dance form.

 The dance style is a manifestation of earthly elements in the human body.

 The dancer may undertake the role of the singer as well becoming a dance- drama performance.

 The music of dance is Carnatic.

 Lakshmi Narayana Shastri bought renown to Kuchipudi dance form. In the present century, Kuchipudi is changing its character greatly to solo items.

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3.1.3. Kathakali

 Kathakali is a classical dance form of Kerala. It derives its name from‘Katha’ means story and ‘kali’ means drama. The fold traditions, Ramanattam and Krishnanattam performed in temples under the patronage of feudal lords became the source of Kathakali.

 Kathakali declined after the breakdown of the feudal lords. Later renowned Malayali poet Vallathol Narayana Menon revived it under the patronage of Mukunda Raja. He established Kerala Kala Mandalam for the progress of Kathakali.

 Kathakali is a dance-drama where the actor does not speak their lines.

 It is performed in open air theatre or in temple premises. Brass lamp is used for lighting.

 Kathakali depicts the eternal conflict between God and Evil in most of its presentations.

 Representation of Rasa through movement of Eye and Eyebrows is the most remarkable feature of Kathakali. This needs strenuous training to perform.

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 Malayalam with many Sanskrit word is the language used in Kathakali songs.

 The Mask like elaborate facial makeup is governed by the complex symbolism of colour, line, and design.

 Reddening white portion of the eye is a peculiar feature of Kathakali.

 Each character like Heroes, Anti-heroes, Villians, Demons, Snags, and King have a prescribed makeup and costume.

 Combination of colour determines the type and mood of character in the play. These are Pacha, Katti, Thaadi(Velupu Thaadi, Chuvap Thaadi, Karup Thaadi). Green is associated with Good, red with valour and ferocity, black with evil and primitiveness, and white with purity.

 Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopi Nath, Rita Ganguly etc are the famous proponents of Kathakali.

3.1.4. Mohiniattam

 Mohiniyattam is a classical dance tradition of Kerala which gained prominence under the rulers of Travancore. After a period of decline, it was revived by famous poet Vallathol Narayana Menon along with Kalyani Ammal.

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 ‘Mohini’ means beautiful and ‘Attam’ means dance. It is essentially a solo dance performance that incorporates Lasya and Tandava style.

 It generally narrates the story of the feminine dance of Vishnu.

 White and off-white is the principal colour used in costumes of Mohiniyattam.

 Mohiniyattam perform symbolizes the element of air.

 It includes a peculiar manner of dancing with feet and legs apart. Knees are greatly bent and rhythmic syllable words are used in recitation.

 The dancer’s feet are perfectly synchronized with the play of drum.

 Sunanda Nair, Madhuri Amma, Jayaprabha Menon etc are the main proponents of Mohiniyattam.

3.1.5. Odissi

 Odissi derives its name from ‘Odra Nirtya‘ mentioned in Natya Shastra. Khandariya-Udayagiri caves provide some of the early examples of Odissi dance.

 It was patronized mainly by the Jain King Kharvela and primarily performed by Maharis.

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 Kabichanda Kallicharan Patnaik revived this dance form after the independence. Later efforts of Charles Fabri and Indrani Rehman bought International acclaim to this dance form.

 Mudras and postures for expressing emotions are similar to that of Bharatanatyam.

 The three bent form of dance called Tribangha posture is an important feature of Odissi.

 Odissi dance performs Natya combined with an element of dancing and acting.

 It is a unique representation of gracefulness, beauty, and sensuality.

 Geometrical shapes and patterns are created with dancers body. Hence it is called ‘Mobile Sculpture’.

Elements of Odissi includes Mangalcharan: It is the beginning of the dance.

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Batunirtya: It comprises of dancing.

Pallavi: It includes the facial expression and representation of the song.

Tarijham: Pure dance before the conclusion.

 Odissi dance music is Hindustani.

 Water is symbolized in this dance form.

 Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Kelu Charan Mohapatra etc are the main proponents of this dance form.

3.1.6. Manipuri

 The mythological origin of Manipuri dance is traced to the celestial dance of Siva and Parvati along with ‘Gandharva in the valley of Manipur.

 The dance gained prominence after the advent of Vaishnavism.

 Rabindra Nath Tagore introduced it in Shantiniketan thereby brought back the prominence of this dance form in modern times.

 Manipuri emphasis on devotion. It incorporates both Tandava and Lasya in which more emphasis is given to Lasya.

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 The body connected through curves in the shape of ‘8’ called Nagabhanda Mudra is an important feature of this dance form.

 Ras Leela is a recurring theme of Manipuri dance recital.

 Drums, flute, horns, esraj, tamboura, cymbals, and mridang are some of the important instruments used in Manipuri dance.

 Jhaveri sisters, Guru Bipin Singh etc are the famous proponents of Manipuri dance form.

3.1.7. Kathak

 Kathak is the traditional dance form of Uttar Pradesh. Kathak derives its name from the ‘ Kathika’ or storyteller who recites verses from the epics with music and gestures.

 During the Mughal times, it was influenced by Islamic features, especially in costume and dancing style.

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 Later in the twentieth century, Lady Leela Sokhey revived the classical style of Kathak.

 It is commonly identified with the court tradition in North India.

 In the technique, Kathak follows Vertical lines with no breaks and deflection. Footwork is very important in training of dancers.

 Kathak is based on Hindustani music.

 It consists of different kharanas like Lucknow, Jaipur, Raigarh, and Banaras.

 Jugalbandi is one of the main features of Kathak recital. It shows a competitive play between dancer and tabla player.

 Gatbhaar is the dance without music or chanting. Mythological episodes are outlined by this.

 Kathak is accompanied by dhrupad music. During the Mughal period, Taranas, Thumris, and Gazals were introduced.

 Lachha Maharaj, Shambu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj etc are the main proponents of Kathak.

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3.1.8. Sattriya

 In the 15th century AD, Vaishnava saint of Assam, Shankaradeva introduced the Sattriya form of dance.

 Sattriya derives its name from the Vaishnava Monastries Known as Sattras.

 It focuses more on the devotional aspect of dance, It narrates the mythological stories of Vishnu.

 The dance form is performed in a group by male monks known as Bhokots as part of their daily rituals.

 Khol and Flute are the main instruments played in Sattriya dance.

 Rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork has given greater emphasis in Sattriya dance.

 It combines the elements of Lasya and Tandava.

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 There is a strict guideline laid down for the hand gestures and footwork in Sattriya dance.

 Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach are two streams evolved in the modern times.

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3.2 Folk Dances of India

Folk Dances of India – Art & Culture for UPSC Exams Folk dances help in exploring the rich cultural landscape of India. Each state or region has a unique folk dance forms according to the myths and legends of that state or region. It is a rich mix of composite art. Unlike Classical dance, Folk dances are spontaneous, performed by the local people without any formal training. Folk dances are confined to a certain section of the people or a particular locality. The knowledge is passed down to each generation.

Here we discuss some of the unique folk dances in India.

Chhau

Source: ArmChairLounge

 Chhau is a tribal martial art popular in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha. Chhau originates from ‘Chhaya‘ means shadow.

 It narrates mythological stories. It is a form of mask dance in which martial movements are used to narrate the stories.

 Sarpa Nirtya, Mayur Nirtya etc. are some of the natural themes used to Chhau dance.

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 Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj (the mask is not used in this) in Odisha and Purulia Chhau in West Bengal are the three main styles of Chhau dance.

 Chhau was inscribed on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2011.

Veeranatyam

 Veeranatyam is popular in the eastern and western region of river Godavari.

 Veernatyam means ‘Dance of the Brave‘. It is a tribute to the God Shiva and Goddesses Veerabhadra.

 The dance consists of hand gestures, flaming tridents, and spears.

 Colorful dhotis are the costume of Veeranatyam which is covered by sacred ash.

 The dancer uses a big flaming plate of a palm and till the fire is extinguished, the dance will go on.

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Dollu Kunitha

 Dollu Kunitha is an outstanding and dynamic folk art of Karnataka.

 The dance is confined to males with good physique. A hollow drum is tied on the waist of the performer.

 It is a religious and cultural ritual and is performed mostly by Kurubas, devotees of Beere Devaru.

 The dancers stand in a circle and moves as they start beating the drum.

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Matki Dance

 Matki dance is a folk dance popular in the state of Madhya Pradesh, especially in the Malwa region.

 It is a variation of Rasa dance. The love episode of God Krishna during his younger age is depicted in the dance.

 Women perform it during marriages and festivals. Fingers or ring on the finger is used to strike the empty pot while maintaining the time beat.

 Dhol is the musical instrument used in this folk dance. Sari and lehenga are the costumes.

 Aada and Khada Nach are the popular variants of Matki dance.

