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Journal of Vaccines, Immunology and Immunopathology Rijkers GT. J Vaccines Immunol 5: 148. Review Article DOI: 10.29011/2575-789X.000148 The Arrest of Christ: Autotransplantation from Miracle to Medical Procedure

Ger T. Rijkers1,2* 1Department of Science, University College Roosevelt, Lange Noordstraat, CB Middelburg, The Netherlands 2Laboratory for Medical Microbiology and Immunology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, Tilburg, The Netherlands

*Corresponding author: GT Rijkers, Department of Science, University College Roosevelt, Lange Noordstraat 1, CB Middelburg, The Netherlands Citation: Rijkers GT (2020) The Arrest of Christ: Autotransplantation from Miracle to Medical Procedure. J Vaccines Immunol 5: 148. DOI: 10.29011/2575-789X.000148 Received Date: 01 January, 2020; Accepted Date: 13 January, 2020; Published Date: 20 January, 2020

Abstract During the arrest of Christ, one of his disciples, Simon Peter, cut off the ear of a servant of Caiaphas. Christ put the ear back, a miracle and the first recorded autotransplantation. Currently, autotransplantation is an established procedure in reconstructive dental and bone surgery. Autotransplantation of splenic fragments can retain spleen function after splenectomy. Following pancreatectomy for chronic pancreatitis or benign or malignant diseases of the pancreas, islet autotransplantation can prevent diabetes. Autotransplantation of hematopoietic stem cells enables reconstitution of hematopoiesis after intense chemo and/or radiotherapy for leukemia and lymphoma. The development of biomedical technology to generate induced pluripotent stem cells, gene editing with CRISPR Cas, and in vitro organoid cultures opens the possibility to treat a wide array of inborn and acquired diseases by autotransplantation.

Introduction The Temptation of St. Anthony (1500-1510) is an altarpiece by Jheronimus Bosch. Colorful altarpieces were closed during the Lenten period, the 40 days’ penitential preparation for Eastern, or just during the final week before Eastern, the Holy Week. For that reason, the reverse side of the wings often were painted in grey (grisaille) depicting scenes from the last week of the life of Jesus. The scene painted on the left wing, The Arrest of Christ, depicts the moments when Jesus was arrested in the garden of Gethsemane. On the foreground, Simon Peter swings his sword with the clear intention to attack Malchus, a servant of the high priest Caiaphas, who had ordered the arrest of Jesus. The relevant passage in the Figure 1: Fragment of The Arrest of Christ, reverse side of left Gospel of John (18:10-11) reads: “then Simon Peter having a sword outer panel of The Temptation of St. Anthony (1500-1510) by drew it, and cut off his right ear. The servant’s name was Malchus” Jheronimus Bosch. Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon, [1]. It is impossible to know whether this event actually happened, Portugal. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/ although it has been argued that early Christians probably would Jheronimus_Bosch_001_exterior_01.jpg Assessed December 24, not have made up stories which would depict them as violent. The 2019. interpretation of Bosch of this Biblical event is slightly different And he touched the man’s ear and healed him” [2]. because from the positioning of Simon Peter and the way Malchus turns his head (see Figure 1), it is virtually impossible to cut off the Above biblical event could be considered as the first right ear. The Gospel of Luke (22:50-51) describes Jesus’ response recorded autotransplantation. During the following centuries, to this act of Simon Peter: “Jesus answered, “No more of this!” anecdotal references to transplantation and autotransplantation were classified as myths and miracles [3]. Autotransplantation of

