Afstudeerbundel Master’sTheses October2009

and Geosciences and Faculty of Civil Engineering Engineering Civil of Faculty

Master’s Theses October 2009 +31(0) 15 27 85440 +31(0) 15 27 87966

Civil Engineering Stevinweg 1 PO Box 5048 2600 GA Delft The Netherlands T F Master’s Theses October 2009

Civil Engineering Stevinweg 1 PO Box 5048 2600 GA Delft The Netherlands

Telephone: +31-(0)15-2785440 Telefax: +31-(0)15-2787966 Table of Contents

Table of Contents 2 Preface 7 What is the graduation book exactly? 9

Civil Engineering Theses 11 Structural Engineering 11

Comparison of load redistribution in concrete bridges by theoretical and Finite Element approach 12 Student: Bilal Ahmad Impact of initial investment on repair and maintenance strategy 13 Student: M.E. Becht Achieving neutral stresses in renewed railway switches and crossings 14 Student: S. Boogaerdt The ultimate load carrying capacity of laterally restrained concrete decks 15 Student: Godfrey Chamululu Building acoustic aspects of IFD-units, Research to the nowadays quality and possibilities for improvement 16 Student: A.M.J. Hietland Numerical analysis of load-carrying capacity of thin-webbed post-tensionde T-beam using ATENA 17 Student: Enny Kurniawati The durable hybrid bridge. The use of fibre-reinforced-plastics in concrete bridges 18 Student: A.J. Langedijk Maximum possible diameter of the Great Dubai Wheel 19 Student: Wout Luites Dynamic nonlinear finite element analysis of structures subjected to explosions 20 Student: Shen Ma Development of a mix design method in the laboratory for mixes with Recycled Asphalt Pavement in the drum mix facility 21 Student: Girum Mengiste Merine Maintenance strategies for the TANZAM highway in Tanzania 22 Student: A.K. Mwinchande Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite Tailoring through 3D Lattice Fracture Simulations 23 Student: Herry Prabowo Stability design for frame type structures 24 Student: R.P. Veerman Hybrid concrete elements in a marine environment 25 Student: N. Waterman

Civil Engineering Theses 27 Building Engineering 27

The appreciation of the thermal indoor environment in practice 28 Student: Dennis Faas Sustainability, Flexibility and Costs of High-rise 29 Student: Ing. S.C.B.L.M. van Hellenberg Hubar The extent to which the EMVI instrument has contributed to the achievements of the business objectives of Rijkwaterstaat 30 Student: C. Otto Living Apartment Concept 31 Student: C. Sekanyambo Tool to design masonry double-curved shells 32 Student: T.J. van Swinderen

2 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Improvement through insulation: insulation on the interior of existing dwellings 33 Student: R.M. Tersteeg A supply-driven approach applied to the Contractor’s organisation 34 Student: Martijn Verster Structural Design of North Side of Breda Central Station 35 Student: Yirui Yao

Civil Engineering Theses 37 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering 37

Non-hydrostatic modelling of waves in layered fluids 38 Student: S.H. Balkema Formulation and Quantification of the Disctributed Collinear Triad Approximation 39 Student: Matthijs Benit Stability of a single top layer of cubes 40 Student: R. van Buchem How biofilms influence morphology. 41 Student: Myron van Damme Dune growth on natural and nourished beaches 42 Student: Thijs Damsma Toe structures of rubble mound breakwaters. Stability in depth limited conditions 43 Student: R.E. Ebbens A Numerical Study on Design of Normal & T-Head Coastal Groins 44 Student: Sepehr Eslami Arab The functional flexibility of lock design, applied on the Meuse route 45 Student: Ramon de Groot Wave physics in a tidal inlet – Part I & II 46 Student: Paul J. van der Ham Simulation studies to openings of the Calandbrug 47 Student: B. Hiemstra Implementation of a wetting and drying algorithm in a finite element model 48 Student: Anna Kroon Using Texel Inlet as a sediment transport belt 49 Student: J.W.A. Lakeman The energy polder 50 Student: Leslie Mooyaart King Abdullah Economic City Port Master Plan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Student: J Nammuni nee Krohn New Orleans Storm Surge Barrier 52 Student: Ruud Nooij Failure of Peat Dikes due to Drought 53 Student: Nterekas Dimitrios Modelling the 1775 storm surge deposits at the Heemskerk dunes 54 Student: A.D. Pool Loads on underwater concrete floors and tension piles due to swell 55 Student: Rogier Schippers Generating electricity from waves at a breakwater in a moderate wave climate 56 Student: J.E. Schoolderman Constructing a parking garage underneath historical city canals – a case study 57 Student: Pieter Schoutens

3 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Table of Contents

Analysis of wave impact on the elastocoast® system 58 Student: R.W. Sluijsmans Evaluation of Material Models for Liquefaction 59 Student: Anteneh Biru Tsegaye Water jets surrounded by an air film 60 Student: F.R.S. Vinke Movable water barrier for the 21st century 61 Student: Floris van der Ziel Stability of morphological cells to dredging-dumping activities 62 Student: Nicolas Zimmermann Effect of the concrete density on the stability of Xbloc armour units 63 Student: B.N.M. van Zwicht

Civil Engineering Theses 65 Watermanagement 65

Water use of jatropha 66 Student: Roel Blesgraaf A new perspective on continental moisture recycling 67 Student: R.J. van der Ent A function-oriented methodology of flood vulnerability assessment 68 Student: Zhen Fang The influence of clay cracks on the rainfall-runoff process 69 Student: H.E. Geertsema Optimization of the rainfall-runoff response in urban areas by using controllable drains 70 Student: David Haro Monteagudo Improved disaster management with use of Statistics Netherlands data 71 Student: J.T.M. Kuilboer Investigation subsurface iron and arsenic removal: anoxic column experiments to explore efficiency parameters 72 Student: H. van der Laan Regeneration of zeolites used for ammonium removal from anaerobic groundwater 73 Student: Y. Mikkers

Civil Engineering Theses 75 Transport & Planning 75

Towards Sustainable Urban Water Management in Brazil 76 Student: Elwin F. Bakker Development of District Heating Networks in Urban Areas 77 Student: Daan van Beekum Towards an optimal (re-) construction of motorways 78 Student: Christophe Egyed Calibrating a traffic microsimulation model with a phase based algorithm to make the trajectories suitable for traffic emission predictions. 79 Student: Frank de Groen Verbetering vervaardigingproces GVVP’s 80 Student: R.J. in ’t Hout Optimization traffic control using route information 81 Student: Jun Li

4 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Assessment of the relationship between observed crashes and simulated conflicts at intersections 82 Student: Paula A. Marchesini Reducing Travel Time Loss in Financial Services 83 Student: Ralph Otto Optimal configurations for designs of bus stations 84 Student: J. van Rossum Network Performance Degeneration in Dynamic Traffic Assignment 85 Student: Wouter Schakel Vrouwezand, island in lake IJsselmeer 86 Student: Bart Simon A dynamic traffic assignment model based on social costs 87 Student: E.A.J. Vendrik High-frequency train service between Rotterdam and Leiden 88 Student: R.H. van Vliet A disaggregate freight transport model of transport chain and shipment size choice on the Swedish commodity flow survey 2004/05 89 Student: Elisabeth Windisch Offshore Engineering Theses 91

Discrete Element Modelling of Sand/Rock Cutting in Deep Water 92 Student: Morteza Abdeli The effect of fluid velocity on eigenfrequencies of FPSO piping systems 93 Student: Sietze Douwe Akkerman ‘An investigation of squalls and their impact on in situ structures, using measured data from the Greater Plutonio Field, Offshore Angola’ 94 Student: J.J.R. Brokking Grab Dredger Optimization 95 Student: Rikrik Gantina On-Bottom Stability of High Temperature Pipelines 96 Student: J.M. van Hilten Design of a floating offshore support structure for the Wave Rotor. 97 Student: Reinder Jorritsma Optimization of the Transport- & Installation Process of Offshore Wind Farms 98 Student: Coen Kleipool Method for real-time touchdown point measuring during pipeline installation 99 Student: J.M. de Klerk Wake influence on tidal turbine performance and tidal farm arrangements 100 Student: Moritz Palm Mooring and installation of wave energy converter Wavebob 101 Student: B. Poppelaars Fatigue Integrity of Mooring Lines on Offshore Production Facilities 102 Student: W.F. van Rossem Deep Water Subsea Heavy Lifting 103 Student: W.J. Slob Jack-up leg design for arctic operations 104 Student: P. Smeets Friction forces in pigging: a predictive model 105 Student: M. Tillemans Influence 90 degrees bends on the pressure losses in slurry transport 106 Student: A.R. Verschoor

5 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Table of Contents

The added mass effect in centrifugal pumps: an approximation formula for the added mass moment of inertia of logarithmic impellers 107 Student: J.M. van Wijk Last year’s Theses 109

Master’s Theses July 2009 110 Master’s Theses March 2009 112 Master’s Theses October 2008 114 Research groups and professors within the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences 118

6 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Preface

For graduates, the Master’s thesis is the crowning touch to their studies. The thesis is an extensive piece of academic research and writing that is carried out independently. By completing a thesis, graduates demonstrate that they are worthy of the title of Master of Science. The time spent studying at our faculty has given them the skills and knowledge needed to complete this comprehensive task. The theses collected in this book reflect the high academic quality of our graduates. They have used their theses not only to address relevant societal problems, but also to present innovative solutions. Their theses reflect their capabilities and the fact that they are truly ready to embark on their careers.

These theses are valuable documents for the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences. They help us to establish and demonstrate the societal relevance and quality of our teaching programmes. The high standards we pursue at our faculty are reflected throughout this book. Our graduates skilfully address relevant issues such as coping with climate change and sustainable design. They also provide workable solutions, reflecting one of our faculty’s primary aims: to contribute to the progress of society.

It gives me great pride to present our graduates in this book. They will now leave their student days behind them and enter the work force. I wish them good luck in continuing their valuable work for society.

Prof. Louis de Quelerij Dean of the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

7 | Master’s Theses October 2009 8 | Master’s Theses October 2009 What is the graduation book exactly?

“Master’s Theses October 2009” contains summaries of A Master’s programme spans several different the theses produced by various students who obtained departments, each of which corresponds to a a Master of Science degree at the Delft University of specialisation within the programme in question. Technology. The students in question graduated in At the end of this book is a comprehensive list of “Civil Engineering”, “Transport, Infrastructure and specialisations, which includes the names of their Logistics” or “Offshore Engineering”. respective professors.

The purpose of this publication is to inform The aim of the book professionals working in these fields about recent The main purpose of publishing these Master’s theses developments in teaching and research at the Faculty is to ensure that the outside world is better informed of Civil Engineering and Geosciences. In many cases, about the research that is carried out at the Faculty the subject of the Master’s thesis is based on a request of Civil Engineering and Geosciences. It is also hoped from professionals working in the field in question. that this book will enhance communication with In other cases, such individuals will collaborate in professionals working in this field, and help them to the realisation of a Master’s thesis. Alternatively, the become better informed about the capacities of current thesis may be part of a wider research project within graduates. the department itself. The primary goal of the Master’s thesis is to round-off a student’s course of study at Further details the TU, and to enable them to graduate as a Master Contact the department in question if you require of Science. As the regulations stand, this requires an further details about one or more of the published investment of 22 to 26 weeks of study. The summary of summaries (the phone number is given at the end of every completed thesis is published in “Master’s Theses each summary). A small charge is sometimes levied to march 2009”, whether they are merely average or truly cover the costs of printing and posting a thesis. It is outstanding. not always possible for us to send complete theses. If you so wish, you can also make an appointment to view The book’s layout a particular thesis. The summaries of the various theses are published per Master’s programme and specialisation: Department of Education & Student Affairs 015-27 81199 / 81765 The Civil Engineering Master’s programme has five specialisations: Department of Marketing & Communication •• Structural Engineering 015-27 87685 / 88045 •• Building Engineering •• Hydraulic and Geo Engineering Further information: •• Water Management Delft University of Technology •• Transport & Planning Faculty of CEG, Department of Communications PO Box 5048 The Offshore Engineering Master’s programme 2600 GA Delft The Netherlands The Transport, Infrastructure and Logistics Master’s programme

All of the summaries have a similar layout. Call the department in question if you require further details about a specific thesis (the phone number is given at the end of each summary).

The section containing the new summaries is followed by a comprehensive list of those produced last year. The layout of these summaries reflects that of the previous publications.

9 | Master’s Theses October 2009 10 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1.

Civil Engineering Theses Structural Engineering 1 Structural Engineering

Comparison of load redistribution in concrete bridges by theoretical and Finite Element approach

Finding out the actual load redistribution in a concrete The results from this research can be used to identify bridge deck is an important parameter before starting the critical girder in bridge deck, calculate the the analysis of the bridge deck. Various theoretical equivalent load on critical beam by theoretical and methods are developed in the past to find out the finite element approach, and calculate the nodal actual share of load on each girder of deck slabs. Finite shear stresses at critical section and to find out the element based programs can be used to analyze the total shear force by integrating the nodal stresses on decks in more detail and to overcome the limitations of cross sectional area of critical girder. By using FEA theoretical approaches. load redistribution can be analyzed more precisely by changing the position of loads and calculating stresses This research includes the study, application and at different sections. comparison of a theoretical and a finite element based approach for finding the load redistribution in a bridge The research is done only on linear stage of structure. deck. As after cracking the load redistribution occurs again, a further detailed analysis can be done in non-linear An existing bridge located in the Kruithuisweg near TU stage as an extension to this research. Delft is investigated. The equivalent load and reaction forces on the girders are calculated by the theoretical as well as by the FEA (finite element approach). The shear stresses in the longitudinal girders under the heaviest lane are calculated. Euro code load specifications are used for the analysis. The critical shear stress on a critical section is found by changing the position of the wheel loads along the longitudinal axis of the bridge. A comparison is made with actual field practice for calculating the critical shear stress for girders.

Student: Bilal Ahmad Committee: Prof. dr. ir. J. C. Walraven (TU Delft), Dr. ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom (TU Delft), Ir. J.A. den Uijl(TU Delft), Ir. L.J.M. Houben(TU Delft)

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

12 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Impact of initial investment on repair and maintenance strategy

In the last few years the importance of the aspect durability in the design of a concrete structure has increased. Before that the construction was designed due to a deemed-to-satisfy approach. In this approach the designer determines the so-called environmental class, based on the location, use and environmental factors. This environmental class prescribes what the maximum w/b factor, minimum cover and the maximum crack should be. These requirements are implemented in the design and the concrete mix is composed based on that. This deemed-to-satisfy approach is quit simple but has the side effect that there is no distinction in the type of cement, no relation between the cover and the density of concrete, no base in judging the variation of the cover and there is no economical optimization.

This master thesis is about modelling the integral costs and counteracting these side effects due to the following approach: •• Modelling chloride induced corrosion by using a Monte Carlo Simulation; •• Composing an inventory about inspection- and repair costs; •• Modelling a Nett constant value model, counterac- tion the interest and inflation; •• Economical optimization between the concrete cover and the chloride induced corrosion. As a result several ways were found in minimizing the costs, but only one relation was found which determines the economical optimum. Pushing the concrete repair outside the design lifetime is the most cost efficient and therefore initial investment has a large impact on the repair and maintenance strategy.

Student: M.E. Becht Committee: Prof.dr.ir. J.C. Walraven, Prof.ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst (BAM), Dr. ir.E.A.B. Koenders, Ir. J Bouwmeester (BAM)

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

13 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Achieving neutral stresses in renewed railway switches and crossings

VolkerRail in combination with Corus and Vossloh Based on the results of the numerical simulations the (VCV) has developed a full modular working method to following working sequence for stressing is proposed: reduce the time needed to renew a switch and crossing (S&C) unit from the current standard of 48 hours to •• The S&C Unit is to be installed at its final location a maximum period of 8 hours. This new installation before any other track is welded to the S&C unit. method requires a different approach to stress the S&C •• The S&C unit has to be installed at the SFT of 27°C unit and the adjacent plain line to obtain no stress at and kept at this temperature using heating blan- the Stress Free Temperature (SFT). During the Master kets until the closure welds have been made. Thesis project a working sequence is developed to •• The existing track needs to be un-clipped over achieve a stress free temperature in a renewed S&C a length of 90m from the location of the closure unit and the plain line, satisfying these requirements in weld. a worst case scenario (ΔT = 30°C, S&C unit type C11, •• The new plain line that needs to be installed on rail type UIC54, sleeper spacing 0.6 m). either end of the S&C unit is installed in panels of 18-19 m. Tests were performed to determine the longitudinal •• The new panels need to be unclipped prior to the resistance between the sleepers and the ballast. This welding to the S&C unit. is done for the situation with top ballast and without •• After welding the panels to the S&C unit they need top ballast. The results of these tests have been used to be heated using a heating wagon. Behind the to validate a model of the S&C unit made in the finale heating wagon the rails have to be clipped. element program Longstab. •• The plain line has to be heated extra to compensa- te for the extra length needed to stress the unclip- With the model different situations were tested to ped 90 m of existing track. determine the best working sequence for stressing •• All welds to be made with a Flash Butt Welder to of the plain line. Within the requirements set by the reduce the time required for the welding. full modular working method the test results from the model show it to be impossible to stress the plain line Top ballast needs to be installed in the S&C unit after by pulling, as the longitudinal ballast resistance is not welding the panels to the S&C unit and making the sufficient. closure weld. ­

Student: S. Boogaerdt Supervisors: Prof.dr.ir. A.A.A. Molenaar, Dr.ir. V.L. Markine, Ir. L.J.M. Houben, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, J.P.T. van Eck (VolkerRail)

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

14 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

The ultimate load carrying capacity of laterally restrained concrete decks

The unforeseen increase in traffic intensity and the The phenomenon of compressive membrane action existence of heavy trucks loads using fewer axles may has been investigated by many researchers. Many be a threat to the bearing capacity of existing bridge of these researchers have based their theoretical structures. Therefore there is need of a reliable method formulations on plasticity theories. Plasticity theories for predicting the ultimate capacity of reinforced tend to be more complex , their analysis require alot concrete slabs subjected to loads. Currently Bridges in of assumptions and simplifications. The strength and the Netherlands are designed according to the Dutch load predictions of the reinforced concrete behaviour standard which is based on flexural theory or punching made under such theories tend to be less accurate. shear theories that neglect the strength enhancing Researchers such as Kirkpatrick, Rankin, and Long, effect of arching called compressive membrane action 16have tried to use simplified method that are based on (CMA). These conventional elastic and plastic flexural McDowell et al21. methods, which are normally used, generally result in designs that tend to be over conservative. In order to investigate how much the compressive membrane action contributes to the load carrying This report seeks to explain an engineering model capacity of slabs which are laterally restrained, a that can predict the ultimate load carrying capacity theoretical model according to according to McDowell of the slabs that are laterally restrained. In laterally et al21 whose prediction of the arching action does not restrained slabs a phenomenon called compressive rely on knowledge of the slab’s critical deflection at membrane action (CMA) exists whenever the slab is failure is proposed. loaded out of plane. This phenomenon enhances the load carrying capacity of the slabs. This model is used to predict the flexural and punching shear capacities of slabs with laterally restrained edges.

To validate the accuracy of the model results predicted by the theoretical model are compared with the results from tests, the Dutch code and the non linear finite element analysis. The theoretical model predicts results close to test results.

Student: Godfrey Chamululu Committee: Prof. dr. ir. J. C. Walraven, Dr. ir. C. van der Veen, Dr.ir. C.R. Braam, Dr. ir. P. C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir Joop den Uijl, Ir. L. J. M. Houben.

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

15 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Building acoustic aspects of IFD-units, Research to the nowadays quality and possibilities for improvement

The National Vrom-survey, performed in 2005, shows Dutch standard NEN 1070. The measurements show that noise hindrance is an important topic on the list a relatively high vertical sound insulation which of most important subjects in the social environment. meets the highest quality from NEN 1070. The main To create a legal framework for noise, the law on causes for the high performance are the dual cavity “noise hindrance” was implemented in the Netherlands structure because of the use of individual building in 1979. This law is associated with a package of units and the limited connections between the units. measures to limit hindrance. The horizontal airborne sound transmission is low in The most common method for improving the acoustic comparison with the vertical airborne sound insulation. quality in light structures is with the application of A first improvement of the horizontal airborne sound cavities. The lack of knowledge and relatively difficult insulation can be achieved by preventing the leakage to calculate sound insulation values of cavity structures of sound. After the elimination of sound leaks the causes an not justified view in the building industry sound insulation can be improved by decoupling the that good sound insulation is not possible in light cavity sheets, increasing the cavity width or by adding structures. This view is based on the thought that in mass. The effect of disconnecting the cavity sheets is general the acoustic performances of light structures reinforced by the decoupling of the floors between the are lower than those of massive structures. different units. In this study the focus is on IFD constructions. These A calculation model was developed to improve the constructions are industrial, flexible and demountable. acoustic design of cavity structures in IFD structures. The majority of this type of structures is build with re- In this calculation model the sound insulation of cavity usable steel units. The study consists of three parts: structures including linear couplings can be calculated.

Part 1: Literature study Part 3: Feasibility study improve façade sound The literature study shows that a clear and insulation complete overview of the acoustic performance of Part 3 of the research consists of a feasibility study on light structures is unavailable. In the field of IFD the acoustic and thermal improvement of the closed construction there is no acoustic information. An elements of the façade of “De Meeuw Oirschot BV”. The overview of the literature about building acoustics of feasibility study is started with an investigation into the light structures is given. possibilities for improving the façade sound insulation. For the calculation of sound insulation of cavity The theory and the calculation model from the previous structures there are a limited number of software investigation were used. The investigation suggests programs available. In each of the programs the that decoupling the cavity plates, with rubber material, starting point is an existing structure. There are no is the best solution to satisfy the needs of this specific programs for the acoustic design of cavity structures. project. The façade element with the rubber decoupling was studied on feasibility. In this study there is a Part 2: Sound transmission within IFD structures focus on the constructive feasibility. This shows that Part 2 is a study into the sound transmission within it is not possible to satisfy the structural safety with an IFD building. To create a view of the existing the constructive use of the rubber elements. To reach performance some measurements were done in sufficient structural strength 2 options were worked a model office of IFD dealer “De Meeuw Oirschot out. The first option is based on separated columns, BV”. In the model office the vertical and horizontal where the structure on the outside of the building airborne sound insulation and the vertical impact supports the wind load. The cavity plate on the inside sound insulation were measured. The test results of the building is carried with separated columns. The were analyzed using the theory from literature and second option is based on a constructive coupling of compared with several benchmarks, including the the inside en outside columns through bolts.

Student: A.M.J. Hietland Supervisors: Prof.ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard, Prof.dipl.-ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Ir. R. Abspoel, Ir. A.C. van der Linden, M. Roel (Mobius Consult), Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

16 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Numerical analysis of load-carrying capacity of thin-webbed post-tensionde T-beam using ATENA

The problem related to the assessment of residual The results of the comparative studies can then be capacity and the safety of existing bridges has brought used as the best numerical strategy: the ‘constant’ challenges to numerical technique. The challenge modeling parameters for the general use of structural is to optimize its advantages over the experimental type in question. Those modeling parameters are: analysis which is predominantly used. Even though •• Mesh size of eight elements over its web height experimental analysis is a direct way to obtain the •• Fixed crack model with variable shear retention results, it has limited scope because of the relatively factor small number of test which can be carried out within •• 2D Concrete material model which based on the the limited resources and time. It is also certainly much concept of smeared cracks, damage and fracture more expensive. mechanics (in ATENA, known as Sbeta Model) By far, at the present, the most popular numerical •• Bond-slip model of CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 technique for analyzing structures is finite element •• Reinforcement material model of elastic-perfectly method. Despite the advance capability and high plastic accuracy offered by the finite element package, it still Not only 2D modeling, 3D modeling, which is a useful has not met with the widespread success in the case of extension in studying more detailed aspects, is also concrete structures. The classical problem is the lack developed in this thesis. Through the results obtained, of consistency in results between various structures. A we can learn that in the case of thin-webbed post- successful numerical model for a structural form, will tensioned T-beam modeling, 2D modeling is sufficient not automatically guarantee the same success for other in the sense of simplicity, efficiency and accuracy. The types of structure. This is a reason why tailoring is 3D analysis can be done afterwards if more complex needed: in order to minimize the possible errors. and detailed information is needed. Based on those issues, this thesis tries to encourage All of the analyses performed in this report also and to explore the possibility of the use of finite show that ATENA can be used with confidence in the element package ATENA in supporting and extending numerical analysis to comprehensively predict the the experimental investigation. This thesis is a test capacity and load-carrying mechanism of thin-webbed case and preliminary study to tailor the use of ATENA post-tensioned T-beam with shear compression failure. for thin-webbed post-tensioned T-beam structure. In this thesis, comparative studies of modeling parameters that are considered to be sensible and to affect the results are performed as the main process of tailoring ATENA. The studies are mainly developed in the course of 2D modeling.

Student: Enny Kurniawati Committee: Prof. dr. ir. J.C. Walraven, Ir. J.A. den Uijl, Dr. ir. M.A.N Hendriks and Ir. L.J.M Houben (Delft University of Technology)

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

17 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

The durable hybrid bridge The use of fibre-reinforced-plastics in concrete bridges

Nowadays there are problems with the durability The FRP trough girder is the most innovative variant of concrete bridges due to corrosion of the steel and is chosen for further research. The technical reinforcement of the bridges. The corrosion of the feasibility of the bridge design is calculated by hand reinforcement reduces the strength and stiffness of and checked by a computer model of the design in Scia the construction and it makes the bridges look less Engineer. The computer model is also used to check the aesthetic. strength of some important details of the design.

By the use of reinforcement made of fibre-reinforced- The construction aspects of the design are important plastics (FRP) as an alternative of the reinforcement for its feasibility. The design of the mould for the steel, these problems can be solved. There will be no production of the FRP girder is made of polystyrene. corrosion so the durability is guaranteed. Also profiles This polystyrene can also be used as lost formwork op FRP can be used in collaboration with a concrete when the concrete compressive layer is cast at the site. layer. This solution leads to a durable hybrid bridge. The costs of the durable hybrid bridge are competitive This thesis contains a feasibility study of a design of when the whole Life Cycle Analyse is performed. The a concrete bridge without steel reinforcement. The bridge will be costs competitive due to a high score at objective is to investigate which structural design the use of natural resources, foundation, maintenance, of a concrete traffic bridge is the best option (costs, recycling and CO2-emission. durability, aesthetics) for the use of FRP instead of reinforcement steel. Several variants are studied and The conclusion of the feasibility thesis is that the two variants were chosen as the best options. These design of the FRP trough girder with concrete are the solid concrete slab with FRP reinforcement and compressive layer is technically and economically the FRP trough girder with an concrete compressive possible and will lead to an innovative, aesthetic and layer. above all durable design of a concrete traffic bridge.