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Ootam Tullal

 Ootam Thullal is a folk dance of Kerala. Kunchan Nambiar introduced it in the 18th century.

 It is a solo performance where the performer act and dance during the recital.

 The artist is accompanied by chorus singer, drummer, and cymbal player.

 Mythological stories are the basis of chorus songs. Interprets of choicest and select excerpts of Malayalam Literature is presented with immense beauty.

 The performer also has the freedom to reflect his view of the audience.

 Green makeup and colourful costumes are used in the dance.

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Kolattam

 Kolattam is a folk dance originated in Tamil Nadu. This dance form is popular throughout India.

 Kolattam is derived from ‘Kol’ means stick and ‘Aatam’ means dance.

 It is a dance performance by young girls with little stick held in hand to celebrate the birthday of God Rama.

 Pinnal Kolattam is a variety of Kolattam dance where the dance is accompanied with songs or chorus that speak of trapping of sticks in rhythm.

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Rouff

 Rouff is a folk dance of Jammu and Kashmir primarily performed by women during the harvest season.

 The women dance in two rows. A form of a chain is placed on their arms across one another’s back.

 Bright skirts and draperies with silver ornaments are the costumes.

 Dancers face is laden with smile and animation.

 Dancers create heavenly charm and delight.

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Kalbelia

 Kalbelia is a folk dance performed by the women of the Kalbelia community ofRajasthan.

 The dance movements and costumes are similar to Serpents.

 The most popular musical instrument of this dance form is ‘Been’(Wind instrument played by snake chain).

 In 2011, UNESCO inscribed Kalbelia folk songs and dances in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

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Garba

 Garba is a famous folk dance of Gujarat. Garba refers to “Garba deep” which is am an earthen pot with holes.

 It is a dance performed in a circular form by the village as well as urban women with rhythmic clapping.

 It is performed during the occasion of Navaratri, Sharad Purnima, Vasant Panchami, Holi, and other festival occasions.

Raslila

 Raslila is a popular dance form originating in the Mathura and Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh.

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 The dance is based on the love stories of Radha and Krishna.

 Some of the movements of the dance are common to that of Kathak.

 The expression of dance is full of charm and freshness.

Bihu

 Bihu is a popular dance form of Assam. It is performed in a group by both men and women.

 Pomp and gaiety are celebrated by the dancers wearing a colourful traditional dress.

 Rapid hand movement, group formation, and brisk footstep are the peculiar features of Bihu dance.

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Bhangra

 Bhangra is a best-known folk dance of Punjab. It is performed on all festive occasions.

 Dancers start going around with as many as new entrants as the time and occasion demands, forming large circles.

 The dancer’s speed and movement depends upon the drummer who stands in the centre of the circle.

 Rhythmic cry or joy is produced by the dancers when they reach the spirit of the dance.

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Padayani

 Padayani is a martial folk dance performance of Kerala.

 The name Padayani means a row of infantry. It is a very rich and colourful affair.

 Huge masks called ‘Kolams and wore by the dancers.

 The dance present interpretation of divine and semi-divine narratives.

 Bhairavi, Kalan, Yakshi etc are some of the popular characters in Padayani.

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Ghoomar

 Ghoomar is the most popular folk dance form of Rajasthan.

 It is mainly performed by veiled women wearing a flowing dress called’Ghaghara’.

 It is accompanied by all songs of love, glory, or defeat.

 It is performed in all seasons.

 Men also perform Ghoomar. Men and women dance in a circle where one half is made of men and the other by women.

 The dance accompanies instrumental and vocal music.

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Pata Kunitha

 Pata Kunitha is a popular folk dance of Karnataka, especially in the Mysore region.

 It is a religious dance performed by men.

 The dancers use long bamboo poles decorated with colourful ribbonsknown as Pata.

 It is extremely popular in all religions.

 Another variant of Pata Kunitha is Puja Kunitha which is popular in Bengaluru and Mandya region.

Some of other imporatnat folks dances are Dandya Raas, Tarangamel in Goa, Charba in Himachal Pradesh, Dadra in Uttar Pradesh, Jawara in Madhya Pradesh, Guar Maria in Chattisgarh, Alkap in West Bengal, Birha in Bihar, Paika in Bihar, Jat-jatin in Bihar, Danda-jatra in Odisha, Tang Ta in Manipur, Singhi chham in Sikkim, Mayilattam in Tamil Nadu, Butta Bommalu in Andhra Pradesh, and Bhootha Aradhane in Karnataka.

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3.3 Local and Regional theatre forms

A living example of diversity in India Indian social system is characterized by living traditions which reflect the ideals of the society. Indian theatre forms are a framework of acting, dialogue, poetry, and music. It started as a narrative form of art where recitations, dance, and music played a central role in depicting the local history, societal ethos etc. It is based on spontaneous creativity emerging from circumstances where the intensity of expressions and natural emotions are drawn from the social system and not from any classical or grammatical roots.

Traditional theatre forms are generally presented during religious festivals, ritual offering, gatherings, prayers, almost throughout the year. It reflects the local lifestyles, beliefs, social wisdom, and emotions of the common.It is an amalgamation of entertainment and religious traditions.

Earlier Sanskritic theatre was dominant in the society where Ashvagosha, Kalidasa, Vishakadatta etc contributed immensely. Later due to divergence towards poetry, restricted creative spaces, loss of popularity and advent of Muslim rulers led to the decline of Sanskritic theatre forms. Later the Folk theatres boasted the rich tradition of India to various parts of the country.

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3.3.1 Different forms of traditional theatre

Bhavai

 It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

 Kutch and Kathiawar are the main centres of this theatre form.

 It is a synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.

 It consists of dance to narrate series of small plays known as Vesha or Swanga.

 It is accompanied by semi-classical music.

 Bhungal, tabla, pakhaawaj, rabaah, sarangi, manjeera etc.

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Nautanki

 Nautanki is popular in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It is an offshoot of Swang.

 It is mentioned in Abu Fazl’s Ain-e-Akbari.

 The theme is based on historical, social and folk tales, delivered through dance and music.

 Kanpur, Lucknow, and Hathras are the most popular centres of this theatre form.

 Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion accompanied by drum beats called Nagara.

Rasleela

 It is a theatre form popular in Uttar Pradesh.

 It depicts the legends of Lord Krishna.

 In this theatre form, dialogues are in pros combined with songs and scenes from the pranks of Krishna.

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Bhand Pather

 It is a traditional theatre form of Kashmir.

 It consists of unique combinations of dance, drama, and acting.

 Surnai, Nagara, and dhol are the instruments used in this theatre form.

 It is mainly performed by the farming community, reflecting their ideas and way of living.

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Swang

 It is a popular theatre form of Punjab and Haryana.

 It is mainly a musical drama sung through verses.

 Ektara, Harmonium, Sarangi, Dholak, and Kharta are the instruments used in it.

 Rohtak and Haathras are the two important style in this theatre form.

Maach

 Maach is a theatre form of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.

 The term Maach is used for the stage as well as the play.

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 It is based on mythological themes and later romantic folks tales were also included.

 Songs are given importance between the dialogues in this theatre form.

 Dialogues in this form are called Bol and Ryhm in narration is termed as Vanag.

 Tune of the theatre is known as Rangat.

Ankia Naat

 It is a theatre form present in the state of Assam.

 It was started by Shankaradeva and his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th century A.D.

 Cultural glimpses of Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Mathura, and Brindavan can be seen this theatre form.

 The narration begins with a story in Sanskrit and later switch to Brajboli or Assamese.

 the narrator called as Suthradhar is accompanied by a group of musicians known as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the‘Khol’ and cymbals.

 Use of Masks to depict special expression is one of the unique features of this theatre form.

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Dashavatar

 It is the most developed theatre form of Konkan and Goa.

 The ten incarnation of Lord Vishnu– the god of preservation and creativity are personified by the performers.

 Apart from makeup, performers wear a mask of wood and papier mache.

Krishnanattam

 It is a folk theatre form of Kerala.

 It came into existence in the 17th century under the patronage of Calicut king Manavada.

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 It narrates the birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil by Sri Krishna.

 It is performed for eight consecutive days.

 Different plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa Krida, Kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bhanayudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.

Yakshagana

 It is the oldest theatre form popular in Karnataka.

 It emerged in the Vijayanagara empire and was performed by Jakkula Varu community.

 It is a descriptive dance drama.

 It is presented from dusk to dawn.

 The stories are drawn from Ramayana, Mahabharata and other epics from both Hindu and Jain tradition.

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Therukooth

 Therukooth is a popular folk drama of Tamil Nadu.

 Therukooth means “street play”.

 It is performed during the annual temple festival of Mariamman(Rain God) for a rich harvest.

 It plays various themes and one the theme is based on Draupathi in Hindu epic Mahabharata.

