Western Washington University Western CEDAR

WWU Graduate School Collection WWU Graduate and Undergraduate Scholarship

Summer 2015

Surface Slip during Large Owens Valley Earthquakes

Elizabeth K. Haddon Western Washington University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Haddon, Elizabeth K., "Surface Slip during Large Owens Valley Earthquakes" (2015). WWU Graduate School Collection. 433. https://cedar.wwu.edu/wwuet/433

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Surface Slip during Large Owens Valley Earthquakes

By Elizabeth K. Haddon

Accepted in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science

Kathleen L. Kitto, Dean of Graduate School

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Dr. Colin Amos

Dr. Elizabeth Schermer

Dr. Doug Clark

MASTER'S THESIS

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's degree at

Western Washington University, I grant to Western Washington University the non- exclusive royalty-free right to archive, reproduce, distribute, and display the thesis in any and all forms, including electronic format, via any digital library mechanisms maintained by

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Elizabeth K. Haddon

July, 2015

Surface Slip during Large Owens Valley Earthquakes

A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Western Washington University

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science

By Elizabeth K. Haddon April 2015

iv

ABSTRACT

The 1872 Owens Valley earthquake ranks among the largest historical earthquakes in

California. Relatively sparse field data and a complex rupture trace inhibited attempts to define the slip distribution and reconcile the total moment release. We present a new, comprehensive surface-slip record based on lidar and field investigation, documenting 183 measurements of laterally and vertically displaced landforms for 1872 and earlier Owens

Valley fault earthquakes. Our lidar analysis uses a newly developed analytical tool to measure fault slip based on cross-correlation of sub-linear topographic features. This

MATLAB-based GUI, OffsetXcor, produces a uniquely-shaped probability density function

(PDF) of fault slip for each measurement. Stacking PDFs along strike to form cumulative offset probability distribution plots (COPDs) highlights common offset values corresponding to single- and multiple-event displacements. Dextral offsets for 1872 vary systematically from ~1.0 – 6.0 m and average 3.3 ± 1.2 m (2). The corresponding vertical shift is between

~0.1 to 2.4 m and predominantly east-side down, with a mean of 0.8 ± 0.5 m (2). The horizontal-to-vertical ratio averaged at specific sites is ~6:1, similar to previously reported values. We attribute progressively higher-offset lateral COPD peaks at 7.4 ± 1.3 m, 12.4 ±

1.2 m, and 16.6 ± 1.4 m (2) to three earlier surface ruptures. COPD peaks are relatively complex and bimodal, reflecting heterogeneous slip along geometric segments and subordinate strands. Evaluating cumulative displacements in context with previously dated landforms in Owens Valley suggests relatively constant, modest rates of fault slip, averaging between ~0.6-1.6 mm/yr (1) over the Mid-to-Late Quaternary. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding for this study was provided by the Southern California Earthquake Center

(SCEC) (Project 12140), the Geological Society of America Graduate Student Research fund, the Community Foundation of San Bernardino county, and the Western Washington

University Geology Department. I thank C. Amos, E. Schermer, and D. Clark for review of this work and guidance over the course of my education. I thank A. Jayko, M. Price, K.

Morgan, and G. Seitz for assistance in the field, and O. Zielke, S. Bacon, J. Arrowsmith, D.

Schwartz, J. Unruh, R. Weldon, K. Scharer, C. Madden-Madugo, and D. Haddad for helpful discussions. I gratefully acknowledge the staff at the UC White Mountain Research Center and my fellow graduate students, dearest friends, and family for facilitating this work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….…iv

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………v

List of figures……………………..………………………………………………….….…...vii

1. Comprehensive introduction……………………………………………………………...... 1

2. Introduction.………………………………………………………………………………...3

3. Background.………………………………………………………………………………...5

4. Methods…...……………………………………………………………………………….10

5. Results…...…………………..…………………………………………………………….18

6. Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………23

7. Conclusions.……………………………………………………………………………….35

8. References cited…………………………………………………………………………...38

9. Figures.………………………………………………………………………………….....47

Appendix A: Maps, Software, Files .………………………………………………………..66

Appendix B: Offset Observations.…………………………………………………………..67

Supplementary Figures……………………………………………………………………....82

Vita.…………………………………………………………………………………………100

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Regional overview of the Owens Valley fault and the mapped rupture trace in the

Walker Lane Belt of Southeastern California.

Figure 2. Oblique hillshade view of the southern Owens Valley fault zone.

Figure 3. Lidar hillshade images of the Owens Valley fault where it intersects the Owens

River meander belt and the Big Pine Creek alluvial fan.

Figure 4. Example of OffsetXcor application for measurement of tectonic offset.

Figure 5. Schematic illustration of summing approach across multiple faults.

Figure 6. Example of small geomorphic offset documented in the field.

Figure 7. Comparison between lateral offsets measured using OffsetXcor and in the field.

Figure 8. Along-strike compilation of small geomorphic offsets measurements.

Figure 9. Frequency and probability distributions for offsets of quality three and greater.

Figure 10. Along-strike compilation and binned COPDs of right-lateral slip measurements.

Figure 11. Lateral and vertical slip distributions for the 1872 Owens Valley earthquake.

Figure 12. 1872 and cumulative surface slip for past Owens Valley earthquakes, following binned COPD predictions.

Figure 13. Integrated 1872 surface slip distribution derived from offsets distributed along parallel strands.

Figure 14. Throw as an increasing function of right-lateral offset.

Figure 15. Along-strike right-lateral slip distributions normalized by maximum slip.

Figure 16. Comparison of 1872 slip-length parameters for well-studied earthquakes worldwide.

Figure 17. Owens Valley fault-slip rates estimated from cumulative-slip measurements. viii

Figure 18. Active faults and reported slip rates for the southwestern Walker Lane Belt. 1. COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION

This thesis work, ―Surface Slip during Large Owens Valley Earthquakes,‖ is also prepared for review and publication in the journal Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems.

The authors of the submitted publication are (in order): Elizabeth Haddon, Colin Amos, Olaf

Zielke, Angela Jayko, and Roland Bürgmann. The idea for this project originally came from

Amos and Bürgmann, who authored a successful proposal to begin this work, funded by the

Southern California Earthquake Center. Initial field reconnaissance was performed by

Haddon and Amos, and Haddon performed the bulk of the fieldwork with assistance from

WWU undergraduates Katherine ―Kyeti‖ Morgan and Maxwell Price. Haddon also performed topographic analysis using lidar data with assistance from Olaf Zielke, who created the newly-developed OffsetXcor analytical tool. Jayko and Amos visited key locations in the field to give on-site feedback. Haddon analyzed field and lidar datasets, calculated fault-slip parameters and rates, wrote the manuscript, and prepared figures and tables with guidance from Amos. Amos, Zielke, Burgmann and Jayko reviewed the manuscript and figures and made suggestions central to the topics discussed herein.

This research presents original data and results from lidar analysis and field mapping of offset landforms preserved along the Owens Valley fault in southeastern

California. This structure hosted the 1872 Mw 7.4 – 7.9 earthquake, the third largest in

California’s history. Early studies documented comparable displacement and shaking to the

1906 and 1857 San Andreas earthquakes, yet the rupture was shorter by a factor of two to three. Our analysis employs a new Matlab tool that cross-correlates lidar topographic data to produce a uniquely-shaped probability density function of fault slip for each measurement. We present this new GUI and provide a supplemental package including 2 the code and our entire database as kmz and html files, showing the details of each offset restoration.

Our paper presents a database of 165 previously undocumented geomorphic offsets, measured from terrace risers, channels, and alluvial fans, enabling us to present the first complete surface slip reconstructions associated with the 1872 earthquake and earlier ruptures. This sequence of large events demonstrates comparable average displacements, suggesting repeated earthquakes similar in magnitude. These offsets also constrain the pace of Owens Valley fault slip over the mid-Quaternary to Holocene, indicating steady, modest slip. This result contrasts with hypothesized slip-rate variations based on comparisons with geodetic data. Taken together, our findings highlight questions for the existing paleoseismic record and shed light on the hazard associated with low-slip rate, high-recurrence interval faults in zones of distributed plate-boundary shear.

3

2. INTRODUCTION

Characterizing the distribution of surface slip during large earthquakes provides insights into fault behavior and seismic hazard potential (e.g., Wells and Coppersmith, 1994).

An increasing inventory of well-described historical ruptures constrains physical parameters such as the slip-to-rupture-length ratio for historical earthquakes in a variety of plate tectonic settings (e.g., Wesnousky, 2008; Stirling et al., 2013). Improved slip-length scaling relations contributes to our understanding of moderate to large earthquakes, particularly of measurement biases and uncertainties for pre-instrumental datasets (pre-1900’s) (e.g.,

Stirling et al., 2002) and static stress changes (e.g., Scholz, 2002; Romanowicz and Ruff,

2002) potentially related to structural maturity (e.g., Hecker et al., 2010). Previous studies demonstrate potential linkages between fault strength (e.g., Griffith et al, 2009), fault geometry (e.g., Rockwell et al., 2002; Klinger, 2010), stress interactions (e.g., Scholz and

Lawler, 2004; Wesnousky, 2008; Rockwell and Klinger, 2013) and patterns of surface slip during large earthquake ruptures. These studies also suggest physical bases for spatial and temporal patterns of geologic deformation accrued over multiple earthquake cycles and aid distinction between predictive models for fault slip and earthquake recurrence (e.g., the uniform-slip and characteristic earthquake models) (Sieh and Jahns, 1984; Schwartz and

Coppersmith, 1984).

Advances in the ability to image and analyze active faults using high-resolution lidar topography and imagery provide an opportunity to map earthquake surface ruptures with unprecedented detail and improve upon existing field catalogues of geomorphic offset (e.g.,

Zielke et al., 2015). In some cases, reinterpreted surface-slip distributions offer new perspectives on patterns of earthquake slip and recurrence (e.g., Zielke et al., 2012; Madden 4 et al., 2013). Much of this recent work focuses on plate-boundary faults, however, with relatively high slip rates and comparatively short earthquake recurrence intervals, such as the

San Andreas and San Jacinto fault systems in southern California (e.g., Zielke et al., 2010;

Salisbury et al., 2012; Madden et al., 2013; Rockwell and Klinger, 2013). Given the relative frequency of large earthquakes (~10-2 yrs) in comparison with the pace of landform development (~10-1-10-4 yrs) tectonic-geomorphic investigations in such locations face the challenge of a potentially incomplete geomorphic record of past surface ruptures (e.g., Sieh,

1978; Sieh and Jahns 1984; Zielke et al., 2010; Ludwig et al., 2010; Akçiz et al., 2010;

Zielke et al., 2015).

The Owens Valley fault (OVF) (Figure 1) represents an intracontinental structure located within a distributed zone of Pacific–North American plate boundary deformation.

The OVF experiences large but relatively infrequent earthquakes (~10-3-10-4 yrs) (e.g.,

Bierman et al., 1995; Lee et al., 2001a; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007) and exhibits moderate- to-low Quaternary to recent slip rates (≤ ~2 mm/yr, e.g., Dixon et al., 2003). The March 26,

1872 Mw 7.4 – 7.9 Owens Valley earthquake ruptured multiple geometric fault segments, generating a complex surface rupture trace (Figure 1) similar to the 1992 Landers and 1999

Hector Mine earthquakes (Sieh et al., 1993; Treiman et al., 2002). Previous work on the 1872 earthquake surface slip distribution noted high average and maximum surface displacements

(~4-6 m and ~7-11 m, respectively) (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Vittori et al., 1993; Beanland and Clark, 1994; McCalpin and Slemmons, 1998) in relation to the relatively short ~113-120 km rupture trace (Slemmons et al, 2008), suggesting the 1872 Owens Valley earthquake was a high stress drop source (e.g., Hanks and Bakun, 2002). Apparent discrepancies between estimates of 1872 magnitude from geologic observations (Mw 7.5-7.7) (e.g., Beanland and 5

Clark, 1994; Stein and Hanks, 1998) and interpretations of macroseismic accounts (Mw 7.4-

7.9) (e.g., Bakun, 2006; Hough and Hutton, 2008) emphasize the importance of resolving fundamental rupture parameters, such as rupture length and slip during OVF earthquakes. In addition, the relatively arid climate and remarkably well-preserved Owens Valley landscape combined with the comparatively long, millennial interseismic period (~3-10 ka) (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Bierman et al., 1995; Lee et al., 2001a; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007) suggests the potential for a nearly complete geomorphic archive of recent moderate-to-large earthquake surface ruptures, despite complexities in the surface rupture trace.

Here, we present a comprehensive database of surface slip along the OVF, that 1) expands the current number of field-verified geomorphic offset observations, largely documented pre-lidar, 2) constrains the amount and extent of surface slip during the most recent event (MRE) in 1872, as well as during the penultimate (PE) and earlier earthquakes,

3) brackets the rate of fault slip averaged over various mid to late Quaternary time intervals, and 4) sheds light on critical questions related to source parameters that bear on seismic hazards for similar faults in other areas.

3. BACKGROUND

3.1 Geologic Setting

The OVF (Figure 1) represents one structure in a network of distributed strike-slip and normal faults forming the eastern boundary of the Sierra Nevada – Great Valley microplate (Unruh et al., 2003) collectively termed the eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) or Walker Lane belt (WLB) (e.g., Stewart, 1988; Wesnousky, 2005). Geodetic measurements 6 spanning this region indicate present-day dextral shear of 10.6 ± 0.5 mm/yr (Lifton et al.,

2013), or up to 25% of the relative Pacific–North American plate motion (e.g., Dokka and

Travis, 1990). Contemporary background seismicity demonstrates that northwestward translation of the Sierra Nevada–Great Valley microplate drives deformation across this region (Unruh et al., 2003). Both discontinuous strike-slip and normal faults with potentially significant vertical axis rotations exhibit dextral shear, based on geologic and geodetic observations (Jayko and Bursik, 2012; Wesnousky et al., 2012; Foy et al., 2012). Because the

OVF strikes north (N20˚W ± 30º) relative to the local plate boundary motion (N50˚W, Lifton et al., 2013), the structure accommodates strike-slip motion with an overall releasing geometry (Unruh et al., 2014).