The FRP through girder with concrete compressive layer

Exploded view of the durable hybrid bridge

Student: A.J. Langedijk Committee: Prof. dr. ir. J.C. Walraven (TU Delft), Dr. ir. C. van der Veen (TU Delft), Dr. ing. M.H. Kolstein (TU Delft), Ing. F.J. van der Vaart (Municipality Utrecht), Ir. L.J.M. Houben (TU Delft)

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

18 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Maximum possible diameter of the Great Dubai Wheel

In December 2007 Royal Haskoning has won an In the first part the limitations of the current design international design competition organized by the have been analyzed. This made clear that the proposed Great Wheel Corporation in which they ask for a design wasn’t feasible; the main problem was the lack concept master plan for a unique hotel. The design of effectiveness of the used material. In the second of Royal Haskoning featured a 185m tall Ferris wheel part of the Master thesis some proposed solutions have in which the hotel was situated. The main difference been investigated, and in the third and final part of the between a classic Ferris wheel and the design of Royal Master thesis the improved design has been analyzed Haskoning is that the design of Royal Haskoning hasn’t and the maximum diameter of the Great Dubai Wheel got spokes. More and more Ferris wheels are build all has been stated. over the world as landmarks, up until the design of Royal Haskoning the focus was on building taller and Throughout the project parametric design has been taller, in Beijing a Ferris wheel of 208m is currently used as a very useful tool. Because the intention of the being realized. This raised the question why is the project was to find the maximum possible diameter Great Dubai wheel only planned at 185m, and even of the Great Dubai Wheel, the structural model had more importantly: “What is the maximum possible to be changed continuously. Via a spreadsheet the diameter of the Great Dubai Wheel?” complete input-file for the structural analysis program was written, this made it possible to quickly change the In this Master thesis the maximum possible diameter model and to determine if the proposed solutions were of the Great Dubai Wheel has been investigated. To be actually effective or not, and also to easily derive the able to state the maximum diameter of the Great Dubai maximum diameter of the Great Dubai Wheel. Wheel the Master thesis can be broken down in three parts. The conclusion is that the improved design of the Great 1 Limitations of the current design; Dubai Wheel has got a maximum possible diameter of 2 Possible improvements to the design; about 210m. 3 Maximum possible diameter of the improved design;

Student: Wout Luites Committee: Prof.dipl.-ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Dr. ing. A. Romeijn, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir. D.P. Snijders (Corsmit B.V.), Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2783174

19 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Dynamic nonlinear finite element analysis of structures subjected to explosions

The main subject of this thesis is to study the non-linear static and dynamic characteristics of a structure subjected to explosions and to explore the characteristics of the Dynamic Magnification Factor (DMF) for non-linear structural systems, by means of the FE-software package (TNO-DIANA).

An explosion is a quite complex physical and chemical phenomenon. It can produce a series of high-speed ruinous fluid. Process plants in the petrochemical industry handle hydrocarbons and other fuels that can and have produced accidental explosions. Plants are designed to minimize the occurrence of such incidents. Although such incidents may be relatively rare, when On March 23, 2005, an explosion occurred in the BP they do occur, the consequences can be extremely Texas Refinery severe involving personnel casualty, financial loss and potential impact on public safety. According to the conclusions of this thesis, the DMF of Currently, there exist a number of methods about blast a non-linear structural system is certainly affected by resistance design. In this report, the study focuses peak overpressure and duration of blast loads, shown on the most accurate method of all, Finite Element in the right chart. A non-linear dynamic FE-analysis is Analysis. As we know, for linear elastic structural a feasible approach for analyzing a reinforced concrete system, a design factor called Dynamic Magnification structure subjected to explosion. The analysis process Factor (DMF) is used for the estimation of the needs some time costs but the more accurate modeling corresponding dynamic responses by linear static might save much more building costs. analysis.

Student: Shen Ma Committee: Prof.ir. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder, Ir. B.J. van Geijtenbeek (Fluor BV), Dr.ir.drs. C.R. Braam, Dr.ir. M.A.N. Hendriks, Dr.ir. J. Weerheijm, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2788275

20 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Development of a mix design method in the laboratory for mixes with Recycled Asphalt Pavement in the drum mix facility

Economic and environmental considerations have prompted the recycling of materials. Starting from the early 1970s, the use of recycled asphalt is ever increasing. A reclaimed asphalt pavement, commonly called RAP, is an old asphalt pavement that is milled up from a road. This material can be reused in new asphalt mixtures because the components of the mix­ – the asphalt binder and aggregate - still have value. Using RAP in new mixtures can reduce the amount of new material that has to be added, and can save money and natural resources. In addition, HMA mixtures with RAP can perform as well as HMA made with all new material.

Handling of RAP during the production process influences the mixture performance. In developing a mix design method, it is crucial that the laboratory The measured performance properties of the mixes mix design process simulates the actual industrial included stiffness, indirect tensile strength, resistance production process, in order to predict as close as to permanent deformation and moisture sensitivity. possible the field performance of plant produced mixes From the test results it can be concluded that the with laboratory made mixes. mixing method in the laboratory has a considerable influence on the mix properties. The standard mixing The objective of this study was to develop a laboratory method results in higher stiffness values and less mix design procedure for hot mix asphalt (HMA) permanent deformation compared to the other two containing a high recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) applied mixing methods, which can be very important content, specifically manufactured in a double barrel with respect to CE marking. However, more research is asphalt plant. Three mixing method processes were needed to confirm the trends also in practice. compared during the study. The standard method represents the mixing process in a traditional asphalt plant. The two other methods represent the mixing process when using high amounts of RAP: the one method simulates the standard parallel drum system, and the other one is simulating the double barrel system. For these three mixing methods a Dutch specification asphalt base course mix with 40% and 50% RAP content was used.

Student: Girum Mengiste Merine Committee: Prof.dr.ir. A.A.A. Molenaar, Ir. M.F.C. van de Ven, Dr.ir. A.L.A. Fraaij, Ing. E.R.J. van der Lee (Gebr. Van der Lee VOF), Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

21 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Maintenance strategies for the TANZAM highway in Tanzania

Road Infrastructure contributes significant to the economic growth of a nation and poverty reduction. However, like many other assets, roads do deteriorate with time and thus need to be maintained. Roads deteriorate due to the effect of environment and traffic loading. In many low income developing countries there is a competing demand for very limited available resources. In order to have scientific criteria for the most economic utilization of the little resources available, an economic evaluation of different maintenance investment strategies becomes a necessity.

This research is based on a case study on the TANZAM highway in Tanzania. The TANZAM highway links the capital and harbour city of Dar es Salaam to the inland and to neighbouring landlocked countries such as Zambia and DRC Congo. It is the most relevant and On one road section extreme structural damage was most heavily loaded road in the country that is mainly observed. For this section, through linear-elastic used by (overloaded) trucks. The road has an asphalt multilayer calculations different maintenance measures pavement. were analysed taking into account the estimated real truck axle loads, the climatic conditions and the The project concerns the investigation of the estimated deteriorated structural condition of the current condition of the pavement and the analysis various pavement layers. The required asphalt overlay of various maintenance strategies using different and the required asphalt pavement structure, in case of methods. During a site visit the structural condition a complete reconstruction, have been determined. of the pavement on a 184 km long road stretch was investigated through a visual condition survey. Based on this survey the road stretch was subdivided into 5 homogeneous sections. The Highway and Development Model (HDM-4) was used to find for each section the optimal maintenance strategy, for a period of 20 years, from an economic point of view, i.e. the lowest total costs (maintenance costs and road user costs). Through sensitivity analyses the effect of the truck axle loads and the discount rate on the optimal maintenance strategy was studied.

Student: A.K. Mwinchande Committee: Prof.dr.ir. A.A.A. Molenaar, Ir. L.J.M. Houben, Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2784578

22 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite Tailoring through 3D Lattice Fracture Simulations

Concrete is currently the most used man-made In addition, the facts in the field show that many material in the world. Even if the consumptions of all infrastructure problems and failures can be traced back other materials are combined, the amount of concrete to the cracking and brittle nature of concrete. It is no consumed is still twice larger. As per 2008, about 2.5 wonder that significant research efforts have gone into billion metric tons are produced each year, equal to 369 attempts to enhance the ductility of concrete materials. kg for every person on earth. No other material except Current research shows that the most effective way water is consumed in such remarkable amounts. of enhancing concrete ductility is by adding fibers. The research advances in this field yield a class of As structural material, concrete actually is less strong ultra ductile fiber reinforced cementitious composites compared to other materials such as steel. Perhaps one called ECC (Engineered Cementitious Composites). will wonder why concrete is widely spread in structural Occasionally, these materials exhibit an extremely high applications. There are at least three main reasons. strain capacity of more than 6% and a distributed crack First, it has an excellent resistance to water. Second, it pattern with fine cracks under imposed deformation can be formed into various shapes and sizes. And last loading. These material behaviors are achieved but not least, it is usually the cheapest and the most through microstructures tailoring including matrix, readily available material. fiber, and interface parameter.

Besides the advantages mentioned above, concrete The main objective of this thesis was to develop a also has several shortcomings. One of them is its brittle procedure/tool to design ductile fiber concrete with the nature. This brittle property can significantly limit the 3D Lattice Fracture Model. applicability of the material in structural applications. According to the conclusion of this thesis, 3D Lattice Fracture Model is quite effective and efficient in simulating the ductile behavior of concrete specimens under Single Fiber Pull-out tests and Uni-axial tensile tests.

Load – displacement curve

Bridge collapse in Minneapolis,August 1, 1997

Student: Herry Prabowo Committee: Prof.dr.ir. K. van Breugel, Dr.ir. H.J.E.G. Schlangen, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir. Z. Qian, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2783174

23 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Stability design for frame type structures

In current practise, stability calculations are often For the numerical analyses, the computer program made by linear computer analyses and code checks. Matrix Frame has been used. The shape deviations Next to this, computer programs are available that do are inserted by using small (straight) elements with non-linear analyses. These programs can also calculate small initial displacements. The residual stresses are the ultimate load for stability failure, however, the inserted by dividing all section properties in two and results appear to be much too high. The reason is that making two non-linear ultimate load calculations. One residual stresses and shape deviations are neglected in with a small yield stress and one with a large yield the structural models. stress. The summation of these results is an accurate approximation of the bearing capacity. The buckling load of structures and structural members strongly depends on residual stresses and shape The residual stresses and the shape deviations that deviations. In this MSc thesis research has been done are used in the calculations are equal to or larger than into the influence of residual stresses and shape required in the Dutch code of practice. It was shown deviations. Four types of structures are analysed. that both the analytical and numerical bearing capacity These structures are: a single column, a unbraced agree well with the bearing capacity according to the portal frame, a braced portal frame and a braced Dutch code of practise. An exception is the unbraced extended frame. portal frame for which the code predicts somewhat less bearing capacity than the analytical and numerical Every structural type has been analyzed both analyses. analytically and numerically. Performing non-linear analyses, based on equilibrium between internal and The main conclusion is that realistic residual stresses external bending moments, several formulas are found and shape deviations can be added to both analytical to calculate the additional deflection. The number of models and numerical models. The resulting bearing formulas depends on the residual stress distribution capacity agrees well with traditional code calculations. and on the number of elements. A rectangular residual stress distribution was assumed and one element was analysed. The results are formulas for the additional deflection, the internal moment distribution, the internal stresses and the bearing capacity.

Student: R.P. Veerman Committee: Prof.ir. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder, Prof.ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

For further information, please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel. nr: (+31) (0)15 2788275

24 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

Hybrid concrete elements in a marine environment “Combining ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete and normal strength concrete”

Combining Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforce The application of the hybrid concept to the Concrete (UHPFRC) and Normal Strength Concrete jetty structure makes it possible to create lighter (NSC) in a hybrid element offers great opportunities prefabricated sections during the construction phase. for marine structures. The low permeability of This reduction in dead load makes it possible to reduce UHPFRC prevents the ingress of chlorides from the the auxiliary counterweight of the crane during the seawater and thereby increases the durability of these execution process, which increases the erection speed concrete structures extensively. Furthermore, the high of the project. mechanical strength improves its structural behavior in both bending and shear and makes it possible to Although promising results are obtained, the reduction control the formation of cracks. of the total costs is limited since the steel pile foundation is the greatest expense for a jetty structure. The main objective of this study is to prove the Still the hybrid concept increases the durability and feasibility of the hybrid concept in a marine structure. thereby the structure’s life time. It is expected that Therefore both the structural behavior and the possible the real advantage of the hybrid concept is received economical advantages have been investigated. during the structure’s life cycle. The presence of UHPFRC in the outer fibers reduces or even eliminates Theoretical research has been performed to possible structural maintenance. In the end it can be determine the behavior of UHPFRC in both tension concluded that applying the hybrid concept to other and compression. Since the tensile behavior strongly types of marine structures could lead to an even higher depends on the ‘fiber efficiency’, a model has been enhancement. introduced which approaches the real behavior. This gives the opportunity to make design calculations when no experimental results are available.

The advantages of the hybrid concept are illustrated by a case study on a jetty structure. Design calculations Jetty in both the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Serviceability Limit State (SLS) are made. Since UHPFRC has an extended post-cracking behavior, it generates a great contribution to the bending capacity of the cross section. The higher stiffness of UHPFRC relative to the NSC of the structure leads to a ‘jump’ in the normal stresses. This introduces higher shear stresses at the interface. To prove the combined action between the UHPFRC and the NSC layer, a two-layer model has been introduced. Effects of chloride ingress

Influence of the fiber orientation on the tensile strength

Hybrid concept (high performance outer shell, normal performance core) Student: N. Waterman Committee: Prof.dr.ir. J.C. Walraven (TU Delft), Prof.ir.A.Q.C. van der Horst (TU Delft/BAM Infraconsult), Dr.ir.drs. C.R. Braam (TU Delft), Mw.ir. W.J. Bouwmeester-van-den-Bos (TU Delft/BAM Infraconsult), Ir. L.J.M. Houben (TU Delft)

For further information please contact the section of Structural and Building Engineering, tel nr: (015) 2784578

25 | Master’s Theses October 2009 1 Structural Engineering

26 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2.

Civil Engineering Theses Building Engineering 2 Building Engineering

The appreciation of the thermal indoor environment in practice

Introduction Results The quality of the thermal indoor environment is a The idea of the checkingmethod is that a measurement very important criterion for the appreciation of the in practice gives you a little piece of information about overall quality of a building. A thermal calculation of the room including it’s usage during the measurement the building is made during a good process designing and the response of the room to the weather. This a building, so that for instance you know the number information needs to be extended from a short period of times that the indoor temperature exceeds the of measuring to a whole year. The way of extending maximum allowable temperature. The quality of the and the steps that need to be taken to make a indoor thermal environment is not easy measurable prediction of the indoor temperature are shown below. in practice. It is not possible for the owner of the building to check if the thermal quality of the indoor •• Step 1: measure the hourly operative indoor tem- environment meets the agreed quality. perature and the hourly outdoor temperature; •• Step 2: determine the connection between the Objective of the master thesis operative indoor temperature and the outdoor tem- The objective of the master thesis is to develop a perature through a linear regression analysis; method so that you can check the quality of the •• Step 3: determine the amount of times that the thermal indoor environment in practice by doing a indoor temperature exceeds the maximum indoor short time of measurements in practice. The quality temperature, using the developed calculation me- of the thermal indoor environment can be checked in thod with the climate year 1964. various rooms inside a building using the commonly used climateyear 1964. Conclusion and recommendation It is possible to check the quality of the thermal indoor This method can be used in practice for checking the environment of Alpha-buildings using the developed quality of the thermal environment in buildings that checkingmethod. However it still is hard to predict the have just been finished. It can also be used in buildings amount of confidence and the accuracy of the results. where the users are complaining about the quality of A follow-up is necessary to determine the amount of the thermal environment. confidence and the accuracy of the results.

Research Simulation calculations have been used for the analysis of several rooms and the development of the checkingmethod in this master thesis. The checkingmethod for the quality of the thermal indoor environment has been developed with the knowledge of analysis of the weather and analysis of the sensitivity of the indoor temperature for changes of building parameters.

Student: Dennis Faas Committee: prof. dipl. ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, ir. A.C. van der Linden, ing. S.R. Kurvers, ir. E.R. van der Ham, ir. W. Plokker (Vabi Software B.V.)

For more information please contact the section Building Engineering, tel. +31 (0)15 2783990

28 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

Sustainability, Flexibility and Costs of High-rise

Introduction the best construction system is the concrete tube. Nowadays sustainability is a big issue. For buildings There is found that concrete is more sustainable the concentration is most of the time on the energy than steel. The used method for this is based on consumption instead of the sustainability of the the environmental costs. Because of the bigger building itself (materials). The building sustainability is material consumption of concrete what results in not only influenced by the environmental weight of the exhaustion and landscape degradation a change in the materials. Also the lifespan of the building influences environmental cost can be expected in the future. And the sustainability. A longer lifespan can be engaged by at a certain point the best construction system will be the possibility of switching the building function and by the steel outrigger instead of the concrete tube. having much freedom in the floor plan. Traditional vs best system The aim of this Master Thesis is to give an judgment The traditional system can be described as a core with about the best construction system for high rise massive concrete floor. The best system can be seen as building. Besides this the best floor system to provide the concrete tube with infra+ floor. Comparing these a switch in building function is searched for. These two systems the traditional system is cheaper and results are combined and compared with the system more sustainable. But it has a lack on flexibility. What that is used nowadays. can result in more costs for the maintenance or lower rents when the building not fits the market demands. Switch of building functions Initially the best system is 67,50 €/m2 more expensive The point supported massive concrete floor, which but because of the lack of flexibility this cost difference can be seen as the typical floor for the function living. will decrease over time. Another advantage of the best Has as disadvantage that switching functions is not system is the possibility of switching the function to possible. In this part of the thesis six floor, for which another market when the initial market shrinks. a function switch is possible, are compared. The “channel plate” as well as the “infra+ floor” have good Conclusion results. Unless the “channel plate” is more sustainable The conclusion of this thesis contains three statements but because of the costs and flexibility the “infra+ of a broader sense: floor” is in favor. •• Sustainability is more than the environmental costs By comparing this floor with the massive concrete of materials floor the costs and height for flexibility can be found. •• Flexibility is sustainability Depending the function and span of the floor the •• The traditional building system is wrong additional costs for the “infra+ floor” are 83-102 €/m2 and the additional height is 110 mm or 170 mm.

Construction system In this part the core, outrigger and tube are overviewed with a fixed floor plan and a varying height of 70,4m, 96, and 134,4m. In this overview achievement in steel and concrete are included. The best concrete construction system is the tube and the best steel construction system is the outrigger. From both materials steel gives more freedom in the floor plan. The sustainability of concrete is much better and the construction costs for concrete are lower. So overall

Student: Ing. S.C.B.L.M. van Hellenberg Hubar Committee: Prof. dipl. Ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Ir. S. Pasterkamp, Prof. dr. ir. A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen, Ir. P. Peters (IMd raadgevende ingenieurs)

For more information please contact the section Building Engineering, tel. +31 (0)15 2783990

29 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

The extent to which the EMVI instrument has contributed to the achievements of the business objectives of Rijkwaterstaat

De traditionele manier van aanbesteding waarbij gebruik onderzoek is er bij de afdeling InkoopManagement GWW wordt gemaakt van het gunningscriterium ‘laagste prijs’ (IMG) bij Rijkswaterstaat een kwalitatieve evaluatie zorgt voor een aantal nadelen. De oplossingen geleverd gedaan naar de mate waarin de gunningsmethode EMVI door aanbieders zijn op deze manier van aanbesteden meerwaarde levert voor wat betreft het realiseren van weliswaar vaak scherp geprijsd is maar hierdoor ook de vier beleidsaspecten van RWS. Hiermee vormt dit kwaliteitief minder. Aanbieders die echter wel bereid onderzoek tevens een nulmeting naar het gebruik van zijn om betere kwaliteit te leveren krijgen vaak de het gunningscriterium EMVI binnen RWS. opdracht niet gegund omdat zij hierdoor niet meer de laagste inschrijvingsprijs hebben. Er wordt met dit Vanuit een literatuuronderzoek en gebruikmakend gunningscriterium dus gekozen voor de goedkoopste van een drietal aanbestedingen is een evaluatiemodel oplossing in plaats van de beste. Het enige alternatief opgesteld. Met dit model zijn alle EMVI-aanbestedingen, voor gunnen op laagste prijs is het gunningscriterium die door RWS in 2008 zijn gedaan, geëvalueerd. Om de ‘economisch meest voordelige inschrijving’, afgekort verschillende EMVI-criteria te beoordelen zijn ze eerst EMVI, zoals staat beschreven in de Europese Richtlijnen ondergebracht door een expertteam in een van de vier (2004/18/EG art. 53 sub. 1). beleidsaspecten. Criteria die nergens bij pasten zijn ondergebracht bij een vijfde aspect, genaamd project Bij het gunningscriterium ‘laagste prijs’ wordt er specifiek. Tijdens de analyse is als eerste gekeken gestuurd op prijs. Bij het gunningscriterium EMVI naar de uitvraag. Uit de analyse kwam naar voren dat wordt er daarnaast ook gestuurd op meerwaarde. De gemiddeld gezien het prijsvolume voor 68% mee telt in meerwaarde wordt vertaald in EMVI-criteria waarop de de uitvragen en de monetaire meerwaarde voor 32%. inschrijvers worden beoordeeld. Voor de beoordeling Die 32% meerwaarde is weer verder verdeeld over de van de verschillende inschrijvingen bestaat een aantal vier beleidsaspecten. Vervolgens is gekeken naar de methodes. Vier bekende voorbeelden daarvan zijn: aanbiedingen van de aanbieders. De aanbieders zijn •• ratiosysteem, waarbij de totale waarde wordt gedeeld eerst verdeeld over drie groepen: (1) de winnende door de prijs inschrijvers, (2) alle inschrijvers en (3) inschrijvers •• puntensysteem, waarbij zowel de meerwaarde als de met de laagste inschrijving. Hierbij kwam naar voren prijs in punten worden uitgedrukt dat voor de winnaars geldt dat er voor 63% invulling •• ontwerpwedstrijd, waarbij met een vast budget wordt wordt gegeven op de wensen van RWS. De 63% die gekeken naar de aanbieding met de beste prestatie overeenkomt met een bedrag van 93 M€ en is ook weer •• prijscorrectiesysteem, waarbij de monetaire meer- verder verdeeld over de vier beleidsaspecten. Vervolgens waarde van de inschrijvingsprijs wordt afgetrokken. zijn de resultaten van groep 1 (winnaars) naast de Deze laatste wordt voornamelijk toegepast bij Rijks- resultaten van groep 3 gelegd (laagste inschrijvers). waterstaat. Uit het resultaat hiervan kan worden afgeleid dat indien Vanaf de tweede helft van 2005 zijn gegevens altijd voor de laagste inschrijving zou worden gekozen beschikbaar gesteld over de opdrachten die gegund het zou betekenen dat RWS in 2008 3.5 M€ goedkoper zijn op EMVI door RWS. Binnen RWS zijn op uit zou zijn ten koste van 19.6 M€ minder meerwaarde beleidsniveau vier beleidsaspecten opgesteld waar, (minderwaarde). gebruikmakend van het gunningscriterium EMVI, op Tot slot is onderzocht welke aspecten tijdens het gestuurd dient te worden. Deze vier beleidsaspecten aanbestedingsproces nog meer een rol spelen. Daar zijn: publieksgerichtheid, duurzaamheid, veiligheid kwam uit dat bij toename van het aantal inschrijvingen en projectbeheersing. Kennis over de hoeveelheid de mate van invulling geven door de markt ook toeneemt aanbestedingen is bekend bij RWS maar wat echter het en dat bij toename van het aantal EMVI-criteria de mate effect is van het gunningscriterium EMVI niet. Tijdens dit van invulling geven op de wensen van RWS afneemt.

Student: C. Otto Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.A.J. de Ridder (TU Delft), Ir. M. Dreschler (TU Delft), Prof.dr.ir. J.K. Vrijling (TU Delft), Dhr. G. de Jong (RWS)

For more information please contact the section Building Engineering, tel. +31 (0)15 2783990

30 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

The extent to which the EMVI instrument has Living Apartment Concept contributed to the achievements of the business objectives of Rijkwaterstaat

This thesis presents the result of a search for an Thus, in this research it can be concluded that the answer to questions of how best to design a dynamic integration of both living building and sustainability control process for apartment building by using a concepts can assist to develop tools that can support decision support system with which the end-users the end-users in the BC project delivery process. In this (tenants) can make layout of the apartments that suite way, the end-users, without having to become experts them for a changing environment but also sustainable. themselves, can access to the Body of Construction In order to contextualize, substantiate and develop the Knowledge. research, a review of literature on the subject matter of this research was undertaken. The review of the state-of-the-art in the building process was mainly focused on the collaboration among different actors within the BC process. It is followed by the review of literature on the sustainability development to explore and investigate the current practice of sustainable construction within the BC process. The findings from the review of literature on the state-of-the- art and sustainability concept within the BC process were used to develop methodology for integrating LBC principles and sustainability into an apartment building process. This methodology is a dynamic control process model to implement the LBC during the operation phase of building life cycle. Evaluation of the developed process model was carried out by showing how it could be supported by an IT tool to assess its suitability and practicability. The feedback from the evaluation showed that the process model is effective in encouraging some aspects of LBC principles such as the bottom-up design approach and supply-driven project delivery. Similarly, it enables some aspects of sustainability principles such as minimizing resource use and encouraging the use of modular components.

Student: C. Sekanyambo Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.A.J. de Ridder (TU Delft), Dr.ir. S.S. Öszariyildiz (TU Delft), E.B. Tuncer (MSc), Dr.ir. P. Willems (TNO)

For more information please contact the section Building Engineering, tel. +31 (0)15 2783990

31 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

Tool to design masonry double-curved shells

Introduction a linear pattern or a spherical pattern; The design of a double-curved shell is time-consuming, 4 Export the final model. because the shapes are often complex, the architect The initial force network model setup in step 1 has two is very specific in the desired shape and the engineer options: (a) Create a parameter model; has to perform an elaborate analysis. To decrease the (b) Import a model and approximate it with a time and increase the quality of the process of making parameter model. a conceptual design, the communication-process between architect and engineer has to be improved. The interface is designed to be user friendly. At Philippe Block and John Ochsendorf, active at the the top of the interface the four tabs are located, Masonry Research department of the M.I.T., have that represent the four steps. Several layers are proposed a new theory to analyse shells with, the created when the application is used, so that the Thrust Network Analysis (TNA). results are available for all actors that are active In this research an interactive design tool has been in the continuation of the design process. For the developed, with which masonry shells can be rapidly structural engineer the force network model layer is designed and analysed. The new tool uses the of importance, for the architect the surface models TNA theory, which is based on three-dimensional and the contractor might be interested in the masonry equilibrium of force networks. pattern layer. To assure widespread use the tool After designing and analysing the conceptual shape of supports a wide range of export formats, such as: .dxf the shell, it has to be materialised. Following examples (for AutoCAD and 3DMax), .rvb (for Rhinoceros), .mel by Eladio Dieste, whose designs are the inspiration (for Maya) and .rb (for SketchUP). to use brick as building material, the tool is able to generate masonry patterns and takes into account Discussion manufacturability constraints for this material. One of the main goals was to create an interactive tool, Theories with which the architect Thrust Network Analysis: The most relevant theory is and engineer can rapidly the TNA, which makes use of force polygons and the generate a conceptual reciprocal relationship. This analysis performs a check shape for a masonry shell. of the force flow. Stability checks, such as buckling Using the theory of TNA in behaviour and displacements, are not regarded. combination with Catmull Catmull Rom splines: To generate the shell surface, Rom splines has provided the create the masonry pattern and make the application right conditions to design a interactive the theory of Catmull Rom splines has been first prototype for this tool. used. The theory creates curves, using four points To improve the results and the angle of the curve in these points. The curve and increase the range of always passes through these four points. possible shapes to analyse, research should be done The tool into expanding the TNA to It has been created in Processing , an open source make it suitable for tensile programming language and environment. forces and into designing the The new application consists of four main steps: tool to let it form find the 1 Setup of the initial force network model; force network and masonry 2 Analysis and design of the network model; pattern automatically, instead of manually by the user. 3 Generate the masonry pattern, which can either be

Student: T.J. van Swinderen Committee: Prof. dipl.-ing. J.N.J.A. Vamberský, ir. J.W. Welleman, ir. J.L. Coenders and ir. A. Borgart

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32 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

Improvement through insulation: insulation on the interior of existing dwellings

Introduction With the introduction of labels that define the energetic quality of buildings a new stimulus for the insulation of buildings was created. The housing society Stadgenoot in Amsterdam has a large number of dwellings, and part of this has a poor energetic quality. Insulation of these dwellings is a cost-effective measure to increase the energetic quality. Because of limitations towards placement of insulation on the exterior of the buildings or in the cavity of walls, insulation on the interior is the the ecological value of the materials, the difficulty only option remaining. of placement, the thickness of the insulation and the energy savings made. Problem definition Apart from the direct calculation of the ideal situation, Insulation on the interior side of buildings has some situations where defects are present in the insulation distinct problems. First of all the lettable floor area of a and possible improvements are calculated as well. dwelling will decrease. Secondly the placement of the These calculations offer insight in the best practice insulation and in particular the moisture-resistant foil is to avoid problems with high relative humidity in the a difficult and precise work. A third problem is that the structure. In the figure the activity of water on the comfort of dwellings will decrease, because the wall surface of one of the details is given. cannot store sufficient amounts of heat to level out temperature differences during the day. Conclusions and recommendations The fourth problem and the main topic of this research A large number of calculations were performed and are the changes in temperature and humidity that thus a large number of results have been generated. will come forth as a result of the placement of the The main conclusions from this research are: insulation. Due to these changes moisture problems The area around wooden beams that perforate the such as condensation and growth of mould might insulation and are supported by a brick wall should be occur. This research evaluates the risks involved with kept free of insulation for 50 to 100 mm. But a damp different forms of insulation - insulating materials - and barrier should be in place to avoid moisture build-up aims to compare the various forms. around the beam. •• The area between the ceiling of a dwelling and Research the floor above should be insulated as well if the To evaluate various details of different buildings exterior wall is to be insulated and a damp barrier a three dimensional heat, air and moisture model should be placed as well. This means the ceiling in (3D-HAM model) has been developed within COMSOL. most cases has to be removed to make it possible In this model the temperature and humidity were to place the insulation. simulated; from these two values the relative humidity •• The area between a wall and a parallel beam will or - in materials - activity of water is calculated. The be maximum thickness for insulation if a separate activity of water of different materials on different damp barrier is not required. If a damp barrier is locations in the structure is used to estimate the risk of required the insulation may be thicker and sur- moisture problems occurring. The risks are evaluated round the beam. on the chance of high water activity and what effect a •• To avoid moisture problems interior walls con- high water activity has on different materials. nected to an exterior wall should be covered with Next to the activity of water and the risks other factors insulation as well. For brick walls this should be are also included to aid the decision for a particular done for at least 250 mm from the exterior wall, for form of insulation. These factors include the costs, concrete walls this distance is increased to 300 mm.