 It is a combination of song, music, dance, and drama.

 Harmonium, drums, and cymbals are the instrument used in it.

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Koodiyattam

 It is Sanskritic theatre tradition of Kerala.

 Chakyaar(actor), Nambiar(instrumentalist) and Nangyaar( those taking woman’s role) are the main characters of Koodiyattam.

 The main protagonists are Suthradhar(narrator) and the Vidushak(jesters). Dialogues are delivered by Vidushak alone.

 Hand gestures and eye movements are the features of this theatre form.

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Villu Paatu

 It is a musical theatre popular in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

 Villu Paatu means bow-song.

 In this, using a bow-shaped instrument, the stories of Ramayana are narrated.

Mudiyettu

 Mudiyettu is a traditional folk theatre of Kerala.

 It is performed in the month of Vrichigam. ie November-December.

 It is performed only in Kali Temple as a presentation to Goddess.

 It is a part of Bhadrakali cult. It depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.

 Mudiyettu is performed by Marar and Karuppu community.

 Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli, and Koimbidar are the seven charaters of Mudiyettu.

 In 2010, Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityafter Koodiyattam

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Some of the other important theatre forms are Kala of Vaishnaite tradition, Bhuta in Karnataka, Daskathia in Odisha,Garodas in Gujarat, Jatras in Eastern India, Kariyila in Himachal Pradesh, Powda in Maharashtra, Burra Katha in Andhra Pradesh, Bayalata in Karnataka and Kuruvanji in Tamil Nadu.

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4.1 Hindustani Music

4.1.1 Evolution of music in North India The Hindustani music originated in North India during the 13th and 14th century. It focuses more on musical structure. It has been influenced by various elements such as Arab, Persian and Afghan elements which have added a new dimension to the Hindustani music. Hindustani music adopted the scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka or the “Octave of Natural Notes”. In the ancient times, it has been passed from one to another through the Guru-Shishya Parampara. Musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin.

There are ten main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the “Dhrupad”. “Khayal”, “Tappa”, “Chaturang”, “Tarana”. “Sargam”,“Thumri” and “Ragasagar”, “Hori” and “Dhamar”.

4.1.2 Important schools of Hindustani music: 1. Dhrupad It is one of the oldest and grandest forms of Hindustani music. Dhrupad consolidated its position as a classical music form in the 13th century but reached its zenith during the period of Emperor Akbar. He employed and patronised best-

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 174 known dhrupad singers like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen. Tansen was one among the nine jewels of Akbar’s court. Dhrupad became a major form of singing in the medieval period but fell in a state of decline in the 18th century.

Dhrupad singing can be further divided into the following Gharanas:

• Dagari Gharana: The Dagar family sings in the Dagar Vani. Dagars are Muslims but usually sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses. • Darbhanga Gharana: The proponents of this school are the Mallik family. They sing the Khandar Vani and Gauhar Vani. • Bettiah Gharana: The exponents of the Gharana are the Mishras. They sing Nauhar Vani and Khandar Vani styles.

2. Khayal

The origin of this style can be traced to Amir Khusro. This style is popular among the singers as it offers greater scope for improvisation. The usual theme of Khayal is romantic in nature. The major Gharanas under Khayal are:

• Gwalior Gharana: This is one of the oldest gharanas of Khayal. It is very rigorous and emphasises equally on melody and rhythm. • Kirana Gharana: The artists of Kirana Gharana are better known for their mastery over the slow tempo ragas. • Agra Gharana: It is said to have been founded by one Khuda Baksh of Agra in the 19th century and later it was revived by Faiyaaz Khan. Since then this gharana has been renamed as the Rangeela Gharana.

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• Patiala Gharana: Bade Fateh Ali Khan and Ali Baksh Khan established this gharana in the 19th century. This gharana stresses more on the use of greater rhythm. The most well-known composer of this gharana is Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab. • Bhendi Bazaar Gharana: This gharana was established by Chajju Khan, Nazeer Khan and Khadim Hussain in the 19th century. The singers of this gharana were trained to control their breath for a long period of time and could sing long passages in a single breathe.

3. Thumri The compositions in this style are either romantic or devotional. It is based on mixed ragas and is considered as semi-classical Indian music. This style was inspired by the Bhakti movement. The compositions are usually sung in a female voice. It is characterised by inherent sensuality and this differentiates this style from the others. The important Gharanas of Thumri are Banaras and Lucknow. Begum Akhtar is said to be the greatest proponents of this style. Pt. L.K. Pandit, Malini Rajurkar are the names of few who specialize this style of singing.

4. Tappa This style originated from the folk songs of North East India but developed into a semi-classical Indian music under the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. The style is almost getting extinct today. Some of the very few expounders of this style are Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao and Shanno Khurana.

5. Tarana In this style, rhythm plays a crucial role. It is sung in a fast tempo and singers need specialised skills in rhythmic manipulation. It usually consists of main melody, short, repeated short times with variation and elaboration at the performer’s discretion. Pandit Rattan Mohan Sharma is given the title of “Tarana ke Baadshah” and is currently the World’s Fastest Tarana singer.

6. Ghazal A Ghazal is a poetic form of rhyming couplets. It is said to have originated in Iran in the 10th century AD. Ghazal was spread into South Asia by the influence of Sufi

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4.2 Carnatic Music: Differences, Swar,

ragas, personalities

4.2.1 Evolution of music in the southern part of India Carnatic music is one of the forms of Indian classical music. It is confined to southern India, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala while the classical music of the rest of the country is under the name of Hindustani.

The main emphasis in the Carnatic music is on the vocals. The music is created in the traditional octave form and the music is kriti based and focuses more on the saahithya or the lyric quality of the musical piece.

4.2.2 Every composition of Carnatic style consists of several parts which can be divided into:

• Pallavi: The first thematic lines of the composition are referred to as the “Pallavi”. This portion is sung first and is often repeated in each stanza. • Anu Pallavi: The stanza that follows the Pallavi is called the Anu Pallavi. • Varnam: This part reveals the raga of the composition to the audience. It is

NeoStencil – Live Online Classes - IAS/IES/GATE/SSC/PSC | +91 95990 75552 | [email protected] 178 made up of two parts: Purvanga or the first half and Uttaranga or the second half. • Ragamalika: This is the concluding part of the Pallavi. In this part, there is a scope of improvisation for the artist.

Theoretical system of Carnatic Music Swara: Swara is a Sanskrit word that connotes a note in the successive steps of the octave or the seven steps in the Indian classical music. Hence they are also called Sapta Swaras. In the ancient period, the term Swara was associated with the recitation of Vedas, particularly in the Samaveda. In Natyasastra, Bharata had divided the swaras into twenty-two notes scale. Swaras are associated with both Hindustani and Carnatic classical music systems. They include Sa (Sadja), Ri (Rishabha), Ga (Gandharva), Ma (Madhyama), Pa (Panchama), Dha (Dhaivata), Ni (Nishada).

Raga: The ragas form the basis of the melody and are akin to the melodic tone of Indian classical music. The word ‘raga” is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Ranj’ which means to delight or to make happy and satisfy a person. Each melodic structure of the raga has something similar to the distinct personality subject and the mood evoked by the sounds.

Raga Time Season Mood

Bhairav Morning Autumn Peace

Hindol Dawn Spring Evokes sweetness of a young couple

Deepak Night Summer Compassion

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Raga Time Season Mood

Mid day/ Megh Rainy Courage Afternoon

Shri Evening Winter Gladness

Malkauns Midnight Winter Youthful love

According to the number of notes in the raga, they are divided into three main types of ragas:

• Audav/Odava Raga is the ‘pentatonic’ raga, contains 5 notes.

• Shadava Raga is the ‘hexotonic’ raga, contains 6 notes.

• Sampurna Raga is the ‘heptatonic’ raga, contains 7 notes.

The ascent of the notes is called Aaroha and descent is called Avaroha. The Carnatic music has 72 main ragas and Hindustani has 6 main ragas.

Tala: The rhythmic groupings of beats are called Tala. Raga is associated with melody while Tala is associated with rhythm. The rhythmical cycles in a Tala range from 3 to 108 beats. The tempo of the tala which keeps its uniformity in the time span is called laya. The unique point about the concept of the tala is that it is independent of the music that accompanies it and has its own divisions.

Important Personalities of Carnatic music: • Dr Balamurali Krishna was an Indian Carnatic vocalist, musician, multi- instrumentalist, playback singer and music composer. For almost a period of five decades, he has reigned at the forefront of the South Indian music. He has contributed to the world of music by creating many new ragas and with nearly four hundred classical compositions. He has recreated the traditional style in his own neo-classical style. He has been conferred with many awards including the

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Padma Shri, Sangeet Natak Academy Award, UNESCO Mahatma Gandhi Silver Medal.