The right-lateral OVF comprises numerous predominantly northeast-dipping (80º ±

15º) faults with a subordinate vertical component, typically normal and down to the east

(Figure 1) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Multiple en echelon traces extend ~120 km, with northern and southern boundaries forming prominent releasing stepovers that transfer slip to adjacent dextral faults near Bishop and Rose Valley (Figure 1) (Slemmons et al., 2008). The southern terminus of the OVF comprises normal and normal-oblique faults on the northwest margin of the Coso Range extending into Cactus Flat (Figure 1) (Slemmons et al., 2008;

Amos et al., 2013a). Focused extension between the southern OVF and the Little Lake and

Airport Lake fault systems (Figure 1) leads to crustal thinning, geothermal activity, and abundant shallow seismicity across the Coso Range (Unruh et al., 2002; Monastero et al.,

2002). North of Big Pine, a relatively broad, diffuse releasing stepover between the northern

OVF and the right-normal oblique White Mountains Fault (WMF) coincides with a prominent gap in post-1872 microseismicity (Hough and Hutton, 2008). Abutting the Sierra 7

Nevada range front are numerous N- and NE-striking fault scarps (e.g., the Keough section of the Sierra Nevada frontal fault and Fish Slough fault) roughly contiguous with northernmost traces of the OVF (Figure 1) (Slemmons et al., 2008).

3.2 Geomorphic Setting

The Owens Valley geomorphic surface comprises fluvial and lacustrine deposits fringed by Pleistocene alluvial fans and Pliocene-to-Quaternary lava flows. Syntectonic volcanism produced cinder cones and abundant flows contributing to the Big Pine volcanic field dated between ~1.2 and < 0.1 Ma (e.g., Turrin and Gillespie, 1986). Cosmogenic radionuclide exposure dating of fan deposits in Sierra Nevada piedmont suggests Late

Pleistocene–Holocene ages ranging between ~124 and 1.2 ka (Bierman et al., 1995; Zehfuss et al., 2001; Benn et al., 2006; Dühnforth et al., 2007; Le et al., 2007). Pluvial-lacustrine landforms between the Poverty Hills and Olancha record successive highstands of Owens

Lake related to climatic fluctuations over the Quaternary. The modern, dry Owens Lake bottom rests at ~1084 m elevation, with dated pluvial shorelines corresponding to Marine

Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 and 6 (or 8) mapped at elevations up to ~1160 and ~1180 m, respectively (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Koehler and Anderson, 1994; Bacon et al., 2006;

Jayko and Bacon, 2008). The approximate age of lacustrine features corresponding to MIS 2 is ~27,000-15,800 cal yr BP (Bacon et al., 2006), and equivalent time periods for the MIS 6 and 8 lakes are 185-130 ka and 260-240 ka, respectively (Jayko and Bacon, 2008). The distribution of progressively older pluvial-lacustrine features at higher elevations indicates a clear relationship between surface age and elevation. Fluvial incision, lateral erosion, and aggradation of the Owens River in response to cyclic changes in base level generates suites 8 of fluvial landforms (e.g., meanders, terraces and floodplains) along the axis of the Owens

Valley (Bacon et al., 2006). Ongoing evolution of the Owens River meander belt since the

MIS 2 highstand produced up to ~10 m of local incision, erasing numerous landforms faulted within the past ~150 years.

3.3 Constraints on past OVF earthquakes

The 1872 Owens Valley earthquake is the largest known historical earthquake in the

Basin and Range Province (Richter, 1958), with comparable displacements and shaking intensities to the 1857 and 1906 San Andreas earthquakes (dePolo et al., 1991; Hough and

Hutton, 2008). Initial investigation of the rupture identified a number of geomorphic and cultural offsets near Lone Pine (Figures 1 and 2a) (Whitney, 1872a, 1872b; Gilbert, 1884;

W.D. Johnson in Hobbs, 1910). Fault-trenching (Figure 2a – b) and scarp measurements point to three 1872-type earthquakes over the past ~15-25 ka, involving repeated dip slip between ~1-2 m (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). Combining this event chronology with three lateral offsets measuring ~6 m, 10-12 m, and 12-18 m (Figure 2a

– c) suggests an average lateral of 4-6 m (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988). The maximum right lateral (between ~7 and 11 m) integrates geomorphic and cultural offset observations across rupture complexity near Lone Pine (Figure 2a). Compilation of 10 additional lateral geomorphic offsets, attributed mainly to the 1872 earthquake, suggested higher average lateral slip overall (6 ± 2 m) with a horizontal-to-vertical ratio of 6:1 (Beanland and Clark,

1994). Later incorporation of three relatively small offsets along the deformed southern margin of Owens Lake (Figure 1) (Vittori et al., 1993) yielded a slightly lower average for the 1872 earthquake of ~4.9 m right lateral with ~1.0 m vertical (McCalpin and Slemmons, 9

1998). Initial inspection of the right-lateral component using lidar data suggested significantly lower 1872 slip, averaging ~2.9 ± 1.0 m (Madden et al., 2013). This value does not, however, include historical measurements, previously reported sites, or combined displacements of continuous geomorphic features across sub-parallel rupture traces.

Although earlier field studies show strong evidence for cumulative displacements predating the 1872 event (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994), fault-trench investigations provide conflicting results on the timing and size of pre-1872 OVF surface ruptures. Near Lone Pine (Figure 2a), widespread rupture characterized by meter-scale vertical separations points to a PE between 10.2 ± 0.2 and 8.8 ± 0.2 ka (Bacon and

Pezzopane, 2007). Loose constraints on the antepenultimate event (APE) (between ~24 to 14 ka) compiled from cosmogenic ages for geomorphic offsets near Lone Pine (18.9 ± 7.4 ka)

(Bierman, 1995), liquefied Owens Lake sediments (17.5 ± 1.8 ka) (Smith and Bischoff,

1997), and rock avalanche debris (18.7 ± 3.9 ka) (Le et al., 2007) generally agree with long earthquake repeat times (~9-10 ka) (Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). On the other hand, trench exposures farther north near Independence (Figure 1) indicate a two-event record with ~15 cm of dip slip during 1872 and ~38 cm during a PE between 3.8 ± 0.3 and 3.3 ± 0.3 ka (Lee et al., 2001a). Notably, Bacon and Pezzopane (2007) attribute this pre-1872 event to triggered slip across a nearby stepover, possibly correlative with the White Mountain fault

MRE at ~3 ka (dePolo, 1989). In either interpretation, these studies demonstrate recurrence intervals on the order of ~103-104 years for OVF ruptures.

10

3.4 Fault Slip Rates

OVF slip rate estimates from geologic features averaged over different mid-to-late

Quaternary time intervals vary by almost an order of magnitude (~0.7 to 4.5 mm/yr). At the upper end of this range, 36Cl exposure dating of offset basalt flows near Crater Mountain imply slip at ~2.8 – 4.5 mm/yr since 55 – 80 ka (Kirby et al., 2008). In contrast, lower rates typically stem from observations of vertical separations in trench stratigraphy and average horizontal-to-vertical slip ratios, yielding rates of ~0.5 – 1.8 mm/yr over the past two earthquakes (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Lee et al., 2001a; Zehfuss et al., 2001; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). Although relatively low slip-rate estimates for the

Holocene period might reflect the tendency for paleoseismic techniques (e.g., trenching) to underestimate the actual, long-term slip rate (Kirby et al., 2008), the reported range leaves open the possibility of secular variations in slip rate (e.g., Gold and Cowgill, 2011). That said, the majority of geologic slip rates fall in general agreement with present-day slip-rates inferred from GPS data (2.1 ± 0.7 mm/yr) (Dixon et al., 2003).

4. METHODS

4.1 Mapping and Offset Identification

This study relies on lidar data and field mapping to image and analyze displaced landforms intersecting the Owens Valley surface rupture trace. We investigate surface traces of the OVF using the 2007 GeoEarthScope Southern and Eastern California lidar dataset accessed from OpenTopography (http://opentopography.org/) (Figure 1). From these data, we generated high-resolution (25-cm) bare-earth DEM tiles spanning fault traces using both

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) and inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation 11 methods. We used ESRI ArcGIS to calculate custom slope, hillshade, and contour maps with variable contrast, look and illumination angles. We also complemented our visualization of the lidar data using National Agricultural Imagery Program digital orthophotography (1-m resolution).

We mapped the fault zone at a scale of 1:1200, focusing on major and subsidiary fault traces (Figure 1) and provide the resulting linework in the package of supplementary materials (Data Set S1). Based on the overall appearance and fault surface expression, we classified scarps as certain, approximately located, inferred, or queried. Inspection of the surface rupture at this scale using lidar and imagery enabled us to identify and assess linear- to-sublinear geomorphic piercing points suitable for measurement of lateral and vertical offset. Examples of ideal landforms for this purpose include laterally displaced fluvial and debris-flow channels, debris-flow levees, terrace risers, narrow interfluves, lake shorelines, and alluvial fan apices (Figure 3).

4.2 OffsetXcor

We use a newly developed software tool, OffsetXcor, to measure the lateral and vertical components of slip and estimate associated uncertainties from offset landforms along the OVF. This MATLAB-based GUI for analyzing lidar DEMs is included with the supplementary materials to this paper (Software S1). OffsetXcor relies on cross-correlation of high-resolution topographic data (Figure 4a) to calculate the displacement vector of now- misaligned geomorphic features, presumably related to surface-rupturing earthquakes. This tool produces uniquely shaped PDFs for lateral and vertical offsets, reflecting the distinctiveness of the landform (i.e., the amount of relief, width, and degree of symmetry) 12 relative to the surrounding topography and the displacement amount. The tool also automatically generates a set of output files for additional data analysis and presentation

(e.g., kmz and html file with offset measurement and reconstructions).

OffsetXcor measures misaligned geomorphic features based on the cross-correlation of topographic data extracted along two along-fault cross-sectional profiles, as follows. First, the user loads an individual lidar DEM into OffsetXcor and traces the fault position and two fault-parallel profile lines across the footwall and hanging wall surfaces (i.e., one on each side of the fault trace) (Figure 4b; black, red, and blue lines respectively). Swaths of elevation points (usually 0.5 or 1 m wide, but generally a function of DEM resolution) straddling the fault-parallel profile lines are extracted to produce cross-sectional profiles for cross correlation (Figure 4c). Next, the user traces the length of the geomorphic marker (e.g., ridge crest, channel thalweg, terrace edge) projecting towards the idealized fault plane

(Figure 4b, yellow lines) to create longitudinal (i.e. parallel to the landform) profile lines on each side of the fault trace. OffsetXcor uses the longitudinal profile lines to generate longitudinal cross-sections from extracted elevational data (Figure 4d). Generalized information from the longitudinal data (the landform’s trend and slope) enables the program to project the respective fault-parallel profiles onto a simplified, vertical fault plane (Figure

4d). The trend of the geomorphic feature reflects the orientation of the longitudinal tracing in plan view where it intersects the fault (Figure 4b) (Zielke and Arrowsmith, 2012).

OffsetXcor solves for the best-fitting lateral offset using cross-correlation, a sliding dot product that measures the similarity between two waveforms. Cross-correlation is frequently used in signal processing to estimate the shift in time between two known waveforms (Knapp and Carter, 1976). In this case, the waveforms provided as inputs 13 describe elevation as a function of horizontal distance along the fault. Hence, the final cross- correlation curve (Figure 4e) quantifies the similarity between landforms as a function of lateral separation and mean elevation difference.

OffsetXcor iteratively compares a ―key‖ or template cropped profile to the complete across-fault topography using along-fault steps (typically equal to the DEM grid spacing)

(Figure S1a – f). For each lateral-offset step, the program determines the difference in mean elevation of key and target (i.e., within the overlapping sections) (Figure S1c). After subtracting the mean elevation difference (vertical separation) from the key, both profiles are normalized by area (so that area under the curve equals 1 for both profiles) and the dot product is determined (Figure S1d – e). Cross-correlation provides values between -1 and 1, where a value of 1 is perfectly correlated (e.g., between same ―wave‖ at same phase) and -1 is perfectly anti-correlated. A value of zero indicates lack of correlation. Repeating this procedure for all possible offset values/increments yields an offset PDF for lateral offset and vertical throw (Figure 4e). The amplitude and wavelength of the lateral-offset PDF reflects the similarity of both cross-sectional profiles in consideration of feature trend and slope relative to the fault plane. Because the vertical throw between both projected cross-sectional profiles depends on the horizontal cross-correlation routine, the value is a function of lateral offset (thus frequently described by PDFs without a distinct peak) (Figure 4e).

We visually assess the cross-correlation optima by reconstructing the pre-rupture topography across the fault. OffsetXcor slices and shifts the DEMs along the fault trace, enabling the user to test the result and independently determine the preferred amount of lateral displacement based on ―back-slipping‖ the imagery (Figure 4f). During this step, we also assessed the plausible offset range for each landform, equated with a 2-sigma standard 14 deviation for a Gaussian PDF. For this study, however, offset ranges are frequently asymmetrical about the optimum value. As such, restoration of landforms with two or more piercing points, such as debris flow channels, yields a range of values, often controlled by the overall width of the landform. Restoration of the channel margin impeding downstream flow often provides a minimum value, whereas the sheltered margin usually yields a maximum

(Cowgill, 2007). We then truncated each cross-correlation curve in accordance with the permissible range from backslipping to produce the final displacement PDF for each landform (Figure 4e).

The range of offset values from visual inspection may not account for assumptions related to the position of the fault plane on the scarp face. Because the fault plane is generally concealed outside of trench exposures, we systematically plot the fault near its expected intersection with the surface, between one-third to one-half the total scarp height (e.g.,

Thompson, 2002). Additional variability may result from changes in fault dip, multiple surface ruptures, post-earthquake incision, and degradation of the scarp. Due to limited fault plane exposure, we estimate heave indirectly, using the average reported dip (80° ± 10°)

(Beanland and Clark, 1994). Compared to simple scarp profiles, this approach to determining vertical offset is advantageous, because the measurement spans the laterally displaced landform, while also accounting for the landform slope.