Student: R.M. Tersteeg Committee: prof. dipl.-ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky (CEG, BE), dr. ir. A.L.A. Fraaij (CEG, M&E), ir. E.R. van den Ham (Arch, BP), A. Verheus (Stadgenoot vastgoedbedrijf bv)

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33 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

A supply-driven approach applied to the Contractor’s organisation “a view on supply chain management for medium-sized con- tractor companies in large scale road construction projects”

Research aim A field research in Ooms Construction’s business has existed Contractors are forced to compete mainly on price and the of 1) interviews within Ooms Construction’s management consequential severe price fighting results in structural low and managers at possible partners and clients in the road profit margins. Contractors however are willing and able to construction market and 2) research in Ooms Construction’s gain competitive advantage through quality against premium product portfolio. A SWOT-analysis showed that strengths of price. A supply-driven approach should give the contractors medium-sized contractors are flexibility and responsiveness the opportunity to do so. In a supply-driven construction of the organisation, experience and skill in collaboration industry, a responsive pull market with a high level of client with partners, weaknesses were the production capacity interference is replaced by a proactive push market with bound to a particular area in the Netherlands, lack of less client interference. From a conceptual perspective, a management capacity and available financial resources. supply-driven construction industry implies that concepts Opportunities lie in distinction from competitors by or designs are less client-specific and more pre-engineered. giving product guarantees, increased attractiveness for Suppliers already have virtually pre-engineered product potential partners and possibility to remain a player in families which can be made client-specific in accordance the relatively large market. The threats encountered are with specific wishes and requirements. The aim of the risk of investment, compatibility of product developments research has been to give a view on the desired business with existing maintenance and operation procedures, organisation for contractors in a supply-driven construction and suppliers that are reluctant to attain a supply-driven industry. The research focus is on the characteristic position strategy and to take increased responsibility. of medium-sized contractor companies with the ambition to be a competitive player in large scale road infrastructure A confrontation of the theoretical framework and the projects. interview outcome has shown that the application of a supply-driven market in large scale road construction is In general theory on supply-driven business a couple desirable on the long run. There are still several major concepts have been investigated, that can be helpful in changes to be made at the client as well as contractor side. tackling the research problem and the peculiarities in Both need substantial investments of money, time and construction. The relevant theory comes together in a effort. The size of medium-sized contractors in relation framework for the supply chain structure for large scale road to the size of the projects in large scale road construction construction project delivery. It describes a hierarchically seems to put them in a 1st tier direct supplier role in the structured supply chain with system and subsystem market. to remain a strong player in the road construction suppliers on multiple tiers. A systems integrator role has market contractor companies should invest in a separate been identified to serve as principal supplier on the various ‘systems integration’ department. From there they will tiers. On every tier the systems integrator is supplied by a probably have the possibility to grow further into the small number of direct suppliers which provide for entire principal supplier role. Now, the contractors and clients in subassemblies rather than component parts. The framework the market should only dare to take the challenge and put enables contractors to develop a delivery process with a their shoulders to the wheel together. multi-project strategy in a stable, repetitive, highly flexible, and cooperative way. The framework elaborates on multiple dimensions of the project delivery process, i.e. supply chain structure, products and production strategies and the associated relationships in the supply chain. Furthermore the framework provides insight in possible strategic positions in the project delivery supply chain.

Student: Martijn Verster Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.A.J. de Ridder (TU Delft), Ir. R. Vrijhoef (TU Delft), Ir. M.W. Ludema (TBM), Ir. I. Oost (Ooms Avenhorn Holding BV)

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34 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

Structural Design of North Side of Breda Central Station

Introduction Result & Conclusion The topology of the Breda CS has the image of the With the results of the final structure from SCIA ESA whole station complex under one single roof. The PT, conclusions can be drawn that the new structure architectural design meets the needs for a public is generally verified effectively and sufficiently. The transport where large open space can be found in most comparison between the new structure and current area. However, the bus terminal on the north side at designed structure shows that, the number of the level 1 has many columns and low ceiling height. This columns on the bus terminal has been reduced by 70%, master’s thesis aims to reduce the rows of columns on and the structural area has been reduced by 75%. In the bus terminal and creative more open space for the addition, despite the offices with truss structure is 40% public in a structural way. The north side of Breda CS heavier, the weight of the whole structure has been has the dimension of 180m long, 27.5m wide and 23m saved to 1/3 of the current one by using steel instead high. of concrete.

Research Process In conclusion, the new design reduces the number Several widely used structural stabilizing systems of the columns on the bus terminal and creates more and floor systems in the Netherlands for multi-storey open space for the public successfully. And the more buildings have been firstly studied. flexible space makes it possible for future renovation. With the PoR and the goal of this thesis, 5 structural Moreover, getting rid of the deep concrete beams by alternatives have been designed for the north side of steel structure also reduces the ceiling height at bus Breda CS. The results of selection comes out that the level. truss structure is the most suitable structural concept to design. The slim floor system had been selected and the pattern of the truss was determined by the pattern optimization and unit check. On the bus terminal the tree column structure was designed to save more columns besides supporting the above trusses. The geometry of the tree column structure was determined by form finding to an optimal. Frame structure was chosen for the underground due to its functional requirements.

Student: Yirui Yao Committee: Prof.Dipl.-Ing. J.N.J.A. Vamberský, Ir. R. Hopstaken (DHV), Ir. S. Pasterkamp, Ir. H. Mihl (Faculty of Architecture)

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35 | Master’s Theses October 2009 2 Building Engineering

36 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3.

Civil Engineering Theses Hydraulic & Geo Engineering 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Non-hydrostatic modelling of waves in layered fluids

In several test cases the model has been validated. In a closed basin test the dispersion relation is shown to follow the linear dispersion relation for internal and external waves almost exactly when two layers are used. The model is also tested against analytical models with regard to dissipation of the waves by a viscous lower layer (mud) and showed comparable results.

The model however performed less well for highly advective processes with large gradients such as the sex-change test. Considering differences in flow velocity between the layers, the stability of the model was substantially lower than according to linear theory. The limit for this new model has been found to depend Layered fluids occur at numerous places in nature on the thickness of one layer only in stead of the total where two fluids of different density are involved and depth. mixing is limited. The two fluids flow on top of each other with interactions at the interface only, but they Finally the model was used to reproduce results can influence each other to a high degree regarding of laboratory experiments found in literature. The wave propagation and dissipation. steepening of internal waves and generation of solitons was reasonable well represented. In this thesis a non-hydrostatic two-layer 2DV model, based on the scheme presented by Stelling and Zijlema The result of this study is a non-hydrostatic 2DV two- (2003), is developed. The model is non-hydrostatic; layer model, which has the same attractive properties the velocities are corrected with a pressure gradient as the model by Stelling and Zijlema regarding wave following from the requirement of a divergence free dispersion of both internal and external waves. flow field per computational cell. The model is a two- layer model; only layered systems with two layers of different but constant density are considered and the mixing is left out of consideration. The divide between the between upper and lower layer is considered a sharp interface. The density is discontinuous at the interface and the fluids are completely separated by the interface. To guarantee an exact representation of the interface, a boundary following grid is used in the vertical.

Student: S.H. Balkema Committee: Prof. dr. if. G.S. Stelling (TU Delft), dr. ir. M. Zijlema (TU Delft), dr. ir. J.C. Winterwerp (TU Delft), ir. M.A. Schipper (TU Delft), Prof. dr. ir. J.A. Battjes (TU Delft)

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38 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Formulation and Quantification of the Disctributed Collinear Triad Approximation

As waves enter the surf-zone, the wave spectra The performance calibrated DCTA was then verified undergo drastic transformations because of depth- on a series of laboratory (Beji and Battjes, 1993; induced breaking and triad-interactions. Any arbitrary Smith, 2004; Boers, 2005) and field measurements spectrum will converge towards a smooth, universal (Delilah, Amelander Zeegat, Haringvliet from Ris et shape in which initially higher harmonic peaks emerge al., 2002). This indicated that the DCTA estimated the that disappear as waves propagate further into the evolution of the spectra towards a universal shape surf-zone. and the generation and smoothening of harmonic frequency peaks well. Contrary to the LTA, it generated The current formulation of triad interactions in harmonic frequency peaks at every multiple of the the spectral wave model SWAN, is not capable of base frequencies and was able to remove the peak in converging spectra towards a universal shape and shallow water. However, it overestimated the height of removing the higher harmonic peaks. A newer the peak and the height of the tail and did not smooth formulation for triad interactions, called the DCTA, the shape frequencies between harmonic frequencies was therefore published in 2006 and this formulation sufficiently. was further developed in this M.Sc. thesis. This development entailed the implementation of the It was concluded that the transfer of energy towards formulation in an experimental version of the spectral higher frequencies was inhibited. Including a frequency wave model SWAN (Booij et al., 1999) and making trial dependent distribution of the dissipation, as suggested calculations The final formulation of the DCTA was in the literature and confirmed with measurements, presented in a second publication (Booij et al., 2009) of will probably improve the results, as this will invoke which the present author is co-author a continued energy flux through the spectrum from lower frequencies to higher where energy is eventually After the validation of the DCTA, in which its ability to dissipated. converge any spectrum to a universal shape in various simple bathymetries was established, the calibration was subsequently done with measurements of Smith (2004). For every incident spectrum (out of 31), the optimum value for the tuneable coefficient λ was through a minimisation of the error-values for Hm0 and Tm01.

Student: Matthijs Benit Committee: Prof. dr. ir. G. S. Stelling (TU Delft), Dr. ir. L. H. Holthuijsen (TU Delft), Dr. ir. G. Ph. Van Vledder (TU Delft), Dr. ir. P. J. Visser (TU Delft), Dr. ir. A. J. Van Der Westhuysen (Deltares)

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39 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Stability of a single top layer of cubes

Three important aspects considering the stability of Secondly, the influence of the packing density showed a single armour layer of a breakwater consisting of varying failure mechanism. When applying a large concrete cubes are addressed: The influence of the packing density (np = 0.20) the damage occurred below wave steepness, the influence of the slope on the SWL. Contrary to small packing densities (np = 0.35) stability of the single armour layer, and the influence where damage occurred higher than SWL. It was found of the packing density on the stability of the single that, from the tested packing densities, a packing armour layer. This study is based on a literature density of 0.28 gives the best results for both slopes. study and the results from a test program including a small-scale physical model tests. All conclusions This conclusion is conform the findings of previous have been based on model tests, in which the cubes tests [Van Gent et al, 1999]. During these tests an were placed by hand and placed in a stretching bond optimum packing density of np = 0.25 – 0.30 was (halfsteensverband). found. Although the cubes were placed randomly in the tests of Van Gent. In this study the cubes were placed In total eighteen tests were performed in the wave in a stretching bond. Finally it was found that a wave flume of the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory of the Faculty steepness of s0p = 0.04-0.05 causes minimum stability of Civil Engineering and Geosciences. Two different for the armour layer. slopes were tested together with three different packing densities and three different wave steepness. The results during the tests seem to have a strong It was found that the gentler slope did not contribute correlation with pitched stones. Therefore the black to the stability in this setting using a stretching bond. box model as well as the analytical method for In fact the model failed earlier than the model with pitched stones (6-xi-rule) is treated in an attempt to a steeper slope in most cases. The best results were optimize the design rules for different configurations. found using a slope of cotα = 1.5. In combination with an adjusted 6-xi-rule and the formulae from Van der Meer for loose rock, formulae were developed based on curve fitting. The formulae are valid for cubes placed in a stretching bond.

Student: R. van Buchem Committee: Prof. Dr. Ir. M.J.F. Stive, Prof. Dr. Ir. W.S.J. Uijttewaal, Ir. H.J. Verhagen, Ir. M. Caljouw

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40 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

How biofilms influence morphology.

Within the field of biogeomorphology there is still high shear stress are therefore better able to decrease a lack of understanding of how diatoms are able to the turbulence intensities. The effects biofilms have stabilize sediment in estuaries and lagoons. Previous on bed load transport are negligible, though they research done on this topic have agreed on the could decrease suspended transport by lowering the fact that Extracellular Polymeric Substance (EPS) is equilibrium concentration of the water by decreasing responsible for the stabilizing behaviour, but disagree the turbulence intensities. In order to make the biofilm on how this stabilizing effect is achieved and what shear off under flow, the sediment particles under the processes are involved in making an EPS biofilm shear biofilm have to be set in motion. Failure was found to off. This study focuses on the question how the biofilms occur when sand ripples eroded the sediment in front achieve the stabilizing effect and what processes of the biofilm, allowing the flow to come under the make a biofilm shear off. To obtain a full picture of biofilm. Field studies that often use a cohesive strength the influence of biofilms, this research combines the meter to study the stabilizing effects of biofilms often research to the effects of transport on boundary layer find higher values for the stabilizing effect than found turbulence with the study to the stabilizing effects with flume studies. When using the cohesive strength of biofilms under flow. Artificial biofilms were used meter the internal stresses in the biofilm have to in order to obtain repeatability in the experiments. become larger than the cohesive strength of the biofilm The choice for the artificial biofilms was based on which is in the order of 100 times the mean bed shear previous research done to the properties of biofilms stress. This therefore leads to much higher stabilizing and resulted in the choice for the materials sodium and results than when the shearing off of the entire biofilm calcium alginate. To study the effects of transport and is studied in flumes. Under the conditions at which biofilms on the turbulence, flume experiments have biofilms grow, the flow alone is not able to lead to been performed using a Laser Doppler Anemometer. high enough internal stresses in the biofilm to make For studying the effects of sediment transport on it fail. Research on the internal stresses in biofilms turbulence, coarse sediment with a D50 of 2mm and under influence of waves and currents combined is fine sediment with a D50 of 0.5mm have been used. recommended to see if the breaking up of the biofilm The biofilm experiments have only been performed in can be a failure mechanism with high probability. combination with the fine sediment. From comparing this study with other studies to the influence of biofilms and transport on turbulence, became clear that the influence of bed load transport of sediment on the turbulence intensities depends on the ratio between the particle size and the length scale of the turbulence. In this study a decreases in the turbulence intensities was found over the height at which transport of coarse sediment took place. In case of the fine sediment no effects have been found because the ratio of the particle size to the length scale of the turbulence was too small in order to influence the high energy region of the energy spectrum. The presence of biofilms created a smoother bed leading to a decrease in the turbulence intensities throughout the water column, decreasing the bed shear stress. This smoothening effect increased with increasing viscous behaviour of the biofilm. Biofilms grown under

Student: Myron van Damme Committee: Prof M.J.F. Stive (TU Delft), Prof R.R. Simons (UCL), Dr. B.C. van Prooijen (TU Delft)

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41 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Dune growth on natural and nourished beaches

To strengthen the Zuid-Holland coast, a 20 million m3 meaningful empirical relations between beach width or foreshore nourishment named “the sand engine” is coastline migration rates for the time and space scale proposed. As a design’s potential dune development of the sand engine project can be uncovered. Due to is one of the design criteria, it is desired to know in the annual character of both datasets, the individual advance what influence on dune development can influence of aeolian and hydrodynamic forces cannot be expected from such a nourishment. As current be easily distinguished. Variations in susceptibility understanding of this subject is limited, the objective to erosion are found to correlate better to measured for this thesis is found in this knowledge gap. The dunefoot development than just the beach width, a thesis strives to answer the following question: “How strong indication that the variability in rates of erosion, will the coastal dunes develop in the ten years after the and not in rates of aeolian deposition are the main sand engine plan has been executed?” cause of variability in dune development. Together with other circumstantial evidence this leads to the Dune evolution is found to depend on the balance following hypothesis: “Variability in dunefoot migration between the erosive hydrodynamic forces during rates is determined by variability in the erosive storms and the (mainly) accreting influence of aeolian (hydrodynamic) processes, not by variability in the (wind-blown) sand transport. The rate of transport accretive (aeolian) processes.” by both of these processes is found to depend on the beach width, and this effect is empirically quantified The assumption that spatial and temporal variability for a 165-year dataset of the Dutch coast. A wider in aeolian transport to the dunes can be neglected beach both offers more protection from dune erosion provides an opportunity for dune growth modelling. and allows for higher rates of aeolian transport. A conceptual model based on this assumption is Current numerical models are found to be capable of proposed. The model is able to qualitatively describe making predictions of the hydrodynamic influence for how a nourishment influences dune evolution. the 10 year temporal and 10 km spatial scales, but the fundamental understanding of aeolian transport Finally, it is recommended to use the insights of this is limited. Thus no predictions of aeolian transport thesis to qualitatively compare alternative designs for rates can be made, nor how this rate is quantitatively the sand engine by their capacity to reduce erosion. influenced by the beach width. The more protection a design provides to dune erosion, the higher the rate of dune growth a design is expected Dune development described by the two main datasets to invoke. of the Dutch coast (the Dutch Beach Line and JARKUS datasets) is analyzed using various techniques. No

Student: Thijs Damsma Committee: Prof M.J.F. Stive (TU Delft), Dr. ir. S.G.J. Aarninkhof (Boskalis), Dr. ir. M. van Koningsveld (Van Oord, TU Delft), Ir. D.J.R. Walstra (Deltares, TU Delft), Ir. S. de Vries (TU Delft), Drs. N. Geleynse (TU Delft)

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42 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Toe structures of rubble mound breakwaters Stability in depth limited conditions

In this thesis, the stability of toe material for rubble The applicability of the Van der Meer design curve for mound breakwaters is investigated in depth limited depth limited conditions is confirmed. The new dataset conditions. The present method (Van der Meer, follows the design curve in a correct way. 1998) to calculate the required rock size of the toe Fore shore slope is strongly influencing toe stability. gives results for depth limited conditions but is never This is not only valid in shallow water but also in deep validated in this area. water. In shallow water, wave steepness influences toe stability as well. Due to a lack in data points, it is not proven for deep water. In very shallow water, a different hydrodynamic behaviour is observed. Wave breaking occurs at the fore shore. The toe structure is attacked by breaking or already broken waves. Although a reduced wave height is reaching the toe, damage is larger because the toe is exposed to turbulent wave attack.

A new design equation for very shallow water is suggested in which fore shore slope and wave steepness are included. This equation is:

In shallow water conditions, waves start breaking at the fore shore slope and the toe is attacked by breaking waves. Toe material is exposed to waves and starts behaving as armour rock. New parameters of influence are incorporated in this research like the slope of the fore shore and steepness of the wave. The research is done with the help of scale model tests. The observations during the scale model tests and the analysis of the performed dataset gave the following conclusions:

Student: R.E. Ebbens Committee: Prof M.J.F. Stive (TU Delft), Prof.dr.ir. W.S.J. Uijttewaal (TU Delft), Ir. H.J. Verhagen (TU Delft), Ir. E. ten Oever (Delta Marine Consultants), Ir. J.S. Reedijk (TU Delft)

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43 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

A Numerical Study on Design of Normal & T-Head Coastal Groins

Introduction trapping and effectiveness of the groin fields. Groins are popular means of coastal protection against erosion and are found along the coast worldwide, although according to CEM (Coastal Engineering Manual 2003), “they are probably the most misused and improperly designed of all coastal structures”. Groins, albeit having a simple concept, their interaction with the beach is complex, and existing functional Morphological changes in a groin field design guidance is limited. The recent developments in numerical modeling, has provided us better tools to Simulation of T-Head Groins study the hydrodynamic and morphological phenomena The field observations of Ozolcer et al. 2004 of a in presence of groins to find more sophisticated design T-Head groins field has been simulated to test the rules. model for the application of T-Head groins and understanding the physical and numerical processes in Verification of the model presence of T-Head groins comparing to normal groins, Bediei et al. in 1994 carried out some physical model as in Figure 3: tests, to understand the morphological impacts of the groins, in a series of small-scale laboratory tests. The data has been used to validate DELFT3D for application of groins. The model was capable of modeling the tests in prototype scale, although some uncertainties were observed in scaling up the model results to prototype. The hydrodynamic and morphological Simulation of T-Head groin case of Ozolcer et al. results resembled the laboratory results in a qualitative manner The morphological results of the model showed how important the representation of the structure is in DELFT3D. Therefore, after a sensitivity analysis the model is able to reproduce the beach response to the THead groins comparing to observations, as presented in Figure 4:

Simulation of laboratory tests of Badiei et al.

Application of the model in Design of Groin fields Since the model is capable of simulating the situation, Simulation of Ozolcer et al 2004 measurements to achieve more insight into application of groins, we studied the morphological impacts of a groin field over Conclusions a morphologically stable bed profile. A quantitative The use of DELFT3D model is verified in application of study of the changes showed how re-orientation of the two coastal structures. A new numerical approach to beach profile occurs (see Figure 2), and how different study the effect of groin fields is presented, and it has properties of the groins, like length and distancing are revealed how the choice of normal groin as the coastal important. Some sensitivity analysis revealed other protection structure must be in a conservative way, aspects of groin application including, sediment size, and how other alternatives, like T-Head groins could permeability and choice of T-Head groins in sediment behave in a more effective way.

Student: Sepehr Eslami Arab Committee: Prof. dr. ir. M.J.F. Stive, Prof. dr. L. van Rijn, Ir. D.J.R. Walstra, Ir. A. P. A. Luijendijk, Dr. M. Zijlema

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44 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

The functional flexibility of lock design, applied on the Meuse route

In general, an inland navigation lock has a structural lifespan of about 100 years, while in most cases this The structural flexibility in alternative 3 is formed by lock is not big enough anymore after 25 - 50 years. the lock chamber which exists of relatively simple This is caused by the growing dimensions and/or the replaceable sheet pile walls, and by floatable lock growing intensities of the passing ships. heads that can be replaced by wider lock heads. To extend the functional lifespan to the structural The innovative parts that have to be designed or life of about 100 years, a functional flexible lock is considered for alternative 3 are: proposed. This type of lock is, with or without a few •• The float up of the small lock heads structural adjustments, capable of serving the shipping •• The construction planning traffic for its whole structural lifespan. This new lock •• The structural floated lock head design design approach will be applied on one of the locks of •• The lock chamber and the heads connection lock complex ‘Sluis Sambeek’, which is located in the Meuse route. Only the construction planning and the structural lock head design are elaborated in this study. The wider The first part of the study is carried out on the basis floatable lock heads are checked and optimised. From of the Life Cycle Management (LCM) approach. The this checks, it can be concluded that the floatable lock first step of the LCM approach is forecasting the trend heads satisfy and could be optimised further. in passing ships. From the trend forecast follows that the future ship sizes will increase and that the ship intensity will slowly decrease. Therefore, the future ship sizes are normative for the required lock dimensions. Only an extension in the width direction appears to be necessary. On the basis of this trend forecast, three alternatives are elaborated, namely: 1 Zero-alternative: renovation of the lock as planned by the department of public works. 2 Functional flexible lock: standard lock that is built large enough to facilitate passages for the maximum expected ships in the next 100 years. 3 Structural flexible lock: a relatively easy extendable navigation lock, which can be enlarged when it is required. The maximum dimensions are thus reached stepwise. This study uses a Whole Life Costing (WLC) analysis with a risk inventory to compare the alternatives. In Though alternative 3 appears to be the most expensive this analysis, alternative 2 appears to be the least alternative, it is useful to consider the possibilities of expensive option for ‘Sluis Sambeek’. both a functional and a structural flexible lock design Although alternative 3 is the most expensive option, for ‘Sluis Sambeek’ or for another lock location. this alternative is elaborated further, because it is the most innovative option. Alternative 3 could also be a better solution for another lock reconstruction where the boundary conditions are more favourable for this alternative.

Student: Ramon de Groot Committee: Prof. drs. ir. J.K. Vrijling (TU Delft), Prof. ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst (TU Delft, BAM Infraconsult bv), Ir. W.F. Molenaar (TU Delft), Ir. J.F.M. van Rijen (BAM Infraconsult bv)

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45 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Wave physics in a tidal inlet – Part I & II

Part I: On the time scales of wave Part II: Depth-induced breaking: processes. A comparison of the performance of three To systematically improve the SWAN model a study on models. the wave physics in a tidal inlet was carried out. The Depth-induced breaking is a subject that has been third-generation SWAN model was used to compute the widely studied, resulting in many scalings on the wave processes in a tidal inlet for storm conditions. The Battjes and Janssen model. The Battjes and Janssen computed wave processes are propagation (shoaling, model, the biphase scaling and the Nelson scaling were refraction and frequency shifting), generation selected to compare results in terms of significant (wind input), non-linear wave-wave interactions wave height. The parameter of interest is the model coefficient . The models were tested with the SWAN (quadruplet wave-wave interactions and triad wave- �BJ wave interactions), dissipation (white capping, depth model on three different test cases; two reef cases and induced breaking and bottom friction), and the work one sloping bottom profile. The wave period appeared done by the currents against the radiation stresses. to have a strong influence on the prediction of the The results were normalised, which resulted in the time significant wave height, in particular on the biphase scales of all wave processes. The time scales were of scaling. The best model over the three test cases the order 100s – 1,000s, except for the work done by statistically is the Nelson scaling. the currents against the radiation stresses, which is of the order of 1,000s – 10,000s.