• M.S. Subbalakshmi: Born in the city of Madurai, Tamilnadu, she was the first musician to have been awarded the Bharat Ratna and also the first musician to receive the Raman Magsaysay award, often considered to be Asia’s Nobel Prize. She has also travelled many places as India’s cultural ambassador. She had the rare honour of singing at the UN General Assembly in 1966. Recognising her contributions to the world of music, the Government of India honoured with the Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan among many other awards.

S.No Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

1 Practiced in Northern India and

parts of Karnataka and Andhra Confined to Southern India.

Pradesh.

It is influenced by Persian, Arab and 2 Mostly indigenous. Afghan elements.

There are several sub-styles which Only one style of singing. No 3 are again divided into different substyles. Gharanas.

There is a lot of scope of 4 improvisation for the singers. Hence Little scope for improvisation. there are many variations.

5 6 major ragas 72 ragas.

6 Adherence to time. Does not adhere to time.

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S.No Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

The instruments are equally More emphasis on vocal music 7 important as the vocals. than on the instruments.

Important instruments used are Important instruments used are 8 Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute Veena, mrudangam, mandolin, and violin. flute and violin.

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4.3 Music instruments – Wind, Stringed, Percussion

4.3.1 Music Instrument in India For any music to be created, one needs to have some semblance of music instruments. The musical instruments can be broadly divided into four major categories depending on the means by which sound is produced in the instrument. The table below shows the classification of the musical instruments.

Awanad/ Avanaddha Vadya Membranophones Percussion Instruments

Sushira Vadya Aerophones Wind Instruments

Ghana Vadya Idiophones Solid Instruments

Taal/Tata Vadya Chordophones String Instruments

Awanad/ Avanaddha Vadya These are also called Percussion instruments as one has to strike or scrap or strike them with another similar instrument to produce musical sound.These are believed to be oldest musical instruments. The earliest references to these instruments have been found in the Vedas.The most ancient among this group of instruments are the Bhumi Dundubhi or the earth drum.These are also called membranophone instruments as they contain an outer membrane which is beaten to generate a particular sound.They generally have one or two faces covered with animal skin or hide.They are made by stretching the animal skin across a metal or earthen pot, wooden barrel or frame.

Examples of this group include Tabla, Mridangam, Drum, Dhol, Congo.

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Tabla: It is a percussion instrument originated from the Indian Subcontinent. It consists of a pair of single-headed, barrel-shaped drums of different sizes. It is an important instrument for Hindustani classical music and is the main qawali instrument used by Sufi musicians. Notable players include Ustad Alla Rakha Khan and his son Zakir Hussain, Shafat Ahmed and Samata Prasad.

Mridangam: It is a percussion instrument of Indian origin. It is mostly used in Carnatic music. The earliest mention of mridangam has been found in Sangam literature (Tamil) where it is known as “tannumai”. D.A. Srinivas, also known as “Mridangam Srinivas” is one of the most famous players.

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Sushira Vadya

In this group, the sound is produced by blowing air into a hollow column. Hence they are also known as wind instruments.

 The pitch of the note is determined by controlling the air passage.

 The melody is played by using the fingers to open and close the instrument.

 The simplest and the commonest among this group of instruments is the flute.

 Other wind instruments include Shehnai, Pungi, Harmonium, Nadaswaram.

Flute: The flute in its many forms has been in use in India since the Vedic period. The bamboo flute is one of the oldest Indian musical instruments. It is used in both Hindustani and Carnatic classical music styles. Not only in classical music it is also a folk instrument popular in north India. Ont of the most famous flautist of India is Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia.

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Harmonium: It is a western instrument which was incorporated into Indian music around the 19th century. It is used in devotional, classical and light-classical in

Hindustani music.

Shehnai: It is a tubular instrument and gradually widens towards the lower end. Shehnai is similar to Nadaswaram which is used in South India. The sound of Shehnai is considered auspicious and is used for all festive occasions and weddings. The legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan has been given the title of “Shehnai king”. He took Shehnai to its zenith through his soulful play. Today Pt. Anant Lal, Pt. Daya Shankar are also noted Shehnai players.

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Ghana Vadya The earliest musical instruments created by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya or solid instruments. Once constructed, they do not require any special tuning. They are principally rhythmic in function and are best suited as an accompaniment to folk and tribal music and dance.

Different Ghana Vadya include Manjira, Ghatak,Jaltarang, Kanch-tarang, Jhanj, Khartal.

Manjira: It is a pair of small brass cymbals which produce high-pitched percussion sounds. This instrument has been dated to the Harappan civilization. These are commonly used in devotional music like bhajans and kirtans.

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Ghatak or Ghatam: This is largely used in classical forms of music. It is an earthenware pot made of clay mixed with metal. It is usually played with brass rings around one’s fingers. One of the most famous Ghatak players is Thetakudi Hariharan Vinayakram.

Taal/ Tata Vadya These instruments produce sound by the vibration of strings. which may be made of vegetable fibre, metal, silk or artificial elements like nylon. The string may be struck, plucked, rubbed (bowed), or occasionally blown by the wind to produce sound. The degree to which a string is tightened determines the pitch of the note.

Different string instruments include – Veena, violin, Santoor, Sarangi, Sitar.

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Veena: It is a chordophone instrument that originated in the Indian subcontinent and is mostly used in the classical music. It is used in both Hindustani and Carnatic musical styles. However, in recent times Veena has been replaced by Sitar in north India. Notable Sitar players include Pandit Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan.

Sarangi: It is mostly used in Hindustani classical music and is popular in parts of India, Nepal and Pakistan.

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Instruments adopted from Western Music Piano/Keyboard

Guitar

Violin

Drums

Bass Guitar

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5.1 Vedic Literature – Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva

The word Veda is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know. Thus the term Veda signifies ‘superior knowledge’.

The Vedic literature is divided into two parts: the srutis and the Smriti. The srutis are the four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and the Atharva Veda the Upanishads, and the smritis are the Puranas like the Mahabharata, which includes Bhagavad-gita.

The Vedic literature is roughly divided into three periods:-

1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed

2. The Brahman period when the Brahmanas, Upanishads, and Aranyakas were composed

3. The Sutra period.

Vedic literature means literature based on or derived from the Vedas. The texts which constitute the Vedic literature are:

 The four Vedas i.e. Samhitas,

 The Brahmanas attached to each of the Samhitas,

 The Aranyakas

 The Upanishads

Vedas: The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind and said to have divine revelation. They are divided into

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a)Rig Veda:

 Rigveda is regarded as the sacred text of Hinduism. It has fascinated the scholars and historians due to its significance. It is a collection of ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns.

 The Rigveda is further divided into ten parts known as Mandalas

 Rigveda has a collection of 10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns

 It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language

 Its origin can be dated back to 1700 BCE-1100 BCE.

 Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa,

 The Rishi family of Angira has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva family composed around 25%.

 Many verses of the Rig Veda are still being used as a very significant part of Hindu prayers and rituals.

 As per the Rig Vedic hymns, the entire universe has originated from Prajapati, (the initial God can be compared to Zeus in Grek mythology) and this forms the principle basis of creation.

 The hymns are known as Suktas which are generally used in rituals.

 Indra is the chief deity (King of Kingdom of heaven) cited in the hymns of Rig Veda.

 The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other chief deities mentioned in various hymns of the Rig veda.

 There is a lot of emphasis on lord Shiva but Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Pantheon of Gods is cited as a minor deity, according to the Rig Veda.

 It contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas (Castes) (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms,

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belly and the legs of the Creator This was the origin of the caste system which is still practiced in modern Hindu society with some modifications.

b) Sama Veda

 It is also called as the book of prayers or “storehouse of knowledge of chants”.

 It is a mixture of poetry and verse.

 It is divided into two parts: Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda.

 Taiteriya Samhita is related to Krishna Yajurveda.

 Vajseniya Samhita is related to Shukla Yajurveda.

 The maximum number of commentaries is written on Yajur Veda.

 The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken from Rigveda, except for 75 verses which are new.

 Its Samhita, or metrical portion, consists chiefly of hymns to be chanted by the Udgatar priests at the performance of any important sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant is mixed with milk and other ingredients and offered to various deities.

 There is no exact date when the compilation of the Samaveda Hymns was done, nor as to who has composed it. It was deemed unnecessary in the early times when the Aryans first invaded India, but was required for guidance and use after their expansion and settlement in their new homes.

c)Yajur Veda:

 The Vedic collection of sacrificial prayers (yajus) used by the Adhvaryu priest. Of the four Vedas, it most reflects the Vedic sacrifice in its ritual character and full scope.

 The Yajur Veda prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.