Similar to previous lidar and field-based studies of lateral geomorphic offset, we assign a confidence rating to each measurement (Table S1) (e.g., Sieh, 1978). Whereas measurement uncertainties place bounds on the permissible range of separations, confidence ratings quantify the authenticity of apparent offsets and the reliability of reconstructions (e.g.,

Scharer et al., 2014). As such, we do not conflate uncertainty with confidence. We modified 15 criteria developed by Sieh (1978) and Lienkaemper (2001) to include a local calibration for

Owens Valley landforms. Our confidence ranges from high (5), moderate-high (4), moderate

(3), moderate-low (2), to low (1) based on feature distinctiveness, complexity of the fault trace, relative obliquity of features, degree of modification or erosion, and quality of the lidar

DEM for that site (Table S1).

We treat multiple offsets of an individual geomorphic marker across closely-spaced subparallel fault segments by summing to find the cumulative value (Figure 5a – b) (e.g.,

McGill and Rubin, 1999). This approach is advantageous because we do not know the chronology of individual earthquakes contributing to such displacements. We only correlate and sum partial offsets measured for the same landform, because different landforms offset within a zone of faulting likely reflect contrasting surface ages. Summed measurements occur within zones of deformation between ~5 and 90 m wide. In order to preserve the distribution of the measured uncertainty, we add triangular PDFs following a Monte Carlo approach (e.g., Amos et al., 2010). In each calculation, the Monte Carlo simulation samples

PDFs associated with each measurement over ten thousand trials to generate an offset histogram. Reported values reflect the mode and corresponding 95% confidence intervals.

4.3 Field Verification

We field-visited the majority of our offset sites identified in the lidar data (Table S2) and those reported by previous studies to calibrate our confidence ratings and verify our measurements. We used hillshade and contour basemaps loaded onto an Apple iPad running

GIS Pro version 3 to locate each offset and traverse sections of the surface rupture.

Documentation for sites with confidence of two and above (see Offset Observations in 16 supplement) includes measurements, photographs of the local conditions (e.g., Figure 6a – c), and descriptions of key geomorphic and geologic considerations, including: offset magnitude, continuity of geomorphic features, impacts of subsequent erosion and sedimentation, apparent relative ages of footwall and hanging wall surfaces, fault-zone width, and the presence of human modification.

4.4 Reconstruction of OVF Earthquakes

We assess the distribution of surface slip for past earthquake surface ruptures following the approach established by McGill and Sieh (1991) and recently expanded by

Zielke et al. (2012). Typically, such studies rely on histograms (Wallace, 1968) and cumulative offset probability distributions (COPDs) (McGill and Sieh, 1991) plots for the fault trace as a whole to attribute successive peaks or clusters of lateral offset to individual earthquakes. Peaks in the COPD may reflect single-event or cumulative slip due to multiple surface-rupturing earthquakes, following two primary assumptions: 1) climatic events generate and preserve sufficient populations of geomorphic markers to effectively record each rupture (Sieh, 1978), and 2) geomorphic separations reflect coseismic slip in the absence of aseismic creep (McGill and Sieh, 1991). Provided that peaks in the COPD correspond to frequent values of surface slip during past large earthquakes, displacement during the MRE typically contributes to the group of smallest measured offsets, represented by the first strong peak. Subsequent peaks in the COPD reflect cumulative slip, with each group encompassing an increasing number of past earthquakes. Because larger cumulative offsets preserved in the landscape may involve greater measurement uncertainties (e.g., Weldon et al., 1996), multiple-event COPDs generally display a strong peak associated with the MRE 17 and a tail of subsidiary peaks at decaying heights related to cumulative displacements (e.g.,

Klinger et al., 2011).

The total breadth of an individual COPD peak may reflect actual along-strike differences in surface slip during individual surface rupturing earthquakes. Potential contributing factors include influences due to fault geometry (e.g., Treiman, 2002); contrasts in thickness of unconsolidated alluvium (e.g., McGill and Rubin, 1999); distributed shear, warping, or rotation (Rockwell et al., 2002); strong-motion subevents (e.g., Hauessler et al.,

2004), and heterogeneously distributed mechanical properties (e.g., fault strength, asperities) along the fault (e.g., Rockwell and Klinger, 2013; Chen et al., 2015). As a result, complex closely-spaced peaks in the along-strike COPD may reflect inherent variability in surface slip during a single event, as well as the influence of multiple overlapping ruptures (e.g., Madden et al., 2013).

Because the 1872 OVF rupture spanned a number of subparallel fault traces (e.g.,

Carver, 1970), we analyze geomorphic offsets along individual sections using separate

COPDs of lateral and vertical offset (Figures S2-12). These COPDs incorporate summed

OffsetXCor measurements (Figure 5) and previously reported features. We assign nominal uncertainties of 20% to measurements lacking error estimates based on historical reports and fault-trench analyses. Fault sections typically span ~5 to 20 km in length, and are defined based on changes in fault strike, relays, or stepovers (e.g., Bryant, 1984a, 1984b, 1988;

Beanland and Clark, 1994; Slemmons et al., 2008). Limiting the spatial extent of our analysis reduces the influence of broad complexities in the surface rupture traces. Thus, lingering variability in individual COPD peaks likely reflects either distributed or heterogeneous slip in an individual earthquake for that section or events with slip below the resolution of our study 18

(e.g., McGill and Rubin, 1999). This approach provides a simplified view useful for assessing different patterns of slip accumulation across discontinuous fault traces and informs broader reconstructions (Figure 10c – e).

We visualize and reconstruct slip distributions for the entire fault following the binned COPD approach of Zielke et al. (2012). These COPD plots incorporate only moderate-to-high-confidence measurements (Confidence ratings 3 – 5) averaged or binned along discrete fault lengths (typically 2- to 5-km increments). We correlate offset groups for adjoining bins along-strike based on peak amplitude and spacing (e.g. McGill and Sieh,

1991; Klinger et al., 2011). The resulting event classifications are non-unique, and corresponding slip distributions represent our preferred solution in consideration of all available data. Where multi-modal peaks in the binned COPD occur, we delineate slip curves using mean values for contributing measurements rather than selecting the highest probability bins (e.g., Zielke et al., 2012).

5. RESULTS

5.1 Offset Observations

Our comprehensive database of 238 displaced geomorphic features for the OVF includes 166 new measurements with lateral offsets ranging between ~1 and 87 m

(Supplementary Information S1) . Table S2 catalogs these offset features including field,

OffsetXcor, and back-slip values. Our database is also available as an ArcGIS .shp file and a

Google Earth .kmz file, including site descriptions and imagery based on lidar DEMs (Data

Sets S2 – S3). OffsetXcor exports these images during each offset reconstruction. Html files 19 summarize the detailed offset reconstructions, showing the current and back-slipped topography for each site and corresponding cross-correlation curves (Data Set S4).

Our offset database includes 17 remeasured landforms described by previous workers in field studies (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Slemmons et al.,

2008). We also incorporate 55 additional published field measurements for sites we were not able to remeasure (Table S3) (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Zehfuss et al., 2001; Bateman, 1961; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007; Lee et al., 2001a; Kirby et al.,

2008). These previously reported values include features affected by cultural or geomorphic modification in the decades following earthquake rupture, as well as data based on trench excavations, scarp profiles, and geophysical methods.

Our complementary field observations at 154 sites compare well with lateral offsets measured using OffsetXcor (Figure 7), indicating a nearly 1:1 fit with a slope of 0.99 and a correlation coefficient of 0.93. Similarly, our lidar measurements compare favorably with sites originally documented by Lubetkin and Clark (1988), Vittori et al. (1993), Beanland and

Clark (1994), and Slemmons et al. (2008), showing a slope 0.95 and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. We note several factors that may hinder field efforts to accurately project sublinear features towards the fault plane without the use of differential global positioning system, including the presence of significant tilting, warping, or distributed faulting. Lidar analysis generally permits greater control when establishing linear trends and projecting features across scarps with significant vertical separation.

We compile right lateral and vertical offset as a function of distance along the average

OVF strike (340°) to investigate along-fault patterns in surface slip (Figure 8). Dextral offsets vary from ~1.0 up to 87.3 m, and demonstrate a range of vertical offset between ~0.1 20 and 24.1 m. Histograms and COPD plots for the entire fault and major fault sections (e.g., northern, central and southern) reveal subsidiary peaks in the distribution of surface slip

(Figure 9a – d). COPD plots using 5-km bins across overlapping strands also highlight apparent complexities in slip distributions for past OVF earthquakes (Figure 10c). (Text S1).

Our most robust reconstructions build on observations from individual sections (Figure S2-

S12) and delineate separate slip curves for the main OVF trace (Figure 10d) and the subsidiary Lone Pine fault (Figure 10e). Although we report the total number of offsets attributed to each past earthquakes, calculated averages for slip and related uncertainties incorporate only measurements rated moderate to high in confidence.

5.2 1872 Earthquake

Our reconstruction of the historical 1872 earthquake demonstrates the overall magnitude and extent of surface slip along the OVF. We document 78 displaced landforms that record dextral slip along ~109 km of the 1872 rupture trace (Figure 10) (Slemmons et al.,

2008). Topographic scarps without measureable lateral offset extend an additional ~0.5 km south of our southernmost measurement near the northeast-striking Red Ridge fault (Figure

1). Similarly, relatively fresh scarps occur up to ~15 km north of Klondike Lake, demonstrating some uncertainty in the distributed nature of 1872 slip at the northern terminus

(Figure 1). Although we visited a few possible offsets along the Keough section of the SNFF

(Figure 8a), scarps are beyond the extent of GeoEarthscope lidar data and cannot be definitively attributed to offset in 1872.

Figure 11 shows an along-strike linear interpolation of lateral and vertical offsets as a means to visually assess distributed slip along fault sections in 1872. Individual dextral offset 21 measurements vary from 1.0 ± 0.2 m to 5.5 +1.1/-1.3 m along-strike, reaching a maximum east of Independence (Figure 11a; Sites HA05417f, HA05661a in Table S2). Throw measurements across these features vary up to ~1.7-1.8 m on the Lone Pine fault, possibly approaching 2.0 +0.4/-0.2 m on the northern flank of Crater Mountain (Figure 11b; Site

HA09938f in Table S2).

The average dextral offset for landforms affected by only the 1872 earthquake is 3.3

± 1.2 m (2σ) corresponding to an average vertical of 0.8 ± 0.5 m (2σ) based on throw across these features. Figure S12a and b uses individual point measurements attributed to the 1872 earthquake to demonstrate the relative variability in the along-strike vertical component.

Where both components are moderate to high in confidence at a given site, we calculate a site-specific ratio of lateral-to-vertical offset. Figure 11c interpolates these values, and average estimates for individual fault section yield an overall ratio of ~6:1. We choose this site-based approach because it is less biased in comparison with the ratio from standard methods. Ratios determined by dividing the average lateral by the average vertical offset

(~3:1, in this case) do not reflect the actual along-strike variability observed between the two slip components (Figure 11c). Mean displacement during the 1872 event calculated from these horizontal and vertical measurements is comparable to the dextral average (~3.3 m) assuming a fault plane dip of 80º to the east (Beanland and Clark, 1994) (Figure S13c).

5.3 Prehistoric Earthquakes

Our along-strike compilation of displaced landforms also provides evidence for at least two pre-1872 earthquakes on the OVF. While these earthquakes produce fairly subtle, low-amplitude peaks in the net COPD (Figure 9a) cumulative peaks in the along-strike 22 binned COPD plots appear relatively distinct (Figure 10, S2 – S12). We document cumulative offsets mainly along the northern and southern OVF (Figures 9 and 10). In northern Owens Valley, active fault traces deform surficial Crater Mountain basalt flows dated between ~55 – 80 ka (e.g., Kirby et al., 2008) and Late Pleistocene – Holocene Big

Pine fan surfaces likely correlative with debris flows in the Sierra Nevada piedmont dated

33.5 ± 4.1 ka and younger (Dühnforth et al., 2010) (Figures 1 and 10). In southern Owens

Valley, Lone Pine fault traces intersect fan surfaces comprising debris flows dated 25.4 ± 6.0 ka and younger (Bierman et al., 1995).

We attribute 50 individual lateral offsets to cumulative slip during the most recent

1872-event and the PE (Figures 10 and S13). Cumulative right lateral and vertical throw average 7.4 ± 1.3 m (2σ) and 1.7 ± 0.9 m (2σ) respectively. Right-lateral slip reaches a local maximum along the northern Big Pine section (9.5 +2.8/-1.9 m, Site HA10633d in Table S2) and on the LPF (8.5 +2.5/-1.0 m, Site HA03704f in Table S2). Resolving these measurements on an average 80º-dipping fault plane suggests a mean cumulative displacement of 7.6 ± 1.3 m (2σ) (Figure S13c) and PE slip roughly comparable to the 1872 event. Displaced landforms contributing to the PE peak in the along-strike-binned-COPD occur along a similar rupture extent to the 1872 event (Figure 10). Notably, vertical offsets attributed to PE and 1872 ruptures generate a multi-modal distribution in vertical COPD plots (Figure 9a – d), perhaps indicating greater variability in the along-strike vertical component relative to the lateral component (Figure 11, Figure S13a – b).

Additional larger-offset groups apparent in the binned COPD resemble earlier Owens

Valley earthquakes (Figure 10). Although subtle peaks do encompass a number of relatively robust lateral offsets in the along-fault COPD, these observations are considerably sparser 23 than offsets contributing to the 1872 and PE ruptures (Figures 9 and 10). Cumulative offsets reflecting lateral slip in the APE include 17 measurements, varying from ~7.2 to 17.3 m, with average lateral and vertical offset of 12.4 ± 1.2 m (2σ) and 3.5 ± 0.9 m (2σ), respectively

(Figure S13a and b). A fourth group of possible older landforms encompasses nine cumulative offsets between 11.7 and 19.3 m, with a mean of 16.6 ± 1.4 m (2σ). Mean cumulative displacements for the APE and possible fourth event equal 13.3 ± 1.9 m (2σ) and

16.7 ± 1.5 m (2σ), respectively (Figure S13c).

In contrast, the majority of landforms intersecting the Independence and Diaz Lake sections preserve mainly 1872 surface slip and several relatively large-magnitude cumulative dextral offsets, developed over the course of many seismic cycles (Figure 7). As a result, reconstructions of the PE and APE across the central OVF are somewhat less certain (Figure

10c – d). The limited geomorphic record along the valley axis is a natural consequence of ongoing aeolian processes, the ~28 ka Owens Lake highstand (Bacon et al., 2014), and subsequent floodplain development and incision of the Owens River. The significant reworking of surfaces across much of the valley floor did not completely obliterate all cumulative dextral offsets, and we document several between ~35 and 87 m (Figure 8b;

Table S2). Most of these landforms stand in relief above the younger Owens River floodplain surfaces and include relatively subtle relict fluvial channels, terraces, fans, and a pull-apart type basin.

