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Principles and Methods of Archaeology Semester - Iv, Academic Year 2020-21

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Principles and Methods of Archaeology Semester - Iv, Academic Year 2020-21 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF ARCHAEOLOGY SEMESTER - IV, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21 UNIT CONTENT PAGE Nr I DEFINITION AND SCOPE – ARCHAEOLOGY 02 II INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY - ORIGIN AND GROWTH 12 III FUNCTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGISTS 24 IV DATING METHODS 32 V ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN TAMIL NADU 37 Page 1 of 46 UNIT - I DEFINITION AND SCOPE - ARCHAEOLOGY Definition: The word archaeology has its origin from two Ancient Greek words ‘arkhaios’, meaning ancient or old, and ‘logia’, which stand for learning or study. Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through the recovery and analysis of material remains. Many consider it to be a subfield of anthropology (the study of all human culture and evolution), along with many other subfields comprising biological, cultural and linguistic anthropology. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanity (the study of humans and their society). However, it also uses other branches of learning such as biology, chemistry, geology, botany, geography and various other disciplines. By using all these disciplines, the archaeologists are able to understand human civilizations of the past and recreate main aspects of the environment in which these bygone societies lived. Archaeology is the only method available for the study of human actions in the material world, when other evidences such as a variety of written materials and oral traditions narrating certain phenomenon fail. The survival of written documents is relatively limited and hence from the time that these documents become available, they provide additional tools to archaeology for its interpretation of past activities of man, on the basis of material remains. Archaeology, from this point of view, has to not only interpret material remains of human activity, but also throw light on the literary interpretations of the past phenomenon. It helps us to appreciate and preserve our shared human heritage. It informs us about the past, helps us understand where we came from, and shows us how people lived, overcame challenges, and developed the societies we have today. The development of the field of archaeology has its roots in history and those who were interested in the past, such as kings who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. In the 5th century BC, Herodotus, the Greek historian, was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts and test their accuracy. In the Song Empire (960–1279) of Imperial China, officials unearthed, studied, and catalogued ancient artifacts. In the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a rise of antiquarians in Renaissance Europe who was interested in the collection of artifacts. The antiquarian movement shifted into nationalism and personal collections were used to create national museums. It developed into a much more systematic discipline in the late 19th century and became a widely used Scope: Prehistoric archaeology has become an institution nowadays, encompassing a number of different scholars forming sub-disciplines. Each scholar propagates new theories and follows different methods having different approaches. In the recent past, there has been a growing realization that prehistoric archaeology has contributed a lot not only to study the antiquities or relics of the past societies but also to study the modern people or contemporary societies with simple technology from the light of their practices set in prehistoric times. It can also help with specific archaeological studies when the ways of life of the modern society are very much similar to those of the past life. It has become a current focus of research. In one way or another we compare something from the past with an object in use today. For example, megalithism, or using megaliths to create monuments, is a dead cultural phenomenon in most parts of the world. But it is still practiced by different tribal communities in the same way or in some modified form in North-East India, especially in Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. Page 2 of 46 Megalithism is a living tradition among these tribal communities. Hence many specialists in the field of ethno-archaeology take keen interest to reconstruct the past life of the ancient people of these regions in the light of this living tradition. Allied subjects of Archaeology Introduction: Prehistoric archaeology may be defined as the science which yields information and develops theories about past human activity of the time period before the emergence of written record by means of studying ancient material remains. Numerous branches of sciences like geology, palaeontology, geography, physics, chemistry, oceanography, remote sensing, geographical information system, microbiology, metallurgy, computer and other newly emerging disciplines contribute enormously to reconstruct the human past most effectively and authentically. It has been observed that the growth of science had a direct impact on the growth of archaeology. The path breaking inventions made in different disciplines of science from time to time indirectly helped in the development of archaeological investigation. Archaeological Science (Archaeometry): Archaeological science is the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials including dating of ancient materials. It helps to reconstruct ancient human life ways in different ways; such as the physical and chemical dating methods help in building absolute and relative chronologies; environmental science provide information on the past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; mathematical science helps in data treatment; remote sensing and geophysical survey application helps in locating buried features at regional, micro-regional, and intra-site levels; conservation science helps in studying the decay processes and conservation of artefacts etc. Most importantly the invention of several dating techniques such as radiocarbon (C14) invented by American chemist Willard Libby especially for dating organic materials; dendrochronology for dating trees; Thermo-luminescence (TL) for dating inorganic material including ceramics; optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) for absolutely dating and relatively profiling buried land-surfaces in vertical and horizontal stratigraphic sections; electron spin resonance (ESR), for dating teeth; potassium-argon for dating fossilized remains etc. which have contributed tremendously in building chronology of our past Geology: Geology is the study of the development of the earth especially as preserved in its crust formations. The first greatest contribution of geology to prehistoric archaeology is the principles of stratigraphy. Stratigraphy helps to determine the relative dating of the artifacts found in different cultural levels. The study of rocks, minerals, ores, gem stones, soil, land formations, landscape, river migration, river terrace formations, erosion, deposition, submergence of land mass, raised beaches, ancient coast lines and sea level fluctuations, all fall in the domain of geology. Geology helps to understand the factors which determine the human habitat on the earth. The artifacts recovered from particular geological formations like river terrace provide a relative dating to the site. For instance, the prehistoric tools recovered from the river terraces of different valley helps us to understand the chronological positions of the prehistoric cultures. Archaeologists have long been using the physical and biological sciences for the resolution of archaeological problems. The earth sciences especially geology and geography have played a significant role in archaeological theory and practice for at least one and half centuries, particularly in prehistoric archaeology. In fact, it was as a result of the efforts Page 3 of 46 of the geologists of the nineteenth century that the notion of human antiquity was first established in Europe. In the initial stages prehistoric research was assisted by earth scientists who helped archaeologists to understand subjects like stratigraphy, relative chronology and the palaeo environment of archaeological sites. According to Fekri A. Hassan, geo-archaeology is the contribution from earth sciences to the resolution of geology related problems in archaeology. The scope of geo-archaeology encompasses: 1. Locating archaeological sites. 2. Evaluating the geomorphic landscape for site catchment activities and site location. 3. Studying regional stratigraphic and microstratigraphic materials for relative dating and recognition of lateral and vertical distribution of activity areas. 4. Analyzing sediments for the elucidation of site formation processes and quantification of micro-archaeological remains. 5. Analyzing paleo environments 6. Studying artifacts to determine manufacturing practices, procurement range, trade, and exchange networks. 7. Modeling cultural/environmental interactions. 8. Conserving archaeological resources. Stratigraphy: The concept of stratigraphy in geology had been based on the publication of the book Principles of Geology by Sir Charles Lyell in 1830. Glyn Daniel in his book A Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology published in 1975 discussed the origins and development of archaeological thought and explained the influence of geology in archaeology, particularly in stratigraphy. Stratigraphy took its root with the formulation of the principles of stratigraphy and its acceptance by the geologist and archaeologist. C.J. Thomsen advocated the Three Age System
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