1 Volume 5; Issue 01 J Vaccines Immunol, an open access journal ISSN: 2575-789X Citation: Rijkers GT (2020) The Arrest of Christ: Autotransplantation from Miracle to Medical Procedure. J Vaccines Immunol 5: 148. DOI: 10.29011/2575-789- X.000148 skin flaps for reconstruction of missing noses was practiced already in the 16th century [4]. Renal transplants in humans initially were Organ Indication performed using pig and goat donor kidneys [5], followed by using Skin, hair, Reconstructive and monkey kidneys [6]. These forms of transplantation are termed teeth cosmetic surgery xenotransplantation, and, although technically successful, the Preservation of splenic kidneys lasted no longer than just a few days at best and all patients Splenic fragments Spleen function after traumatic died soon afterwards. The first medical documented (successful) are transplanted kidney transplantation was performed in 1954 in identical twins spleen rupture [7]. Liver, heart and pancreas transplants followed by the 1960s, To relief the pain of kidney and lung and intestinal organs in the 1980s [8,9]. Rejection, based injuries, shortening of on histo-incompatibility between donor and recipient turned out ureters in case of kidney Kidney is Kidney to be the major obstacle for lasting success [10]. Improvements stones, loin pain hematuria repositioned in immunosuppressive treatment and matching of donor and syndrome, Nutcracker recipient HLA have dramatically improved success rates [11,12]. syndrome The price to pay for immunosuppression is increased infection and (Now outdated) parathyroid malignancy risk, but identical donor organs, even matched donors, Parathyroid autotransplantation after are scarce. The availability of a donor kidney from an identical total thyroidectomy. twin is truly exceptional [7], even HLA-identical siblings are Advanced hepatic alveolar ex vivo liver rare. Transplantation across histocompatibility barriers therefore Liver echinococcosis; advanced resection and requires immunosuppression with the inherent risk of infections cholangiocarcinoma autotransplantation and secondary malignancies. In autotransplantation, defined as transplantation (or repositioning) of organs or tissues in the Nonmalignant and same individual, the donor and recipient are the same person and Pancreatic islet malignant indications for pancreatectomy therefore histo-compatible. Following ex vivo surgical Heart Autotransplantation of skin, hair and teeth resection Autotransplantation of teeth is part of reconstructive oral Table 1: Autotransplantation of organs and tissues. surgery in case of unevenly distributed agenesis, missing lower Autotransplantation of organs and tissues is performed for premolars, missing or lost incisors, as well for repositioning a variety of clinical indications (Table 1). Traumatic rupture of of ectopic teeth [13-15]. Other bony elements can be used for the spleen, splenic abscesses in case of tuberculosis and radical autografting to repair complex bone fractures, for fractures that surgical clearance of adjacent tumors, all are indications for would pose a health risk, or which do not heal properly [16,17]. total splenectomy [25,26]. Furthermore, there are a number of Autologous bone transplantation is osteoinductive and osteogenic diseases leading to splenomegaly, including sickle cell anemia and (meaning that osteoblasts originating from the graft material thrombocytopenic conditions, which benefit from splenectomy contribute to new bone growth), as well as osteoconductive [26]. Major post-operative risk of splenectomy is Overwhelming [18,19]. Post Splenectomy Infection (OPSI), most often due to a Autologous hair transplantation techniques are used for Streptococcus pneumoniae sepsis. Prophylactic antibiotics and treatment of vitiligo [20] and alopecia [21], as well as for cosmetic adequate vaccination can reduce these risks but do not compensate reasons [22]. The outcome of skin transplantation for treatment for other splenic functions. In case of splenectomy for trauma, of burn wounds would benefit from autologous skin. The major autotransplantation (of part of the spleen) can be performed problem is that autologous skin needs to be pre-cultured and rapid [27,28] which restores the functional lymphoid compartment healing of burn wounds is critical to relieving morbidity and of the spleen and improves the response to vaccination [29,30]. reduce mortality [23]. It has been shown that autologous skin cell Kidney autotransplantation, involving the repositioning of the suspensions combined with hydrocolloid dressings accelerated kidney, is being performed for various indications such as renal epithelialization and improved healing [24]. vessel pathologies, ureteral avulsion, urothelial malignancy, and renal trauma [31,32]. Parathyroid autotransplantation during Autotransplantation of internal organs total thyroidectomy has been advocated in order to prevent postoperative hypocalcemia and/or hypoparathyroidism [33,34]. In a retrospective study it was shown that 1) these complications