6. DISCUSSION

6.1 Implications for Geomorphic Offset Compilations 24

Analysis of small geomorphic offsets along the OVF suggests key implications for similar studies along active strike-slip faults. First, as discussed previously, the millennial return period for large OVF earthquakes (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark,

1994; Bierman et al., 1995; Lee et al., 2001a; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007) increases the likelihood that the rate of landform development in the Owens Valley outpaces the rate of fault slip and earthquake recurrence. In other words, the amount of time between successive large earthquakes is likely sufficient to form an abundance of fluvial and debris flow channels, terrace risers, and other geomorphic features useful for reconstructions of surface slip. This combination of a relatively slow-moving fault in a geomorphically active environment offers a potentially complete record of earthquakes over the last several tens of millennia. This relationship is less clear for faster, plate boundary faults where similar rates of landform development and earthquake recurrence introduce ambiguity or non-uniqueness in straightforward interpretations of COPDs (e.g., Ludwig et al., 2010; Zielke et al., 2010). A potential caveat for the OVF and other faults would be an earthquake cluster, which could appear as a single peak in a COPD. The known OVF event chronology from paleoseismic trenching, however, documents no such activity (Lee et al., 2001a; Bacon and Pezzopane,

2007), despite large earthquake clusters elsewhere in the ECSZ (Rockwell et al., 2000;

McAuliffe et al., 2013).

Second, our study demonstrates the utility of the cross-correlation technique for assessing laterally displaced topographic features in Owens Valley. COPDs constructed using custom PDFs from cross-correlation generally yield a plausible paleoseismic record, in good overall agreement with field observations and results from fault trench investigations.

Earlier studies explored the effects of PDF shape on COPDs of fault offset, treating 25 uncertainties associated with individual offset measurements as box- and triangular-shaped kernels (Salisbury et al., 2012; Madden et al., 2013). PDFs generated using cross-correlation accommodate asymmetrical uncertainties and convey an appropriately broad peak unique to each landform. Uncertainties for vertical throw are narrower, and COPD peaks appear relatively complex, reflecting higher along-strike variability in the vertical component and the effects of scarp erosion over time. Overall, cross-correlation PDFs for Owens Valley produce COPDs strongly influenced by overlapping uncertainties, with broad, complex peaks

(Figures 9 and S2-S12) characterizing natural heterogeneities in the surface distribution of slip.

Our study also demonstrates the importance of analyzing COPDs for individual fault sections along surface ruptures displaying significant geometric segmentation. Although a component of the uncertainty associated with each COPD peak preserves inherent variability in the slip distribution, distinct slip steps may result from changes in strike, relays, fault stepovers, and subparallel traces, contributing to overlap amongst offset groups in COPD plots suggestive of low-slip ruptures. For example, the largest lateral offsets on a single trace likely occurred along the relatively simple Independence section (Figure 10c). Slip distributed along subparallel sections to the south, however, results in more frequent small- to-moderate sized offsets and a multi-modal first peak in the binned COPD (Figures 9a and

10c). Our results contrast with more continuous surface ruptures producing relatively simple

COPDs with broader peaks towards cumulative offset (e.g., Zielke et al., 2010; Klinger et al.,

2011). Analysis by fault section improves event interpretations by elucidating effects introduced by the segmented and distributed OVF trace. 26

An important caveat to our study is that the resolution of available lidar data for

Owens Valley places some limit on our ability to resolve earthquake surface displacements with small offsets. Given an average return density of 4.6 returns/m2, we consider ~1-1.5 m as the minimum resolvable lateral offset for the area. Although 1872 slip was typically two to three times this value on average, areas of distributed faulting with low vertical scarps (e.g., the Tinemaha section, Figure S9) may mask evidence for small (< 1.5 m) lateral offsets, indistinguishable in the lidar from deflections similar in magnitude. When observed in combination, two small offsets can resemble a single, larger displacement (e.g., see site

HA08755 in Data Set S2). Although we note no strong correlations between lateral offset magnitude and confidence (Figure S14), these observations occasionally contribute to relatively large uncertainties for small (< 6 m) offsets.

An additional source of potential ambiguity in the lidar results from the oblique nature of OVF slip, thus promoting erosion from the up-thrown footwall and potentially muting or concealing smaller geomorphic offsets through deposition on the downthrown hanging wall. Ongoing erosion and deposition over the course of more than one earthquake may lead to subtle asymmetrical alluvial fans and complex channel geometries on the hanging wall. As such, confident lidar restorations reconstruct channels originally formed across once-intact surfaces.

6.2 Comparison with Previous Studies

The calculated 1872 slip distribution (Figure 11) compares favorably with and fills broad data gaps in previous field-based studies (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and

Clark, 1994). This distribution also presents several key differences from previous work. 27

Based on these methods, we classify several offsets previously attributed to single-event displacement in 1872 to cumulative displacement in the PE. Notably, the ~6-7 m lateral offset affecting the well-studied Lone Pine Creek (LPC2, Figure 2, Site HA03704g in Data

Set S2) may reflect cumulative slip given the presence of smaller-offset peaks in the COPD

(Figures 10c and S5) encompassing measurements between ~2-5 m at sites to the north and south (e.g., Sites HA02983a, HA02999b, HA02999c, HA03230c, HA03443a, HA03938d,

HA04151f). Notably, available age dating suggests fan abandonment (< 8 ka) (Bierman et al., 1995) similar in timing to the PE near Lone Pine (~8.8 – 10.2 ka) (Bacon and Pezzopane,

2007). If instead this offset is indeed a single-event outlier, 1872 deformation may include other 6-7 m offsets along the Lone Pine fault, implying higher maximum slip and 1872 gradients comparable to the Landers earthquake (~10-1 to 10-2) (McGill and Rubin, 1999).

Similarly, the ~15 m lateral offset of Diaz Creek (Figure 1, Site HA03229a in Table

S2) reported by Beanland and Clark (1994) groups with offsets incorporating slip over the past two or three earthquakes. Based on the lidar data, we recognize smaller dextral offset of the modern channel thalweg (3.9 +0.5/-1 m) (Site HA03230c in Table S2) similar in magnitude to nearby offsets populating the first strong peak. Beanland and Clark (1994) also report a ~7 m channel offset (Site HA06319n in Table S2) along the Independence section, contributing to an equivocal second peak in the binned-COPD (Figure 9c and S8). Because the paleoseismic record (Lee et al., 2001a) indicates two surface rupturing earthquakes, we tentatively classify this and similar ≥ 6 m geomorphic offsets as cumulative, incorporating

1872 and PE slip.

Reclassification of these landforms bears on the magnitude and location of maximum slip during 1872 along the central and southern OVF. We derive the net amount of 1872 28 surface slip by summing distributions for the OVF and LPF (Figure 13a – b). This estimate assumes an 80° dipping fault plane and no contribution from vertical-axis block rotations between the Diaz Lake and LPF. We normalize slip measurements within 5-km-bins, filling in graphically for gaps between high confidence data (e.g., Hauessler et al., 2004), and estimate an average total displacement of 4.4 ± 1.5 m (2) (Figure 13c). The resulting slip distribution indicates an increase in net 1872 slip south of Independence and a net slip maximum of ~7 to 11 m just north of Lone Pine. This range agrees well with the previous values (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988) and allows for distributed slip on to the secondary Lone

Pine fan trace (Figure 2b).

Our database also enables the first reconstructions of surface slip associated with the

PE, APE and previous earthquakes (Figure 10d and e), highlighting important questions for the existing paleoseismic record. Notably, the breadth of the cumulative PE peak in the lateral COPDs appears muted in comparison to the relatively broad first peak comprising a greater number of relatively fresh offsets (Figure 9). One explanation for the considerably narrower second peak is selective preservation of cumulative offsets, whereby ongoing surface processes favor relatively distinct, higher-confidence offsets. Another explanation introduces the possibility of smaller (< 6 m) or larger (> 9.5 m) cumulative offsets contributing to adjacent peaks. Figure 14 permits some overlap amongst event displacements, and also shows a positive correlation between throw and lateral offset, overall. This simple relationship implies that our data reflect both single-event and cumulative displacements.

Although single event and cumulative displacements for the northern and southern sections of the fault are relatively distinct in binned-COPD plots, the pattern for the central

OVF is less clear (Figures 10c – e). Along central traces, lateral offsets contribute to two 29 closely spaced clusters between ~4 – 8 m (Figures 9c, S7 and S8). Three possible explanations explain this distribution. First, these offsets could stem from variability in the

1872 rupture alone, leading to a bimodal peak in the lateral COPD (Figure S7c, S8c). Less than ~1 m of measured throw along the southern Independence (Figure S7f) and trenching by

Beanland and Clark (1994) suggest only one rupture along this strand, with lateral slip totaling 7.5 ± 1.1 m (HA06319n in Table S2). Distributed faulting, however, may occur ~120 m west of this trench site in the Owens River meander belt (Data Set S1). Second, the slip cluster could reflect ~5 m of slip during 1872 and a smaller amount related to a previous surface rupture coeval with the PE resolved near Lone Pine (~9 ka) (Bacon and Pezzopane,

2007). Evidence favoring this interpretation includes throw across the Independence section varying from ~0.5 to 1.8 m (Figure S8f) and evidence for two Holocene events resolved in trench exposures (Lee et al., 2001a). A third possible explanation is that the subsidiary peak represents relatively low-magnitude PE slip near Independence due to slip tapering to the south, perhaps associated with rupture of the nearby WMF (Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007)

(Figure 1). Similarity in the timing of the central OVF PE (Lee et al., 2001a) and the White

Mountain fault MRE at ~3 ka (dePolo, 1989) supports this interpretation, suggesting that distributed WMF slip may influence the OVF slip distribution in this area.

6.3 Comparison between 1872 and Earlier Ruptures

Despite some ambiguity in PE slip distribution, our findings suggest some consistency amongst point displacements for OVF ruptures. Notably, the average peak spacing between the first three lateral and vertical offset clusters in the net and binned

COPDs is ~4 m and ~1 m, respectively (Figures 9a; 10c – e). Binned COPDs for the LPF and 30

Crater Mountain – Big Pine section highlight this fairly regular spacing between offset groups for the past 3 earthquakes (Figures S5, S12). Average lateral slip of ~4 m per event is generally consistent with findings by Lubetkin and Clark (1988), who first suggested a characteristic pattern (~4-6 m) for the paleoseismic record on the Lone Pine fault (Figure 2a).

We explore the influence of fault geometry on the shape of slip distributions for past

OVF surface ruptures by normalizing 1872 and cumulative PE lateral offsets by the peak value attributed to each event (Figure 15). Although considerable ambiguity related to measurement uncertainty and natural variability masks many of the shorter wavelength features, patterns of surface slip attributed to the two most recent surface ruptures share broad similarities. Surface slip generally decreases south of 40 km point along the subparallel

LPF and OVF, and remains within 30-40% of the maximum value along the relatively simple central and northern fault sections (Figure 15). The possibility of a recurring slip gradient in the south suggests that fault geometry may exert first-order control on patterns of surface slip during OVF surface ruptures.

Apparently, slip distributions for the northernmost OVF do not exhibit a recurring gradient or slip taper (Figures 10 and 15), coincident with the broad releasing stepover to the

White Mountain fault (Figure 1). Although the pattern of 1872 slip does not preclude a steep gradient terminating the rupture in this area, 1872 fissures spanning northward to Bishop

Creek (Figure 1) (Hobbs, 1910) occupy a gap in microseismicity suggestive of continued rupture towards Bishop (Hough and Hough, 2008). The event chronology for the northern

OVF, Keough section (Figure 7a), and southern Fish Slough fault (Figure 1) (Envicom,

1976) is unknown and currently offers little context for relatively fresh scarps extending northward into Bishop (e.g., Bryant, 1984b). 31

Taken together, our results are consistent with three large earthquakes in the past ~14 to ~25 ka (e.g., Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007) with an average ~4 m of right-lateral slip in each event. We stress, however, that the detection limit for geomorphic offsets in our study

(~1-1.5 m) inhibits interpretation of these events as true characteristic ruptures, given the potential inability to resolve small-to-moderate surface displacements.

6.4 Implications for Earthquake Magnitude

Understanding the geomorphic record of past Owens Valley ruptures bears directly on questions surrounding the magnitude and overall moment release during 1872, as well as the seismic hazard associated with strike-slip faults in regions of diffuse plate boundary deformation. The displacement to length (D/L) ratio calculated for 1872 based on our plausible total average displacement (4.4 ± 1.5) and range of rupture lengths (~113-140 km) is between 2.0 x 10-5 and 5.2 x 10-5 (likely 3.9 x 10-5). Our preferred value is within 1σ of the global average (1.6 x 10-5 ± 4.4 x 10-5) calculated using the dataset of Wesnousky (2008) and Biasi et al. (2013) but in excess of D/L ratios for great San Andreas earthquakes by a factor of 4. Comparison with other historical ruptures (Wesnousky, 2008; Biasi et al., 2013) places 1872 Owens Valley surface slip at the higher end of the envelope defined by strike- slip ruptures in California and across the globe (Figure 16).

Possible explanations for a higher D/L ratio include a relatively high static stress drop

(e.g., Quigley et al., 2012) or rupture with a lower (i.e., more circular) L/W aspect ratio (e.g.,

Rodgers and Little, 2006). Similar D/L ratios for the Landers (4.4 x 10-5) and Hector Mine

(4.5 x 10-5) earthquakes may reflect the relative structural immaturity (e.g., Scholz et al.,

1986; Kanamori and Allen, 1986) of faults within the ECSZ or southern Walker Lane. 32

Geodetic inversions for the Landers and Hector Mine earthquakes point to relatively high static stress drops (Price and Bürgmann, 2002) for ECSZ earthquakes with highly segmented surface traces and similar recurrence intervals (~5-15 ka; Rockwell et al., 2000). Interpreting

D/L ratios in terms of static stress drop, however, requires knowledge of the influence of fault geometry (e.g., Hanks and Bakun, 2002; Shaw, 2011). Existing uncertainties in estimates of seismogenic width for the OVF are substantial (e.g., Hough and Hutton, 2008) and stem largely from low resolution earthquake hypocenter data for central and southern

Owens Valley. Because earlier Basin and Range extension along range-bounding structures

(e.g., the SNFF, WMF, and Panamint detachment) may involve listric geometries at seismogenic depths (e.g., Wesnousky and Jones, 1994; Phillips and Majkowski, 2011), we cannot rule out interactions at depth (e.g., Briggs et al., 2014) bearing on directivity effects

(Bernard et al., 1996) and estimates of moment release.