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 There Yajur Veda has two major divisions: the Black Yajur Veda(Krishna) existing in four versions and the White Yajur Veda(shukla) existing in two versions. The term “black” implies “the un-arranged collection” of verses in contrast to the “white” which implies the well arranged and clear” Yajurveda.

 The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Out of sixteen, only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva both are nearly same except for minor differences.

 There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittirīya saṃhita, Maitrayani saṃhita, Kaṭha saṃhita and Kapiṣṭhala saṃhita which are very different from each other.

 The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the Taittiriya saṃhita written by Tittiri, a pupil of Yaksha and mentioned by Panini and the oldest one is Maitrayani Samhita.

 It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time of sacrifices.

d)Atharva Veda

 It is the “knowledge storehouse of atharvaṇas, “the procedures for everyday life”.

 It was a late addition to the Vedas in later Vedic age

 The Atharva Veda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit and has 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras which have been divided into 20 books.

 Two different recensions of the Veda Paippaladaand the Saunakiya are preserved

 Kenneth Zysk, says the text is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the “earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity”

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 It is also called as Brahmaveda. Atharva Veda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa

 Mundaka Upanishad and Mandukya Upanishad are embedded in the Atharva Veda

 It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.

 It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off diseases and evils.

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5.2 Aranyak

The Aranyakas constitute the third stage of development of the Vedic literature. They are placed in between Brahmanas and Upanishads. Their significance in the Vedic literature is indicated in the Mahabharata by saying that Aranyakas are the essence of the Vedas.But till now their exact role in the Vedic literature is not clear.

Generally, the word ‘Aranyaka’ is associated with the forest and Aranyakas are known as the ‘forest texts’, which contain the meditations of hermits in forests and ascetics on God, man, and the world.

The four texts of Vedic literature namely the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads are not different and distinct parts of the Vedas, but they represent a sequence of development of the Vedic thought, and the scope of Aranyakas cannot be reduced by calling them mere ‘forest texts’. The great grammarian Panini describes the term Aranyaka in the sense of man associated with forest Katyayana another grammarian described the term in the sense of a chapter or treatise relating to the forest . Aranyakas not only contain symbols but also other aspects, but the symbolism is considered as their main feature because it is mostly discussed in them.

They do not describe not only secret or mystic subjects but also daily rituals like sandhyopasanam, panchamahayajna, brahmopasanam, etc. for a common man or a householder. The study of these teachings of the Vedas which are known as Aranyakas not make any harm to the persons who studies them.

Role of Aranyakas in Vedic Literature: The general view of the Vedic literature is that Aranyakas are regarded as revolutionary or the transitional phase from ritual to philosophy. Macdonell says that Aranyakas in tone and content form a transition to Upanishads.

According to Deussen Aranyakas consist of the allegorical speculations on rituals, which for the most parts were not practicable and as such they emancipated from the limitations of a formal cult. So they form a natural transition from rituals of Brahmanas to the speculations of Upanishads.

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The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans. They also provide the details of the rishis who lived in jungles.

These Aranyakas do not lay emphasis on sacrifices but on meditation and are opposed to early rituals. Their stress is predominantly on moral values. Thus they form a bridge between the way of work (karma marga) which was the main point of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyana marga) which was advocated by the Upanishads.

Some Important facts about Aranyakas:

 The Aitareya Aranyaka is attached to the Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig- Veda.The Sankhyayana is the concluding portion of the Kaushitaki Brahmana of the Rig-Veda.

 In the black Yajurveda, the Taittriya Aranyaka is a continuation of the Taitttriya Brahamana. In the white Yajurveda, the 14th book of the Satapatha Brahmana is in the name of Brihadarnayaka.

 For the Samaveda, the only Aranyakas are the first sections of the Chhandogya Upanishad, which belongs to Tandyamaha Brahmana, and the Jaimniya Upanishad. Brahmana, and comprises the well Known Kena (or Talavakra) Upanishad.

 The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. These were studied and taught by men iVanaprasthaha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living in the forests.

 All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially, they were handed down orally and were put to writing much later.

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5.3 Puranas

The Puranas are important works of ancient Sanskritic literature in India. Some of them have been considered significant as sources of political history. As religious works, Puranas offer us great insights into all the aspects and phases of Hinduism, its theism, its idol worship, its mythology, its philosophies and superstitions, its festivals and ceremonies, and its ethics which are different from any other religious work.

Puranas are a total of 18. They have 18 subsidiary puranas and a large number of other associated books. Every Purana deals with five topics viz.,

 Sarga which is concerned with the evolution of the universe.

 Pratisarga which is related to the involution of the universe.

 Manvantara deals with the recurrence of time

 Vamsa contains the genealogical list of sages and kings.

 Vamshaharita deals with the life stories of certain select characters.

The Puranas start with the rulers who trace their origin to the sun and the moon. They describe the various kings who ruled in the Madhyadesh. They fill in the gap from the Puru kings of Hastinapur and the Ikshvaku King of Kosala. They give us details about the Shishunaga Kings and Nanda Kings. According to some historians, there are similarities between the Buddhist Mahayana texts of the first century of the Christian Era and the Puranas. Particularly, there is a lot in common between the Puranas and Lalitavistara (a Mahayana Buddhist Sutra).

Puranas also contain a description of the tirthas, sacred places of pilgrimage, and their mahatya, or their religious importance. They mention the four ages of Hinduism viz., Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Every succeeding age is considered to be worse than its preceding one in terms of the social institutions and the prevailing moral values in the society.

Of the 18 Puranas, Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Brahma Purana, and Bhavishya Purana are considered to be important for historical purposes.

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 The Vishnu Purana contains 23,000 verses. It is considered to be a reliable source regarding the history of Mauryan dynasty.

 The Vayu Purana consists of 24,000 verses. It describes the rule of the Guptas under the reign of Chandragupta I.

 The Matsya Purana comprises of 14,000 verses. It contains fairly reliable information regarding the Andhra region and the Shishunaga dynasty.

Other Puranas include – Brahmanda Purana (contains around 12.000 verses. It is the source of Lalita Sahasranamam which is considered to be an important sloka and recited at many prayers), Brahmavavairata Purana (comprises of 18000 verses), Garuda Purana (contains over 19,000 verses), Harivamsa Purana (contains 16000 verses and is considered to be a work of itihasa), Linga Purana (contains 11000 verses), Markandeya Purana (the shortest of all Puranas with 9000 verses, contains Devi Mahatyam which is an important text for Shakti worshippers), Narada Purana (contains 25000 verses), Padma Purana (contains 51000 verses), Skanda Purana (the longest of all Puranas with over 81,100 verses), Agni Purana (contains 15,400 verses), Surya Purana, and Vamana Purana.

Srimad Bhagavata Purana is the most popular among all the Puranas. It comprises of 18000 verses and contains a description of Dashavatara, the celebrated ten avatars of Lord Vishnu. The tenth chapter of the purana deals with the deeds and exploits of Lord Krishna during his childhood. This is the longest chapter of the Purana and contains a theme which was later elaborated by many Bhakti saints.

Apart from being a source of political history, Puranas are also an important source of the ancient Indian geography. In them, we come across the names of many cities which existed during their times. The distance between the various cities mentioned can be approximately determined from the information contained in the Puranas. They also help us know the old names of the cities, rivers, and mountains which were part of a particular region mentioned in a Purana.

Together with the Dharmashastras and the Tantras, Puranas govern the conduct and regulate the religious observances of many Hindus even in present times. Directly or vicariously, they shape the conduct of many Hindus and help in the

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However, the Puranas are criticized for their poor usage of language, including the versification, resulting in bad grammar. They are known for boundless exaggeration of events and as a confused medley of contents. In the present times, there is a consensus among the historians regarding the Puranas. They should be understood neither with a prejudice nor as historical truths. A middle path should be followed and only those aspects of the Puranas which seem reasonable should be accepted.

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5.4 Buddhist Literature

Buddhist Literary works

Buddhist Literature available in India can be divided into two prominent categories,

 Prakrit and Pali Literature

 Sanskrit Literature

Prakrit and Pali were the languages spoken by Indians in the post-Vedic period. Prakrit is a generic term for any language which is different from the standard one i.e. Sanskrit. Pali is archaic Prakrit and a combination of various dialects. Lord Buddha gave his sermons in Pali and hence the early Buddhist literature developed in Pali. Tripitaka The most important among the early Buddhist literature is the Tripitaka. Also known as the Threefold Basket, they include – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. These, in turn, contain several books in them. Apart from them, there are many works which also form a part of the canonical literature, like the Tripitaka

 Vinaya Pitaka – contains the rules of the Order of Buddhist monks which must be observed for achieving purity of conduct. Hence, it is also called the Book of Discipline. It, in turn, has three books viz., Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, and Parivara.