Figure 2: scatter plot for overall results of the three models on the three test cases

Figure 1: geographical distribution of the time scale of depth-induced breaking

Student: Paul J. van der Ham Committee: Prof. Dr. Ir. G.S. Stelling (TU Delft), Dr. Ir. L.H. Holthuijsen (TU Delft), Dr. Ir. G.Ph. Van Vledder (TU Delft), Ir. T.J. Zitman (TU Delft), Dr. A.J. Van der Westhuysen (Deltares)

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46 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Simulation studies to openings of the Calandbrug

This thesis has been initiated and supported by the In order to make a prediction for the year in which the Port of Rotterdam. The Calandbrug is located in the capacity would no longer suffice a criterion had to be harbor of Rotterdam and connects Maasvlakte to the generated. The general consensus was to accept a mainland for railway transport. The waterway below minimum of 90% of the trains with a maximum delay of this bridge is used by sea going vessels for several 10 minutes (the upper line in the left figure). The last companies located in the Brittannië- and Seineharbour. year in which this criterion is applicable is 2026. The bridge is one of the few bridges in the Netherlands where ships get priority over trains. The figure on the right hand side shows the individual scores of the improvements that have been assessed. In the near future a steep growth is to be expected “Cobel_weg”, a scenario in which one of the companies in the railway transport because of the upcoming situated in Brittaniëharbour is moved to a different expansion of the port with Maasvlakte2. Apart from location, is performing best. “Treinen_int” are that the sea transport is also expected to increase. This scenarios in which the intensity on the railway track has risen concerns that the capacity of the Calandbrug is temporary reduced during the hours in which most won’t suffice and more often long delays will affect the of the openings will take place. These scenarios are trains. performing second best and they have less impact on the stakeholders. The research has been done by creating a model with the use of the simulation software Prosim. With this model a prediction is made in which year the delays for trains would no longer be acceptable. On the other hand a few improvements are possible to optimise the performance of the system. These improvements have also been assessed with the model.

Student: B. Hiemstra Committee: Prof. Ir. H. Ligteringen, Ir. M. van Schuylenbrug (Port of Rotterdam), Ir. F.A.M. Soons, Ir. R. Groenveld

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

47 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Implementation of a wetting and drying algorithm in a finite element model

In numerical modeling of water movement, wetting this. Since the spreading of a parabolic flood wave, and drying is a well known problem. The governing which exhibits comparable wetting and drying behavior, equations are not valid in the dry part of the is represented well by the model it is not likely that computational domain which may result in problems the problems with the two-dimensional dam break are with mass conservation, negative water depths and caused by the wetting and drying procedure. artificially enlarged gradients. In general the methods performance is good. However In this study a wetting and drying algorithm is in two-dimensions it can be beneficial, in case of small implemented in a 2DH finite element flow model. gradients at the wet/dry interface, to use a lumped It is investigated whether this procedure is mass mass matrix at partially dry elements too. The wetting conservative, efficient and robust. To this end a simple and drying iteration converges on average in 2 to 3 finite element discretization of the inviscid shallow iteration steps. In some cases bifurcations and mass water equations is derived. errors can occur. However mass errors are caused by The proposed wetting and drying procedure introduces rounding errors and can be resolved by using double an extra non-linear term in the system which needs to precision. The occurrence of bifurcations is much less be solved iteratively. frequent in case of calculations in double precision and In order to solve the system additional measures can be minimized by adjusting the BiCGSTAB settings. should be taken to prevent the system matrix of becoming singular. Several measures are investigated on convergence speed of the wetting and drying iteration and mass conservation. The best working solution turned out to be the use of a minimum cell averaged depth in the linear part of the system matrix, to prevent singularities and enhance robustness, in combination with a lumped mass matrix in the dry part of the domain, to guarantee mass conservation, and a velocity that is put to zero for very small water depths. The resulting procedure is validated with several one- and two-dimensional analytical solutions for: 1) a one dimensional dam break, 2) flow over a long crested weir, 3) a one dimensional oscillating water surface in a parabolic basin, 4) the run-up of long waves on a beach, 5) a two-dimensional standing wave in a parabolic basin and 6) the spreading of a parabolic flood wave in two dimensions. In addition two laboratory experiments are used for validation: Figure 1 Numerical solution compared to the one experiment with solitary wave runup on a conical analytical solution for wave runup on a sloping island and one experiment with a two dimensional dam beach break. The scheme is able to represent all the tests correctly except for the two-dimensional dam break where the front celerity is slightly too low and the lateral spreading is too large. However this is a severe test case and in the numerical model some crude assumptions have been made that may have caused

Student: Anna Kroon Committee: Prof.dr.ir. G.S. Stelling (TU Delft), Prof.dr.ir. C. Vuik (TU Delft), Dr.ir. R.J. Labeur (TU Delft), Ir. H. Talstra (Svašek Hydraulics)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering, +31 (0)15 2781953

48 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Using Texel Inlet as a sediment transport belt

The Afsluitdijk does not comply with the strength with an average factor of 1.9. The process-based safety regulations of the Netherlands. Therefore the model has been used to simulate the morphological Dutch government decided to reinforce the Afsluitdijk. development of the Texel Inlet and surrounding A consortium of DHV, Imares and Alle Hosper proposed shoals after the dump of a considerable amount of the reclamation of tidal marshes in front of the sediment. Two locations have been defined for the Afsluitdijk. During severe storms the tidal marshes dump of a significant amount of sediment (16 Mm3). reduce the wave attack and therefore improve the The purpose of the dump was to obtain a migration safety assessment of the Afsluitdijk. The construction of sediment towards the channel-section Doove Balg. of the tidal marshes implies the transportation of The first location is situated at the channel-section approximately 50 Mm3 sediment. This study deals Texelstroom West, where the residual sediment with the feasibility of transporting a considerable transport is relatively strong, but the distance to the part of this volume by using the sediment transport Doove Balg large. The second location is situated at processes at the Texel Inlet. The morphological the channel-section Texelstroom Bend, where the development of the dump of a significant volume of residual sediment transport is relatively weak, but sediment in the deeper parts of the Texel Inlet has the distance to the Doove Balg smaller. Besides the been examined. The amount of the dumped volume use of a dumping location to transport sediment one that sedimentates at the end of the Texel Inlet close can also make use of a sand pit. Sand can be dredged to the Afsluitdijk determines the efficiency of the from a location nearby the new tidal marshes. By method. The Texel Inlet is a tidal inlet in the western sediment transport processes the sediment from both part of the Dutch Wadden Sea. The main hydrodynamic the dumping location and the surrounding shoals was forcing of the Texel Inlet is the tide. The tidal wave expected to sedimentate the sand pit. Morphological in the North Sea propagates along the Dutch Coast simulations of 10 year of the two dump locations and from south to north. The tidal wave in the Texel Inlet of the combination of a dump location and a sand pit has a standing nor propagating character. Bottom location indicated two main processes: (1) Diffusion friction in the basin significantly reduces the tidal of sediment with a time-scale of months to years wave amplitude over the Texel Inlet. Therefore the (2) Migration of sediment towards the Afsluitdijk reflected tidal wave amplitude is considerably smaller with a time-scale of years to decennia. After 10 year than the incoming tidal wave. The basin itself is the sedimentation at the and of the Texel Inlet is characterized by meandering channels and shoals, for insignificant for all configurations. Therefore it is which friction, storage capacity and flow properties concluded that it is not feasible to use the Texel Inlet have all significant contributions in the hydrodynamic as a sediment transport belt for the construction of assessment. The residual sediment transport of the tidal marshes at the Afsluitdijk. The impact on the Texel Inlet is directed towards the Afsluitdijk. This surrounding shoals is considerable with locally severe is mainly caused by the tidal asymmetry of the Texel sedimentation and erosion. The total shoal volume Inlet. To determine the morphological development remains almost the same. of the Texel Inlet and surrounding shoals use has been made of a process-based model of Delft3D (2H-D). This model was developed by [Van der Waal (2006)]. The only hydrodynamic forcing of the model is the tide, which is expected to represent about 70 percent of the sediment transport processes. A comparison of a morphological simulation with this model of the present bathymetry with [Elias, 2006] indicated an overestimation of the sediment transport

Student: J.W.A. Lakeman Committee: Prof. dr. ir. M.J.F. Stive (TUD) ; dr. ir. Z.B. Wang (TUD); ir. J.G. De Ronde (TUD); ir. R.J. Labeur (TUD); ir. M. Sokolewicz (DHV)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

49 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

The energy polder Feasibility study on a tidal power plant along the Western Scheldt

In the Netherlands 6,8% of the total electricity The aim of this study is to research the economical and production came from renewable energy sources. technical feasibility of a tidal power plant along the Electricity was 17 % of the total energy consumption in Western Scheldt. The attention in this study lays on that year. In total 1,2% of the energy consumption was the design of the structures needed for the tidal power therefore renewable. The objective of the cabinet to plant. With this design a good insight in the costs is get 20% of the energy from renewable energy sources obtained. will therefore be a major challenge. All available means should therefore be employed to reach this objective. A design, a hydraulic model and an economic model were made to obtain insight in the cost benefit ratio. It Tidal energy did not seem feasible for the Netherlands, turned out that the energy price needed for this plan is as the tidal difference is relatively small. After research equal to that of offshore wind energy. done for a tidal power plant at the Brouwersdam it turned out that production of tidal energy could Mooyaart1.jpg become attractive when combined with other social Mooyaart2.jpg interests, such as improving the ecology of the area.

On the 11th of March 2005 the Netherlands signed an agreement about the Western Schelt. This agreement said that Hertogin Hedwigepolder should be given back to the estuary. This had to be done to compensate nature loss due to deepening of the Western Scheldt as a result of shipping requirements. By combining the desire of the cabinet for more energy production from renewable energy sources with the plans to compensate for nature loss in the Western Scheldt the idea came to gain tidal energy from polders. Because of this new function of the polder it is called the energy polder.

Student: Leslie Mooyaart Committee: Prof.drs.ir.J.K.Vrijling (TU Delft), Ir. J. Van Duivendijk (TU Delft), Ir. W. Peperkamp (TU Delft), Dr.ir. S.N. Jonkman (Royal Haskoning), Ir. J.H. Maas (Delta NV)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

50 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

King Abdullah Economic City Port Master Plan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC), a mega The thesis work to determine a preferred layout greenfield development along the coast of the Red solution comprises Sea approximately 100km north of Jeddah, is currently •• desktop study of the site and existing data, being realized by Emaar The Economic City (Emaar •• a market and traffic forecast to establish possible EC) as part of a programme of developments to enable demand, the social and economical growth of the Kingdom of •• a review of previous layout proposals and a refined Saudi Arabia. The vision for the city includes a world development of four layout proposals, class port of national and international importance that •• a navigational feasibility review utilising the fast provides significant transhipment services to the East‐ time simulation software Shipma, West sea trade route. •• a queuing review using basic queuing theory and the process simulation software Arena, Halcrow was commissioned by Emaar EC as lead •• budget cost estimates and potential revenue indi- technical consultant to plan and design the port. Its cators as well brief was to review the arrangement of port facilities •• a comparison methods such a multi criteria analy- shown in the city master plan and create sis and SWOT analysis. a new layout that improved land usage and flexibility whilst generating cost savings. This thesis presents the The report concludes that the preferred layout option, findings of studies that expand on the work undertaken with a 450m and 600m wide basin and approx. 13km by Halcrow with the purpose of examining the plan of quay, should be navigable for the largest container and identifying issues that should be brought to the vessel tested (Emma Maersk), will serve approx. 120% attention of decision makers. of the forecast likely container demand and 50‐60% of other cargo forecast. The budget cost for the marine A planning methodology has been followed to provide work has been estimated at 10.6 billion Saudi Riyal the information needed to generate options for the port in the full build out, with the total cost including land layout and perform an assessment to determine the based civil works being 24.6 billion Saudi Riyal. preferred solution. Equally the process addresses key concerns of Emaar EC in terms of: •• Confirming the business need and strategic fit •• Identifying project constraints and dependencies •• Operational efficiency •• Cost

Student: J Nammuni nee Krohn Committee: Prof. Ir. H. Ligteringen, Drs. M. Nijdam, C. Boysons (Halcrow Group Ltd)

The Thesis is confidential until Sept 2011.

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

51 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

New Orleans Storm Surge Barrier Wave pressures on the superstructure

In a consortium Iv-Infra has made a proposal for a A model is made for the influence of a gap at the storm surge barrier to protect the city of New Orleans bottom of an inclined wall on wave reflection; wave against hurricanes like Katrina. The design is a pile run-up and wave transmission. supported concrete structure with a considerable complex superstructure. The superstructure of the In the physical model tests different experimental set- reference design consists of a perforated inclined wall ups are tested. The expectations drawn on the basis and a vertical back wall. of the results of the analytical part are verified by the results from the model tests. Since the hydraulic processes and variable wave pressures on the superstructure are not trivial and hard to predict more research is required to design similar structures in the future. The objective of this study is to get an understanding of the hydraulic processes and variable wave pressures on the reference structure.

The research is divided in an analytical part and a part of physical model tests. The near shore wave conditions are calculated with SWAN. The design conditions are a storm surge of 6m, a wave height of 2,2m and a wave period of 5,25s.

In order to obtain an understanding of the hydraulic processes and wave pressures on the reference structure first a simple and impermeable sloping structure is considered. It is found that for the local conditions in combination with steep sloping structures non-breaking wave conditions occur. Therefore it is assumed that the linear wave theory can be applied for determining the variable wave pressures.

Student: Ruud Nooij Committee: Prof. drs. Ir. J.K. Vrijling (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. H.J. Verhagen (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. R.J. Labeur (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. J. van Spengen (Iv-Infra B.V., Papendrecht)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

52 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Failure of Peat Dikes due to Drought

This research investigates the Wilnis dike failure that A parametric study of the groundwater flow by occurred in the dry summer of 2003. It is believed PlaxFlow is performed leading to the conclusion that that drought played an important role in decreasing the upper layer of the soil consisting of Holland peat the stability of the dike, finally leading to failure. In has to be separated into 2 parts along the middle of the reported MSc project the situation during drought the slope of the dike in order to take the different is simulated with the help of finite element method degrees of saturation of the unsaturated soil above programs Plaxis and PlaxFlow in order to get more the groundwater table, that affect the unsaturated soil insight into the conditions that caused the dike to fail. weight, into account.

First a forensic analysis based on pictures taken Finally 9 different models are composed with varying directly after the breach is presented, followed strengths and permeabilities in order to take into by information about relevant failure cases. The consideration the effect of these parameters. The interpretation of the soil investigation performed by groundwater flow results are realistic. However the GeoDelft after the failure is reviewed subsequently. deformation results show irregular unexplainable The field data (Borings and Cone Penetration Tests) patterns which are inconsistent with some of the are used to define the stratification of the soil. The observed data of the actual failure. laboratory data (Triaxial, Simple Shear and Ko-CRS tests) are utilised to determine the soil parameters. Furthermore the safety factors are calculated for the With this information a finite element model is end of phase 2 (before drought) and phase 3 (after constructed in Plaxis. The material model used to drought). These results are also very inconsistent and simulate the different soil types is the Hardening Soil should be discarded. model.

In Plaxis and PlaxFlow 3 different calculation phases are defined. The first 2 have as a purpose to simulate the soil history until the start of drought since this is an important aspect in the further behaviour of soil during drought itself. The third one is the simulated drought period. All the groundwater flow related aspects (groundwater head, excess pore pressures etc.) are calculated by PlaxFlow while the related deformation and stability analyses are done by Plaxis.

Student: Nterekas Dimitrios Committee: Prof. Dr. Ir. F. Molenkamp (TU Delft, CiTG), Dr. Ir. P.J. Visser (TU Delft, CiTG), Ing. H.J. Everts (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. J.Herbschleb (Royal Haskoning), Ir. F.A.J.M. Mathijssen (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. J.P. Oostveen (TU Delft, CiTG)

For further information please contact the department of Geo-Engineering, +31 (0)15 27 81880

53 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Modelling the 1775 storm surge deposits at the Heemskerk dunes

After a storm surge hit the Dutch coast at November 9, A 1D probabilistic approach with six characteristic

2007, old deposits were discovered in the eroded dunes profiles resulted in distributions for Z2%, a height above near Heemskerk, the Netherlands. The deposits have NAP that is exceeded by 2% of the wave run-up peaks. been recognized as evidence of one or two historical For each of the six profiles the probability that Z2% storm surges. Luminescence dating suggests that the reached NAP + 6.5 m is calculated. The probabilities layers were deposited by either the 1775 or the 1776 for all six profiles varied between 2% and 11%. These storm surge. values indicate it is most likely that the run-up levels reached the observed value of NAP + 6.5 m during the In this thesis, the 1775 storm surge has been 1775 storm surge, based on the recorded historical modelled and its capability to reach the maximum data. Based on the maximum input water levels that height at which the deposits have been discovered lead to a Z2% of NAP + 6.5 m and the exceedance line is investigated. The modelling has been done with for IJmuiden, the probability of exceedance of the 1775 the numerical program XBeach, using a probabilistic storm surge is estimated to be 3*10-4. This is close to approach and historical data as input. Research into the Dutch design criterion for primary flood defences. available historical data lead to three sources of useful data for this study: wind force estimations at Huize A number of 2DH simulations with both a historical Swanenburgh, 20 km south of the Heemskerk area, topography (open dune front) and a present maximum storm surge water level at Petten, 25 km topography (closed dune front) have been carried north of the Heemskerk area and grain diameters, out to compare the results of a storm on a natural based on a sieve analysis of sand in the storm surge dune system and on an artificial system with a sand layers. dike (‘zeereep’). The most obvious difference is the possibility that a storm surge can enter the dune area A flexible modelling framework has been set-up to behind the first dunes through low-lying areas/gaps in transform the historical data, supplemented with the case of a natural dune system. However, the water estimated values for missing data, into boundary and is usually stopped by the second dune row, which does initial conditions for XBeach. XBeach is a process-based not make this an unsafe situation. Furthermore, it is nearshore numerical model that is capable of modelling observed that the natural dune system experiences less the natural coastal response during time-varying storm erosion than the system with the human-maintained and hurricane conditions. As no historical bathymetry sand dike. Possible causes are gentler slopes of the and topography are available, present data is used to natural dunes, such that less avalanching takes place construct a historical bathymetry/topography without and the possibility for the surge to enter the area the human-maintained closed dune front (‘sand dike’). between the dunes and bringing sediment into the Low-lying gaps in the dune front have been made to dune system instead of removing sediment from it. A resemble the low-lying entrances presumably present second effect of the low-lying areas is that the wave in the 18th century dune front. energy is dissipated over a larger area instead of only at the beach and the first dune row.

Student: A.D. Pool Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive (TU Delft), Dr.ir. A.P. van Dongeren (Deltares), Dr. S. van Heteren (Deltares), Dr.ir. P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder (TU Delft), Dr. J.E.A. Storms (TU Delft)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

54 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Loads on underwater concrete floors and tension piles due to swell The interaction with tension piles

In the Netherlands there is some uncertainty with An important conclusion is that deep cohesive layers, regard to the effect of excavating a building pit and like the clay layer of Kedichem at the starting shaft thereby, unloading the subsoil. The usually weak soil of the Sophia railway tunnel, are able to follow the layers will adapt to the reduced stresses by expanding construction process. Notable excess pore pressures it selves. This increase of volume by unloading is and swell after finishing the excavation will not occur. called bottom heave or swell. In case of cohesive soil layers, it is difficult to estimate the development of Also in case of excavations up to a depth of 10 m, swell in time and the possible effects on an underwater after pile installation, in general no significant loads concrete floor and tension piles, in case these due to swell will occur on an underwater concrete construction elements are to be installed. floor. Besides the decreasing potential load with the increasing construction time, also the reloading of With this thesis, it is tried to decrease the uncertainty the subsoil by the effective weight of the underwater by increasing the understanding of the subject concrete floor has an important compensating effect. matter. Special attention goes out to the speed of the development of swell and the determining factors. This In contrast to the underwater concrete floors, pre- is also compared to the speed of excavating a pit and installed piles will be loaded substantially by the the moment one pours an underwater concrete floor. interaction with surrounding soil. The sand layers play In addition to this, the interaction is examined between and important role. The piles prove to have a limiting soil and piles, which one installs before an excavating. effect on the load due to swell on underwater concrete The rapport contains to parts. floor. These conclusions also hold for the Museumpark garage and underground water storage: the piles are Part I deals with the development of swell of a clay loaded by swell in contrary to the underwater concrete layer at notable depth and the interaction with an floors. underwater concrete floor without tension piles. This is done by using a real case: the starting shaft of the Sophia railway tunnel. During the excavation to a depth of 20.2 m, the behaviour of soil and construction is measured intensively. The whole construction is modelled in Plaxis 3D Foundation. After adjusting the permeability the results match pretty well to the measurements. Besides, results are presented of a more general study, with respect to swell and loads due to swell.

Part II deals with the development of swell of a clay layer at limited depth and the interaction with an underwater concrete floor and tension piles. Particularly the interaction between soil and pre- installed piles is treaded. This interaction is strong, while in case of piles which are installed after excavation the swell may already have occurred. The project Museumpark garage and underground water storage is discussed as a case study.

Student: Rogier Schippers Committee: Prof. Ir. A.F. van Tol, Dr. Ir. K.J. Bakker, Dr. Ir. C.B.M. Blom , Ing. H.J. Everts, Ir. T.W. Groeneweg (Ing- enieurs- en adviesbureau Movares)

For further information please contact the department of Geo-Engineering, +31 (0)15 27 81880

55 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Generating electricity from waves at a breakwater in a moderate wave climate

The purpose of this thesis was to develop a preliminary varying wave climates and crest freeboards. During concept design of a wave energy converter. The type the tests the head difference was measured between of device designed was limited by several starting the internal basins and the water elevation at the rear points which stipulated, among other criteria, a robust of the model. The holes in the bottom of the basins structure which can be constructed within a breakwater allowed for constant flow of water out of the basins and can generate electricity from a fairly mild (in the and a calculation of flow rate based on the hydraulic order of Hs=0.5-1.5m) and regularly occurring wave climate. Integration with a caisson breakwater was selected to ensure survivability.

Three concepts using the theories of wave overtopping, wave run-up, and wave pressure were evaluated. A multi-criteria analysis was performed on the three concepts. Concepts were scored based on power output, functionality in wide range of conditions, ease of construction, and theory reliability. Theory reliability was scored based on the head was required. This allowed for the calculation three aforementioned criteria. of the theoretical power generated during the tests. Additionally, the input wave power was known so the The concept analysis concluded the most promising device efficiency could be calculated for each test device to further investigate was the concept based allowing for the identification of the optimal geometry on the theory of wave pressure. This device excelled and the generation of a full-scale efficiency curve. in (theoretical) output having the highest peak power and wider power curves. In the concept, wave pressure The device was evaluated at two design locations in is exerted on an underwater opening. This opening Panama and Japan. The wave climate, tidal influence, system headloss, and sea level rise were calculated in order to discover the power generation at each location. Revenue associated with the generation of electricity was calculated to give an indication of the device’s cost effectiveness.

It was found that sea level rise has a negligible impact on efficiency if sea level rise is appropriately accounted for. The impact is in the order of 1.5% over 50 years if the rise is assumed to be 80cm over 100 years. Including sea level rise, the device has been calculated leads water into a pipe with a gradual constriction. This to generate an average of 16,413 and 5,766 kWh/m/yr constriction increases the pressure allowing the water at Panama and Japan, respectively. to be brought to an optimal level above MWL. Through a turbine the water is returned to MWL. The report concludes that the proposed design can be constructed using existing techniques for caisson A model was built with three different opening ratios construction. However, the design must be further and three separate basins open to the wave flume optimised and tested in order to become a fully feasible at the bottom. A series of tests were performed of wave energy converter.

Student: J.E. Schoolderman Supervisors: prof. drs. ir. J.K. Vrijling, ir. W.F. Molenaar, dr. ir. M. Zijlema, ir. B. Reedijk (DMC), ir. E. ten Oever (DMC)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

56 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Constructing a parking garage underneath historical city canals – a case study

Typical Dutch historical city centres are characterised Although slightly more expensive than traditional by the presence of canals. Due to increasing demands construction methods, the elaborated concept turns on public space, these canals make promising locations out to be very promising in an urban environment. The for the construction of large underground spaces, such absence of a dry cofferdam is a significant advantage as parking garages. There are no significant buildings over traditional bottom-up methods, especially overhead and they are often situated close to their regarding soil deformations and the risk of leaking target users. retaining walls. My graduation project covers a feasibility study on a parking garage underneath the Geldersekade canal, in the centre of Amsterdam. Apart from integration into the historical appearance of the canal, the risk of damage to adjacent buildings, caused by soil deformations during construction of the garage, is of great influence on the design.

A construction method is investigated that puts the qualities of the surrounding navigable water to good use in an attempt to reduce the adverse effects of the construction process, especially when compared to traditional methods. Prefabricated immersible elements are applied to form a dry construction platform in the canal. On top of this platform a caisson is constructed and subsequently immersed into the ground by means of the so-called ‘pneumatic caisson’ method. The entire garage is made by construction, immersion and interconnection of several of such caissons.

Student: Pieter Schoutens Committee: Prof. drs. ir. J.K. Vrijling (TU Delft), Ir. W.F. Molenaar (TU Delft), Ing. H.J. Everts (TU Delft), Drs. ir. J.L.C.M. van Daelen (Witteveen&Bos), Ir. H. de Waardt (Witteveen&Bos)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

57 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Analysis of wave impact on the elastocoast® system

The elastocoast system can be used as an armour The amount and type of the used polyurethaan layer on revetments. The bonding system exists of a determines the stiffness of an elastocoast layer. mix of crushed stones and 2-component polyurethane. The amount of used polyurethaan increases when This bonding system creates bonding forces between an elastocoast beam or cube is formed in a closed the stones and an open (porous) structure can be framework compared to an layer which of formed on a obtained. Elastocoast is developed by Elastogran revetment. GmbH, a BASF subsidiary. The resulting maximum pressure during a wave impact The response of an elastocoast layer which is placed event on top of the elastocoast reduces due to the directly (without a filter layer) on a geotextile and open structure of elastocoast. The maximum stress sand foundation is analyzed in this study from several inside the elastocoast layer increases significantly tests executed in the Large Wave Channel in Hannover. when a gap in the foundation is formed. Maximum The stiffness of an elastocoast beam is determined in allowed gap width values in combination with different a three point bending test with a dynamic load. The (regular) wave conditions are shown in several figures indirect tensile splitting strength and compression in order to avoid breaking of the elastocoast layer due strength is determined from several cubes. A model to a wave impact event. The eigen frequency of the in which the dynamic load of a wave impact event elastocoast layer is determined from the vibrations of is created (a finite element method program, Plaxis the layer after each wave impact event. High stresses v8, is used) and adapted with the results of all inside the layer can be expected if it is loaded around analyzed experiments. The resulting behaviour of the eigen frequency. A static schematization (without the elastocoast layer around the wave impact was dynamic effects) as used in the program GOLFKLAP predicted according to this model for two cases. First, should not be used in order to determine the maximum the elastocoast layer is supported on the foundation stress (or minimum required layer thickness in order over the total length of the layer. Secondly, in case of to avoid breaking of the layer) inside the elastocoast a gap was formed around the wave impact point in the layer (without a filter layer between the geotextile and foundation under the elastocoast layer. elastocoast layer).

It is recommended to execute more experiments in order to determine the stiffness and tensile flexural strength from an elastocoast beam with different type and amount of used polyuerthaan and with different type and grading crushed stones.