6.5 Implications for Owens Valley Fault Slip Rates

Our database of geomorphic offsets also sheds light on time-averaged slip rates for the Owens Valley from the Mid-Quaternary to latest Holocene. Although our study does not provide new dates for offset landforms, we capitalize on the wealth of previously dated geomorphic features forming Owens Valley geomorphic surfaces (Turrin and Gillespie,

1986; Bierman et al., 1995; Bacon et al., 2006; Benn et al., 2006; Le et al., 2007; Jayko and

Bacon, 2008; Kirby et al., 2008; Dühnforth et al., 2007). These ages come from dated shorelines, alluvial fans, debris flow boulders, etc., providing a clear geomorphic and stratigraphic context for evaluation of our measured offsets. 33

The simplest proxy for landform age in Owens Valley is elevation within the basin.

Oscillations in the level of pluvial Owens Lake during the late Pleistocene and early

Holocene record an overall decrease in lake level elevations, as evidenced by the progressively younger shoreline features toward the modern Owens Lake playa (Bacon et al.,

2006, 2013, 2014; Jayko and Bacon, 2008). These landforms are both constructional and erosional, and represent reworking of the overall basin surface during lake level high stands.

Subsequently, surface processes rework, superimpose, and inset younger geomorphic features on abandoned lacustrine surfaces, resulting in a landscape with composite ages.

Although pluvial high stands do not likely obliterate all evidence of older landforms, overall declining lake levels suggest that displaced landforms at higher elevations within the basin surface are likely older and record cumulative displacements. Smaller displacements on these older surfaces can then be explained by subsequent landform incision or deposition on an older surface.

Figure 17 shows the distribution of OVF displacements plotted as a function of age, where age is bracketed by the elevation of dated Pleistocene shorelines. Offsets generally distribute beneath a maximum envelope defined by a linear fit to the largest offsets for each age bracket. We view these largest offsets as being nearest in age to the bracketing pluvial high stand with a few exceptions for apparently reworked landforms (open circles in Figure

17a). Evidence for pluvial reworking includes large lateral offsets with relatively low scarps

(e.g., Sites HA7700b, HA7834a, HA7847b, HA07964c) or smoothed and sculpted surface textures evident in the lidar (e.g., Sites HA2891b, HA03279a in Data Set S2). We extend the uncertainties for these reworked landforms in Figure 17a to incorporate the likely bracketing landform age, based on similar offsets. Taken together, the maximum offsets and 34 corresponding age brackets yields an average slip rate between 0.6 and 1.6 mm/yr (1) over the Mid-Quaternary to Holocene (Figure 17a). Only the youngest Holocene (< 3 ka) landforms affected by only the 1872 event fall above this trend line, given the incomplete earthquake cycle since the most recent event.

Time-averaged slip rates between ~0.6 and 1.6 mm/yr overlap with previous estimates from late Quaternary and Holocene geologic features (Figure 17b) (Lubetkin and

Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Lee et al., 2001a; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007).

While our data permit some variability within this range, our findings generally exclude large rate variations over time implied by other studies (Kirby et al., 2008). Notably, our slip rate estimate in combination with average slip of ~4 m per event implies faster average earthquake recurrence (~4 kyr) than previously determined for southern Owens Valley

(Bierman et al., 1995; Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). Because alternative hypotheses for the shape of the 1872 surface slip distribution incorporate relatively large offsets (~6-8 m), the outcome of future work will bear strongly on estimates of earthquake recurrence.

Relatively steady fault slip at ~0.6 to 1.6 mm/yr since the mid-Quaternary is consistent with the rate and style of regional deformation for adjoining structures delineating the eastern margin of the Sierra Nevada microplate (Figure 18). To the south, average dextral slip on the Little Lake fault (Figure 1) occurs at a steady rate of ~0.6-1.3 mm/yr since the mid-to-late Pleistocene (Amos et al, 2013b). Slip transfers north of the OVF to the Fish Lake

Valley Fault across the White Mountain and Deep Springs fault systems (Figure 18) (Reheis and Dixon, 1996). Summed rates of Late Pleistocene dextral slip on the WMF of 0.3-0.4 mm/yr (Kirby et al., 2006) and normal slip on the Deeps Springs fault (~0.7 mm/yr; Lee et al., 2001b) are also consistent with our time-averaged OVF slip rate. Although integrating 35 slip rates across southern Owens Valley section may increase the slip rate near Lone Pine by up to ~0.5 mm/yr, our findings suggest smooth spatial variations in fault slip associated with distributed dextral shear amongst prominent faults within this developing intracontinental plate boundary.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Geomorphic characterization and compilation of offset landforms from lidar and field data document evidence for at least four earthquake surface ruptures along the OVF. A new lidar-analysis tool, OffsetXcor, uniquely quantifies offset measurements and associated errors to produce cumulative offset probability distributions (COPDs) that appropriately characterize the distribution and variability of surface slip along strike. The most recent 1872

Owens Valley earthquake produced average dextral surface offset of 3.3 ± 1.2 m (2σ) and predominantly down-to-the east vertical throw of 0.8 ± 0.5 m (2σ). Summing average displacements on subparallel strands suggests higher net average surface displacement of

~4.4 ± 1.5 m with a corresponding maximum of ~7-11 m near Lone Pine. Despite some modification of geomorphic surfaces and fault scarps along the valley floor during highstands of pluvial Owens Lake, we demonstrate that dextral offsets remain preserved in the geomorphic record. Dextral offsets including previous events suggest average cumulative offsets of 7.4 ± 1.3 m, 12.4 ± 1.2 m, and 16.6 ± 1.4 m, implying similar average displacements for earlier Owens Valley earthquakes. This record of large earthquakes spanning more than ~25 ka reflects, in part, the likelihood that geomorphic events controlling landform development in Owens Valley outpace the relatively long, millennial recurrence interval for Owens Valley earthquakes. 36

Given the geometrically segmented nature of OVF ruptures and the presence of multiple overlapping fault strands that ruptured in parallel, reconstruction of the along-strike distribution of slip requires analysis of binned COPDs for individual sections of the fault.

Complexities in fault geometry also contribute to multimodal COPDs, which may cause ambiguity for smaller offsets approaching the resolution limit of typical lidar-based studies

(~1 m). As such, we also emphasize the importance of cross-correlation using OffsetXcor and field verification of offsets for testing hypotheses related to slip variability along strike.

For sites where multiple strands offset a single geomorphic feature, COPDs should also incorporate summed measurements.

The net average and maximum slip in 1872 over the ~113-120 km rupture length confirm a relatively high displacement to length (D/L) ratio for California, similar to the

Landers and Hector Mine earthquake ruptures. Apparent discrepancies between geologic and seismologic estimates of magnitude surrounding this event (e.g., Bakun, 2006; Hough and

Hutton, 2008) might represent either 1) uncertainty in the total rupture length at the northern fault terminus or 2) uncertainty in the total rupture width with depth. Additional investigations focusing on the magnitude of the 1872 earthquake and the nature of the energy release should further constrain the geometry of the fault system at seismogenic depths as well as the northern terminus of the rupture.

Viewed in context with previously published ages, our offset database suggests constant rates of fault slip between ~0.6-1.6 mm/yr over the Mid-to-Late Quaternary.

Overall, these results suggest a coherent snapshot for the rate of dextral and oblique normal faulting along the eastern margin of the Sierra Nevada – Great Valley microplate. Integrating the rate of slip for the LPF and southern OVF may yield higher fault slip rates across 37 southern Owens Valley. Slip rates at this timescale, however, are consistent for adjoining structures to the north and south, suggesting spatial variations in slip consistent with the overall pattern of faulting along this evolving tectonic boundary.

38

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of the Western US, W. G. Ernst (Editor), Ruby Volume VII, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 685-713. Stirling, M., D. Rhoades, and K. Berryman (2002), Comparison of Earthquake Scaling Relations Derived from Data of the Instrumental and Preinstrumental Era: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 92, p. 812-830, doi: 10.1785/0120000221. Stirling, M., T. Goded, K. Berryman, and N. Litchfield (2013), Selection of Earthquake Scaling Relationships for Seismic-Hazard Analysis: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 103, no. 6, p. 1-19, doi: 10.1785/0120130052f. Thompson, S.C., R.J. Weldon, C.M. Rubin, K. Abdrakhmatov, P. Molnar, and G.W. Berger (2002), Late Quaternary Slip Rates across the Central Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia, Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(B9), 2203, doi: 10.1029/2001JB000596. Treiman, J.A., K.J. Kendrick, W.A. Bryant, T.K. Rockwell, and S.F. McGill (2002), Primary Surface Rupture Associated with the Mw 7.1 16 October 1999 Hector Mine Earthquake, San Bernardino County, California: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 92, no. 4, p. 1171-1191, doi: 10.1785/0120000923. Turrin, B., and A.R. Gillespie (1986), K/Ar ages of Basaltic Volcanism of the Big Pine Volcanic Field, California: Implications for Glacial Stratigraphy and Neotectonics of the Sierra Nevada: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 18(6), p. 777. Unruh, J., E. Hauksson, and C. H. Jones (2014), Internal Deformation of the Southern Sierra Nevada Microplate Associated with Foundering Lower Lithosphere, California. Geosphere, v. 10, no. 1, p.107-128, doi: 10.1130/GES00936.1. Unruh, J.R., E. Hauksson, F.C. Monastero, R.J. Twiss, and J.C. Lewis (2002), Seismotectonics of the Coso Range-Indian Wells Valley region, California: Transtensional deformation along the southeastern margin of the Sierran microplate, in Geologic Evolution of the Mojave Desert and Southwestern Basin and Range, A. F. Glazner, J. D. Walker, and J. M. Bartley (Editors), Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir, Vol. 195, p. 277-294, doi: 10.1130 /0 -8137 -1195 -9 .277. Unruh, J., J. Humphrey, and A. Barron (2003), Transtensional Model of Sierra Nevada Frontal Fault System, Eastern California: Geology, v. 31, p. 327-330, doi: 10.1130/00917613(2003)031<0327:TMFTSN>2.0.CO;2. U.S. Geological Survey Web Page. Quaternary Fault and Fold Database of the United States. Available online: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/ (accessed on 27 March 2012). Vittori, E., A.M. Michetti, D.B. Slemmons, and G. Carver (1993), Style of Recent Surface Deformation at the South End of the Owens Valley Fault Zone, Eastern California: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 25, no. 5, p. 159. Wallace, R.E. (1968), Notes on Stream Channels Offset by the San Andreas Fault, Southern Coast Ranges, California: Stanford University Publications in Geological Sciences, v. 11, p. 6-20. Weldon, R.J., J.P. McCalpin, and T.K. Rockwell (1996), Paleoseismology of strike-slip tectonic environments, in McCalpin, J.P., ed., Paleoseismology: International Geophysics Series Volume 62: New York, Academic Press, p. 33–83. Wells, D., and K. Coppersmith (1994), New Empirical Relationships Among Magnitude, Rupture Length, Rupture Width, Rupture Area, and Surface Displacement: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 84, p. 974-1002. 46

Wesnousky, S.G. (2005), Active faulting in the Walker Lane: Tectonics, v. 24, TC3009, doi: 10.1029/2004TC001645. Wesnousky, S.G. (2008), Displacement and Geometrical Characteristics of Earthquake Surface Ruptures: Issues and Implications for Seismic-Hazard Analysis and Process of Earthquake Rupture: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 98, no. 4, p. 1609-1632, doi: 10.1785/0120070111. Wesnousky, S.G., J.M. Bormann, C. Kreemer, W.C. Hammond, and J.N. Brune (2012), Neotectonics, Geodesy, and Seismic Hazard in the Northern Walker Lane of Western North America: Thirty Kilometers of Crustal Shear and No Strike-Slip?: Earth and Planetary Science Letters 329-330, p. 133-140, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.02.018. Wesnousky, S.G., and C.H. Jones (1994), Oblique Slip, Slip Partitioning, Spatial and Temporal Changes in the Regional Stress Field, and the Relative Strength of Active Faults in the Basin and Range, Western United States: Geology 1994, 22 (11), p. 1031-1034, doi: 10.1130/00917613(1994)022<1031:OSSPSA>2.3.CO;2. Whitney, J.D. (1872a), The Owens Valley Earthquake, Part I: Overland Monthly 9, p. 130- 140. Whitney, J.D. (1872b), The Owens Valley Earthquake, Part II: Overland Monthly 9, p. 266- 278. Zehfuss, P.H., P.R. Bierman, A.R. Gillespie, R.M. Burke, and M.W. Caffee (2001), Slip Rates on the Fish Springs Fault, Owens Valley, California, Deduced from Cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al and Soil Development on Fan Surfaces: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 113, no. 2, p. 241-255, doi: 10.1130/0016- 7606(2001)113<0241:SROTFS>2.0.CO;2. Zielke, O., and Arrowsmith, J.R. (2012), LaDiCaoz and LiDARimager—MATLAB GUIs for LiDAR Data Handling and Lateral Displacement Measurement: Geosphere, February 2012, v. 8, no. 1, p. 206-221, doi:10.1130/GES00686.1. Zielke, O., J.R. Arrowsmith, L.G. Ludwig, and S.O. Akçiz (2010), Slip in the 1857 and Earlier Large Earthquakes along the Carrizo Plain, San Andreas Fault: Science, v. 327, no. 5969, p. 1119-1122, doi:10.1126/science.1182781. Zielke, O., J.R. Arrowsmith, L.G. Ludwig, and S.O. Akçiz (2012), High Resolution Topography Derived Offsets along the 1857 Fort Tejon Earthquake Rupture Trace, San Andreas Fault: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, v. 102, no. 3, p. 1135-1154, doi: 10.1785/0120110230. Zielke, O., Y. Klinger, and J. R. Arrowsmith (2015), Fault Slip and Earthquake Recurrence along Strike-Slip Faults – Contributions of High-Resolution Geomorphic Data: Tectonophysics, 638 (2015), p. 43-62, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2014.11.004. 47

9. FIGURES

Figure 1. Caption on page 49.