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 Suttavibhanga – also known as the Patimokkha Sutta, contains the rules for fully ordained monks called bhikkhus (Maha Vibhanga) and fully ordained nuns called bhikkhunis (Bhikkhuni Vibhanga).

 Khandhakas – contain regulations on the course of life in the monastic order and have two sections – the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The former deals with the awakening of the Buddha and his great disciples while the latter deals with the First and the Second Buddhist Councils, the establishment of a community of Buddhist nuns.

 Parivara – believed to be composed by a Ceylonese monk, it’s a manual of instruction about the contents of the Vinaya Pitaka.

 Sutta Pitaka – lays down the principles of religion. It is divided into five groups called the Nikayas. These include Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka.

 Digha Nikaya, or the Long Collection, comprises 34 long Suttas. Of these, the Mahaparinibbana Sutta is the most important as it provides information on the last few days of the Buddha.

 Majjhima Nikaya is a collection of middle-sized reports on instructions and it contains 152 suttas.

 Samyutta Nikaya is a collection of instructions divided into groups and contains 56 groups of the suttas.

 Anguttara Nikaya is the gradual or “by one limb more” collection where the first chapter deals with things which occur only once, the second chapter deals with things which occur twice and so on.

 Khadduka Nikaya is a collection of little pieces i.e. it contains texts of a diverse character which are scattered literary works.

 Abhidhamma Pitaka is the latest of the Tripitaka. It contains expositions on the scholastic philosophy which include discourses on various subjects, such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.

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Khuddaka Nikaya Khuddaka Nikaya includes some prominent literary works such as –

 Khuddakapatha – a prayer book, it’s foremost among the pieces included in the Khuddaka Nikaya

 Dhammapada – contains 423 gnomic stanzas which are very popular among the people.

 Udana – a collection of impassionate utterances of the Buddha. It contains the popular story of “Blind Men and Elephant”.

 Itivuttaka – means “thus has been said”, comprises maxims spoken by the Buddha to his disciples.

 Suttanipata is a collection of archaic literary pieces.

 Vimanavatthu describes the grandeur of celestial palaces where the gods live

 Petavatthu describes the miserable existence of the departed souls who have to expiate for their sins.

 The Thera and the Theai-gathas are the songs of monks and nuns which are very appealing due to their lyric quality.

Canonical Literature Other prominent canonical literary works in Buddhism include,

 Jatakas – give an account of the former existences of the Buddha. They contain 547 poems. These are mentioned in the Khuddaka Nikaya. They are very close to the folklore literature. In Sanskrit, they are known as the Jatakamala. In Khmer, they are known as cietak, and in Chinese, they are known as Sadok.

 Niddesa or Mahaniddesa – a commentary on the two chapters of the Suttanipata.

 Patisambhidamagga – deals with knowledge and can be considered a part of the Abhidhamma literature in view of its contents.

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 Buddhavamsa is a legend in verse. It contains a narration of the life and activities of the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gautama.

 Apadanas are the holy legends. They contain a description of the activities of young monks and nuns who have attained the position of Arhats.

 Cariyapitaka is a selection of 35 metrical Jatakas. It reveals that in each of his previous existences Bodhisattva acquired the ten paramitas (perfections).

Non – Canonical Literature Apart from the canonical literature, there was a long series of non-canonical literature in Pali. Some of them include,

 Milindapanha – which means “questions of Milinda”. It contains a dialogue between Milinda who was the Graeco-Bactrian King Menander and the monk Nagasena over some problems of Buddhism. It was originally written in Sanskrit.

 The two famous Ceylonese chronicles – Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. The former deals with the royal dynasties of Indian subcontinent including Sri Lanka, and is known as the world’s longest unbroken historical accounts while the latter deals with the arrival of the Buddha’s teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka.

Sanskrit Literature Sanskrit literature became prominent in Buddhism with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. However, some of the Sanskritic works were produced by the Hinayana school as well.

 Mahavastu – believed to be the most important work of the Hinayana school. It is a collection of stories and different parts of it were composed in different periods. However, by including the details of miracles and earlier lives of the Buddha, it also displays some Mahayanic thought.

 Lalitavistara – believed to be one of the most sacred of Mahayanic texts. It deals with the biography of the Buddha.

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 Buddhacharita – written by Asvaghosa, it’s an epic style Sanskrit work. It tells the life history of Gautama Buddha.

 Mahavibhasa Sastra – written by Vasumitra, it’s also linked to the Samkhya and Vaisheshikha philosophies of Hinduism, apart from Buddhism.

 Udanavarga – It contains verses which are attributable to the Buddha and his disciples.

Besides the above literature, there also exists Vajrayana Buddhist literature which mainly forms a part of canonical Tibetan-Buddhism. They are known as the Buddhist Tantras. They are subdivided into

 Kriya tantras – focus on ritual actions

 Charya tantras – centred on the worship of Buddha Vairocana (celestial Buddha)

 Yoga tantras – they too focus on Vairocana

 Anuttara tantras – focus on mental transformation rather than on ritual actions.

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5.5 Jain Literature

Literary works of Jainism

Jain literature is known by the collective term, Agamas. They are written in Ardhamagadhi, a form of Prakrit similar to the Buddhist literature written in Pali. The Jain Agamas contain the sermons of the Tirthankaras which were codified by their disciples in later times. Since most of the early disciples were Missionaries, with an aim of spreading the Jaina philosophy and teachings to the masses, they chose to codify the sermons of the Tirthankaras in the language popularly used by the common man.

Notwithstanding the differences between the two main Jaina sects, Digambaras and Svetambaras, it is agreed upon by the Jainas that the Agamas contain the inspired wisdom of Lord Mahavira when he had attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience and perfection). Ganadharas who were his chief disciples later codified his sermons into the Agamas. Agamas The Agama literature is voluminous comprising of 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 4 Mulas, 2 Chulika Sutras, 6 Cheda Sutras, and 10 Prakirnakas. Agamas have commentaries like the Niryuktis and Bhasyas which are in poetry style, while the commentaries written in prose style are known as Curnis.

 Niryuktis – said to be composed by Bhadrabahu, the second. They contain philosophical discussions on matters such as the existence of the soul, analysis of knowledge, and meaning etc.

 Bhasyas contain a detailed account of all the subjects of Jaina philosophy.

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 Jinabhadra and Sanghadas Gani were the two famous Bhasyakaras. Jinabhadra’s Bhasyas contain information on multiple subjects while Sanghadas Gani had limited himself to the problems of epistemology and the ethics of Jain Sadhus.

 Curnis are short commentaries in prose similar to the Jatakas of Buddhist literature. Jinadasa Mahattara is a prominent Curnikara

Several scholars had written their commentaries on Agamas in Sanskrit. The important among them include Acharya Haribhadra, Srilanka Suri, Sandhacharya, Abhayadeva, Malladhari Hemachandra, and Malayagiri. However, these commentaries were considered so vast and deep, that their shorter versions were evolved in several regional languages.

The Digambara tradition of Jains believes that all of the Agamas are lost except the 12th, known as the Drstivada. Satkhandagama and Kasaya-pahuda are the two important epics of Jaina religion. They were compiled by Pushpadanta and Bhutabali who were the disciples Acharya Dharasena. These epics contain the important sermons of Dharasena. Several commentaries were written on these epics,

 Yati Brsabha wrote a commentary in Prakrit

 Virasena wrote a commentary on Satkhandagama called Dhavala. It contains 72 thousand verses.

 Virasena also wrote a commentary on Kasaya-pahuda called Jayadhavala. It is an equally monumental work containing 20 thousand verses written by Virasena to which another 40 thousand were added by his disciple Jinasena.

 Mahabandha – it is the final portion of Satkhandagama, written by Bhutabali. It contains 41 thousand verses.

Gommatasara and Labdhisara were explanatory works meant to explain the essence of the Agamas. They were written by Acharya Nemichand Siddhanta Sastri Chakravarti

 Commentaries on Gommatasara and Labdhisara were written by Todaramala in Bhasa.

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Acharya Kundakunda wrote important works in Prakrit which are considered as good as the Agamas by the Jainas. They include

 Samayasara

 Pravacanasara

 Niyamasara

 Pancastikasara

Tattvartha Sutra is regarded as the Veritable Bible of both the Jaina sects. It was written by Jainacarya Umaswati. Miscellaneous Literary work Bhadrabahu, who is considered by the Jains as the last Sutra-kevali (the one who has memorized all the scriptures), has written many important works of Jaina literature. Apart from the Niyuktis, he also the Samhita which is a book dealing with legal cases. His work Kalpa sutra contains the biographies of the Tirthankaras. It mainly talks about Pashavanatha, the last Tirthankara prior to Lord Mahavira, and Mahavira himself. Other important theological works include,

 Yogadrstisamuccaya – written by Haribhadra. It’s a text on Yoga comparing the Yoga systems across Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. A commentary on his work was written by Gunaratna

 Nyayavatra – written by Siddhasena Divakara, is a work on the philosophy of logic.