Student: R.W. Sluijsmans Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, ir. H.J. Verhagen, ir. M.F.C. van de Ven

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

58 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Evaluation of Material Models for Liquefaction

Liquefaction induced ground failure is major cause of The second constitutive model investigated was a damage to structures and livelihoods. The prediction of double hardening elastoplastic model on multilaminate liquefaction potential has been an area of high interest framework. The research gives elaborations and throughout the engineering community. analytical formulations on various aspects of the concept and the constitutive model. Substantial Three conditions are required for the liquefaction phe- contributions are put forth in the derivation of nomenon to occur. The deformation is under restricted the transformation matrix, a new thought into the (undrained) flow boundary condition; there is sufficient composition of the elastic stiffness matrix at the contraction upon loading; and there is sufficient driving integration planes, analytical simplifications for stress to exceed the undrained shear strength. triaxial conditions, analytical derivation of the yield curve in p-q space for triaxial condition, derivation of Successive events of flow like failure of sand structures instability condition for triaxial condition. Both drained and earthquake related liquefaction catastrophes and undrained simulations of element tests have been revolutionized the study of the liquefaction performed for evaluation of the model for modeling the phenomenon. With various techniques of investigation liquefaction phenomenon. a proper understanding of the phenomenon was set forth. The theoretical understanding of deformation of a sand medium during loading has become one of the active geotechnical studies in the last half of the 20th century. The theory of stress-dilatancy and the critical state have been remarkable foundations for understanding of the deformation behavior of sand.

Along with the advance of computing machines, the use of numerical techniques for solving complex geotechnical problems has become widely applicable. The so called ‘soil constitutive models’, which are formulated for computing the response of the soil upon various loading conditions, have played a role to ease the visualization, design and the decision making process. In this research two such constitutive models have been investigated as applied for modeling liquefaction behavior of sand.

The first constitutive model was Wolffersdorff’s version of the hypoplasticity model with the Intergranular Strain formulation. In this research, apart from the numerical investigation, substantial effort has been put forth on the understanding of the undrained instability; the stress-dilatancy and the small strain formulation of the model. The various aspects of the model have been analytically and graphically elaborated. Furthermore, various new ideas for enhancing the applicability of the model have been suggested.

Student: Anteneh Biru Tsegaye Committee: Prof.dr.ir. F. Molenkamp, Prof. dr.ir. L.J.Sluys, Dr.ir. R. Brinkgreve, Ir. S. Oostveen

For further information please contact the department of Geo-Engineering, +31 (0)15 27 81880

59 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Water jets surrounded by an air film Experimental research on the influence of air addition around water jets

The effect of introducing an air film around a Adding air around a water jet has a positive effect on submerged water jet is examined in laboratory the development of a water jet, if enough air is added. experiments. The objective is to reduce the friction With increasing size of the nozzle diameter, more air forces between the water jet and the ambient fluid, has to be injected to create an effective air film. If making a jet potentially more effective at a larger enough air is added to create an effective air film, the distance. The test are conducted at a physical scale effect is observed at very large axial distances. comparable to dredging practise, contrary to earlier experiments reported in the literature, where small A description of this type of jets is given based on scale jets are tested. During the tests the development the description of Yahiro and Yoshida (1974) of water of the jet was measured in axial and radial direction. jets surrounded by an air film and the description of The jet pressure and air discharge are varied, leading Rajaratnam (1976) of submerged water jets. to a number of combinations of jet pressures and air discharges. The results showed that also at this The total amount of energy of the water jet and air film scale the development of the water jet is influenced can also be used to create a water jet without an air by the air film, although not as much as in the earlier film. A water jet without an air film with the same total experiments. Governing parameters have been amount of energy does not result in the same velocity established. Examples are the volume, mass and increase as observed if an air film is created. momentum ratios between the air flow and water flow.

The ratios of the air flow and water flow are not in the same order if the comparison is made between the large and small scale water jets. Relatively less air was added in the test of a water jet at the scale used in dredging practise.

Student: F.R.S. Vinke Committee: Prof. dr. ir. C. van Rhee (TU Delft 3ME, CITG), Dr. ir. A.M. Talmon (TU Delft, 3ME), Ir. G.L.M. van der Schrieck (TU Delft, CITG), Ir. A.J. Nobel (Boskalis)

For further information please contact the department of Dredging Engineering (3ME), +31 (0)15 278 6882

60 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Movable water barrier for the 21st century

The second Delta-committee (September 2008) A fabric barrier is suitable for the UOOC concept foresees difficulty in resolving flood safety issues because of the possible fast construction and low for Rotterdam and Dordrecht if high river runoffs maintenance, which is favourable because the are still running through the New Waterway. A new barriers are located in the busiest waterways of the safety issue, induced by climate changes, lies in the Netherlands. combination of closed sea defensives and relatively Design issues concerning fabric water barriers and high river runoffs at the same time. A research specific ‘open fabric’ barriers are discussed. Different proposal is made towards an Usually Open Occasionally ‘open fabric’ design concepts are generated and Closed (UOOC) water-system around Rotterdam and discussed. A subdivision can be made in single, Dordrecht. mattress, modular and stepped water barriers. This concept diverts high river runoffs during storm A proposed preliminary design is made where a situations towards the Southern rural parts of the cable-stayed bridge is combined with a single screen delta. Four large movable water barriers, located in the attached to the deck over the entire waterway of 210m main waterways and navigation channels, are required wide. The screen diverts the hydraulic loads with ropes within the UOOC concept. towards the deck and the abutments. It is stored under the deck and unfolds with the help of cables. This plan calls for an innovative barrier designs. First of all, the purpose of the movable barriers in It is concluded that the structure is technical and combination with their required width is exceptional. economical feasible, however, a small scale model test Second, barrier designs are outdated and relatively is recommended for the closing-system of the barrier new, light-weighted and maintenance low, materials and to test its dynamic behaviour. Also an optimization are not applied. Third, the life-time of a structure is should be made considering the size of the screen and determined by social aspects. The UOOC barriers are the required strength of the bridge structure. located at the edge of urbanized areas and a multi The costs reduction of a movable water barrier functional structure could enhance benefits and social for using fabric instead of a steel is for this design acceptance. Up till now, hydraulic structures are mainly estimated well over 34%. mono functional structures. It is found that the life-cycle costs of the screen are Within this thesis the objective is to make an innovative approximately 40% of the total life-cycle barrier costs. design for one of the UOOC barriers. The design should This indicates that optimization towards a small screen be ready for the water problems of the 21st century, is most effective. More detailed research is required to ready for a 21st century society and constructed by the investigate the minimum screen size and the limitations latest materials. of a ‘bridge+screen’ barrier. An objective of this thesis is to investigate an innovative barrier design; an ‘open fabric’ movable VanderZiel.jpg water barrier (similar to a parachute). This is in contradiction to a ‘closed fabric’ barrier like an inflatable dam. The thesis is a technology assessment of an ‘open fabric’ barrier and designing with synthetic materials to lower the barrier costs.

First of all the locations, water-management strategies, corresponding boundary conditions, required dimensions and the costs of the UOOC barriers are discussed.

Student: Floris van der Ziel Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Ir. A. van der Toorn, Dr.ing. A. Romeijn

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

61 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Stability of morphological cells to dredging- dumping activities

The Westerschelde estuary in the South-West of Settings of Hibma et al. (2003) are used to generate the Netherlands displays two meandering flood and an equilibrium state suitable for stability analysis. ebb channels separated by shoals. The system of Sediment is then dumped continuously in the flood or flood, ebb channel and shoal between two channel ebb channel at various rates to assess stability. The cell crossings form a morphological cell. The stability of geometry, flow and sediment transport characteristics the serial cell system formed by the Westerschelde are used to review the applicability of assumptions is important for the navigation route to the port of underlying the simplified model. Results of the two Antwerp. Wang and Winterwerp (2001) proposed a models are confronted to gain further insight into the simplified model to predict the evolution of the flood cell behaviour. Results are applied to the Westerschelde and ebb channel. They suggest that the cell will estuary to discuss the safety of the current dredging- remain stable if dredging-dumping activities do not dumping strategy. exceed a certain limit. Hibma et al. (2003) modelled successfully morphological cells with the process-based The study shows that the behaviour of the cell can be model Delft3D. This report investigates the stability of described in terms of channel dominance. It suggests morphological cells in estuaries by comparing stability that the current dredging-dumping strategy in the results of the process-based model Delft3D to the Westerschelde is generally safe. It also highlights simplified model of Wang and Winterwerp (2001). the need for more understanding and control of the outcome of a Delft3D simulation.

Keywords : Westerschelde, estuary, morphological, cell, channel, stability, bifurcation, dredging, dumping, Delft3D

Student: Nicolas Zimmermann Committee : Prof. Dr. Ir. Marcel Stive, chairman (TU Delft), Dr. Ir. Zheng Bing Wang (TU Delft / Deltares), Dr. Ir. Bram van Prooijen (TU Delft), Dr. Roshanka Ranasinghe (TU Delft / IHE), Ir. Menno Eelkema (TU Delft)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

62 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

Effect of the concrete density on the stability of Xbloc armour units

The hydraulic stability of the Xbloc armour unit as The power of one of the relative density (D) value other complex interlocking shapes is expressed in the stability formula determines the influence of by the stability number Hs/ΔDn with the relative density on the stability and is a function . The stability number is based on the assumption of of the slope angle. The hydraulic stability of Xbloc dominance of lift, drag and gravity forces. If other armour units can therefore be described as a function forces have significant influence on the stability, of the slope angle and relative density. This results in which is the case for complex interlocking armour a general formula for the hydraulic stability for Xbloc units like Xbloc, the power of one for the relative armour units: density (D) in the stability number might change. The hydraulic stability described with the stability number for single layer interlocking armour units is therefore investigated. Definitions for the functions of the slope angle have been found by fitting the general formula to the data 2-D Physical model tests have been done at the found by the hydraulic model testing. This has resulted hydraulic flume of Delta Marine Consultants in Utrecht in the following more accurate stability formula for to determine the influence of the specific weight on the Xbloc armour layers: hydraulic stability of Xbloc armour units. The model tests were performed using concrete densities of 2102, 2465 and 2915 kg/m3 and slope angles of 3:4, 2:3 and 1:2. The model block used had a unit height (D) of 2.9 cm which was held constant for all concrete densities.

It is concluded from the model tests that the influence of the specific weight on the hydraulic stability of Xbloc armour layers is not correctly described by the stability number (Ns). The stability number underestimates the effect of the specific weight for single layer interlocking armour units for a slope of 2:3 and steeper. The underestimation increases for steeper slope angles. For a slope of 1:2 the stability number tends to overestimate the effect of the heavy concrete element, where as the normal and light concrete elements are in close resemblance with each other and the expected start of damage (Hs ≥ 120% Hd) and failure (Hs ≥ 150%

Hd).

Student: B.N.M. van Zwicht Committee: Prof. Dr. Ir M.J.F Stive (TU Delft), prof. dr. ir. W.S.J. Uijttewaal (TU Delft), Ir. H.J. Verhagen (TU Delft), ir P.B. Bakker (Delta Marine Consultants)

For further information please contact the department of Hydraulic Engineering +31(0)15 27 83345

63 | Master’s Theses October 2009 3 Hydraulic & Geo Engineering

64 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4.

Civil Engineering Theses Watermanagement 4 Watermanagement

Water use of jatropha

Jatropha curcas Linneaus is a shrub up to 5 m tall Interestingly, the modelled transpiration is twice as that produces fruits containing oil that can be used to high as the calculated transpiration from the sap produce biodiesel. The crop received more attention in flow measurements. The transpiration could have the last years within the discussion in the transfer from compensated for the soil evaporation or the calculated crude fossil oil to more sustainable resources. Growing transpiration from measured sap flow is erroneous. jatropha for biofuel production is interesting because Lastly, re-initializing of the model increases the its seeds are toxic and are not edible. The plant can correlation coefficient of the model from 0.725 to grow on marginal grounds with only little rainfall. It 0.920. This indicates the model predicts continu is generally cultivated in monoculture plantation, by processes quite well, but needs to be compensated for means of intercropping or around another crop field as run-on and rapid subsurface drainage at big rainfall a hedge. Besides the protective function because of its events. toxic elements, jatropha also develops a deep taproot The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the different and can decrease soil erosion. It is a perennial crop soil parameters, the rainfall and the data on leaf area and reaches its final height after four years. Average is high. Therefore the model needs to be validated yields of adult plants range from 1 to 5 ton/ha. with hydrological data from another jatropha plot, One of the biggest claims on jatropha is that the yield preferably a site with marginal soils. A data series of 5 is considerable even on marginal grounds. However years or more is advised since jatropha is a perennial information available about the actual water use of crop and has many different growth stages. adult plants is very little. The main goal of this pilot The type of cultivation used for jatropha is important study is to come up with a hypothesis about the for the sustainability of the crop. The main property influence of jatropha cultivation on the local water of second generation biofuels is that they do not balance. It seems that very little research is being compete with edible crops. If jatropha is cultivated in done on this subject. The CSIR in South Africa is an monoculture by means of plantations, the choice for a exception and this commercial research institute suitable location will be of big economic importance. performs hydrological research on jatropha since The chance that this cultivation method of jatropha is 2004. Within their first jatropha project, the climate then going to compete with edible crops is very high. conditions and the sap flow are measured of two The results from the conceptual water balance model jatropha plots in the Eastern part of South Africa. are a good hypothesis of the water use of jatropha. At one of these plots near Empangeni, also the Additional soil moisture measurements are useful to soil moisture content and the matric potential are know more about the root depth and the processes that measured. However, a water balance study is never occur during rainfall events. More hydrological research performed. is essential to verify claims put on this crop according A conceptual model of the local water balance is to yield, especially on marginal grounds. Sustainability developed to get more insight in the main hydrological and management issues according to jatropha are very processes at a jatropha plot. Rainfall, interception, complicated and diverse and need cooperation between transpiration, soil evaporation and surface runoff fields of agricultural engineering, economy, politics and are implemented to model the soil moisture by plain water management. linear relations in a spreadsheet model. The model is calibrated on soil moisture data of the jatropha plot near Empangeni. The results show that his conceptual model performs well when confronted with field observations and shows that transpiration is the main latent heat flux. Furthermore, soil evaporation is shown to be considerable and cannot be neglected.

Student: Roel Blesgraaf Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.H.G. Savenije, Dr. T.A. Bogaard, Dr.ir. M.L. Mul (Unesco-IHE), Mr. M.B. Gush (CSIR), Dr.ir. R.E.E. Jongschaap (Plant Research International), Dr. W. Ravesteijn (Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management)

For further information please contact the department Water Management (Hydrology), +31(0)15 2785080

66 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

A new perspective on continental moisture recycling

The importance of moisture feedback between It is estimated that on average 38 % of the continental continental precipitation and evaporation, referred to precipitation has continental origin and that 52 % of as moisture recycling, is still under debate. Most of the continental evaporation returns as precipitation the research in the past focused on the contribution of over continents. This paper demonstrates the recycling to precipitation within a certain region only. important role of topography in the Andes and the This paper clearly distinguishes between different Tibetan Plateau where regional moisture recycling is a definitions of moisture recycling. This allows us to key process. The Amazon and the Congo are identified study the complete process of continental moisture as very important regions for sustaining continental recycling. In addition to identifying how much of the precipitation. It is also demonstrated that moisture precipitation originates from continental sources, a recycling from the Eurasian continent is the major new definition is used to identify regions which are supplier of the fresh water resources of China. major moisture suppliers for continental precipitation. An accounting procedure based on ERA-40 reanalysis data is used to calculate moisture recycling ratios. As such, this paper derives new information from existing data.

Student: R.J. van der Ent Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.H.G. Savenije (TU Delft, CiTG), Mw. dr. B. Schaefli (TU Delft, CiTG), Mw. dr. ir. S.C. Steele-Dunne (TU Delft, CiTG), Dr. S.R. de Roode (TU Delft, TNW)

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 3347

67 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

A function-oriented methodology of flood vulnerability assessment

Flood risk is often defined by probability and Regarding this, a FVA (Flood vulnerability assessment) consequences. It has been well accepted as the main model is developed in this study to take into account methodology for flood risk assessment. However, this the socio-economic factors that cannot be well methodology still has some limitations: firstly in some illustrated in the flood risk assessment, on both the areas without long time data series, the probability distributional pattern and overall impact. In order of extreme events is hard to predict. Secondly, the to make the model more function-oriented, these consequences, in most cases, are represented by factors are integrated into the main structure of the economic damage without considering the social FVA model along different flood mitigation phases. impact that directly connected with human life, health, Specifically, the social vulnerability index system is environment, etc. Thirdly, it considers the social reconstructed to identify the distribution of vulnerable system as a whole without analyzing the distributive groups at different mitigation phases, while the flood pattern inside. social impact is evaluated as a complementary part of flood risk assessment at the prevention phase. The use of GIS complemented the FVA model by providing a visual, map-based perspective that facilitates the interplay between external flood hazards and internal vulnerability factors. This model is applied to the area near Ijsselmeer in the province of North Holland, the Netherlands.

Student: Zhen Fang Committee: Prof.dr.ir. N.C. van de Giesen, Dr.ir. O.A.C. Hoes, Dr.ir. P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder, Ir. P.J.N.J. Bart, Oranjewoud

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646

68 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

The influence of clay cracks on the rainfall-runoff process

The soil has a big influence on the rainfall-runoff In the hydrological model Sobek the drainage method process in an area. In rainfall-runoff models, drainage of Ernst is used in combination with the Capsim- is calculated with methods that assume a homogenic module that models the soil moisture movement to soil. When looking at a small scale this assumption simulate the discharge. Ernst ws chosen, because is never correct, but on a larger spatial scale the other drainage methods are not applicable due to influence of small flow paths can be neglected. Due instability or invalid assumptions. The rainy period to physical ripening shrinkage creates cracks in the at the beginning of the time series is reasonably soil. In recently reclaimed lakes these cracks are well modelled using a system with three layers with still present. The assumption of homogenic soil is increasing drainage resistances. The drier period not correct for cracked clay soils, which poses the during the summer is not well simulated using the set question: what is the influence of cracks in clay soils of parameters of the first (winter) period. The SWAP on the rainfall-runoff process? A second question is if (Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant) model was used to this process in such soils can be modelled using the determine whether the simplification of the Capsim- known methods. In order to answer these questions module was the cause of the lack of result during the a case study is done in the two youngest reclaimed summer period. The SWAP model takes into account areas of the Netherlands, the Southern and Eastern much more processes in the unsaturated zone, such Flevopolders. Groen (1997) and Wolters (1996) already as hysteresis. The winter period is better modelled showed the presence of cracks in the soil of these by SWAP than by Sobek/Capsim, but the summer polders. period does not show a good comparison. Generally it can be said that the assumption of homogenic soil is A field experiment is set up for two reasons: 1) to get incorrect and the clay cracks have too big influence to better understanding of the rainfall-runoff process justify that assumption. Because of this, the standard in cracked clay soils, and 2) to create a time series drainage methods such as Ernst cannot be used the with high temporal resolution which can be used for whole year round, only in the winter it is justified. simulation of the process in a hydrodynamic model. On two locations groundwater and surface water levels are measured as well as meteorological data. This experiment shows that the clay cracks are interconnected and the discharge peak follows the precipitation peak within a day. Also the groundwater level in the field is constant, with a sudden drop in the last few meters to the ditch. Sometimes the system seems to ‘short-circuit’ the unsaturated zone; after a rainfall event with high intensity the groundwater and surface water level rises drastically, while a rainfall event with low intensity causes (almost) no water level rise. In that case the water is taken up by the unsaturated zone. Unfortunately no specific threshold value was found for this process.

Student: H.E. Geertsema Committee: Prof.dr.ir. N.C. van de Giesen, dr.ir. O.A.C. Hoes, dr.ir. D.M.J. Smeulders, ir. K.J. van Heeringen (Del- tares), Prof.dr.ir. B. Schultz (UNESCO-IHE), Drs. F. Stoppelenburg (Waterschap Zuiderzeeland)

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646

69 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

Optimization of the rainfall-runoff response in urban areas by using controllable drains

In the last times, infiltration facilities to reduce the A mathematical model of the response of the load on the drainage systems have been introduced groundwater levels within the area of study was in many urban areas. These facilities allow water created by using system identification. The inputs to infiltrate or to drain depending of the level it to this identification process are net precipitation, reaches in the ground. It results easy to conclude the historical precipitation and the water level at that this infiltrating and draining process is likely to the infiltration facility. The output is, of course, be controlled in real time so extra storage can be the groundwater levels. All the data was obtained created on the urban subsurface when necessary or, on after a measurement campaign using both “in situ” the other way round, store water when a shortage is measurements and remote sensing. expected. Once a proper model was obtained, a simple feedback To study the possibilities of controlling the controller for the infiltration facility levels was tuned. groundwater levels to create extra storage, an area of A visible improvement on the groundwater levels study was selected in the municipality of Delft, which behavior was observed when the controlled system was interested as well in being able to create extra was simulated. It results clear then that groundwater storage. This area includes an infiltration system. levels, within an area where an infiltration facility is present, can be controlled in theory. After insight on the area was acquired, the only element which is likely to be controlled in the whole A simple actuator was designed and built to be able process turns to be the head levels at the infiltration to run practical experiments in the area later on. facility. Therefore, it becomes necessary to find With this, the real relation of the infiltration system the influence the infiltration facility has on the with the surrounding grounds can be checked as well groundwater system on its surroundings and obtain as different control methods can be tried in further a model which allows tuning a proper controller research. afterwards.

Student: David Haro Monteagudo Committee: Prof.dr.ir. N.C. van de Giesen, Dr.ir. P.J. van Overloop, Dr.ir. F.H.M. van de Ven, Ir. J.A.E. ten Veldhuis, Ir. I.A. Clarisse (Gemeente Delft)

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646

70 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

Improved disaster management with use of Statistics Netherlands data

The Netherlands are formed by a delta area; 25% of Qualitatively the data demands per stakeholders in the country is located below sea level and in this flood time regarding to their specific tasks are mapped. prone area 70% of the gross national income is earned. The data governed by SN points out to offer great Since the big storm in 1953 The Netherlands have been additional value, especially regarding cultural relatively safe against flooding. Although international and environmental damages, public services and flood disaster, as the Katrina floods in New Orleans evacuation and emergency aid. Furthermore SN data 2005, point out society’s vulnerability to floods and enables dynamic interpretation of data during a flood the importance of descent preparedness. Throughout in time through the newly developed model, which history there has always been a strong emphasis on automatically maps the SN data on a satellite map. flood protection and preparedness and therefore the field of flood disaster management displays a wide Quantitatively SN offers data coupled to their range of different stakeholders is involved. Each geographical locations (object data) enabling a higher stakeholder requires specific information depending level of accuracy than the currently used aggregated on the moment in time. The information supply to data used in The Netherlands. The newly developed the stakeholders is scattered and differs in form and model points out object data is 40% more accurate for accuracy. Furthermore some stakeholders make use densely populated areas (7 000 residents per km2) up of flood damage models. This research points out to 360% more accurate for sparsely populated areas flood disaster management in The Netherlands shows (20 residents per km2). shortcomings on qualitative and quantitative aspects regarding the models and information used by its stakeholders, resulting in a poor an inaccurate scenario planning. In order to improve these shortcomings the additional value of the application of Statistics Netherlands (SN) data within the field of flood management is explored. Through literature study, interviews, data analysis and a newly developed flood damage model the additional value of geographical SN data is pointed out in a qualitative and a quantitative way.

Student: J.T.M. Kuilboer Committee: Prof.dr.ir. N.C. van de Giesen, Dr.ir. O.A.C. Hoes, Ir. R.W. Hut, Dr.ir. S.N. Jonkman, Drs. N.F.M. van Leeuwen (Statistics Netherlands)

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646

71 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

Investigation subsurface iron and arsenic removal: anoxic column experiments to explore efficiency parameters

Introduction Results Recently subsurface treatment as a possibility The results of this study are promising and provide new for arsenic removal for drinking water supply on insights in the mechanisms during subsurface iron and community scale in rural Bangladesh has been arsenic removal. Very high adsorption capacities for recognized. The technique involves the injection both iron and arsenic were measured. The retardation of aerated water into an anoxic aquifer, where for arsenic was increasing over the successive consequently ferrous iron is oxidized by the injected cycles, whereas the iron retardation remained oxygen. Subsequently, the flow is reversed and a stable. Furthermore, with a higher ionic strength the multiple of the injected volume can be extracted adsorption of arsenite increased, while the adsorption with lowered iron concentrations, which makes the of iron decreased. technology successful. Efficiency ratios (V/Vi) of extracted water (V) over injected water (Vi) are Under the given conditions the technology typically increasing over the successive cycles and may demonstrated a very good efficiency. Yet, the range from 3 to 30. The freshly formed ferric oxides adsorption characteristics showed conflicting results are potentially effective adsorbents for trace elements with the known surface complexation modeling like arsenic. Yet, the dominant reaction mechanisms parameters, suggesting that other mechanism may be responsible for the retardation of iron and arsenic are occurring which could explain the high retardation. still not well understood. This research aims to gain a Different mechanisms were hypothesized and better understanding of these reactions, to enhance evaluated: ion exchange, interfacial electron transfer the operational efficiency of subsurface iron and and the influence of the point-of-zero-charge of the soil arsenic removal. materials.

Methodology It is concluded that the ion exchange mechanism Several successive injection/abstraction cycles were played a dominant in the retardation of iron. The simulated with anoxic column experiments. Various increasing efficiency of arsenic is a result of the experiments were performed, adjusting and comparing increasing amount of iron oxides at the soil material. the influence of different parameters: two types of soil As a general conclusion it is stated that this study material (clean sand and ripened sand), pH variation, shows that subsurface treatment has a large potential a different injection method and the influence of a for iron and arsenic removal. The results may illustrate

background electrolyte (0.1M NaNO3). the theoretical possibilities under ideal circumstances. More research is required to come to more practical implications to optimize the operational efficiency in the field.

Student: H. van der Laan Committee: Prof.ir. J.C. van Dijk, ir. D. van Halem, Dr. B. Petrusevski MSc. (UNESCO-IHE), Prof.dr.ir. T.N. Olsthoorn.

For further information please contact the section Water Management (Sanitary Engineering), +31(0)15 278 3347

72 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

Regeneration of zeolites used for ammonium removal from anaerobic groundwater

Research performed of the last decades in the By monitoring the influent and effluent concentration waste water treatment field has shown the ability of both ammonia and Fe2+, breakthrough curves could of zeolites to adsorb ammonium via ion-exchange. be determined. By comparing these, the impact of Recent research has proven that zeolites might also the regenerations on the adsorption capacity could be be capable to remove the lower concentrations of established. Extensive analyses of the used regenerant ammonium present in groundwater to the for drinking showed which ions were affected by regeneration water required standards. This makes it a promising and how much regenerant was actually used per technique as replacement for the traditional biological regeneration. In the end the zeolites have been loaded treatment. Still there is not much known about the and regenerated 11 times. The NaCl also has been effect of multiple regenerations with the different used 11 times. Hereby it has been determined that the types of regenerant on the adsorption capacity and the zeolites do loose some of their ion-exchange capacity durability of the zeolites. by regeneration. This loss is the biggest after the first regeneration. After that the adsorption capacity This research focuses on the chemical regeneration of fluctuates around 80% (NaOH) and 70% (reused NaCl) zeolites which have been used to remove ammonium of it original capacity. The fluctuations are caused by from anaerobic groundwater. The main goals hereby changing lengths of the adsorption phase while the have been: regeneration period stays constant. •• The determination of the effect of multiple regene- The reused NaCl shows a higher loss in capacity than ration on the ion-exchange capacity of the zeolites. the NaOH in combination with a higher chemical usage. •• The testing of the effectiveness of two types of From economical point of view NaOH is more feasible. regenerant: NaOH and NaCl. The effect of the extreme pH on the zeolites has not •• To see whether it is possible to reduce the amount been investigated though. of chemicals used for regeneration by reusing the regenerant. It has been possible to reuse the regenerant and still Because the adsorption experiments have been done obtain reasonable results. Whether that really is a with anaerobic water, an extra objective has been to reduction of the used chemicals, is not completely clear investigate whether ammonium adsorption is hindered because no comparative study with single use NaCl has by the presence of Fe2+. been performed. There has been no evidence that the presence of Fe2+ A 4 column set-up has been designed in which two in the source water interferes with the ammonium types of zeolite, clinoptilolite and aqualite, have been adsorption. The positive side effect is that the iron is used. At a drinking water treatment plant a side stream removed by the zeolites to great extent as well. of the influent of their rapid sand filters was used as influent for the columns. Two columns (one of each material) have been regenerated with 0,1 M NaOH, the other two with 1,8 M NaCl that was being recirculated.