48

Figure 2. Caption on page 49.

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Figure 1. Regional overview of the Owens Valley fault showing the rupture trace mapped from GeoEarthScope lidar. Yellow stars indicate the location of paleoseismic trenches from previous studies. Faults shown in black are taken from the U.S. Geological Survey’s Quaternary Fault and Fold Database compiled in 2012 with the exception of the Kern Canyon fault from Brossy et al. (2012). The mapped extent of the most recent surface rupture of the White Mountain fault appears white (dePolo, 1989). The inset provides regional context for the 1872 rupture in the Walker Lane Belt (WLB) or Eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) with respect to several historical ruptures in California (e.g., the 1857 and 1906 San Andreas, 1992 Landers, 1999 Hector Mine, and 2010 El Mayor Cucapah earthquakes). Yellow transects indicate integrated slip from GPS at 10.6 ± 0.5 mm/yr across the WLB (Lifton et al., 2013) and ~10-12 mm/yr for the ECSZ (Dixon et al., 1995; Sauber, 1994). Fault trench studies: A13—Amos et al., 2013a; BP07—Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007; BC94— Beanland and Clark, 1994; L01, Lee et al., 2001a. Geographic locations: AH, Alabama Hills; BCk, Bishop Creek; BP, Bartlett Point; CA, California; CM, Crater Mountain; DSF, Deep Springs fault; DCk, Diaz Creek; ECSZ, Eastern California Shear Zone; FSF, Fish Slough fault; HCk, Hogback Creek fan; HR, Haiwee reservoir; LCF, Lower Cactus flat; LCk, Lubken Creek; LLF, Little Lake fault; NV, Nevada; PH, Poverty Hills; RRF, Red Ridge fault; RVF, Round Valley fault; SAF, San Andreas fault; SFF, Sage Flat fault; SV–HMF, Saline Valley – Hunter Mountain fault; VT, Volcanic Tableland; WLB, Walker Lane Belt.

Figure 2. (a) Oblique hillshade view towards the northwest of the Alabama Hills and the southern Owens Valley fault zone. Surface traces include the Diaz Lake section (east) and the Lone Pine fault (west). Offset geomorphic features (red markers) of confidence rating 2 or greater include sites described in Bateman (B61; 1961), Lubetkin and Clark (LPC1, LPC2, LPC3) (LC88; 1988), and Bacon and Pezzopane (yellow stars) (BP07; 2007). LPC1, LPC2, LPC3—Lone Pine Creek 1, 2, and 3; ORMB, Owens River meander belt. (b) Oblique hillshade view of the faulted Lone Pine fan (Lone Pine, CA) showing right-normal oblique separation of debris flow channels and fan axes. (c) View to the west of the offset thalweg (TH) of southern Lone Pine Creek (LPC2) .

50

Figure 3. Lidar hillshade images of the Owens Valley fault where it intersects the Owens River meander belt at fault trench site for BC94 and the Big Pine Creek alluvial fan south of Big Pine (Figure 1). A) through E). Close ups of lidar DEMs (25-cm) overlain on slope maps showing laterally offset geomorphic features identified and measured by this study. 51

Figure 4. Example of the OffsetXcor tool for measuring misaligned linear geomorphic features. (a) DEM topography draped over a slope map of an abandoned meander bend faulted by the Tinemaha section of the OVF. (b) Slope map delineating the general position of the fault, fault-parallel profile lines on footwall (red) and hanging wall (blue) surfaces, and longitudinal tracing (yellow) of the up- and down-thrown channel margins. (c) Swaths of elevation points sampled along fault-parallel profile lines. (d) Longitudinal cross-sections from topographic data extracted along landform tracings (yellow lines). Black tracings define the feature slope along footwall and hanging wall surfaces. (e) Fault-parallel profiles shifted by optimal lateral and vertical offset. Cross-correlation curve truncated using limits from back-slipping (indicated by yellow bars), and corresponding vertical shift as a function of lateral profile shift. (f) OffsetXcor reconstruction using DEM topography. 52

Figure 5. (a). Schematic illustration of summing approach for features offset across multiple discrete faults. (b) Individual offsets represent partial slip and contribute to an offset sum with associated uncertainties determined using a Monte Carlo approach (e.g., Amos et al., 2010). Binned COPD plot of stacked (lower distributions) and summed (upper distribution) offset PDFs, representing partial and total offset amounts. 53

Figure 6. Example of high-confidence (~4.3 m right-lateral, ~0.4 m vertical) geomorphic offset documented in the field. (a) View to the west down-channel and normal to the OVF. White arrows mark the intersection of the OVF with both channel margins. (b) Uninterpreted view to the east up- channel and towards the hanging wall. (c) Field measurement of channel margins (traced in yellow) displaced right-laterally and vertically (down-to-the east) by the Tinemaha section (red). RL, right lateral; VT, vertical throw. 54

Figure 7. Comparison between lateral offsets measured using OffsetXcor and in the field (blue points) indicating a near perfect 1:1 fit with a slope of 0.99 and a correlation coefficient of 0.93. Comparison with earlier field results (yelllow diamonds) (e.g., Lubetkin and Clark, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Lee et al., 2001a; Slemmons et al., 2008) yields a slope of 0.95 and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. 55

Figure 8. Caption on page 56.

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Figure 8. Along-strike compilation of small geomorphic offsets measured from lidar using OffsetXcor (Table S2). Data presented include confidence ratings low-moderate to high and omit sums. (a) Scarps mapped from EarthScope lidar and classified by Owens Valley fault section follow designations by Beanland and Clark (1994), Bryant (1984a, 1984b), and Slemmons et al. (2008). From south to north: DS, Dirty Socks; OL, Owens Lake; LP, Lone Pine fault; DL, Diaz Lake; IS, southern Independence; MF, Manzanar fault; I, Independence; T, Tinemaha; TW, western Tinemaha; FS, Fish Springs; BP, Big Pine; K, Keough section of Sierra Nevada frontal fault (SNNF), KLF, Klondike Lake fault; WMF, White Mountain fault. (b) Right-lateral offset measurements symbolized by fault section include values from Bateman (1961), Lubetkin and Clark (1988), Beanland and Clark (1994), Lee et al. (2001a), Zehfuss et al. (2001), and Slemmons et al. (2008). (c) Along-strike compilation of vertical throw. Offsets are east-side down, unless symbols are hollow, indicating east- side-up offset.

Figure 9. Frequency and cumulative offset probability density (COPD) plots for lateral and vertical offsets, using 1- and 0.25-meter bins, respectively (Table S2). Groups shaded by confidence rating (e.g., black = high, white = low-moderate) incorporate sums. COPD plots include only moderate-to- high confidence offsets. Measurements compiled along (a) the entire Owens Valley fault and major sections, including the (b) southern, (c) central and (d) northern portions (See Figure 8a for fault sections). 57

Figure 10. Caption on page 58. 58

Figure 10. Along-strike (340º) dextral offset compilation and binned COPD plots for measurements rated confidence three (moderate) and above, including summed values. Possible surface slip reconstructions for past OVF earthquakes are shown in white. (a) Scarps mapped from GeoEarthScope lidar with fault section abbreviations following Figure 8a. (b) Right-lateral offsets scaled by confidence include cultural (orange), historic (red) summarized in Bateman (1961), and previously reported values (Lee et al., 2001a). Scale bar describes the along-strike spatial extent of key geologic and geomorphic features. AH, Alabama Hills; BP, Big Pine; BPF, Big Pine fan; CR, Coso Range; HCF, Hogback Creek fan; I, Independence; KL, Klondike Lake; LP, Lone Pine; LPF, Lone Pine fan; O, Olancha; OLP, Owens Lake playa; ORMB, Owens River Meander Belt; TBPVF, Taboose – Big Pine volcanic field. (c) 5-km binned COPD plots for the entire dataset, (d) main traces, and (e) the Lone Pine fault.

Figure 11. Slip distributions for the 1872 Owens Valley rupture trace interpolated from (a) right- lateral measurements and summed values, (b) vertical throw, as predicted by binned-COPD plots, and (c) horizontal-to-vertical offset ratios. Quaternary faults (grey) (USGS, 2012) and lidar-derived hillshade image draped over 10 m national elevation data (USGS). Features abbreviated, from south to north: RRF, Red Ridge fault; TR, Tinemaha Reservoir; WMF, White Mountain fault; KL, Klondike Lake. 59

Figure 12. Possible slip distributions for 1872 and earlier Owens Valley earthquakes following binned-COPD predictions for moderate-to-high confidence offset observations. (a) Right-lateral slip and (b) vertical throw reconstructed along average strike for up to four past earthquakes, including historical (black) and previous reported (grey) values. (c) Calculated surface-slip magnitude along strike, assuming a fault dip of 80º. APE, antepenultimate event; MRE, most recent event; PE, penultimate event. 60

Figure 13. Net 1872 surface slip derived from moderate-to-high confidence displacements as documented along subparallel strands. (a) Along-strike compilation of surface slip values for main strands of the OVF and (b) the Lone Pine fault. (c) Summed distribution of net 1872 surface slip along simplified fault plane striking ~340º. 61

Figure 14. Throw as an function of right lateral offset, with individual measurements attributed to single-event and cumulative earthquakes following binned COPD predictions (see Figure 10c – e).

Figure 15. Along-strike dextral slip and associated uncertainties attributed to 1872 and the PE event normalized by peak slip per event. 62

Figure 16. Comparison of 1872 slip-length parameters to well-studied earthquakes worldwide adapted from Wesnousky (2008) and Biasi et al. (2013). (a) Average and (b) maximum displacement versus rupture length for the 1872 Owens Valley (red stars indicate net values), continental reverse- slip (blue squares), normal-slip (purple triangles), and strike-slip events (green points). Plotted separately are predominantly strike-slip ruptures in California (yellow points), the eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) (red points), and New Zealand (turquoise points). 63

Figure 17. Caption on page 65. 64

Figure 18. Caption on page 65.

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Figure 17. Owens Valley fault-slip rates estimated from cumulative-slip measurements combined with previously published ages for geologic features and geomorphic surfaces in Owens Valley (Bierman et al., 1995; Bacon et al., 2006; Kirby et al., 2008; Zehfuss et al., 2001). (a) Linear regressions indicate average slip rate likely between ~0.6 and 1.6 mm/yr rates for the northern (pink, ~0.7 mm/yr), central (blue, ~1.1 mm/yr) and southern (orange, ~1.4 mm/yr) sections. Points represent preferred values for surfaces formed over a single MIS interval. Uncertainties for large offsets occupying apparently young surfaces (hollow points) incorporate the likely surface age prior to the last pluvial highstand. Smaller offsets (dashes) represent features formed on lacustrine surfaces (blue) or Crater Mountain basalts (green). (b) Compilation of fault-slip rates for the southwestern Walker Lane belt plotted against age, including the OVF, Lone Pine fault (LPF), and adjoining White Mountain and Little Lake faults. Additional rate for the southern OVF combines dextral offset from Kirby et al. (235 ± 15 m) (2008) and age from Turrin and Gillespie (290 ± 40 ka) (1986). Rate of LPF oblique slip is from Lubetkin and Clark (1988). Reported slip on the Little Lake fault (A13) is dextral (Amos et al., 2013b), and calculations for oblique slip on the White Mountain fault (K08) assume a simplified fault plane dipping 60º ± 10º (Kirby et al., 2006). The geodetic rate (D03) derived from Dixon (2003) represents interseismic deformation from the global positioning system. A13—Amos et al. (2013b); BC94—Beanland and Clark (1994); BP07—Bacon and Pezzopane (2007); D03—Dixon (2003); K08—Kirby et al. (2008); L01—Lee et al. (2001a); LC88—Lubetkin and Clark (1988); Z01—Zehfuss et al. (2001).

Figure 18. Active faults and compilation of reported slip rates (modified from Foy et al., 2012) for the southern Walker Lane Belt or Eastern California shear zone (ECSZ). From south to north: Amos et al. (2013b); OVF (this study); Oswald and Wesnousky, 2002; Frankel et al. (2007a, 2007b); Lubetkin and Clark (1988); Reheis and Sawyer (1997); Lee et al., (2001b); Ganev et al., (2010); Kirby et al. (2006); Nagorsen-Rinke et al. (2013). Faults listed alphabetically: AHF, Adobe Hills fault; ALF, Airport Lake fault; BMF, Black Mountain fault; DSF, Deep Springs fault; FCF, Furnace Creek fault; FLVF, Fish Lake Valley fault; HMF, Hunter Mountain fault; LLF, Little Lake fault; NDVF, Northern Death Valley fault; PVF, Panamint Valley fault; QVF, Queen Valley fault; SAF, San Andreas fault; SVF, Saline Valley fault.

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APPENDIX A: Maps, Software, Files

List of Electronic Materials

Table S1. Rubric summarizing criteria for assigned confidence ratings. Conditions modified from Sieh (1978) and Lienkaemper (2001) include a local calibration for Owens Valley landforms. Confidence ratings range from high (5), moderate-high (4), moderate (3), moderate-low (2), to low (1).

Table S2. Data table catalogs the optimum lateral and vertical offsets, associated uncertainties, confidence rating (see Table S1 for rubric), landform type, as well as geographic coordinates and distance from the southern rupture boundary. Measurements include cross-correlation values, backslip values, and field measurements (where possible) for 183 newly identified or remeasured features. Our labeling convention for previously reported field sites references the author, publication year, and original numbering scheme, if available. For example, offset reported by Beanland and Clark (1994) at site #7 is labeled BC07. For new measurements, we construct labels (e.g., HA03704) combining the prefix HA with the along fault distance (e.g., 37.04 km) to the southern rupture boundary reported by the USGS (USGS, 2012).

Table S3. Compilation of previously published offsets incorporated into this study. Offset observations are mainly from historical reports, trench excavations, scarp profiles, and geophysical methods.

Software S1: Matlab mfiles for the OffsetXcor analytical tool.

Data Set S1. Scarps within the Owens Valley fault zone included as .shp and .kmz files. We mapped features at scale of 1:1200 and classify scarps as certain, approximately located, inferred, or queried.