 There are important works on grammar written by various Jaina scholars. Prominent among them are the Jainendra-vyakarana of Acharya Pujyapada and Sakatayana-vyakarana of Sakatayana.

 Kaupaksakausi-kasahsrakirana is considered to be a written against the Digambara sect, by Dharmasagara. It means – Sun for the owls of the false doctrine.

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 Lokaprakasa – written by Vinayavijaya. It’s a work dealing with all the aspects of Jaina philosophy.

 Pratimasataka – written by Yasovijaya. It’s a work on metaphysics and logic. It includes a defense on idol-worshipping.

 Karmagrantha – discusses the theory of Karma in Jainism. It was written by Devendrasuri.

Acharya Hemabhadra has authored several important works of Jaina literature such as,

 Siddha-Hem-Shabdanushasana – considered to be one the most important works on grammar.

 Yogasastra which is a textbook on Yoga.

 Vitragastuti – outlines the Jaina doctrine in the form of hymns. This subsequently led to a work called Syadavadamanjari, by Mallisena, in which the doctrine expounded in Vitragastuti was explained in detail.

Contribution of Jain Literature Jain literature is known to have contributed to the development of several Indian languages. Jaina literary works are available in languages such as Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Rajasthani, and Marwari apart from Hindi.

 Kannada literature owes its origin to the Jaina literary works. Vikramarjuna- Vijaya, written by Adi Pampa, is famous as Pampa-Bharata. Pandavapurana was written by Shubhachandra. Harivamsapurana was written by Jinasena.

 Ardhakathanaka, by Banarasidasa, is the first autobiography in Braj Bhasha which is termed as the precursor to the Hindi.

 Many Jaina literary works were written in Apabhramsa such as Kahas, grammar etc. Apabhramsa is known as the precursor to many Indian languages of the Gangetic plains.

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 Some of the oldest Jaina literature is available in Shauraseni, which led to the development of languages such as Gujarati, Marwari etc.

 Prominent Hindu epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata were adapted into Jainism. Jain versions of these epics are available in Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Kannada etc.

 Works such as Nalatiyar, Civaka Cintamani, Valayapathy etc. have enriched the Tamil language.

 Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha is a Jain encyclopedia to understand the languages like Prakrit, Ardhamagadhi etc. the words, their usage and other references in the Jaina literature. It was written by Acharya Rajendrasuri.

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5.6 Sangam Literature

Literature of Sangam Age

Sangam literature is the name given to the earliest known Tamil literature. It contains the anthologies of odes, lyrics, and idylls that form bulk of the literature that was composed during the reign of Pandyan kings of Madurai. They had maintained a body of eminent poets in their court which came to be known as the Sangam. The term Sangam was given by later scholars like Saint Navukkarasar. Most of the Sangam literature was composed between 100 AD to 250 AD, but the Sangam age is said to between 400 BC to 300 AD.

Sangam literature was very popular among the masses. It is a collection of several works which together contain close to 2381 poems, attributable to 473 poets. There is a corpus of literature produced by 102 poets which remains anonymous. Classification of Sangam literature

 Based on the period of composition, the Sangam literature is divided into two parts i.e., Patinenmelkanakku and Patinenkilkanakku. The former refers to the works composed between 200 BC to 100 BC and is considered to be among the oldest surviving Tamil poetry. The latter includes works composed between 100 AD and 500 AD and is a collection of 18 poetry works. Most of the eighteen Patinenkilkanakku works such as the Kural (Thirukural), Naladiyar, Palamoli etc. were composed prior to the age of Imperial Pallavas.

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 Based on the context and its interpretation, the literature is divided into two main groups viz., the Aham (inner) and the Puram (outer). The former deals with the abstract discussion on human aspects such as love, sexual relations etc. while the latter deals with human experiences such as heroism, social life, customs, philanthropy, ethics etc.

In the extant Sangam literature, close to 30000 lines of poetry have been arranged in eight anthologies known as Ettuttokoi. This is further subdivided into two groups viz., the Patinenkilkanakku which is the older and historically more relevant group, and the Pattupattu. Tolkappiyam Tolkappiyam is considered to be the fountain of all literary conventions in Tamil literature.

 It is a work on Tamil grammar, literary tradition, and sociology.

 It’s the earliest Tamil literary work extant today.

 It can be dated to the 4th or the 5th century AD.

 It contains sutras which are elaborate and extensive in range.

 The work is schematic and divided into three sections, each consisting of nine Iyals (subchapters) and contains a total of 1612 sutras.

 Aspects such as orthography, figures of speech, social practices, human psychology etc. related to epic and dramatic literature are described in detail in this work.

 The influence of Sanskrit on this work was minimal and peripheral.

 Elaborate attention was paid to the Aham and Puram classification of literature – all these gave the Tamil literature a distinctiveness, marking it off from other languages in the Dravidian group.

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Various work of Sangam age Sangam age witnessed the composition of several anthologies at the insistence of various kings. Most of the anthologies of this period have invocatory stanzas prefixed to them by Perundevanar.

 Ahananuru was compiled by Rudrasarman

 Aingurunuru was composed by Gudalur Mar

Pattuppattu (ten Idylls) constitute another major collection of the Sangam works. These are longer poems.

 Murugarruppadai was composed by Nakkirar and is still revered by the devotees of Lord Murugan.

 Other works such as Sirupanarruppadai, Perumbanarruppadai, Pattinappalai and the Maduraikkanji are cherished for their historical information.

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are the two prominent epics

 The former was written by Ilango Adigal and the latter by Sattanar.

 Silappadikaram (story of an anklet) contains a reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on the occasion of the installation of a temple to Kannagi (the Goddess of Chastity), by Cera Senguttuvan.

 Manimekalai (story of Manimekalai) contains fine poetry written in a grand style. It is also known for its dramatic element. It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Koylan, a merchant of Puhar and the hero of the Silappadikaram. The work also mentions the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the travails of Manimekalai as a result of the loss of the city of Puhar due to the erosion of the coast by the sea.

 Both the works contain a good deal of historical and social information. They focus on the Tamil society and the political and economic changes witnessed by it during that period.

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 However, Silappadikaram is considered to be better in terms of its grand style and its peculiar grace.

The chief merit of Sangam literature is its complete devotion to the standards of the literary conventions.

 Thirukural, written by Thiruvalluvar, is considered to be the first Dravidian work to deal with ethics. It is universally accepted as work of immense importance and hence has been translated into many languages, including foreign languages. It contains 1330 couplets. It is divided into three parts which discuss the epics, polity-governance, and love

 Palamoli was written by Munrurai Araiyar. It contains a novel method of exemplifying morals by proverbs.

 Acarakkovai contains a description of the daily routine for an orthodox Hindu. This reflects the influence of Sanskrit Sastras on Tamil literary works.

Post Sangam work Some of the post-Sangam age works had also been written in the context of Aham and Puram.

 Naladiyar was written by Nalatiyar and its theme is the transient nature of life and youth. It is inspired by the life and works of various Jaina monks.

 Iniyavai Narpathu is a work on ethics and contains some suggestions such as seeking the advice of learned persons, not seeking other person’s spouse etc.

 Another work on ethics, Inna Narpathu talks about avoiding temptations such as the wealth of a miser, a flower without fragrance, beautiful but disloyal spouse etc.

Social life during Sangam Age Though the Sangam literary works do not provide an accurate account of political history, they contain valuable information on the economic and social life of the early Tamil society such as

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 Women were treated with great respect, and chastity was their highest virtue. They had the choice of choosing their life partner (mentioned in Agananuru). Avvaiyar was a famous female poet of those times. However, there were several regressive practices too such as not permitting them to remarry or inherit property, and there was the practice of Sati among the royal family.

 The society was mainly agriculture-based and there existed three kingdoms during that period – the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas.

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5.7 Bhakti literature

Bhakti Literature in India The Bhakti movement is considered to be a cultural revolution in the history of medieval India. It had a significant impact on the literary works that were developed during that period. The Bhakti literature reflects a new form of devotion to God i.e., a personal bond between the devotee and the deity. Alvars and Nayanars

The Bhakti literature began to be composed in the sixth century AD in south India by the Tamil poet-saints.

 Alvars, who were the devotees of Lord Vishnu, began to spread Vaishnavism through their devotional poetry. This came to be known as the Divya Prabandha. There were 12 Alvars. Tiruvaymoli, written by Nammalvar, is highly revered by the Vaishnavas. The only female among the Alvars was Andal. Her collection of poems, known as Tiruppavai, enjoys great popularity even in present times for its touching fervor and simplicity.