Student: Y. Mikkers Committee: Prof.ir. J.C. van Dijk, Dr.ir. S.G.J. Heijman, Dr. J. Gascon, Ir. W.W.J.M. de Vet,( Oasen)

For further information contact Section Sanitary Engineering, Department of Water Management, 015 - 278 3347

73 | Master’s Theses October 2009 4 Watermanagement

74 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5.

Civil Engineering Theses Transport & Planning 5 Transport & Planning

Towards Sustainable Urban Water Management in Brazil

The ongoing increase of imperviousness in urban drainage system the bottlenecks are identified. In the areas and the increase of heavy storm events trigger current situation flooding occurs in 14 of the 31 nodes the urge for more sustainable urban water systems when modelled by a 10-year return period storm. The to combat flooding in Brazil. In developed countries total flooding volume accounts up to almost 30,000 m3. source control measures have been developed to The construction costs of the current macro drainage combat the negative impact of these two factors and system are estimated at R$ 14.3 M. The objective of more sustainable urban water systems are developed. this case study is to present and assess alternative In developing countries, however, this is not the case. drainage approaches to combat these flooding Most solutions in developing countries still focus on problems and to present recommendations for future end-of-pipe measures. developments.

Rapid urbanization during the last decades, without It is shown that enlargement of the conduit diameters adequate urban planning, has resulted in severe in the current drainage system layout to combat hydrologic and environmental impacts in Brazilian flooding is almost 2 times more expensive than solving cities. This has already led to drought and flooding the flooding problem by implanting detention basins problems. Continuing this developing pattern, by or by adopting low impact development. It is also increasing the imperviousness in urban areas, as well shown that the peak runoff produced by enlargement as expanding cities by low-density developments, of the current drainage system is between 1.5 to 2 will lead to exacerbation of these problems and does times higher than the peak runoff generated in case not lead to a sustainable water system. The sanitary detention ponds or low impact development is adopted. philosophy, by which urban drainage systems are based on the concept of draining the water from urban It is concluded that by continuing development in the surfaces as quickly as possible, is still much applied conventional way, by accelerating discharge of runoff in Brazil. Canalization of urban streams, clandestine and building low-density neighbourhoods, costs for urban flood plain occupation, a lack of environmental society as well as the impact on the environment and awareness, a large sediment production and a large on the liveability in the city are redundantly high. amount of solid waste disposal into the drainage It is recommended that low impact development system have lead to a systematic degradation process demonstration projects should be developed to of urban streams. build capacity among urban water and drainage professionals, in municipal departments as well The triplet applied in The Netherlands of first retaining, as among companies active in the sector, and to then storing and ultimately discharging of stormwater increase awareness about the environment among the contributes to a more stable urban drainage system. population. Measures like bioretention cells, infiltration trenches, green roofs and micro-reservoirs are getting more and more common practice in drainage systems in developed countries.

Through a case study in a 6 km2 urban catchment (part of the Arroio da Areia catchment) in the city of Porto Alegre, the influence of different drainage approaches on the runoff is assessed. The catchment is modelled with the SWMM5 stormwater model, applying the kinematic wave approach. By modelling the current

Student: Elwin F. Bakker Committee: Prof.ir. F.M. Sanders (TU Delft, CiTG, Transport & Planning), Prof.dr. C.E.M. Tucci (IPH-UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil), Dr.ir. F.H.M. van de Ven (TU Delft, CiTG, Water Resources Management), Drs. E. de Boer (TU Delft, CiTG, Transport & Planning)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 93 41

76 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Development of District Heating Networks in Urban Areas

District heating networks can support the international The model developed consists of a screening strategy ambitions of government bodies to save energy and an impact analysis to derive five decision and reduce CO2-emissions to limit the human supporting impact parameters: primary energy use, influence in the climate change. The development CO2-emissions, investments, operational costs and user of district heating networks in new urban areas in fees. The presented impacts can be used by decision the Netherlands shows a positive trend due to the makers for selecting a preferred district heating public demand of increasing energy performance network alternative. and reducing CO2-emissions but is still low. The implementation of district heating networks in With the model two scenarios are evaluated to existing urban areas is hardly executed. This is mainly develop district heating networks and to derive the caused by the technical and economical limitations technical and economical feasibility. The technical and barriers that occur during the development of feasibility presents potential for applying district district heating networks. Especially municipalities heating networks. Compared with individual heating and housing association do not have the knowledge systems (gas powered boilers) district heating and experience to develop district heating networks networks presents energy saving and reduction of CO2- and to use the presented potential, while they are the emissions. The economical feasibility shows barriers in key stakeholders in the development of existing urban high investments and sometimes high operational costs areas. for district heating networks. The user fee is limited by the Not More Than Usual-principle which means that This thesis studies when and under what conditions are user pay a maximum price for connection to a district district heating networks technically and economically heating network. competitive with individual heating systems? The results are a tool and a thesis that describes the steps Regarding the goal of the research it is concluded that for modeling district heating networks in urban areas. district heating networks are technically competitive, but are limited by economical aspects. Further studies District heating networks consists of energy conversion can focus on adding energy conversion systems, systems and distribution networks. The evaluated distribution of electricity and cold and social and legal energy conversion systems are five currently used aspects for developing district heating networks in types in the Netherlands. Distribution networks consist urban areas. of various components to distribute heat from energy conversion systems to urban areas.

Student: Daan van Beekum Committee: Prof. ir. F.M. Sanders (TU Delft, CiTG), Dr. ir. E. Hasselaar (TU Delft, Research Institute OTB), Dr. L.C.M. Itard (TU Delft, Research Institute OTB), Dr. R.J. Verhaeghe (TU Delft, CiTG)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 16 81

77 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Towards an optimal (re-) construction of motorways

The report at issue describes a thesis made by for the building and subsequent exploitation of the Christophe Egyed at the Delft, University of technology, road and to restrict the cost of traffic jams. faculty Civil Engineering and Geosciences, section Transportation and Planning under the direction of In case of an extension of a motorway different professor F. Sanders, ir. L. Houben, drs E. De Boer possibilities and the costs involved must be taken into and mr. K. Helsen, deputy of the Province of Antwerp, account. An alternative may be to opt for a permanent Belgium. narrowing of the traffic lanes so that a lane could be added without broadening the road. Such measure Many lobbies and fields of study are involved in the will have its effects on the dimension of the pavement re-building (re-construction) of an existing motorway. structure. It is obvious that not all wishes and ideas of the parties involved can be carried out. In order to diminish the emissions of the vehicles, speed-limiting measures are recommended. The aim of this thesis is to develop a programme that, The narrowing of the traffic lanes may help to bring on the basis of different possibilities of simulation, about this lower speed. Such measure will also have its can indicate in an early stage of the project to effect on the dimension of the pavement structure. those parties involved which consequences a Because of the increase of the traffic it can be decided particular decision may have with regard to the cross at a given moment to install sound barriers and to (transverse) section of the existing motorway and adapt a silent pavement surface in order to reduce the the services concerning the infrastructure along the noise pollution. motorway. The factors that are important in this respect will also be discussed in this report.

Towards optimizing motorways deals with all the And finally, by way of conclusion, a number of aspects of civil engineering that are important in measures of attainableness will be discussed as well order to be able to extend and rebuild an existing as the circumstances in which these measures can be motorway optimally. Because of the large amount of recommended. knowledge available, not all knowledge relevant to the reconstruction and extension of a highway will be dealt with. Nevertheless the programme provides a good idea of what a motorway will look like after and during the operations (works), the most important demands of civil engineering taken into account.

The deliberate gathering of as much traffic as possible on the main roads causes a serious traffic problem on those places where road maintenance is to be carried out on these main roads, because the support road system will probably not be able to absorb the dense traffic diversion. As to the redevelopment and/or extension of existing motorways, this may lead to a method of rebuilding that is different from the present traditional approach and that may help to reduce the length of time required

Student: Christophe Egyed Committee: Prof. ir. F.M. Sanders (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. L. Houben (TU Delft, CiTG), Drs. E. de Boer (TU Delft, CiTG), Mr. K. Helsen (Deputy of the Province of Antwerp, Belgium)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9129

78 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Calibrating a traffic microsimulation model with a phase based algorithm to make the trajectories suitable for traffic emission predictions.

The goal of this MSc-thesis is to investigate the pos- recorded and simulated trajectories by a literature and sibility of calibrating the microscopic traffic simulation mathematical study. The result of this analysis is that model PARAMICS with a phase-based algorithm. The the driver behaviour parameters headway, reaction underlying principle is that once the PARAMICS-model factor and ‘acceleration-speed and deceleration-speed is calibrated and validated, its trajectories can be used profiles’ are adjusted. for the calculation of microscopic traffic emission pre- During this MSc thesis a methodology is developed to dictions. This is studied because the ability to correctly analyse if the adjustments to the driving behaviour predict traffic emissions on a microscopic scale is a parameters had the predicted and desired results. valuable instrument with the ever stricter rules regard- These adjustments are based on the analysis of the ing traffic emissions. used car-following model. The results can be compared Trajectories obtained from microsimulation traffic mod- with FCTTDAS-data (microscopic data from a dataset els, which are calibrated with standard and commonly which is collected with ISST-TS’s instrumented vehicle). used methods, are not suitable for the calculation of The comparisons between the series of runs is based microscopic traffic emission predictions. These trajec- on error scores . An error score is calculated on two tories are correct, from a transport engineering view, levels and in two ways. The first order error score is since the durations and average speeds correspond determined by the mean durations and mean magni- with the reality. However these trajectories are not tudes, while the second order error score is determined suitable, from a emission engineering point of view, as by the standard deviations of the of durations and on a (sub)microscopic scale the distribution of charac- magnitudes. For all adjusted parameters a sensitivity teristics like speed, acceleration and deceleration do analysis is made to find their local optimal value. After not correspond with the reality. analysing all individual parameters, simulations with The main problems with current simulated trajectories logical combinations of parameter adjustments are for traffic emission predictions on a microscopic scale performed. Out of all these different series of runs the are invalid durations and magnitudes for the differ- series with the lowest error score is selected, provided ent phases in comparison with recorded trajectories. that the adjustments made can still be justified. The Invalid trajectories can be explained through the use of best performing series of runs scores significantly fundamentally unsuitable car-following models, incor- better than the default runs, but is still far from the rect numerical implementations of the car-following desired outcome. It can be concluded that it was not models, or an inaccurate estimation of the driver possible to calibrate the PARAMICS-model to satis- behaviour parameters. The assumption in this research faction within the given boundary conditions of this is that the driver behaviour parameters can be estimat- research. ed properly through a phase-based calibration. The aim As the conclusion of this thesis is that it is not pos- is that this will result in valid simulated trajectories. For sible to calibrate the PARAMICS-model to satisfaction, the determination of these phases in a trajectory a tool it seems not logical to start a validation. However, is developed by the Institute for Sustainable Systems the validation is performed to investigate if the errors and Technologies-Transport Systems called ‘Drive Cycle that occur after the calibration are consistent. If these Splitter’. The splitter is used to split the trajectories errors are consistent the approach can be used for into the six different phases. relative emission comparisons, even if the absolute To calibrate the driver behaviour of the PARAMICS emission calculations are not correct due to the fact model, parameters are adjusted. The initial adjust- that trajectories cannot be simulated optimally yet. ments of the parameters are based on an analysis of Secondly, by analysing multiple trajectories of different the car-following model of PARAMICS. In this analysis drivers under further identical conditions, it has been it is determined which and how parameters need to concluded that the influence of the driver of the probe be adjusted to get an improved match between the vehicle on the collected data is significant.

Student: Frank de Groen Committee: Prof.dr.ir. S.P. Hoogendoorn (TU Delft), Dr. R. Zito (University of South Australia), Dr.ir. J.W.C. van Lint (TU Delft), Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad (TU Delft)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9341

79 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Verbetering vervaardigingproces GVVP’s

Een gemeentelijk verkeers- en vervoersplan (GVVP) verschillende fases bestaat en inhoudelijk naar een is het beleidsdocument wat gemeenten hebben om aantal thema’s kan worden teruggebracht. het verkeers- en vervoersbeleid te voeren. Goudappel Coffeng BV (GC) maakt GVVP’s voor gemeenten. Dit Uiteindelijk heeft dit afstudeerproject voor de vorm proces duurt gemiddeld twee tot drie jaar. Het proces van een wiki gekozen. Een wiki is een website waarmee is heel complex en ondoorzichtig door de omvangrijke gebruikers laagdrempelig informatie kunnen delen. inhoud en verschillende bestuurlijke en inhoudelijke Het kennisdelingsinstrument dat dit afstudeerproject processen. Inhoudelijk gaat het maken van GVVP’s heeft ontwikkeld om de leerprocessen te ondersteunen GC goed af. Procesmatig zijn er nog verbeterpunten, – de GVVP wiki – voldoet aan het PvE. De GVVP wiki is bijvoorbeeld in kennismanagement en communicatie. een belangrijke aanvulling in het ontwikkelingsproces De nieuwe beleidsvisie van GC vraagt ook een continue van GVVP’s, omdat het aannames en intuïtie expliciet kwaliteitsverbetering van zijn producten. maakt. Het zorgt voor kwaliteitsverbetering in communicatie, leerprocessen en kennisdeling. De hoofdvaag van dit afstudeerproject: “Hoe kan Goudappel Coffeng door toepassen van Het gebruik door de medewerkers van GC is vooralsnog kennismanagement de kwaliteit van de ‘gemeentelijke beperkt. De verwachting is wel dat wanneer de verkeers- en vervoersplannen’ verbeteren?” organisatie het gebruik stimuleert, de GVVP wiki een succes zal worden in het kennismanagement van GC. De literatuurstudie richt zich op kennismanagement, individuele en organisatorische leerprocessen en Dit afstudeerproject heeft aangetoond dat GC Planning Support Systems. een behoefte heeft aan kennismanagement. Een goede methode daarvoor is het gebruik van een Uit onderzoek van dit afstudeerproject blijkt dat kennisdelingsproduct. De GVVP wiki is klaar voor GC’s individuele en organisatorische leerprocessen gebruik. De implementatie van de GVVP wiki in de beperkt zijn en dat GC behoefte heeft aan een betere bedrijfsprocessen heeft vergaande gevolgen, maar kennisdeling en een betere communicatie tussen de het is een goede zaak voor GC om de GVVP wiki op te projectgroepen en vestigingen. nemen in de bedrijfsprocessen. Wanneer GC ervoor Een individueel en organisatorisch leerproces bestaat kiest om met de GVVP wiki te werken dan zal voor uit veel onbewuste stappen en impliciete aannames. een goed resultaat de aanbevelingen in paragraaf Daarnaast zit veel kennis en ervaringen in de hoofden 5.2 opgevolgd moeten worden. Het management van medewerkers van GC en is daarom niet direct te van GC zal de volledige implementatie van de GVVP bereiken voor collega’s. wiki waarschijnlijk pas ondersteunen wanneer een Voor GC is het belangrijk dat deze impliciete processen businesscase met de GVVP wiki is gedaan. en kennis tastbaar en eenvoudig te bereiken worden. Dit afstudeerproject heeft gekozen om de expliciete kennisdeling te bewerkstelligen met een instrument. Voor dit instrument bestaan verschillende mogelijkheden.

Vanuit de literatuur en de analyses van GVVP’s is respectievelijk een functioneel en een inhoudelijk Programma van Eisen (PvE) opgesteld voor een kennisdelingsinstrument. Uit de analyse van GVVP’s volgt dat de ontwikkeling van een GVVP uit

Student: R.J. in ’t Hout Committee: Prof. ir. F.M. Sanders (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. P.M. Schrijnen (TU Delft, CiTG), Dr. J.L.M. Vrancken (TU Delft, TBM), Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad (TU Delft, CiTG), Drs. ing. M.J. van Lieshout (Goudappel Coffeng BV), Drs. N.G. Nijhof ((Goudappel Coffeng BV)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9341

80 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Optimization traffic control using route information

Optimizing traffic control for a multiple-junction road This study presents a general concept of RICS network is a difficult but important task in traffic including its design, application and evaluation. RICS system design. A properly designed control strategy will increase the flexibility and variety of signal designs with various control measures is effective in handling so that it can well correspond to the vehicle demand in traffic flows in diverse traffic conditions. Regarding the real situations. The roadside layout and other control limits and low performance of existing control system, measures can also be incorporated. RICS is expected this paper presents a novel route information traffic to reduce the negative impacts of bottlenecks or control strategy (RICS), which integrates the route congestions on other routes of vehicles in the network. demands into traffic control strategy design. It is promising to deal with unbalance route network especially during the peak hours. It can also be applied RICS aims to optimize network traffic performance in incident management to evacuate large traffic flow and facilitate the movements on some specific routes on one route. with maximizing the capacity of infrastructure and maximizing the utility of certain route. It is potential The results from the case study proved the feasibility to relieve movements blocked problem in saturated and effectiveness of RICS. RICS was quite helpful condition or improve the movements of big traffic to facilitate the movements of targeted routes with demand route in some special traffic conditions. minimizing delay caused by spilled back queues. However, it might cause the additional delay on non- The measures of RICS are in a wide variety, which preferential routes in the network. The simulation include adjustments in the signal timings and roadside results also showed these negative impacts can be geometric. They can be designed corresponding to minimized by proper design of roadside layout. the route demands in the network. RICS enjoyed big advantage in generating higher flexibility in signal This study also pointed out that there were various control setting and adaptability to various traffic expected problems in RICS. For example, there are a conditions. RICS potentially provides special control for huge increasing in the number of alternatives of RICS preferential routes. design along with increased flexibility, which also could be a drawback of its application due to increased The application system of RICS involves input system complexity and uncertainty. The further studies are which provides traffic condition and route demands and recommended to focus on the application in a wide output system such as traffic signal control and traffic network, interaction between route choice and traffic management. RICS can be pre-designed or it can react control strategy, integration of simulation environment or adapt to the real time traffic condition. etc.

Student: Jun Li Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.J. van Zuylen

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9341

81 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Assessment of the relationship between observed crashes and simulated conflicts at intersections

The goal of this M.Sc. thesis project is to investigate The approach adopted for the study consists of four a traffic safety indicator calculated on the basis of basic phases. First, the registered data on real crashes micro-simulation. This safety indicator called TTC is processed and linked to the model network by using (time-to-collision) is based on the concept of a conflict the geographical information system, ArcGIS. Then, situation; i.e. two vehicles approaching each other in once the micro-simulation model is calibrated, data on such a way that if they do not change their course or the movement of vehicles is retrieved from the model. make a preventing manoeuvre, they will crash. This data is used for the calculation of the traffic conflicts. Different critical TTC are adopted for the This project is incorporated into a research study calculation of the number of conflicts that took place at from SWOV called Route choice in road networks. the intersections. There are therefore, various datasets The latter deals with route choice from a safety of conflicts which are used for the assessment of the perspective and aims at developing a method by which relationship between calculated conflicts and real road authorities and traffic engineers can make use crashes. Calculated conflicts, flow and number of arms of micro-simulation for assessing, among others, road of the intersection were used as explanatory variables. safety. The statistical analysis involves fitting generalized linear models and shows promising results, as there The approach adopted on this project does not aim seems to be a correlation between real crashes and at simulating traffic conflicts as they are in reality. calculated conflicts. Instead, a method is used that defines a conflict situation on the basis of data derived from a micro- The results of this preliminary study can lead to the simulation model. The research assessed whether development of a method based on micro-simulation there is a significant statistical relationship between that allows for a safety assessment of route choice. A the frequency of calculated conflicts and the actual follow-up study should include signalized intersections number of crashes registered at unsignalized and roundabouts as well, seeking to determine the intersections. The research was limited to the traffic of ‘best model’ that enables road authorities and traffic motor vehicles. engineers to assess the relative safety level of the infrastructure. A regional Dutch network from the area Leiden-The Hague was used for the study for which data on traffic and real crashes was available.

Student: Paula A. Marchesini Committee: Prof.dr.ing. I.A. Hansen (TU Delft), Ir. A. Dijkstra (SWOV), Ir.P.B.L. Wiggenraad (TU Delft), Ir. T. Heijer (TU Delft)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 1681

82 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Reducing Travel Time Loss in Financial Services Or How to Increase Job Satisfaction and the Share of Billable Hours

Financial Services are a line of work that suffers from productivity is not significantly depending on this travel the overload on the Dutch road network (among other behaviour. The most remarkable part of this analysis things because of the nature of the jobs in this sector, is the fact that employees who travel a lot can be as the working hours and the origin and destination of productive or even more productive as employees who travelling employees). Ever increasing travel times lead hardly travel at all. So productivity seems to be subject to employees who have to travel longer to their offices, to the cleverness of an individual. This is why generic their clients and their homes. A serious problem for and most of all facilitating measures seem to be the both the employee and his employer. A decrease in key to increasing productivity. billable hours and job satisfaction leads to money loss The solution to solve all mobility related problems at for the employer. In this study I tried to present a set PwC Advisory doesn’t exist. The problem is too complex of measures to reduce (travel) time loss in financial to simply optimise all employees’ travel behaviour services and to increase job satisfaction and the share by implementing some large-scale measures. Things of billable hours. that can be improved are: Flexibility of employer To see if it’s possible to present measures or strategies and client. If employees get enough opportunities to handle these problems for all of the companies in and tools to optimise their own travel behaviour, financial services, you have to zoom in on the different it will almost certainly result in less travel time. parts of the problem. In this thesis this is done by Employees’ ingenuity. By being creative with time doing a case study at one of the bigger players in and opportunities, employees can take matters into financial services: PricewaterhouseCoopers. The their own hands and optimise their travel behaviour. structure of this case study (and the rest of this thesis) Accessibility of offices. By creating an accessible was as follows: a functional and spatial analysis of network of offices, employees get more opportunities PwC, data collection and analysis, final product case and tools to optimise their travel behaviour. study: measures and final product thesis: measures. By The final set of measures to cope with all mobility doing a case study at PwC Advisory I was able to derive related problems at PwC Advisory can be put together generic measures suitable for all companies in financial out of a wide range of measures related to mobility services. management and time management. By translating The mobility problems at PwC are far more complex these findings to a broader perspective you can say than at companies where employees (more or less) do that one of the most important findings of this study the same kind of work. The complexity of the problem is that the solution for mobility problems of companies at PwC reduces the chance you miss some mobility in financial services doesn’t exist. This is why for related problems (that can occur at other (smaller) different companies tailor made solutions are a must. companies). The fact that PwC has offices all over By selecting a set of measures geared towards the the Netherlands and also serves clients all over the company concerned you can minimize travel time loss. country causes lots of work related trips. The majority Additionally, job satisfaction and the share of billable of those trips are made by car (approximately 80% hours will increase. of all respondents stated they use the car as travel mode for the majority of their work related trips). The accessibility of almost all offices of PwC in the Netherland is lacking, especially when you look at public transport. That’s one of the main reasons why employees are dependent on their cars and don’t look at public transport as a reasonable alternative. By analyzing travel behaviour of employees of PwC Advisory you can deduce that an employee’s

Student: Ralph Otto Committee: Prof.ir. F.M. Sanders (T&P, TU Delft), Drs. E. de Boer (T&P, TU Delft), ), ir. F.S. Zuurbier (T&P, TU Delft), Dr.ir. J.H. Baggen (T&L, TU Delft) and drs. F. Kop (PwC Advisory)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9129

83 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Optimal configurations for designs of bus stations

Bus stations are the points where different lines functionality of the basic concepts gives the highest gather and travelers can transfer to other modes of level of functionality for the head fishbone. The transportation. All too often a negative part of this walking time of travellers is low due to smaller walking experience by the traveller is the transfer process. distances and the fact that there are no conflict points However, a well thought of, planned and executed between the traveler and the bus flows and in part to a design of a bus station can make the public transport high level of survey ability and social security. option much more attractive. This research is only focused on the spatial configuration with their To analyze the influence of the implementation of basic functionalities, which is the arrangement of the concepts into the available space on the functionality physical components such as the lanes and platforms of the bus station, an analysis of 10 existing bus contained within. stations in the Netherlands was done. The functionality of these bus stations was determined similar as de Different players (the traveler, the bus operator and functionality of the basic concepts. A clear relationship the principal) have their own interests and opinions between the spatial configuration and the functionality in the design of a bus station. The traveler wants to was not found. The implementation of a basic concept accomplish his activities (walking towards the bus can thus have a great influence on the functionality stop, waiting and boarding the bus) in a fast, safe and of the whole design of the bus station. Due to the fact convenient manner. The bus operator must be able to that the bus station in The Hague had the lowest score, move fast and save on the bus station. The principal a new design has been made based on the functionality has to facilitate the bus station into the available of the basic concept. Therefore, the head fishbone has space. been implemented according to the measurements of the bus platform, the required number of bus stops Spatial configurations of bus stations are split up into 7 and the distribution of the travellers over the access basic concepts: points to the bus platform. Testing of the new design •• Fishbone: separate, parallel platforms with bus shows a huge improvement in the level of functionality. stops, where busses drive into and depart forward. Compared to the other bus stations even the highest •• Head fishbone: same composition as above but score is achieved. the busses depart backwards; •• Island: a central platform with surrounding bus The results of this research show the high level of routes and stops; functionality of the head fishbone as basic concept •• Roadside: a singular platform with busses behind for the spatial configuration of bus stations. The case each other at one side; study of the bus station of The Hague shows how this •• Double roadside: two roadside platforms next to basic concept can be implemented in the available each other; space with an improvement of the functionality. •• Double roadside with opposite direction: same as before, but with opposite bus directions; It is highly recommended to use the head fishbone •• Bent roadside: one roadside platform with two as basic concept for the spatial configuration of bus connection parts in a corner. stations. The functionality of the bus station will The spatial configuration has an important influence therefore increase making it more attractive to use on the functionality of the bus station. Functional them by all parties (but mostly the travellers!). characteristics together define the functionality of the bus station and are based on the interests and activities of the actors. The indicators are dignitaries to measure these characteristics. Testing of the

Student: J. van Rossum Committee: Prof.dr.ing. I.A. Hansen (TU Delft, CiTG), Drs. E. de Boer (TU Delft, CiTG), Ing. E. Jongenotter (Witteveen&Bos), Dr.ir. S.C. van der Spek (TU Delft, BK, Urbanism), Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad (TU Delft, CiTG)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0) 15 278 1681

84 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Network Performance Degeneration in Dynamic Traffic Assignment With Applications to Evacuation Modelling

EVAQ is a traffic model for ex-ante evaluations of formula is used in a framework that relates all flows evacuations plans. The model is still in development on the intersection. For roundabouts an existing model and it is uncertain whether EVAQ will accurately model by Cetur (1986) is used. A similar framework is put network performance degeneration. At the same time in place to relate all flows over the roundabout. The it can be said that accurate network performance model is adapted to work on lane level rather than link degeneration is very important for evacuations. level for turbo roundabouts. For weaving sections, The research of this thesis identifies that there are on-ramps and off-ramps a new model is developed that phenomena that contribute to network performance looks at lane specific demand. degeneration that are not modelled. Two important phenomena that are not included are the flow The new model needs more calculation time but degeneration as soon as links become congested and produces more precise capacity estimations. Significant the constraints that nodes (intersections) themselves changes are found for the MFD and for queue lengths have. Several general ideas were thought up to (spillback). The latter now resembles results from the implement these phenomena. A selection was made on microscopic model VISSIM quite closely and needs both the basis of accuracy. the new link and node model.