2 Volume 5; Issue 01 J Vaccines Immunol, an open access journal ISSN: 2575-789X Citation: Rijkers GT (2020) The Arrest of Christ: Autotransplantation from Miracle to Medical Procedure. J Vaccines Immunol 5: 148. DOI: 10.29011/2575-789- X.000148 are rare and 2) parathyroid autotransplantation had no significant cells. Normally, blood contains only very few CD34+ stem cells, effect in further reducing these complication [35] and therefore but these numbers can be greatly expanded by administration of this advice has been abandoned [36]. Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor (G-CSF). Standard is a Ex vivo liver resection and subsequent autotransplantation is 5-day regimen of G-SCF, but addition of the reversible CXCR4 used in treatment of advanced hepatic alveolar echinococcosis and antagonist AMD3100 greatly improves stem cell mobilization advanced cholangiocarcinoma [37,38]. In patients with chronic [58-60]. Quite unexpectedly, the combination of AMD3100 and pancreatitis and severe (abdominal) pain, total pancreatectomy sildenafil also is a very potent (no pun intended) way to mobilize is performed followed by islet autotransplantation to prevent the peripheral CD34+ stem cells [61]. The minimum dose of CD34+ development of diabetes [39,40]. Islet autotransplantation is also cells for a successful autologous stem cell transplantation is 2 performed in case of total pancreatectomy for benign or malignant x 106 cells/kg recipient body weight, but ≥ 4–6 x 106 cells/kg is diseases of the pancreas [41,42]. Cardiac autotransplantation is considered optimal [62,63]. performed as part of the surgical resection of malignant [43] or Autologous stem cell transplantation is most often used in complex benign tumors of the heart [44]. Cardiac autotransplantation the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma, in particular multiple involves explantation of the heart after which ex-vivo tumor myeloma [64] and both Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma resection is performed, damaged tissue reconstructed and the heart [65,66] (Figure 2). Autologous stem cell transplantation is also reimplanted [45]. Autotransplantation also is involved in coronary used in treatment of patients with recurrence of high-risk solid artery bypass surgery. Autologous blood vessels are used for tumors that may respond to intensive chemo- or radio-therapy, grafting mostly the internal thoracic artery, the radial artery, and including neuroblastoma, soft tissue sarcoma/Ewing, and germinal saphenous vein in that order [46,47]. tumors [67-69]. Autoimmune diseases are also being treated with Autologous transplantation of cells autologous stem cell transplantation [70,71]. The underlying Next to organs, also (mixtures of) cells are used for autologous principle is that existing lymphocyte subsets are eliminated by transplantation. Autologous blood transfusion is a common intense therapy, after which repopulation of the immune system can procedure during elective surgical procedures. It can be based take place, with establishment of self-tolerance. Multiple sclerosis on preoperative autologous blood donation, acute normovolemic and systemic sclerosis are the autoimmune diseases most treated hemodilution, or intraoperative and postoperative autotransfusion with autologous stem cell transplantation in Europe [72,73], but of recovered blood lost during surgery [48,49]. Apart from strictly also a variety of other systemic and organ-specific autoimmune medical reasons for autologous blood transfusion, it is also used diseases [74-76]. as a form of doping in high performance athletes such as cyclists and long-distance runners [50]. Because of improved detection methods for erythropoietin, athletes have reverted back to blood doping, although this form of doping now also can be detected [51]. Autologous blood transfusion is effective because in a controlled setting with recreational athletes, VO2max and performance as measured with treadmill running performance tests improved by 17% and 15%, respectively [52]. Autologous transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells is being used for rescue of hematopoiesis after myeloablative therapy for malignancies and reconstitution of the immune system following intense therapy in autoimmune diseases. The four phases of autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation include: a) harvesting, purification and cryopreservation of autologous hematopoietic progenitor cells; b) administration of high-dose Figure 2: Autologous stem cell transplantations in Europe in 2018. MM, therapy for the underlying disease in the form of chemotherapy multiple myeloma; HL, Hodgkin’s lymphoma; NHL, non-Hodgkin’s and/or radiotherapy; this phase is called conditioning or preparative lymphoma; NB, neuroblastoma; STS, Soft tissue sarcoma/Ewing; GT, Germinal tumors; AID, Autoimmune diseases. The open parts of the pie regimen; c) thawing and infusion of the autologous cells; and the last represent other indications. Pies and pie parts are proportional to the number phase d) reconstitution of hematopoiesis. During phase d, vigorous of patients treated. Data derived from reference [77]. Data from the Center supportive care including prophylactic antibiotics, transfusion of for International Blood & Marrow Transplant Research CIBMTR indicate blood components, and other measures is required [53-55]. Initially, that also worldwide the major indications for autologous hematopoietic hematopoietic stem cells were derived from bone marrow [56,57], stem cell transplantation are MM, NHL, and HL [78]. but currently this has largely been replaced by blood derived stem

3 Volume 5; Issue 01 J Vaccines Immunol, an open access journal ISSN: 2575-789X Citation: Rijkers GT (2020) The Arrest of Christ: Autotransplantation from Miracle to Medical Procedure. J Vaccines Immunol 5: 148. DOI: 10.29011/2575-789- X.000148

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for autotransplantation 8. Marino IR, Cirillo C (2014) An abridged photographic history of organ transplantation. Exp Clin Transplant 12: 11-16. The main reason to prefer autotransplantation over 9. Linden PK (2009) History of solid organ transplantation and organ do- allotransplantation is to minimize the risk for attack and rejection nation. Crit Care Clin 25: 165-184. by the recipient’s immune system. For a great number of diseases an inherited or acquired genetic defect or functional impairment 10. Montgomery RA, Tatapudi VS, Leffell MS, Zachary AA (2018) HLA in transplantation. Nat Rev Nephrol 14: 558-570. makes autotransplantation impossible. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC) [79,80] could offer an alternative. Autologous iPSC- 11. van Rood JJ, van Leeuwen A, Persijn GG, Lansbergen Q, Goulmy E, et al. (1977) Role of the HLA system in transplantation. HLA compat- based therapy for genetic diseases becomes possible because ibility in clinical transplantation. Transplant Proc 9: 459-467. the disease-causing gene defect can be repaired in vitro using CRISPR–Cas9 technology [81]. Neural [82], intestinal [83], kidney 12. Jansen J (2007) Jon Van Rood: pioneer at the crossroad of human leukocyte antigens and transplantation. Transfus Med Rev 21: 159- [84], lung [85,86], and cardiac [87] organoids have been grown 163. which offer exciting new possibilities for disease modeling, drug 13. Martin K, Nathwani S, Bunyan R (2018) Autotransplantation of teeth: discovery, and ultimately new treatment modalities for diseases an evidence-based approach. Br Dent J 224: 861-864. like Hischprung disease, cystic fibrosis, and surfactant deficiency [81]. During generation of iPSCs and subsequent differentiation 14. 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