 Nayanars were the devotees of Lord Shiva. There were 63 Nayanars and their collective devotional poetry is known as the Thirumurai. It is also known as the Tamil Veda. It consists of 12 volumes, with songs and hymns written in praise of Lord Shiva. Of these, the first seven volumes are known as the Thevaram.

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Composed in the tenth century AD, Thevaram enjoys widespread acceptance even in the present times as a religious text.

Bhakti movement’s contribution to the development of Telugu and Kannada Bhakti movement also provided an impetus to the growth of other regional languages such as Telugu and Kannada in the south

 Mahabharata was translated into Telugu by Nannaya in the 11th century AD. This was considered as the beginning of literary work in Telugu. The kirtans written by the poet-saint Annamacharya on Lord Vishnu led to an increase in the popularity of Telugu. Vallabhacharya had enriched the Telugu literature with his works like the Bhagvata Tika, Subodhami etc.

 In Kannada, the trio of Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna had produced their works which contributed to the development of the language.

 In the 12th century AD, the Virashaiva religious movement began gaining popularity under Basavesvara. He advocated the use of simple Kannada as the medium for instruction, which increased in appeal among the common people. His contemporaries like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi invented a new type of prose composition called the Vachanas. Noted for their directness, simplicity and poetic beauty, they played an important role in the enrichment of Kannada literature.

Bhakti movement’s contribution in North India The Bhakti movement was popularized in north India by Ramananda in the 12th century AD. This led to the growth of literary works in languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Gujarathi, Bengali, Punjabi etc.

 Ramcharitmanas, Hanuman Chalisa are some of the most popular works of Tulsidas. By choosing to write in Avadhi which is a dialect of Hindi, Tulsidas made the epic of Ramayana and other devotional literature more accessible to the common man. This also represented a break from the composition of devotional literature in Sanskrit. Many of the verses and phrases used in the works of Tulsidas have now become a part of the common parlance in Hindi speaking areas.

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 Kabir, who is revered by the Hindus, Muslims as well as the Sikhs of north India, wrote in the vernaculars. He did not adhere to the strict rules of grammar which were prevalent during his times. His works were mainly two line compositions, known as the Dohe. They were full of everyday metaphors and similes, through which he propagated his philosophy. The Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs, includes many of his verses.

 Mirabai was among the most famous women saints of the Bhakti movement. She sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna which became popular as Bhajans. Mira’s bhajans are still considered to be devotional works of a high literary value. Her work includes over 1300 songs which symbolize passion, eroticism, and a complete surrender to her master Lord Krishna.

 Surdas, a blind poet, had composed songs in praise of Lord Krishna. Of his total compilation of close to 100000 poems, only around 8000 have survived. His compositions were made in Braj Basha, a dialect of Hindi, which eventually led to its attainment of a literary language status.

 Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda is a popular devotional work on Lord Krishna. It is considered to be the most Sanskrit lyrical work of the Bhakti period. Its theme is the love between Lord Krishna and Radha. It laid the foundation for the growth of Bengali literature. His work represents a mix of passion, devotion, and lyricism.

 Chaitanya and Chandidasa were among the famous Vaishnava poets of Bengal. They produced Vaishnava literature, mainly poetry, which represents a mix of eroticism and spiritual fervour.

 Shankaradeva and Madhavadeva were the two prominent Vaishnava poet- saints of Assam. Kirtana-ghosa is an anthology of devotional songs which was written by them, but mostly includes the works of Shankaradeva. Bhattadeva had translated the Bhagavadgita into Assamese, which led to the enrichment of Assamese prose.

 The works of Narasimha Mehta, Bhalana, and Akho led to the growth of Gujarati literature under the influence of Vaishnava Bhakti. Narasimha Mehta is considered the father of Gujarati poetry.

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 In Marathi, the works of Jnanadeva viz., Bhavartha Dipika (also known as Jnanesvari) and Amrutanubhava are revered as sacred books. The works of Namdev and Tukaram, who defied the Sanskrit elite to write devotional literature in Marathi, are also very popular in the present times.

 Punjabi literature developed under the influence of the mysticism of the Sufi movement as well as the spirituality of the bhakti movement.The work of Guru Nanak, who belonged to the Nirguna school of philosophy, is held in high regard by the Sikhs. His poetry is rich in quality as well as quantity and has a touch of sentiment. Guru Arjun had compiled the Adi Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs. Sukhamani, composed by Guru Arjun, is considered to be one of the longest and the greatest mystic poets of the medieval times.

Bhakti literature played a crucial role in the popularization of the Bhakti cult. It represented a significant break from the earlier devotional literature which was focused on rites and rituals and was mostly written in Sanskrit. Apart from contributing to the growth of regional languages, Bhakti literature also popularized spirituality among the common people.

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5.8 Nationalist Literature

Nationalist Literature of India The 19th century began witnessing a growing discontent against the British rule in India. This gave birth to an organized national movement. Inspired by this movement, there emerged a corpus of literature which in turn contributed to the growth and spread of nationalist sentiments across different regions of the country as well as among the various sections of Indian people. Miscellaneous work

Apart from the freedom struggle, the social and religious reforms which were underway in the Indian society since early 19th century also contributed to the rise of nationalist literature.

 Bharatendu Harischandra wrote Andher Nagari (city of darkness), a drama on the sad state of affairs in urban India (administrative inefficiency, corruption etc.) under the British rule. He also wrote Bharat Durdasha, which became a famous nationalist work.

 The works of Munshi Premchand (Godhan), Deenbandhu Mitra (Neel Darpan) had highlighted the struggles faced by the poor in India.

 Raja Rammohan Roy wrote many works which formed the basis of his reform agenda, which were influenced by modern western ideas. In his Gift to Monotheists, Roy emphasized on monotheism. Roy also brought out many

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journals in English, Hindi, Bengali, and Persian to educate public opinion, and to take the grievances of the public to the government.

 Debendranath Tagore brought out the Tattvabodhini Patrika which promoted rational outlook and a systematic study of India’s past.

 Henry Vivian Derozio is considered the first nationalist poet of modern India. He had inspired his pupils to think freely and rationally, oppose any decadent traditions or customs. He also supported women’s equality, rights, and education.

 Bal Shastri Jambekar, through his weekly Darpan, attacked orthodoxy in brahminical religion and attempted to reform Hinduism.

 Gulamgiri is a work of Jyotiba Phule on the brahminical supremacy and the discrimination faced by the Shudras. Through his work, he had advocated a complete abolition of the caste system and the socio-economic inequalities. Gulamgiri had inspired the powerful backward class movement which had emerged in the early 20th century.

 Satyarth Prakash is a pioneering work by Dayanand Saraswati in which he described his vision of a classless and casteless society. He also advocated for a united and free India (from foreign rule).

 Among the Muslims, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had brought out a magazine called Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq which contained progressive ideas like improvement in women’s position through education, opposed purdah and polygamy etc.

 One of the most famous nationalist literary works was Anand Math, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Vande Mataram, our national song, was composed by him in this novel and is an excerpt taken from it. In his works, Bankim attacked colonialism and had carved out a space for nationalist writings in Indian literature.

 Rabindranath Tagore emphasized the importance of federalism in his works and that unity of India can only be achieved through unity in diversity. Through his novel Gora, Tagore had challenged the colonial rule and inspired the national

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movement. Our national anthem, Jana Gana Mana, is a product of his nationalistic literature.

 Sharath Chandra Chatterjee, R C Dutt also made important contributions to Bengali literature while contributing to the nationalist movement at the same time, through their literature.

 Punjabi literature of the 20th century also came under the influence of nationalistic sentiments. The famous work of Bhagat Singh, Rang de Basanti Chola, is an excellent example of such influence. Why I am an Atheist, of Bhagat Singh had led to a rise in the popularity of socialist ideology which came to be embedded in our freedom struggle.

 Marathi prose and poetry also came under the influence of rising nationalist sentiments. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, one of our greatest freedom fighters, brought out regional newspaper like Kesari in Marathi. It contained strong criticisms of British policies as well as inspiring articles by the leading revolutionaries of the time. Hari Narayan Apte, V S Chiplunkar were leading freedom fighters who, through their works in Marathi, brought the glorious past of India to instil patriotism among their readers.

Economic Critique Another type of nationalist literature was produced by the moderate nationalists, in the form of economic critique of British rule.

 Dadabhai Nauroji had put forward the Drain of Wealth theory, which implied that British economic policies had directly resulted in a significant outflow of national wealth from India annually. This led to a drain because India did not get anything in return from such an outflow.

 Romesh Chandra Dutt, in his work The Economic History of India, had calculated the amount of drain of economic resources that had happened under the British.

The economic critique of British rule had shattered the propaganda around that the colonial rule. It was no longer possible for the British to justify their rule over India as the White Man’s Burden, to civilize and rule over our country for our own

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