Flow degeneration as soon as a link becomes The new node and link model are part of the Dynamic congested has to do with the link model. The link Network Loading model of EVAQ. This model has been model determines what number of vehicles can the centre of most changes performed for EVAQ and potentially enter and leave the link within a time step. can be used in any other Dynamic Traffic Assignment In order to accurately determine these, the framework model. Furthermore, the model is theory based and of Cell Based Queuing is developed. It represents can thus be used for reversed engineering and more the queue on a link as a set of cells that are related extensive analysis of bottlenecks, also for evacuation to successive time steps in the past. The theory of schemes. kinematic waves is applied which explains that in congestion the traffic states move upstream. Traffic states in the cells can thus be determined using the link outflow from the past. Link inflow is determined by the remaining storage capacity on the link. As an addition to the theory of kinetic waves, the cell at the end of the link is governed by saturation flow rather than kinematic waves. This implicitly applies a capacity drop.

A newly developed node model evaluates constraints on the nodes. The new node model is a combination of these constraints and the constraints by link inflow that are already evaluated. The node model exists out of several sub models that are used for different node types. The controlled intersection model deals with combined use of conflict areas and the effect of green phases. The uncontrolled intersection model is based on a capacity formula that determines the capacity for a minor flow based on a major flow. The

Student: Wouter Schakel Committee: Prof. Dr. Ir. Serge P. Hoogendoorn (TU Delft, CiTG), Ir. Olga Huibregtse (TU Delft, CiTG), Prof. Dr. Ir. John Stoop (TU Delft, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering), Ir. Marco Schreuder (Rijkswaterstaat, Centre for Transport and Navigation), Ir. Ydo de Vries (Rijkswaterstaat, Centre for Transport and Navigation)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0) 15 278 1681

85 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

Vrouwezand, island in lake IJsselmeer Development of a new island in a public private partnership

Building a new island? For recreational and living purposes? At first glance this seems like an impossible task due to the economical crises and the political sensitivity of the chosen location.

But in fact it is this unique location and the possibility that government and private parties join forces in economical hard times that gives the project great opportunities. An exclusive island that not only improves the recreational possibilities of the region but also The multidisciplinary character of the island lends stimulates the whole economy of the region. itself to the realisation of the island in a public private partnership. In this cooperation public and private This thesis gives an overview in all the steps and parties work together at an early stage. A project of phases that needs to be considered by the realisation this size is usually too complex to be realised by one of an island. This includes not only an technical and party. Benefits of this partnership are time saving, functional design of the island but also the financial cost reduction and a better quality as a result of the feasibility and the possibility of a public private exchange of information and knowledge. Public private partnership. partnership also means that all profits can be utilized for the project. Based on an extensive study of different functions that accommodate the island a conceptual design is drawn Conclusions which serves as the input for the financial feasibility. The realisation of the island is financial feasible. In this financial study the costs of the realisation of Public private partnership is the best way to develop the island, infrastructure and real estate is estimated the island. against the profits of developing real estate.

To calculate the financial feasibility a model is used that gives an insight in the value of land in according to the use of land. This so-called residual method is derived from the Dutch practise of urban land policy. This model is a fast and an effective way to calculate the actual value of space utilisation. The financial estimation gives an overview of all the costs and benefits in time (see figure). In Dutch this is called “de grondexploitatie”.

Student: Bart Simon Committee: Prof. ir. F.M. Sanders (TU Delft, CITG), Dr. ir. J.H. Baggen (TU Delft, TPM), Ir. P. van Eck (TU Delft, CITG), Drs. E. de Boer (TU Delft, CITG)

For further information please contact the department of Transport & Planning: +31 (0)15 278 9129

86 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

A dynamic traffic assignment model based on social costs

The use of a car causes different costs. The sum of To combine the seven separate social costs indicators these costs is called the social costs. To make the into the total social costs amount a price is given to the benefits of car use as large as possible these social different indicators. Pertinent literature was researched costs should be minimal. The social costs of car use to find prices which define the social impact for the depend on the social costs from origin to destination. different indictors. The social costs functions depend Because users choose the route based on their own on the characteristics of the road. For a highway, experienced costs and not based on the social costs a rural road and an urban road an example link is the route choice is not always optimal from a social defined. For the highway link the social costs mainly perspective. consist of costs for travel time and fuel use. For the rural road and urban road the travel time, fuel use, To determine the difference in social costs between the injury victims and fatal casualties are the main part of current route choice and the social optimal route choice the social costs. the dynamic macroscopic assignment model INDY is extended. In the current model it is only possible to The dynamic assignment model for the social costs is assign traffic based on travel time and toll costs. In the used in a case study for the main road in the triangle extended model the traffic can be assigned based on Utrecht - Amersfoort - Soest. In this case study two the social costs. assignments are performed, namely a user equilibrium for the travel time and a system optimum based on the In this study the social costs are defined as the sum of social costs (SOSC). In a system optimum based on the seven indicators, namely travel time, fuel use, nitrogen social costs the total costs are 1.3% smaller than in oxides emission, particulate matter emission, carbon the user equilibrium for the travel time. In this system dioxide emission and the expected number of injuries optimum the travel time, fuel use and carbon dioxide and fatal casualties. emissions increase with respectively 3.4%, 0.6% and To assign traffic based on the social costs a costs 0.6%. The nitrogen oxides emission costs, particulate function for every indicator is needed. This costs matter costs, injury victims and fatal casualties function describes the height of the indicator for decrease with respectively 0.6%, 1.3%, 9.5% and different loads on the road. These costs functions were 11.7%. In the SOSC the number of kilometres travelled found through research of relevant literature. on the highway increases with 6.0%, on the rural For the costs functions for fuel use and the different roads decreases with 15.6% and on the urban roads it emissions the COPERT IV model is used. The COPERT decrease with 8.6%. IV model has as variable the average speed of the vehicle. For the costs functions for injury victims and fatal casualties risk numbers of different road types of the SWOV in combination with the Nilsson formulae are used. The formulae of Nilsson give the relations between risk levels and speeds.

Student: E.A.J. Vendrik Committee: Prof.dr.ir. S.P. Hoogendoorn, Dr.Ir. A. Hegyi, Dr.ir. R.T. van Katwijk, Ir. F.J. op de Beek, Ir. P.B.L. Wiggen- raad

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87 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

High-frequency train service between Rotterdam and Leiden

The railway network in the Netherlands is one of the In all comparisons, a timetable with a very strict highest occupied networks in the world. Because differ- two-train service turns out to be the best one. In this ent train services run on the line sections, with dwelling timetable, there are direct intercity services Rotterdam regimes and different operational speeds and because – Den Haag HS – Leiden (and further via Haarlem to of the limited available infrastructure, the chances on Amsterdam) and Den Haag Centraal – Leiden (and conflicts in the railway operations are high, which might further to Schiphol Airport). Sprinter-trains run on the result in delays. In an attempt to improve the qual- lines Rotterdam – Den Haag HS – Den Haag Centraal ity of the railway operations, not only with respect to and Den Haag Centraal – Leiden. robustness but also with respect to higher frequencies, This strict line structure also fits within the corridor NS wants to introduce the so-called “Spoorboekloos structure NS Reizigers aims for. Simulations shows rijden”, which translates as “running without a time- for normal disturbances (so track-, train-, or signal table”. Shortly, this means that a passenger can go to failure are not taken into account) only 1 to 2% of the a station at each moment, knowing a train will arrive departures is delayed (based on the punctuality criteria soon. Of course, an (internal) timetable still exists to a train may face up to 5 minutes delay). To be able to assign personnel and rolling stock etc. The line sections compare the timetables better, trains departing more of the Oude Lijn between Leiden, Den Haag and Rotter- than 15 seconds late are assumed as delayed. This dam belong to one of the busiest line sections in the results in 56.5 % delayed departures. Netherlands, and when the timetable has to be rede- signed because of the expected shift of (long distance) As a final part of the thesis, research is done whether passengers to the High Speed Line, this creates an small infrastructure measures could improve the opportunity to introduce “Spoorboekloos rijden”. robustness of the timetable. Simulations show that replacing signals and adapting block lengths to the In the report, research is done if the creation of a basic local maximum speed near bottle-necks will result hourly timetable with 6 trains per hour per direction in a rather large decrease in delays, as was the case for both intercity and Sprinter services. After some for trains entering Schiedam coming from Delft. This initial calculations to test whether the track capacity results in a decrease in delay of 5% to 51.5%. Also, is sufficient for these frequencies, 3 conflict-free additional turnouts near Den Haag Laan van NOI show basic hourly timetables have been set up. To analyse a decrease in delays, as it separates the intercities and compare the timetables, simulations are done in from the Sprinters at that point. Here, delays decrease OpenTrack. (a micro-simulation program dedicated to from 56.5% to 51% (for additional turnouts only) or simulate railway operations) Simulations showed that 49.5%. (for a complete 4-track entrance of Den Haag track occupancy rates remain below 75% (the limit for Centraal). Of course, further research is recommended normal operations according to UIC (2003)), except to check if abovementioned solutions are really for the two-track line section Delft – Rotterdam (when possible and if other measures, or further fine-tuning heading south). To be able to compare the timetables of the timetable can have better results. with respect to running time, frequency and number of transfers, a formula was set up to calculate a quality Concluding, this thesis shows that even when only the factor for each possible relation. For each relation, the current infrastructure is available, it is possible to apply running time, frequency, number of transfers and the “Spoorboekloos rijden” between Leiden, Den Haag importance of the connection is determined for the and Rotterdam. quickest and second quickest route. These values are integrated to one value for each timetable. Besides, simulations are done with initial delays to compare the timetables on robustness.

Student: R.H. van Vliet Committee: Prof. Dr. Ing. I.A. Hansen, Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad, Dr. Ir. J.A. Ottjes (3ME), Dr. E.A.G. Weits (Movares)

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88 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

A disaggregate freight transport model of transport chain and shipment size choice on the Swedish commodity flow survey 2004/05

The objective of this master thesis was to establish up. These incorporated variables accounting for all discrete choice models for the choice of transportation attributes that were assumed to be relevant in the chain and shipment size in freight transport. This decision process. Applying utility theory and hereby models aim to reflect reality as well as possible in order assuming that decision makers aim for maximizing to allow the models application in decision support for the utility of their choice (or, respectively, minimizing policy making in freight transportation. their choice’s disutility), random utility choice models, More specially, the objective was to estimate a namely multinomial logit models and nested logit disaggregate freight transport model, based on the models, were estimated by using maximum likelihood unique and vast data source of the Swedish Commodity methods. Random utility choice models accounted Flow Survey (CFS) of the year 1004/05, which models for given uncertainties of unobserved and observed the choices of transportation chain and shipment attributes. Estimated models with their resulting size in a simultaneous way, hereby incorporating a parameters of (cost) attributes were evaluated, tested logistics perspective. Decision-makers of the modeled for their significance and compared with each other by choices are sending firms (or their commissioned various statistical methods. shippers respectively). Finally, also applications of the best resulting models Following the research objective, various research were carried out. Cost elasticities were derived by questions treating the impact of attributes of decision applying simulation runs in order to prove the model’s makers and choice alternatives could be derived and accuracy and its policy sensitivity. answered throughout the model estimation process. Best resulting models showed that cost attributes of The specific objective and set-up of the model stem choice alternatives have mostly minor influence on from the fact that existing freight transport models decision making compared to attributes of shippers hardly ever account for simultaneous decision making or shipments. Influential are the value density of a in freight transport, nor success in incorporating a shipment (reflecting a preference of small shipment logistics perspective by taking extensive logistics costs sizes and fast transportation chains for high value in to account. Further, the general lack of disaggregate goods) or the commodity type and its connected data describing freight flows has lead to a lack of cargo type of a shipment. Also, alternative specific models that reflect decision making on a individual constants, reflecting mainly unobserved attributes level (as it takes place in freight transport). These of choice alternatives, showed to have considerable deficiencies, hindering an appropriate reflection of impact on decision making. Small shipment sizes and real-life decision making, were tried to be overcome the transport chain type ‘lorry’ proved to be preferred with the proposed model based on the Swedish CFS. compared to other choice alternatives. First, the available data of the CFS, describing Considering the extremely low derived cost elasticities attributes of shippers, shipments and the selected especially for road transport, obtaines result are not choices, were combined with the according logistics really pleasing for policy makers. Possibilities for costs of selected and unselected choice alternatives. influencing decisions in freight transport, specifically Logistics costs influencing the choice process, e.g. regarding the choice of mode usage, seem to be very transport costs, interest costs, transshipment costs limited. Results suggest that changes in infrastructure and inventory costs, were derived in accordance with (e.g. allowing sending units more access to rail the Swedish national freight transport model and its facilities or waterways) could provoke an (often longed logistics module. Choice alternatives were defined for) decline in road transport. in such a way that simultaneous decision making in transport chain and shipment size was accounted for. Next, utility functions, describing the attractiveness of choice alternatives for decision makers, were set

Student: Elisabeth Windisch Committee: Prof.dr. ir. S.P. Hoogendoorn, Dr.ir. R. van Nes Delft , Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad, Prof.dr. G.C. de Jong (Univer- sity of Leeds and Significance-Quantitative Research, The Hague)

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89 | Master’s Theses October 2009 5 Transport & Planning

90 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6.

Offshore Engineering Theses 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Discrete Element Modelling of Sand/Rock Cutting in Deep Water

Rock behaviour and the high cutting force required The cutting of water saturated sand is much more in deep water constitute the biggest challenges complicated, because of the water stress and the in deep sea operations. The research sources into flowing inside and outside the pores. However as these subjects are not yet well enough developed the EDEM software is able to couple to CFD software to describe the rock behaviour and to calculate the we are interested in modelling an alternative for cutting force. One of the biggest challenges for the CFD inside the EDEM. Through this modelling, it modelling of sand cutting is relationship between the is possible to add water stress to your simulation micro properties of particles and the macro behaviour without any coupling to CFD software, which will of sand. This research is started by researching to save your calculation time. From this research it can the suitability of DEM software for modelling of this be calculated that the modelling of sand cutting by subject. From this software research, it turned out EDEM seems to be a reliable method to investigate that EDEM software is the most suitable software for the modelling of rock cutting in deep water. But this this particular research. To check the reliability of this modelling requires more research and time, because software, the relation of micro parameters and the the complication of 3D model and the calculation time. macro behaviour of specimens is investigated on the basis of several simulations of sand cutting, passive earth pressure and sandpiles for dry sand. In reality the sand/rock particles are not perfectly spherical; their behaviour is determined by their natural shape and material properties. By imitating the natural shape of sand/rock particles in the simulation the managing of particle behaviour will be become much easier. This also showed that the angle of any internal friction of specimen is the same as the arctan of the coefficient of static friction of a particle.

Student: Morteza Abdeli Committee: Prof. dr. ir. C. van Rhee, Dr. ir. S.A. Miedema, Dr. ir. D. L. Schott

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92 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

The effect of fluid velocity on eigenfrequencies of FPSO piping systems

A huge variety of piping is positioned on the topside of Subsequently a bridge pipe is analyzed. This is a a FPSO. One of the issues regarding the design of this pipe connected between two modules on the process piping is the determination of the eigenfrequency. This deck. Hogging and sagging together with its span analysis must be accurate, since resonance can lead to length induce an accurate determination of its excessive shortening of its fatigue life. Fluid velocity eigenfrequency. A method is developed to transform may have an influence on this eigenfrequency. the expansion loop into a straight pipe model keeping up with the constitutive relations and physical properties of the loop. This creates the possibility to analyze the expansion loop by means of the numerical method applied in the single and double span piping. The numerical model is validated with FEM. Making a conservative approach, it is found that the decrease of eigenfrequency is about 5% under the effect of fluid velocity. The main cause of decrease is the centrifugal term (95%). Coriolis’ effect is small and fluid momentum forces don’t have any effect on the decrease.

The final conclusion is that the maximum decrease will practically not come above 5% in topside piping of a FPSO. Industry standards prescribe a design regulation of the eigenfrequency of piping. The eigenfrequency In pre-investigation it is showed that there is a is advised to be 20% above or under the excitation decrease of eigenfrequency under the influence of fluid source. The recommendation is to validate the velocity. Coriolis and centrifugal effects contribute to developed method by means of an experiment. If valid, that. A parametric analysis is performed on single span CB&I should consider taking the centrifugal term into and double span piping defined with different boundary their finite element code. conditions. Although the effect of fluid velocity on decrease of eigenfrequency is low (aproximatelly 0.5%), the main conclusion is that an increase of spans leads to a higher decrease of eigenfrequency under the influence of the same fluid velocity.

Student: Sietze Douwe Akkerman Committee: Prof.ir. C.A. Willemse, MBa, Ir. J. Haesaerts, Prof. dr. A. Metrikine

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93 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

‘An investigation of squalls and their impact on in situ structures, using measured data from the Greater Plutonio Field, Offshore Angola’

The Greater Plutonio Field, offshore Angola, is one Subsequently, an adapted OrcaFlex model of the of BP’s latest developments in ultra deep water structures in the Greater Plutonio Field was used to (>1000 m). This project is seen as a predecessor of simulate structural motion responses due to the real more future projects in the region and many lessons time recorded squalls. The real time motion responses are expected to be learned from this project. Highly of the FPSO were compared with the simulated motion innovative offshore structures for transportation responses. This comparison proves that the wind and storage of reservoir products were developed, speed and wind direction are the key mechanisms for successfully installed and carefully monitored the motion responses of squalls. Although the motion throughout their operating phase. All sensor data response of the FPSO in the simulations were similar obtained from a comprehensive monitoring system to the real time records of the offset, well founded is recorded in a data base and can be used for data conclusions about the sensitivity of the system to analysis purposes. squall winds could not be made. For this reason three investigations were carried out to gain more insight Although the climate offshore West Africa is mild, an into the behaviour of the FPSO its mooring line system. extreme event, known as a squall, frequently occurs in the region. A squall causes a sudden, sharp increase Finally, from the simulations and data analysis it is in wind speed, which is usually associated with concluded that the mooring line tension and offset due thunderstorms and forms a serious threat for offshore to squalls stay well within the design assumptions. structures. The performance of floating structures and their mooring system due to squalls, as well as the squall phenomenon itself, are areas in which little experience of knowledge exists and is the subject of this study.

The thesis describes the motion responses of the spread moored Greater Plutonio FPSO during squall events from both real time as from results of simulations done in OrcaFlex. In addition the design assumptions of the FPSO offset and mooring line tension are checked.

First is addressed how a number of squall events were identified from the history database. In addition, an analysis of real time data of the motion response of the FPSO during the squall events was made, with the result that some squalls had far lower influence on the offset of the FPSO than others. It was therefore decided to enhance the original criteria for squall identification, for engineering design issues of offshore structures.

Student: J.J.R. Brokking Committee: Prof. dr. ir. R.H.M.Huijsmans, Ir. G. Tol, Ir. J. Cozijn, G. Thomas

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94 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Grab Dredger Optimization

As the application of dredger is increasing recently in offshore industry, so an optimization of dredgers including the grab dredger is also required.

Model of Grab Dredger.

Under this research an application of the vibrators on grab dredger is analyzed. The closing wire forces, Grab Dredger soil production and its specific energy are main part to be examined. Some parameters such as wire force, The research had been carried out using a grab dredger upper and lower sheave are recorded using gauge and model on a saturated two types of sand representing transducers. Vertical, horizontal and side effect soil an offshore application. cutting forces are also analyzed and determined using Matlab as applicable mathematic software.

Student: Rikrik Gantina Committee: Prof.dr.ir. C. van Rhee, Dr.ir. S.A. Miedema, Dr. M.A. Grima, Ing. C.H. van den Berg

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95 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

On-Bottom Stability of High Temperature Pipelines

With the high demand for hydrocarbons in the past decade, subsea pipelines are increasingly required to operate at high pressures and temperatures. The exploitation and recovery of hydrocarbons from these high pressure / high temperature (HP/HT) reservoirs require special considerations in the design of pipeline systems. As a result of the temperature and pressure, the pipeline tends to expand. Due to contraints, e.g. soil friction, high axial compressive forces will develop in the line. At some critical value, these stresses may lead to sudden lateral movement in the pipe, called lateral buckling. Buckling may be a problem if stresses and strains in the pipeline exceed the design criteria and threaten the integrity of the pipe. First, the dynamic modelling in itself is assessed. The Besides lateral buckling issues, an exposed subsea analyses are based upon a pipe at high temperatures pipeline may experience lateral movements due in still water. It was found that the conventional static to current and wave loading, known as on-bottom modelling method is in general conservative, but that instability. Theories with respect to lateral buckling the dynamic model estimates higher bending strains and on-bottom instability has led to several methods during the buckle snap than the static model does. and models to assess the stability of a subsea pipeline. The magnitude of this ’dynamic amplification’ mainly However, the current design criteria are not clear about depends on the ’bending stiffness EI, the lateral soil if and how the combination of the two instability issues friction and the initial out of straightness (OOS) of the should be taken into account. The objective of this pipe. Taking into account the probability of expected thesis is to enhance the insight in pipeline behavior initial imperfections, a very large dynamic amplification under the influence of the high temperatures, high is not very likely to occur. pressure, and severe weather conditions. Second, the possibility of on-bottom instability A dynamic Finite Element Model (FEM) is developed triggering lateral buckles is investigated. An example to asses the stability of a subsea pipeline. The model shallow water pipeline is used as a case study. It is works with the unconditionally stable Hilbert-Hughes- found that on-bottom instability can indeed trigger Taylor method, which introduces some numerical lateral buckles. The cases where buckling - no buckling damping to the solution. A subroutine was developed occured were compared to the Det Norke Veritas (DNV) to model hydrodynamic loading from waves and guideline to lateral buckling. In the case study lateral current and to model pipe-soil interaction which takes buckling occurs at a temperature lower than the critical into account hydrodynamic lift. The FEM is used to temperature recommended by the DNV guideline. investigate two different cases.

Student: J.M. van Hilten Committee: Prof.ir. C. A. Willemse, MBA, Ir. G. Tol, Ir. G. Hommel, Ir. A. Hilberink, Dr. R. Peek

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96 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Design of a floating offshore support structure for the Wave Rotor. “A technical study aiming at the optimisation of the wave rotor’s performance and capacity for survivability”

The wave rotor is a cross flow turbine type of wave energy converter that uses the ocean’s kinetic energy to generate power. This water turbine is a combination of a Wells and Darrieus rotor and has been in development for more than ten years by the company Ecofys. Since the environmental conditions with the highest energy density are found in deeper waters, one of the next steps in the development of the Wave Rotor project has been the design of an offshore device which can serve as a floating support structure for the rotors. This floating offshore support platform (FOSS) will have two main objectives: to optimize performance and to guarantee the system’s survivability in extreme environmental conditions. Both requirements can be improved by means of a well designed motion response of the FOSS.

The main conclusion of this research project is that making use of the motion response behaviour of the floating support structure can increase both the system’s overall performance as well as its capability to survive the extreme environmental conditions.

Student: Reinder Jorritsma Committee: Prof.ir. C. A. Willemse, MBA, Ir. G. Tol, Dr.ir. J. van der Tempel, Ir. G.M. Massaro, Dr. Ir. H.J. de Koning Gans

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97 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Optimization of the Transport- & Installation Process of Offshore Wind Farms

The demand for more environmentally friendly sources However, this new method introduces new challenges: of energy is increasing. Wind energy is one of the most The transport of turbines upright is associated with promising renewable energy resources, and for this larger motions in the components than during current reason the offshore wind industry has been growing transport methods. Also the floating barges will have rapidly the last few years and will definitely continue to to be unloaded when arriving at the construction site: grow the coming years. relative motions of the load to the crane do make this a hazardous operation. The method is checked The installation of the offshore wind farms has on workability during these two stages; the transport drastically increased over the last years. Installation over open sea and the lifting phase during installation capacity is already at its peak. Current installation offshore. Two alternatives are shown; three turbines methods make use of expensive installation vessels placed upright on the deck of a barge and six turbines for both transport and installation of the turbines. that are transported in components that have to be Unfortunately these vessels are capable of transporting installed piece-by-piece offshore. only few turbines per sailing. A large part of the operational time of these vessels therefore is spent on The transport phase is limited by accelerations found loading and transporting. This thesis deals with the in the nacelles. Within the limitations on forecasted development of an improved transport and installation weather conditions during the voyage the restrictions method that is available on short term. The method are all met. The transshipment phase, where the should increase the installation capacity. This implies jackup crane has to lift the turbine off the barge is split the use of currently available marine equipment that up into three phases; the first phase where the barge should be used more efficiently. and load are moving together, the intermediate phase where the load is partially suspended into the crane The answer is provided by this study by means of and partially resting on the barge. Finally the third the introduction of barges for transportation of and last phase starts at liftoff, an air gap is present the offshore wind turbines from the harbor to the between the barge and the bottom side of the load. installation site. This transport method is combined Here the danger of collision between barge and turbine with the installation by a jackup barge that remains at is governing. The availability of this method year round the construction site. is approximately 43%. Several options are already available to increase the availability of the proposed method, those include active and passive heave compensation in both the crane and on the barge. Dynamic ballasting systems that quickly lower the barge by instantly reducing the buoyancy.

This installation method will allow for more efficient use of crane vessels for installation of offshore wind turbines. When combining it with support systems such as heave compensation it will show acceptable uptime and lead to increased overall installation capacity for the offshore wind industry.

Student: Coen Kleipool Committee: Prof. C.A. Willemse, MBA, Ir. G. Tol, Dr. ir. J. van der Tempel, Dr. ir. D.P. Molenaar, Ir. P. Naaijen

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98 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Method for real-time touchdown point measuring during pipeline installation

During pipeline installation, it is important to know The investigated method for determining the where the pipeline touches the seabed, especially touchdown point is to measure angles on the pipeline where other pipelines or cables are being crossed relative to the horizon with inclinometers. To derive as the new pipeline has to be laid on protection the pipeline shape and calculate the touchdown point, mattresses. For other difficult parts like sharp bends, a reconstruction model is used. In reality, the pipeline it is also crucial to ensure that the pipeline is laid shape is 3D with rotation, but for this investigation it is correctly. Once the pipeline has been completely assumed to be 2D and non-rotating. The reconstruction laid route corrections are expensive, therefore it is model works in two steps: First, a data fit will be made essential to monitor the touchdown point real-time. To with the measured angles, where parameters (such determine the touchdown point, a Remotely Operated as pipeline weight and bottom tension) are estimated. Vehicle (ROV) is used. Then, these parameters are used in the second step where the touchdown point is calculated relative to the The disadvantage of ROVs is that they are expensive ship, thus deriving the pipeline shape. It was found in every aspect. The costs to buy and operate them that a three component reconstruction was necessary are high, while there are also existing problems with to reconstruct accurately: Mainly catenary component, the workability. If the ROV cannot operate due to bad as well as an Euler-Bernoulli and a straight component, weather conditions when touchdown monitoring is which are used near the touchdown point and on the required, the whole pipelaying process needs to be seabed respectively. stopped. Most of the time, the pipelaying vessel could have continued working in these weather conditions. Simulations are performed for deepwater and shallow At the moment, there is no real objection against using water, where a random error is superimposed on the an ROV, but a problem is likely to occur in the future. measuring data to simulate the measuring errors of Clients demand ever increasing information about the sensors. After the simulations, a statistical analysis touchdown point. For the relatively easy parts on the is made. The conclusion is that for deepwater, the pipeline route, it is deemed unnecessary by Allseas to reconstruction model works well as it is possible to use an ROV from a commercial and operational point of achieve an offset error of 3m at 1700m water depth. view so an alternative touchdown monitoring system For shallow water, the model works moderately well should be available instead. This report investigates because less data is available for the data fit, as a method to determine the position of the touchdown compared to the deepwater example, which is caused point relative to the ship, in order to eliminate the use by the limited length of suspended pipeline. of an ROV.

