Spinsters, Old Maids, and Cat Ladies: a Case Study in Containment Strategies
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SPINSTERS, OLD MAIDS, AND CAT LADIES: A CASE STUDY IN CONTAINMENT STRATEGIES Katherine Sullivan Barak A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2014 Committee: Ellen Berry, Advisor Vikki Krane Graduate Faculty Representative Sarah Smith Rainey Marilyn Motz © 2014 Katherine Sullivan Barak All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Ellen Berry, Advisor Using Michel Foucault’s notion of “containment strategies,” this dissertation argues that representations of the crazy cat lady, the reprehensible animal hoarder, the proud spinster, and the unproductive old maid negatively frame independent, single women as models of failed White womanhood. These characters must be contained because they intrinsically transgress social norms, query gender roles, and challenge the limitations of mediated womanhood. In order to explore the role of representation, this dissertation provides a suggestive history of the ways spinsters and old maids evolved into their current iteration, the cat lady. The research begins by tracing cultural representations of cats and women from 2000 BCE through the early modern period. After this retrospective, the research focuses on two particular points of cultural anxiety connected to changing gender roles: the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. During the former, the media characterized spinsters and old maids as selfish, proud, unnatural, unproductive, and childish in newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets. Rather than focusing exclusively on the negative coverage, this dissertation deeply analyzes three transgressive novels, Agnes Grey, An Old-Fashioned Girl, and Lolly Willowes: Or the Loving Huntsman, to contextualize the ways positive representations of spinsters and old maids could threaten patriarchal society. At the turn of the 21st century, “spinster” and “old maid” became outmoded terms, but the cat lady emerges as a postmodern version of the same cautionary tale. Fictional television characters like Eleanor Abernathy from The Simpsons and Angela Martin from The Office are deconstructed, revealing the ways the iv framing and editing contribute to narratives of failed femininity. Participants from reality TV shows like Hoarders and Confessions: Animal Hoarding and the documentary film Cat Ladies are analyzed to demonstrate the ways “factual” representations further pathologize the cat lady by associating her with hoarding and mental illness. This dissertation illustrates how a marginalized, peripheral character like the cat lady serves as a tool for social maintenance, reinforcing heteronormative gender roles and containing alternative versions of womanhood. v For Bubba first word, first love, first heartache For Zazoo forever deigning domestication For Molly who loved me most For Murphy who loved everyone equally And for Moshi my feline doppelganger, my hello kitty, my serrated edge vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the members of my committee for their input, enthusiasm, and patience during the writing of this dissertation. This project could not exist without the support of Dr. Ellen Berry, Dr. Sarah Smith Rainey, Dr. Marilyn Motz, and Dr. Vikki Krane. Sharing the germ of an idea with someone is a terrifying moment. Ellen simply replied, “Yes. I know who you mean. But the cats find me. They just show up.” Sarah nodded knowingly and immediately had new directions for me to investigate. Marilyn had folktales and recommendations for finding Victorian spinsters. And Vikki’s role has always been to help me be a better researcher, writer, and academic – this project was no exception. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Melinda Lewis and Broc Holmquest who, depending on the day, stepped in as soundboards, punching bags, motivators, or fainting couches. When I worried I was veering too far from sanity, Melinda always assured me I was on the right track. When I insisted my committee was holding back criticism, Broc lovingly argued that my writing might be pretty OK. My INFJ security blankets – you have changed my life…forever. There are so, so many valuable individuals whose encouragement, interest, and input helped me through the dissertation. Without Kathy Bradshaw this project wouldn’t exist. With an 11x11 inch Post-it, Kathy forced me to map out this project in a way that stretched beyond “Cat ladies…that’s a thing, right?” In similar fashion, Sridevi Menon argued for witches and insisted I rein in my lofty goals for the project. She never said it in quite this way, but her tone implied “It needn’t be a three-volume set, Katie; it’s a dissertation.” Beyond these official figures, there were countless friends and colleagues who proffered advice, sent me links, or texted me cat lady sightings. Since there is no vii archive or searchable terms to locate cat ladies in history, I owe a lot to these detectives: Kelly MacDonald, Eric Weeks, Justin Philpot, Melissa Mills-Dick, Susana Peña, Chris Lezotte, Brandi Barhite, Kim Rewinkle, Brock Webb, Tiffany Knoell, Lesa Lockford, and Becca Cragin. Also, having never before endeavored a project of this scope I didn’t know the levels of support required to pull it off. I quickly found that showing interest in a topic is a special kind of compassion for someone up to their eyeballs in research. Listening, asking questions, and expressing surprise or excitement were things I needed to feel like I was on the right track. I’m lucky enough to have had the support of Alicia Marie, Ryan Smith, Jen Hicks, Matt Brady, Courtney Robinson, BK Loren, Lisa Cech, Stephanie Plummer, Tim Plummer, Sandy Maidment, and Pat Burns. From the bottom of my heart I thank everyone for their help in every form it took. Finally, no project would get done without my parents, Pat and Steve Barak. I’m sure they could see this project coming down the line given my cat-themed tween bedroom and my pleading arguments for bringing more cats into the family (it’s said you’re drawn to write about what you are...). My parents have always been my biggest supporters, and this project is no exception. After they heard the topic, packages started showing up at my door. Trolling thrift stores, used book shops, and garage sales, they procured obscure, out-of-print books on cats in art, located hard-to-find films, collected the latest in cat-themed board games, packaged them up and sent them to Ohio. I love you both so much. Thank you, thank you, thank you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION. APPARITIONS FROM THE PERIPHERY: AN INTRODUCTION TO CAT LADIES .................................................................................. 1 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 10 Chapter Breakdown ................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER ONE. AMBIVALENT TAILS AND TALES: A LOOSE HISTORY OF GODDESSES, WITCHES, AND FELINE FAMILIARS ..................................................... 20 The Sacred Feline: Egyptian Representations of Cats ............................................... 21 Out of Egypt: Egyptian Iconographies Circulating in Europe ................................... 30 Suppressing the Sacred: Women and Cats in Medieval Times ................................. 36 Feline Mystique and Female Familiars: Witches and Cats in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period ..................................................................... 44 Allegorical Ambivalence: Connecting Females and Felines ..................................... 54 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 61 CHAPTER TWO. THE CRUX OF IT ALL: AMBIVALENT REPRESENTATIONS OF SPINSTERS DURING THE FIRST-WAVE ........................................................................ 64 Etymology and Everyday Life: Understanding Spinster Origins .............................. 67 Case Studies: Agnes Grey, Polly Milton, and Laura Willowes ................................. 83 Agnes Grey ..................................................................................................... 85 Polly Milton ................................................................................................... 90 Laura Willowes .............................................................................................. 95 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 104 vi CHAPTER THREE. ELEANOR ABERNATHY AND ANGELA MARTIN: CAT LADIES AS POSTFEMINIST SPINSTERS........................................................................................ 107 Postfeminism and Femininity .................................................................................... 108 Case Studies: Eleanor Abernathy and Angela Martin ............................................... 120 Comedic Contexts: How Genre and Form Construct Comedy ...................... 121 Eleanor Abernathy ......................................................................................... 129 Angela Martin ................................................................................................ 137 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 153 CHAPTER FOUR. MAKING THE BOOGEYMAN REAL: CAT LADIES IN REALITY TV AND DOCUMENTARY ...............................................................................................