Data Set S2. Offset database as a Google Earth .kmz file including site descriptions and imagery based on lidar DEMs. OffsetXcor exports these images during each offset reconstruction.

Data Set S3. Georeferenced database contained in Table S2 available as a .shp file.

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Data Set S4. Html files summarizing details of each offset reconstruction, showing hillshade map views and contour plots of the current and back-slipped topography for each site and corresponding cross-correlation curves output from OffsetXcor. The details of each offset restoration may be navigated using the list of hyperlinks in the master directory (called HA_OVF_Offset_Database_2015.htm).

APPENDIX B: Offset Observations

Introduction

This supplement presents original data and results from lidar analysis and field mapping of offset landforms preserved along the Owens Valley fault (OVF) in southeastern

California. Our database includes 165 previously undocumented right-lateral and vertical geomorphic offsets, measured from terrace risers, channels, and alluvial fans. Our analysis employs a new Matlab tool (OffsetXcor, Software S1) that cross-correlates lidar topographic data to produce a uniquely-shaped probability density function of fault slip for each measurement (Figures S1 and 4).

The supplementary tables describe our confidence rating criteria (Table S1) and catalog new, remeasured and previously published offsets for the OVF, including optimum lateral and vertical offsets and associated uncertainties (Table S2). This database is also available as a Google Earth .kmz and ArcGIS .shp file (Data Set S2 – S3). The Google Earth

.kmz contains hillshade map views and contour plots output by OffsetXcor for each site. We also include our OVF linework as .shp and .kmz files (Data Set S1). Html files present additional details for each offset restoration, including the current and back-slipped topography (Data Set S4). This database may be navigated using the list of hyperlinks in the

.html directory provided.

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We compile offsets as a function of distance along the average OVF strike (340°) to assess the spatial distribution of slip (Figure 8). We use scatter plots, histograms, and binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) plots (Figures S2 – S12) to analyze offset observations by individual fault section (11 total, e.g., Figure 8a). Fault sections typically span ~5 to 20 km long, based largely on changes in fault strike, relays, or stepovers (e.g.,

Bryant 1984a, 1984b, 1988; Beanland and Clark, 1994; Slemmons et al., 2008). Text S1 provides details on the distribution of offset data and the geomorphic setting along each fault section.

Text S1. Offset Observations

Southern OVF

The southern OVF includes, from south to north: Dirty Socks, Owens Lake, Alabama

Hills, Diaz Lake, and East Valley (off the lidar) (Figure 8a). For this analysis, we group N-

NW-striking faults in the northwestern Coso Range with structures along the Dirty Socks section (Slemmons et al., 2008). Our mapping from lidar suggests these traces extend ~15 km from historical shorelines at elevations of ~1100 m to a prominent splay at ~1365 m. The currently accepted southernmost 1872 rupture includes ~0.2-0.6 m high normal scarps (off the lidar) along the NE-striking Red Ridge fault (Figure 1) (Slemmons et al., 2008).

Evidence for fault displacement along the southern Dirty Socks section consists of at least nine features. Six gullies formed on the northeast flank of the Coso Range are laterally offset between 1-1.8 meters and vertically from 0.7-1.1 m (Figures S2a – g). A deformed

~1180 m shoreline overlies a pressure ridge ~2.3 km south of Hwy 190 and requires post-

MIS 6 displacement (160 ± 32 ka; Jayko et al., 2011). Additional measurements west of 69

Dirty Socks Spring include three shorelines above historic lake levels (~1101 m) and formed as recently as 350 ± 80 yr B.P. (Bacon et al., 2013). Distributed faults intersect the southern lake margin surveyed by Vittori et al. (1993), producing narrow grabens within a ~200 meters wide zone of deformation. Measurements are minima and sum to form two peaks with mean lateral at 1.0 ± 0.2 m and 1.6 ± 0.2 m (Figures S2d) and throw at 0.2 ± 0.1 m and 0.8 ±

0.2 m (Figure S2g).

Owens Lake surface traces (Figure 8a) extend in an east-stepping releasing pattern for

~30 km across the playa (Figure 10b), spanning a total width of approximately ~3.5 km.

Surface traces strike between 320º and 50º, deforming historical lake features and a variety of paleolake deposits at elevations between ~1085-1118 m. Along the northern lake margin, surfaces bracketed in age between ~2000 and 7700 cal yr B.P. (Bacon et al., 2006) include two subdued relict shoreline features at elevations between 1102-1106 m located 1.29 to 1.55 km south of Lubken Creek (Figure 1). These offsets are within a zone of deformation ~100 meters wide, and contribute to a second distinct second peak with a mean of 5.9 ± 0.9 m

(Figure S3a – g). Throw across these features averages 1.3 ± 0.1 m. South of Bartlett Point

(Figure 1), prominent east-facing scarps below historical lake levels appear locally incised by east-flowing streams likely controlled by lithologic contrasts in the underlying deformed stratigraphy. These right-lateral stream deflections are on the order of ~1-2 meters and are excluded from this analysis, based on low confidence.

The Diaz Lake section comprises numerous relatively continuous, linear to curvilinear traces that delineate the eastern margin of the Owens Valley graben, bound to the west by the LPF (see supplemental kmz). Multiple northeast-striking cross faults apparently transfer slip between the Diaz Lake and LPF. The section appears to terminate in a left west- 70 stepping pattern 16.4 km to the north of the Owens Lake section, adjoining structures flanking the Alabama Hills. Lake-level fluctuations, fluvial activity, and fan deposition across the valley floor modified scarps. Hence, surface faulting mainly shows 1872 deformation, whereas trench investigations yield cumulative vertical slip due to two earthquakes (Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). Scarps trend between 310° and 005° and change facing direction along strike, ranging up to ~1.3 km in length.

Measurements along the Diaz Lake section comprise 14 offset gullies, fluvial and debris flow channels, alluvial fans, cultural features and trench stratigraphy at 11 sites

(Figure S4a – g). A single historical measurement of a row of trees (2.7 m) (B61d at along- fault distance ~54 km, Table S2) forms the first strong peak of a bi-modal group (Figure S4d;

Bateman, 1961). Bonilla (1968) reports a significantly larger range at this site, possibly reflecting post-seismic slip. The second strong peak is broad with a shoulder encompassing larger offsets, including four offsets between 3.5 and 7 meters. The mean for the bi-modal group is 4.8 ± 1.3 m. A third peak reflects a single offset of ~11.8 meters from the southern margin of Lubken Creek. The scatter plot and histogram (Figure S4b and c) for right-lateral data show two larger offsets, measured from the northern margin of Lubken Creek (66 +4/-

17 m) and the axis of a subdued alluvial fan preserved within the central graben between

Lone Pine and Diaz Lake (89 +19/-13 m). Beanland and Clark (1994) reported offset of the southern fan edge by approximately 50 m. We accept this value, but choose to measure offset of the fan axis, since that piercing point more likely provides a maximum value. The fan edge likely reflects some amount of erosion, possibly due to submersion during pluvial highstands of the Owens Lake. Measurements of throw along the Diaz Lake section contributes to two 71 strong peaks with mean values of 0.7 ± 0.1 m and 2.4 ± 0.4 m and two subsidiary peaks reflecting single measurements at 1.6 m and 3.5 m (Figure S4g).

The LPF / Alabama Hills section comprises numerous west-stepping and N-NE- striking primary and secondary faults along the eastern margin of the Alabama Hills (Figure

8a). Individual fault traces span up to ~600 m in length. Prominent east-facing scarps continue northward roughly ~50 km across alluvial fans flanking the Alabama Hills and the

Sierra Nevada. Previous work documents normal-oblique separation of debris flow channels and deposits on the Lone Pine fan, with lateral offset at ~6, 8, and 10-18 m (Figure 2b, c)

(Beanland and Clark, 1994). Lubetkin and Clark (1988) also report a set of vertical separations from trench exposures and scarp morphology. Cumulative vertical slip in the PE from fault trench excavations amounts to ~2.4 m (Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). We revisited these previously studied sites and include 45 additional measurements from debris flow channels, levees, gullies and interfluves (Figure S5a – g).

The first group of lateral offsets along the LPF forms a strong, albeit asymmetric peak in the COPD with a mean of 3.3 ± 0.8 m (Figure S5d). A prominent shoulder encompasses right-lateral slip observations with uncertainties up to 5.9 m. A second strong peak with a mean of 7.3 ± 0.6 incorporates a relatively narrow range defined by four offsets between ~7 and 8.5 meters. Progressively larger offsets vary considerably along strike and contribute to three subsequent muted peaks with data between ~11-12.3 and 13.7-16.8 m. Correlative values for throw vary between 0.1 and 6.7 m (Figure S5g). Two prominent bimodal peaks with means of 0.6 ± 0.3 m and 1.6 ± 0.3 m incorporate 16 and 18 measurements, respectively. A third muted peak with two humps spans 14 values ranging from ~2.2 to 4.0 m. An additional low peak at ~4.5 m incorporates two offsets measuring ~4.3 and 4.7. 10 72 new and previously reported observations ranging up to 6.7 m contribute to a final group of smeared peaks with a mean of 5.6 ± 0.5 m. Offset groups appear relatively distinct in the right-lateral and vertical histograms (Figures S5c and f).

Central OVF

Central strands of the OVF include the Manzanar, Independence, and Tinemaha sections, from south to north (Figure 8a). For this analysis, we divide the Independence section into two portions, and collectively refer to traces intersecting the Owens River east of the Manzanar Fault as the southern Independence. Additionally, we refer to N-NW-striking faults in the northeastern Poverty Hills as the western Tinemaha. Previously classified with the Tinemaha section, these strands offset basalt flows and alluvial fans located west of

Tinemaha main traces by distances of 700 m or more.

Active fault traces of the LPF transition northward into the Manzanar and southern

Independence sections (Figure 8a). Prominent head scarps indicative of a lateral spread coincide with surface traces mapped by Beanland and Clark (1994) at the southern limit of the Manzanar fault. Reinterpretation by Bacon et al. (2003) of similar features mapped west by Slemmons et al. (2008) follows trenching of a graben feature formed on the fan, with cosmogenic 10Be ages based on three boulders (80.3 ± 1.9, 84.0 ± 1.8, and 86.4 ± 7.7 ka)

(Benn et al., 2006). Queried traces (see shapefile for attributed features) attributed to the

Manzanar fault coincide roughly with paleolake features and extend 10 km across distal fan at an average elevation of ~1135 m. Alluvial fans developed during MIS-2 and younger climate cycles tend to conceal shoreline features related to the ~ 25 ka lake highstand (Bacon et al., 2014). Surface traces, if present, delineate the western margin of a broad east-stepping 73 releasing bend with the southern Independence. Scarps appear discontinuous and curvilinear, ranging in strike between 325° and 15° (Figure 8a). We investigated 10 locations with apparent offsets consistently poor in quality, possibly due to land use and modification

(Figures S6a – g). We report three possible low to low-moderate quality offsets with a mean lateral of 2.3 ± 0.6 m and mean vertical of 1.5 ± 0.5 m.

The southern Independence section spans northward of the LPF for nine km, defining the eastern margin of the Manzanar releasing bend (Figure 8a). Active deposition of Hogback

Creek and fluvial incision of the Owens River largely conceal evidence for continuous surface rupture with the LPF (Figure 1). Faults strike between 330° and 360° across the meander belt with a west-stepping restraining geometry overall, but appear relatively continuous with a maximum length of two km. Scarps deform fluvial terraces, deposits, and channels inset into lacustrine sediments at an average elevation of 1135 m.

We report previous and new measurements for 12 moderate-to-high quality offset features on the southern Independence fault (Figures S7a – g). These features include two fluvial channels reported by Beanland and Clark (1994) plus an agricultural canal, which we located with lidar and measured in the field. Lateral offsets contributing to the first strong peak range from 3.5 to 5.5 m, with a mean of 3.7 ± 0.7 m (Figure S7d). A second peak incorporates larger offsets between 6 and 7.5 m, with a mean of 6.4 ± 0.7 m. Throw forms a single peak with a shoulder towards larger values (Figure S7g). Scarps generally face east with heights between 0.4 and 1 m, and a mean of 0.6 ± 0.2 m.

The northern Independence section comprises a relatively simple linear zone without much of the structural complexity characterizing the majority of the OVF trace (Figure 8a).

Faults here intersect dunes and relict fluvial features on the Owens River floodplain. Deposits 74 typically include decimeter-scale beds of silt, sand and clay capped by alluvium and aeolian silts at elevations between ~1140 and 1170 m. Traces extend ~27 km with a maximum length of ~3 km and average strike between 340° and 360°.

We describe 16 offset geomorphic features along the northern Independence section, including incised channels, canals, terrace risers, interfluves, and a basin margin (Figure S8a

– g). Lateral offsets range in magnitude from ~4.75 to 74 meters. The two offset groups appear bimodal, including a peak at 5.1 ± 0.3 m (Figure S8d) and a second at 6.9 ± 0.5 m.

We map a relict meander bend displaced laterally a total of ~36 m (Beanland and Clark,

1994; site BC94-18). Additionally, we map three larger offsets between ~61-74 meters, including a relict channel, fluvial terrace and the margin of a small pull-apart basin. The pull- apart located ~650 m south of Goodale Road was also recognized by Beanland and Clark

(1994) and is approximately 260 m long and 110 m wide. Throw produces two peaks in the

COPD at ~1.2 and 1.7 m (Figure S8g). An additional vertical measurement generates a single peak at 3 m.

The southern boundary of the Tinemaha section lies ~160-m east of the Independence section, marking a distinct east-releasing stepover in the main rupture trace (Figure 8a).

Mapped scarps are discontinuous with an average length of 82 m. Stepover widths between faults are typically ~100 m or less. The total fault section spans ~9.6 km, and varies in strike between 325° and 005°. Scarps generally face east and deform mainly fluvial features and deposits at elevations between 1165-1180 m.

We document seven offsets along the Tinemaha section, including three abandoned channels in the meander belt located using lidar and three additional small channels identified on foot traverses (Figure S9a – g). A single strong peak in the right-lateral COPD 75 with a shoulder towards large values encompasses offsets between ~2.5 and 4.5 meters with a mean value of 3.4 ± 0.7 m (Figure S9d). Measured throw ranges between 0.3 and 0.8 m and contribute to two peaks in the COPD at ~0.3 m and 0.7 ± 0.1 m (Figure S9g).

Faults along the western Tinemaha section define the eastern margin of a west-restraining stepover across the Poverty Hills (Figure 1, Figure 8a) (Taylor, 2002). Discontinuous fault traces offset alluvial fans and Late Quaternary basalt flows overlying deformed bedrock, possibly uplifted along flower structures. Right-normal oblique structures along the eastern edge of the Poverty Hills strike between 320° and due north and exhibit an overall transpressive geometry, down to the east. Offset gullies and lava tubes approximately 2.5 km south of East Elna Rd. provide generally low-quality offsets since they may originate as deflections along numerous subsidiary thrust faults across this area. Possible offsets include subdued bar and swale morphology on a fan located ~1.77 km south and five channels incised into bedrock slopes >200 m north of East Elna Rd. (Figure S10a – g). Moderate quality lateral offsets produce peaks at 2, 3.25, and 7.5 m (Figure S10d). Measured throw is lower confidence due to steeper slopes, sidehill benches, and shutter ridges. One higher confidence measurement produces a single peak at ~2.7 m (Figure S10g).

Northern OVF

Individual fault sections of the northern OVF follow the west side of the valley, including the Fish Springs Fault, Crater Mountain, Big Pine, and Keough sections (Figure

8a). This analysis combines sections mapped north of the bifurcation at the Poverty Hills due to similarities in geometric complexity and fault strike. 76

The Fish Springs Fault comprises predominantly east-facing normal fault scarps that extend beyond the southern terminus of the Big Pine / Crater Mountain section for approximately ~4.5 km (Figure 8a). Faults define the western margin of a broad (~3.7 km) restraining stepover across the Poverty Hills. Detailed study demonstrates dip-slip along this structure based on mapping of fan sequences and displacement of the Fish Springs cinder cone (Martel et al., 1987, 1989). Various workers report no evidence for cumulative lateral displacement based on Martel’s (1987) detailed reconstructions of cinder cone geometry. We locate the northern extent of basalts exposed in the footwall beneath ~1-2 meters of capping alluvium, permitting right-lateral offset ranging from ~0 to approximately ~50 meters.

Combined with the age of the cinder cone 314 ± 36 ka B.P. (39Ar/40Ar), this observation permits up to ~0.2 mm/yr of dextral slip.

We locate five low-to-moderate quality offset channels on the lidar with equivocal weak evidence for subordinate horizontal displacement along the Fish Springs fault.

Measurements range from 1.2 to 9.5 m with throw between 0.4 to 9.2 (Figure S11a – g). The low quality of possible lateral reconstructions reflects a clear contrast in geomorphic age for features on the hanging wall and footwall, thus preventing definitive correlation across the fault. Zehfuss et al. (2001) map these alluvial deposits in detail and calculate surficial ages between ~6 and 18 ka, based on CRN exposure. The first cluster of measured throw encompasses values measurements exhibiting vertical throw between 0.5 and 1.5 with a mean of 0.9 ± 0.5 m (Figure S11g).

The northernmost geometrical segment included in our lidar analysis is the combined

Big Pine and Crater Mountain sections (e.g., Beanland and Clark, 1994). The surface rupture consists of a complex zone of en echelon and anastomosing traces that extend 23 km across 77 the Bishop Basin (Figure 8a). Individual scarps strike between 320° and 040° and span an average of ~100 m. West-stepping restraining bends along the southern stretch generate a series of pressure ridges in Crater Mountain basalts. Along the northeastern flank of Crater

Mountain and southern Big Pine Fan, however, a sequence of east-stepping releasing bends produce a ~125 m wide graben (see supplemental kmz).

Scarps north of the Big Pine township affect pluvial lacustrine, fluvial, and aeolian deposits at an average elevation of ~1205 m (Bryant, 1984b). North of the Big Pine section,

1872 slip either terminated along the Warren Lake (e.g., Beanland and Clark, 1994), transferred to the adjoining Keough section of the SNFF marked by fissures extending into

Bishop (J.D. Whitney in Hobbs, 1910), or stepped east to the Klondike Lake fault, potentially crossing the broad ~3-km-wide right stepover to the WMF (e.g., Carver, 1970; dePolo et al.,

1989). The northeast-striking Klondike Lake fault defines the eastern margin of the modern lake. Subdued northwest-facing scarps between <0.5 to 4 m in height trend oblique to shoreline features, spanning a total distance of at least ~1.7 km (Sheehan, 2007).

We report 19 offset landforms on the surface of Crater Mountain basalts (Figures

S12a – g), ranging in magnitude from 1.5 to 35.5 meters. Confidence ratings are generally low-moderate due to the relatively high ratio of scarp height to channel length. We observed multiple short, steep channels traversing bedrock scarps ~10 m or more tall. Additionally, channels appear to occupy collapsed lava tubes too abundant to be correlated with high confidence. We map an additional 33 offsets, including debris flow levees and channels on the Big Pine Fan surface and incised into fine-grained sediments west of Klondike Lake.

The first COPD peak encompasses eight moderate-to-high confidence offsets, mainly located north of Crater Mountain basalts. These measurements form a strong peak with a 78 shoulder towards small offsets. The mean of these data is 3.4 ± 0.8 m (Figure S12d). A second, bimodal peak encompasses seven offsets between 5.25 and 9.5 m with a mean of 7.9

± 1.2 m. Low, subsidiary peaks flank this cluster in the COPD. A third, muted peak at 10.5 m with a broad shoulder towards larger offsets incorporates three measurements between 11.25 and 14.5 m. This shoulder includes a possible subsidiary peak at ~13.8 m. The mean of these three offsets is 12.5 ± 1.4 m. Lastly, a prominent fourth peak with a mean value of 17.3 ± 0.3 m groups three large offsets preserved on the Big Pine fan and Crater Mountain basalts.

Offset of a pressure ridge reported by Beanland and Clark (1994) and located ~4.0 km north of the Fish Springs cinder cone measures ~35 m offset. Throw across landforms deformed along this section produce 3 prominent peaks in the COPD at ~1 m, 1.8 m and 2.4 m (Figure

S12g). Additional muted peaks reflect single large offsets at ~3.7 m, 5.6 m, and 8 m.

The Keough section of the SNFF comprises multiple west-facing, gently-dipping

(~60º) normal scarps near the base of the range front as well as en echelon north-northeast trending east-facing scarps affecting Pleistocene – Holocene alluvium with possible evidence of right-normal oblique slip. Bryant (1984b) groups this section with the northern OVF and refers to traces initially mapped by Bateman (1965) as the Shannon Creek section, which show weak evidence for historic rupture. We investigate 6 channels exhibiting relatively fresh free faces and in-channel scarps reaching ~0.5-1.5 m high. Poor to moderate evidence for right-lateral offset groups (~2-3 m, ~6.5-8 m) is equivocal overall.

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Jayko, A.S., E. Vitorri, D.B. Slemmons, and G. Carver (2011), Historic Shorelines and the 1872 Owens Valley Earthquake: A Rupture Segment East of Dirty Socks Spring, In Seismic Hazard, Tectonics, and Geomorphology in the Southern Sierra Nevada Range and Southern Walker Lane Belt, California: unpublished Friends of the Pleistocene Guidebook, 147 p., http://www.fop.cascadiageo.org/pacific_cell/2011/FOP%202011%20Guidebook%20Souther n%20Sierra.pdf (last accessed December 2014).

Lee, J., J. Spencer, and L. Owen (2001a), Holocene Slip Rates along the Owens Valley Fault, California: Implications for the Recent Evolution of the Eastern California Shear Zone: Geology, v. 29, no. 9, p. 819-822, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(2001)029<0819:HSRATO>2.0.CO;2.

Lubetkin, L.K.C., and M.M. Clark (1988), Late Quaternary Activity along the Lone Pine Fault, Eastern California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 100, no. 5, p. 755-766, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<0755:lqaatl>2.3.co;2.

Martel, S.J. (1989), Structure and Late Quaternary Activity of the Northern Owens Valley Fault Zone, Owens Valley, California: Eng. Geology, 27, p. 489-507, doi:10.1016/0013- 7952(89)90043-4.

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Martel, S.J., T.M. Harrison, and A.R. Gillespie (1987), Late Quaternary Vertical Displacement Rate across the Fish Springs Fault, Owens Valley Fault Zone, California: Quaternary Research, v. 27, p. 113-129, doi:10.1016/0033-5894(87)90071-8.

Sheehan, T.P. (2007), Evolution of Neogene Fault Populations in Northern Owens Valley, California and Implications for the Eastern California Shear Zone. [Ph.D thesis]: Tulane University, 203 p.

Slemmons, D.B., E. Vittori, A.S. Jayko, G.A. Carver, and S.N. Bacon (2008), Quaternary Fault and Lineament Map of Owens Valley, Inyo County, Eastern California: Geological Society of America, Map and Chart 96, 25 p.

Taylor, T.R. (2002), Origin and Structure of the Poverty Hills, Owens Valley Fault Zone, Owens Valley, California. [M.S. Thesis]: Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA. U.S. Geological Survey Web Page. Quaternary Fault and Fold Database of the United States. Available online: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/ (accessed on 27 March 2012).

Vittori, E., A.M. Michetti, D.B. Slemmons, and G. Carver (1993), Style of Recent Surface Deformation at the South End of the Owens Valley Fault Zone, Eastern California: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 25, no. 5, p. 159.

Zehfuss, P. H., P.R. Bierman, A.R. Gillespie, R.M. Burke, and M.W. Caffee (2001), Slip Rates on the Fish Springs Fault, Owens Valley, California, Deduced from Cosmogenic Be-10 and Al-26 and Soil Development on Fan Surfaces: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 113, no. 2, p. 241-255, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<0241:SROTFS>2.0.CO;2.

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SUPPLEMENTARY FIGURES

Figure S1. Step-by-step (a) through (f) cross-correlation routine performed by the OffsetXcor MATLAB program. 83

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Figure S2. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the Dirty Socks section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces mapped from GeoEarthScope lidar (black) and attributed to the Dirty Socks section (red) following Slemmons et al. (2008). From south to north: DS, Dirty Socks; OL, Owens Lake; LP, Lone Pine fault; DL, Diaz Lake; IS, southern Independence; MF, Manzanar fault; I, Independence; T, Tinemaha; TW, western Tinemaha; FS, Fish Springs; BP, Big Pine; K, Keough section of SNNF. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and net COPD plot of right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality. Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols, indicating east-side-up offset. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing measured throw. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S3. Offsets identified along the Owens Lake section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and net COPD plots for right- lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously published values (yellow diamonds) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols, indicating east-side-up offset. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

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Figure S4. Small geomorphic offsets identified along the Diaz Lake section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5), including previously published values (orange triangles) (Lee et al., 2001a) and historical reports (blue stars) described in Bateman (1961). (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density plot (COPD) and single-bin COPD encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously published values (yellow diamonds) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols, indicating east-side-up offset. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S5. Compilation and analysis of geomorphic offsets documented along the Lone Pine fault and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). Partial offsets (black crosses) of a single geomorphic feature occur along a discrete fault in a distributed zone of deformation. (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5), including previously published values (yellow diamonds) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols indicating east-side-up offset. Distribution includes previously reported values from geomorphology (green triangle and crosses) (Lubetkin and Clark, 1988) and paleoseismic trenches (yellow star) (Bacon and Pezzopane, 2007). Partial offsets (black crosses) and low-confidence sums (black plus symbols) are same as in Figure S4e. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

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Figure S6. Possible small geomorphic offsets located along the Manzanar section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). (c) Frequency distribution of right- lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single- bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously published values (yellow diamonds) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols indicating east-side-up offset. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S7. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the southern Independence section and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). (c) Frequency distribution of right- lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single- bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously published values (yellow diamonds) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Offsets are west side up, unless represented by hollow symbols indicating east-side-up offset. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

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Figure S8. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the Independence section measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5), including previously reported values from geomorphology (orange triangle) (Bateman, 1961). Partial offsets (black crosses) and low-confidence sums (black plus symbols) are same as in Figure S4e. (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously reported values from paleoseismic trenching (yellow stars) (Lee et al., 2001a). Hollow symbols indicate east-side-up offset. Partial offsets and low-confidence sums are same as in Figure S7b. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S9. Small geomorphic offsets identified along the Tinemaha section and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). Partial offsets (black crosses) are same as in Figure S4e. (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality. Hollow symbols indicate east- side-up offset. Partial offsets (black crosses) are same as in Figure S4e. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

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Figure S10. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the Tinemaha section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) No cumulative offset probability density (COPD) plot due to assigned quality ratings of 2 or less. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality. Hollow symbols indicate east-side-up offset. Partial offsets (black crosses) are same as in Figure S4e. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S11. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the Fish Springs fault within the Owens Valley fault (OVF) zone and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5). Partial offsets (black crosses) are same as in Figure S4e. (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including partial offsets (black crosses) and previously reported values from geomorphology (yellow triangles) (Zehfuss et al., 2001). (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) Binned and net COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

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Figure S12. Compilation and analysis of small geomorphic offsets identified along the Big Pine – Crater Mountain section of the Owens Valley fault (OVF) and measured from lidar using OffsetXcor. (a) Surface traces and fault section abbreviations in are the same as Figure S2a. (b) Right-lateral slip measurements (blue points) from lidar and field study scaled by quality from low (2) to high (5), including previously reported values from geomorphology (orange triangle) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Partial offsets and low-confidence sums are same as in Figure S4e. (c) Frequency distribution of right-lateral measurements from OffsetXcor output. Values of blue correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (d) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plot encompassing right-lateral measurements. Graded values of blue indicate COPD amplitude. (e) Compilation of vertical throw scaled by quality, including previously reported values from geomorphology (yellow triangles) (Beanland and Clark, 1994). Partial offsets (black crosses) are same as in Figure S4e. (f) Frequency distribution of throw from OffsetXcor output. Values of red correspond to assigned quality rating for various offset groups. (g) 2-km binned cumulative offset probability density (COPD) and single-bin COPD plots encompassing throw measurements. Graded values of red indicate COPD amplitude.

Figure S13. Histogram demonstrating the distribution of assigned quality ratings for a range of lateral offset magnitudes (plotted on the left axis) and the frequency of assigned quality ratings (along the right axis).