Student: J.M. de Klerk Committee: Prof. C.A. Willemse, Ir. D.J. Cerda Salzmann, Ir. M.P.M Krutzen, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom

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99 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Wake influence on tidal turbine performance and tidal farm arrangements

Tidal currents are a potential source of clean and The influence of wake effects on the performance of predictable energy. The increasing demand for energy tidal devices and farm arrangements is subject to this stimulated the development of devices to generate thesis. The aim is to find simple relations that can electricity from tidal currents in the past decades. be used to predict the energy output of a given farm Most concepts involve rotating underwater turbines configuration. The energy output of a turbine depends that are placed at sites with strong tidal currents. At on its inflow velocity. Therefore, the strategy is to this moment, the development and testing of full-scale find a model that is able to predict the velocity field prototypes is ongoing. Plans for the near future are in the tidal farm. Such ‘wake models’ are available for to install several tidal devices in clusters, similar to wind turbines and thruster-thruster interaction. The wind farms, to make energy production commercially applicability of these wake models for tidal turbines is viable. During design of such a ‘tidal farm’, the spacing studied in this thesis. between the turbines has to be determined.

Optimising the arrangements of turbines within the A CFD model of a tidal turbine is used to simulate tidal farm is a trade off between different parameters. the velocity in the wake and flow in a tidal farm. The On one hand it is attractive to place the devices close obtained results are used for testing the wake models. together to reduce the required cabling and space The CFD model is validated with measurement data on the seabed. On the other hand, it is known from from the literature. wind energy that the wake, induced by a turbine, has a negative impact on the energy production of Comparison of the CFD simulations to the wake models downstream devices. The wake is a zone with reduced shows promising results. The flow behind a single velocity behind a turbine. Further downstream, the turbine is studied extensively and different cases velocity recovers gradually by turbulent mixing with the for multiple wake interaction are assessed. Finally, ambient current. a case study on a small tidal farm demonstrates the applicability of the models.

Student: Moritz Palm Committee: Prof. R.H.M. Huijsmans, M.J.B.M. Pourquie, H.J. de Koning Gans, G. Tol, A.L. Sijtstra

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100 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Mooring and installation of wave energy converter Wavebob

The world’s growing demand for energy calls for In Phase I different mooring system concepts were the development of new energy sources. One of modelled in order to find the mooring forces and the leading technologies in this field is wave energy motion behaviour during storm conditions. The converter Wavebob. The Wavebob is a floating buoy influence of the mooring system on power generation device that will automatically adjust its response to suit during operating conditions was also modelled. the prevailing wave climate. It is especially designed to This resulted in a three point mooring system using recover power from ocean swell and to be deployed in submerged buoys and suction anchors. The submerged large arrays offshore. buoys minimize the vertical force component of the Heerema Marine Contractors was asked by Wavebob mooring system on the Wavebob and thus minimize Ltd. to design a transport and installation procedure the influence on power production. They also have a for a large development offshore Ireland, consisting beneficial influence on mooring line forces. of a several hundred Wavebobs. Since no suitable In Phase II array mooring systems for multiple mooring system was available the research includes Wavebobs were researched. Modelling was done on a full mooring system design. The research was the influence of Wavebobs on each other in order to divided in two phases. In Phase I a mooring system determine the optimal array spacing. This resulted in and installation procedure for a single Wavebob was two mooring system concepts that reduce the number designed using industry standard methods where of mooring components and installation time needed possible. In Phase II improvements were evaluated per Wavebob. focusing on installation time and cost reductions. For both mooring systems installation procedures were designed. A workability analysis was used to estimate the weather down time during installation. Finally a cost assessment was done to compare the designed mooring and installation procedures.

Student: B. Poppelaars Committee: Prof.ir. C.A. Willemse, MBA, Ir. P.S. Albers, Ir. G. Tol, Dr.ir. P.Th.L.M van Woerkom, Ir. P.J. Meeuws

For further information please contact the department of Offshore Engineering, +31(0)15 278 6882

101 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Fatigue Integrity of Mooring Lines on Offshore Production Facilities

The ongoing search for offshore hydrocarbons has forced It´s learned that the fatigue resistance approach by the oil & gas industry to develop fields in areas beyond means of either TN or SN curves is based on very limited the depths of bottom founded structures. Floating facili- data obtained from tests executed in ideal tension-only ties have been applied widely, but their significance conditions with significantly smaller chains then ones and technical challenges increase with water depth and used on floating structures. Potential size-, mean stress- harsher environments. To guarantee safe and continu- and proof load-effect is uncertain and it is found that ous production, floating facilities are kept stationary fatigue damage prediction is significantly different using by mooring systems. Failures of mooring systems can either TN or SN approach, increasing with chain diam- therefore require production to be ceased, resulting in eter. significant requirements on the design life. As design standards are currently very limited on guide- Despite these design requirements, there has been a lines for fatigue loading analyses, quality is generally significant amount of mooring line failures in the recent dependent on requirements of the project’s operator. In past of which a substantial part could be related to fa- a case study, during proof-of-concept analyses of a new tigue damage. As fatigue damage is accounted for in cur- FPSO project, the ability of the current design philosophy rent design standards, questions are being raised on the to predict fatigue damage has been assessed. It is found reliability of the design approach with respect to fatigue. that extensive calibration, different for operational con- This study describes a review on the current mooring line ditions and by focusing on fatigue damage, was required design approach, executed at BP Exploration Operating to obtain accurate results, which is threatened by the Company, with a focus on fatigue damage. current focus on maximum tension in extreme environ- mental conditions. Besides that, preliminary analysis to The major conclusion in this report is that fatigue is the occurrence of VIV in mooring lines is executed, which under-exposed in the entire design process of mooring indicated that the current assumption of non-occurrence lines. This has developed such from the historical focus couldn’t be justified. on extreme responses, which dominated the mooring system design process. Recent mooring line failures It is concluded that although the design process is therefore indicate the requirement of design standards relatively robust, significant limitations are found with to be upgraded, on both fatigue resistance determination respect to fatigue. Additional research to the fatigue as well as fatigue loading analyses. resistance in mooring chains should increase insight in the use of design curves. The resistance approach should be upgraded to be applicable in other loading conditions than tension-tension. And additional requirements dur- ing fatigue life prediction studies using dynamic analyses should improve the prediction accuracy.

Student: W.F. van Rossem Committee: Prof.dr.ir. R.H.M Huijsmans (TU Delft), Ir. T.N. Bosman (TU Delft), Ir. G. Tol (TU Delft), P. Smedley (BP)

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102 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Deep Water Subsea Heavy Lifting “A lifting concept with tuneable eigen frequency at fixed heights”

New oil production locations demand a new scope of installation depths and weights. Current installation systems fall short in providing the needed load capacity and motion characteristics.

Factors influencing the load capacity and motion behavior of a general lifting system have been explored and have led to a new lifting concept: the ‘Double Block Lifting System’.

This new concept has an additional block of sheaves (the traveling block) attached to lines from the top of the system (crane tip) and the bottom of the system (bottom assembly). The traveling block can be moved up and down while keeping the total height of the system the same.

Adjustment of the traveling block position changes the stiffness of the lines between the traveling block and the top of the system. Likewise the stiffness of the lines between the traveling block and bottom of the system changes for a new position of the traveling block.

The position of the traveling block can be adjusted in such a manner that the traveling block functions as a dynamic absorber for the motions of the bottom assembly of the system.

Motion response characteristics of this new lifting system show that the responses of the bottom assembly can be reduced considerably for the eigen frequency of a standard lifting system.

The ‘Double Block Lifting System’ is potentially a passive heave compensation system that can significantly reduce motions of the bottom block assembly, lowering the touch-down speeds of objects to be installed on the seabed.

Student: W.J. Slob Committee: Prof. ir. C.A. Willemse, Prof. Dr. ir. D. Rixen, Ir. G. Tol, Ir. C. M. Spanjers

For further information please contact the department of Offshore Engineering, +31(0)15 278 6882

103 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Jack-up leg design for arctic operations

Marine Structure Consultants BV is one of the The concept development phase of the design study engineering companies of the SBM group. MSC results in three concepts that are subjected to a has gained extended expertise in the design and sensitivity analysis. The most promising concept engineering of jack-up platforms throughout the years. appears to be the floating ice breaking cone around a With exploration and production moving to harsher 12 m diameter cylindrical unstiffened all steel leg. environmental conditions the conventional design of jack-ups need to be revised. The concept study of For the determination of the wall thickness of the leg a Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit for the Sakhalin area a strength analysis is performed on 2 spots of the leg. resulted in an arctic jack-up. This choice is mainly The ice load on the floating cone is modeled according driven by the development of marginal fields and year to the Plastic Limit Method of T.D Ralston and verified. round drilling capability. Due to its dynamic behaviour a simulation is set-up to investigate the occurrence of resonance for the dynamic sawtooth load with the equivalent waveheight of the 100 year ice thickness. It appears that resonance is likely to occur and therefore the strength analysis is based on the static ice load multiplied with a dynamic amplification factor. The strength analysis being an iterative process eventually results in a wall thickness of 120 mm.

As stated earlier the ice loading has a dynamic behaviour. This means that in the design of the leg structure fatigue plays a key role. The fatigue analysis is applied to 2 hotspots at the lower leg guide where the internal moment is largest: the horizontal butt weld between 2 ring shaped leg sections and the pinhole edge. For the fatigue analysis a simulation is done with use of probabilistic distributions of the ice thickness and ice drift velocity. The large amplitudes of the dynamic ice loads with respect to ocean waves have a An important element of an arctic jack-up is the significant influence on the fatigue life as well as the leg. The legs must carry the weight of the hull and relative large leg wall thickness. facilities and be able to withstand the large ice loads at Sakhalin.The static strength analysis of the truss leg of an existing jack-up design, results in failure for a 100 year rafted ice thickness of 3 m. Truss legs in general provide a significant ad-freeze surface. Ad-freeze results in weight increase and larger resistance against the ice crushing load.

Student: P. Smeets Committee: Prof. ir. C.A. Willemse, MBA, Ir. G. Tol, Ir. J.L.A.M van der Hoorn, Dr. ing. A. Romeijn

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104 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Friction forces in pigging: a predictive model

Pigging has become a standard procedure in the Oil Besides eccentricity the following parameters are & Gas industry nowadays. A pig is a mechanical tool evaluated for the pig motion model: normal forces that is inserted into the pipeline for maintenance or around the seal, deformation of the footprint on the examination, the pig is driven by the medium that is pipe wall, film thickness around the seal and wearing transported in the pipeline. To ensure pig performance, rates. safe operations, plan pigging operations and evaluate Special attention was given to the lubrication analysis, pig design the industry uses pig motion models and to calculate the film thickness. With a simplified full-scale test facilities. The existing models on pig Reynolds equation and assumptions regarding the motion all exclude the eccentricity of the pig motion fluid pressure under the seal, a new analytical method and the friction force between pigging seals and pipe for calculating the film thickness was developed and wall is over simplified. compared with other methods. This analytical method showed to predict the film thickness more accurately The aim of this thesis is to define a steady-state pig and was implemented in the new model. motion model including eccentricity to predict the pig characteristics. By doing this, the goal was to show The new developed mathematical model, Pigasus, that eccentric motion and lubrication have an impact is equipped to calculate the differential pressure on the parameters concerning the motion of a pig against distance and velocity. The Pigasus model through a pipeline and as such cannot be neglected. was compared with experimental data from another For this purpose the PIGPlus model was selected to research program. implement eccentricity. The improvement due to eccentricity was not apparent. However the new film thickness calculation A mechanical model to predict the eccentricity has implemented in the model did show an improvement been developed. In it, the eccentricity is expressed with respect to the experimental data. The eccentric as the vertical displacement of the centre of the rear module did show that the methods used, mainly for and front of sealing disc. These displacements are calculating the normal force, became less accurate determined from the resulting overturning moment for larger deformations. So eccentric motion does around the pig. To achieve this the spring coefficients influence the pig characteristics but the values could of the seals are needed. These are determined from a not be calculated accurately with use of the current deflection analysis of the seal. methods.

Finally the model assumptions and methods were evaluated. Estimates of improvements were carried out and implemented in the Pigasus model. These results had an overall better agreement with the experimental data. This thesis work showed that modelling pig motion is a complex and dynamic subject. Leaving enough room for future work to be done.

Student: M. Tillemans Committee: Prof. ir. Kees Willemse, Dr. ir. Robert-Jan Labeur, Ir. Ger Tol, Ir. Mark Goudsmit, Drs. Freek Hoogeveen

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105 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

Influence 90 degrees bends on the pressure losses in slurry transport

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredgers use hydraulic Main conclusion is that it is possible to model the transport to discharge load by ’rainbowing’. The sand is transition length and the influence of the solids in discharged through a large nozzle placed on the bow of the transition section. The decrease of the bend loss the ship. Before the mixture reaches the nozzle, it has coefficient in slightly heterogeneous flow due to the to flow through a 90 degrees bend. The losses, due to decrease of the vertical concentration gradient in the the mixture, flowing through bends, are the subject of transition section can be quantified. The model results this thesis. in a more accurate bend loss coefficients prediction. Constant loss coefficients are used to predict the hydraulic losses over bends. The disadvantage of the use of constant loss coefficients is that it requires a pseudo-homogeneous mixture. A mixture is pseudo- homogeneous when the sand concentration is constant throughout the mixture.

Mixtures are not always pseudo-homogeneous. When the sand has a lower concentration at the top of the pipe than at the bottom of the pipe, this is called heterogeneous mixture. When the sand concentration at the bottom of the pipe rises above 55% a deposited bed is formed. Physical design rules of the pressure losses of heterogeneous mixture flows through bends are not present in literature.

An experimental program in the Laboratory of Dredging Engineering of Delft University was set up to measure the pressure losses in relation to two bend radii (r=1D & r=2.5D), various concentrations and flow velocities.

The bend loss coefficient summarizes a complex process in one number. If the incoming flow pattern is pseudo-homogeneous, then the pressure loss due to bends is equal to the coefficient of fluids. If the incoming flow pattern is slightly-heterogeneous without deposited bed, the properties of the temporary flow pattern behind the bend have to be taken into account. There is sought for a relation between the bend loss coefficient and the vertical concentration profile of mixture in the pipe. Behind the bend there is a mix of the slurry in a transition section, which results in relative less pressure loss than in pseudo-homogeneous flow. The behaviour of the vertical concentration profile is modelled with the advection-diffusion equation for the solids particles.

Student: A.R. Verschoor Committee: Prof.dr.ir. C. van Rhee, Dr.ir. A.M. Talmon, Ir. J.D. Strijbis, Ir. M.J.B. Cartigny

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106 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

The added mass effect in centrifugal pumps: an approximation formula for the added mass moment of inertia of logarithmic impellers

For torsional vibration analysis of centrifugal pump model experiments with a series of logarithmic systems, i.e. determining the critical frequencies of the impellers. The experimental set-up has been system, the system’s mass moment of inertia needs to optimised to induce torsional vibrations with one be known. For centrifugal pumps this means both the degree of freedom only. For each impeller, the natural impeller mass moment of inertia and the fluid effect frequencies in both air and water of the set-up with on the pump’s inertia need to be determined. The impeller are measured. The frequencies can be used fluid effect on the pump´s mass moment of inertia is directly to compute the impeller’s added mass moment called the added mass moment of inertia, abbreviated of inertia. The first dataset is obtained for testing Ja. To be able to predict the critical frequencies more impellers in a large basin, simulating an infinite fluid accurately, the current method at use within IHC domain. In real practice impellers are mounted in a Merwede needs to be further improved. This thesis volute, imposing both a lateral constraint as well as presents a new, more accurate approximation formula an axial constraint on the outflow. These are studied for the added mass moment of inertia of centrifugal separately by testing all impellers in both an axially impellers. enclosed configuration as well as a laterally enclosed The formula is based on the analytical solution of configuration. These experiments provide the data a two dimensional potential flow around a rotating to tune the model’s correction factors. To study side elliptical cylinder. The added mass moment of inertia effects of impeller vibrations in the suction pipe and of this rotating cylinder can be transformed easily discharge pipe, some scale model impellers have been to the added mass moment of inertia of a flat plate tested in a scale model volute. Effects of upscaling of zero thickness, with an arbitrary length and unit the geometry have been studied by testing impellers width. In potential flow analysis, the only governing of different sizes. In the experiments there is no flow parameter is the geometry of an object: the added through an impeller, but in real practice there is. For mass moment of inertia of a logarithmic centrifugal studying the effects of flow, water has been forced impeller then depends on the impeller geometry through vibrating impellers. The experiments in the only. The geometry can be described by the impeller ‘infinite’ fluid domain and the constraint configurations diameter Dimpeller, the suction diameter Dsuc, the show higher order behaviour of Ja when varying the impeller’s width Wimpeller, the number of blades Z and diameters and linear behaviour of Ja when varying the blade angle β. The fluid has an influence indicated Wimpeller. The behaviour when varying Z proved to by the fluid density ρfluid. The model-impeller has be degressive instead of linear. Lateral constraints on been constructed as an ensemble of flat plates having the flow did not influence the added mass moment of the impeller dimensions mentioned above. The formula inertia significantly. Constraining axial flow however Ja (Dimpeller, Dsuc, Wimpeller, Z, β, ρfluid) assumes resulted in an increased Ja. No side effects in the behaviour of Ja in the diameters to the power four suction pipe and discharge pipe could be detected. and linear behaviour in both Wimpeller and Z. The Upscaling the impellers geometry with [L] results in main differences between real practice and the two- scaling Ja with [L]5 according to the model. In the dimensional model are the impeller blades being experiments it was found that Ja scales with [L]n with curved instead of being straight, and the flow through 4 < n < 5. At the moment of writing this subject is still an impeller entering axially and leaving radially instead studied however. Fluid flow through an impeller proved of only flowing radially. The approximation formula not to alter the added mass moment of inertia. contains two correction factors, correcting for both Approximation of the added mass moment of inertia the blade angle β and the presence of axial flow. Each with the model presented in this thesis is within 12 % correction factor contains a linear scaling parameter accuracy on average compared to the measurements. that needs to be tuned with experimental data. The approximation formula can be applied directly to The model has been validated by carrying out scale IHC impellers.

Student: J.M. van Wijk Committee: Prof. dr.ir. C. van Rhee, Dr.ir. S.A. Miedema, Ir. P. Naaijen, Ir. J. Speksnijder (MTI), Ir. M. van de Zande (MTI)

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107 | Master’s Theses October 2009 6 Offshore Engineering Theses

108 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7.

Last year’s Theses 7 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses July 2009

Civil Engineering Theses Tensairity – The effect of internal stiffeners on the buckling behaviour of an inflatable column 25 Structural Engineering Student: T.E. Wever

The feasibilty of an integral bridge, whith in detail the Hydraulic & Geo Engineering adiabatic shrinkage Student: F. de Beukelaer, BEng Euromax terminal Student: M. van Bemmel Modulaire Autobrug; In Vezelversterkt Ultra- Hogesterktebeton Sediment Budget Analysis of the Santa Barbara Littoral Student: B. van den Broek Cell Student: J. Brocatus Influence of misalignment on the fatigue life of welded connections “sustainable Management of contaminated Sediment” Student: K.J.A. van Doremaele Puerto Dock Sud - Buenos aires - Argentina Student: K. M. Croonen Building Engineering Morphological impact of a deep water reef The Great Dubai Wheel The structural feasibility of the Student: C.M. van der Hout world’s first multifunctional centre less Ferris wheel Student: J.A.N. Bolleboom Method to evaluate ship manoeuvrability based on flow fields Climate Plus Dwellings Thesis on the energetic Student: M.H.A. Kaarsemaker behaviour of dwellings with greenhouse and new innovative heat exchangers Beach Nourishment to Mitigate the Impact of Sea Level Student: D.M. van Brakel Rise in Southeast Australia Student: J. Langedijk An optimised internal transport principle for a high-rise building Bouwputvernageling Student: J.W. Colsen Student: R. van Leeuwen

Prefabrication of concrete shells Bio-physical impacts on fine sediment dynamics in an Student: Eline den Hartog idealised Wadden Sea basin Student: C. van Oeveren Structural Shape study Al Ghubaiba Ferry Terminal Student: J.G.L. (Jasper) Janssen Non-hydrostatic modelling of large scale tsunamis Student: P.B. Smit Building pits with permanent prefabricated concrete strut systems Sediment Transport in the Westerschelde Delta Student: J. Rindertsma Student: F. Verduin

The use of biomimicry for housing in flood areas. Possibilities for an engineering consultant as project Student: P. Schipper developer and investor Student: J.P. Verschuure Development of a floor made from Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) with integrated installations 2 Sustainable energy dam :Research into possible Student: J. van Stormbroek improvement of dam/dike safety by application of sustainable energy on dams/dikes Systems Engineering in Practice; A research of possible Student: D. Wondergem applications and characteristics Student: Eline Vink

110 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7 Last year’s Theses

Watermanagement Alternative routes A15; Maasvlakte - Vaanplein Student: J. Vlaar Influence of temperature on filtration in membrane bioreactor Offshore Engineering Theses Student: M. Benschop “The HydroBLIMP” Reuse of softening pellets for remineralizing Buoyancy driven subsea lifting desalinated water Student: T. Bakker Student: L. Gao Surge Motion Damping Methods for Soft Yoke Mooring Emission trading in Dutch water quality management Systems Student: C.B. Kamphuis Student: J.B.T. Brinks

Quantifying vegetation cover changes from NDVI time Concept development for side-by-side offloading of series and determination of main causes for the Nile Liquefied Natural Gas Basin Student: P. Cuppen Student: S. van der Kruijs The Braceless Semi Submersible Countering threats from micropollutants to European Student: V.J. Nolting drinking water quality Student: P. J.M. van Overveld Numerical Simulation of Suction Pile Lowering Student: H. Siegersma A method for simulating wetland hydro-dynamics in regional climate models Scaling Offshore Energy Converters Student: M. Smoorenburg Student: B.M. Visser

On the applicability of discharge measuring techniques in partially filled conduits Student: H. de Man- Van der Vliet

Transport & Planning

Optimization of the evacuation of regions by car Student: O.L. Huibregtse

Modelling the Influence of Travel and Traveller Characteristics on Multimodal Travel Behaviour Student: M.P.T. Koenis

Modelling railway dispatching actions in switching max- plus linear systems Student: Dirk van der Meer

The effect of precipitation on travel time prediction and the influence on the reliability of travel times. Student: Michiel Soetens

Amsterdam: dynamic, liveable and reachable An analysis of the effects of AMFORA Student: N. van der Velden

111 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses March 2009

Civil Engineering Theses Tensairity – The effect of internal stiffeners on the buckling behaviour of an inflatable column 25 Structural Engineering Student: T.E. Wever

The feasibilty of an integral bridge, whith in detail the Hydraulic & Geo Engineering adiabatic shrinkage Euromax terminal Student: F. de Beukelaer, BEng Student: M. van Bemmel

Modulaire Autobrug; In Vezelversterkt Ultra- Sediment Budget Analysis of the Santa Barbara Littoral Hogesterktebeton Cell Student: B. van den Broek Student: J. Brocatus

Influence of misalignment on the fatigue life of welded “sustainable Management of contaminated Sediment” connections Puerto Dock Sud - Buenos aires - Argentina Student: K.J.A. van Doremaele Student: K. M. Croonen

Building Engineering Morphological impact of a deep water reef Student: C.M. van der Hout The Great Dubai Wheel The structural feasibility of the world’s first multifunctional centre less Ferris wheel Method to evaluate ship manoeuvrability based on flow Student: J.A.N. Bolleboom fields Student: M.H.A. Kaarsemaker Climate Plus Dwellings Thesis on the energetic behaviour of dwellings with greenhouse and new Beach Nourishment to Mitigate the Impact of Sea Level innovative heat exchangers Rise in Southeast Australia Student: D.M. van Brakel Student: J. Langedijk

An optimised internal transport principle for a high-rise Bouwputvernageling building Student: R. van Leeuwen Student: J.W. Colsen Bio-physical impacts on fine sediment dynamics in an Prefabrication of concrete shells idealised Wadden Sea basin Student: Eline den Hartog Student: C. van Oeveren

Structural Shape study Al Ghubaiba Ferry Terminal Non-hydrostatic modelling of large scale tsunamis Student: J.G.L. (Jasper) Janssen Student: P.B. Smit

Building pits with permanent prefabricated concrete Sediment Transport in the Westerschelde Delta strut systems Student: F. Verduin Student: J. Rindertsma Possibilities for an engineering consultant as project The use of biomimicry for housing in flood areas. developer and investor Student: P. Schipper Student: J.P. Verschuure

Development of a floor made from Fiber Reinforced Sustainable energy dam :Research into possible Polymers (FRP) with integrated installations 2 improvement of dam/dike safety by application of Student: J. van Stormbroek sustainable energy on dams/dikes Student: D. Wondergem Systems Engineering in Practice; A research of possible applications and characteristics Student: Eline Vink

112 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7 Last year’s Theses

Watermanagement Alternative routes A15; Maasvlakte - Vaanplein Student: J. Vlaar Influence of temperature on filtration in membrane bioreactor Student: M. Benschop Offshore Engineering Theses

Reuse of softening pellets for remineralizing “The HydroBLIMP” desalinated water Buoyancy driven subsea lifting Student: L. Gao Student: T. Bakker

Emission trading in Dutch water quality management Surge Motion Damping Methods for Soft Yoke Mooring Student: C.B. Kamphuis Systems Student: J.B.T. Brinks Quantifying vegetation cover changes from NDVI time series and determination of main causes for the Nile Concept development for side-by-side offloading of Basin Liquefied Natural Gas Student: S. van der Kruijs Student: P. Cuppen

Countering threats from micropollutants to European The Braceless Semi Submersible drinking water quality Student: V.J. Nolting Student: P. J.M. van Overveld Numerical Simulation of Suction Pile Lowering A method for simulating wetland hydro-dynamics in Student: H. Siegersma regional climate models Student: M. Smoorenburg Scaling Offshore Energy Converters Student: B.M. Visser On the applicability of discharge measuring techniques in partially filled conduits Student: H. de Man- Van der Vliet

Transport & Planning

Optimization of the evacuation of regions by car Student: O.L. Huibregtse

Modelling the Influence of Travel and Traveller Characteristics on Multimodal Travel Behaviour Student: M.P.T. Koenis

Modelling railway dispatching actions in switching max- plus linear systems Student: Dirk van der Meer

The effect of precipitation on travel time prediction and the influence on the reliability of travel times. Student: Michiel Soetens

Amsterdam: dynamic, liveable and reachable An analysis of the effects of AMFORA Student: N. van der Velden

113 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses October 2008

Civil Engineering Theses Assessment of Real Loading Capacity in Concrete Slabs Student: Xuying Wei Structural Engineering Building Engineering A finite element model which includes compressive membrane action for lateral restrained concrete bridge The stability of a glass facetted shell structure deck slabs student: J.A.M. Aanhaanen BSc. Student: Gert Jan Bakker High-Rise Exploring the Ultimate Limits The feasibilty of an integral bridge, whith in detail the Student: A.J. Dijkstra adiabatic shrinkage Student: F. de Beukelaer, BEng Ant System Based Structural Design of a Roof in Ultra- High Performance Concrete Lateral-torsional buckling of coped beams with fin-plates Student: M.G. Flint as end support connection Student: C. Bouras Herbestemmen van het kantoorgebouw aan de Huis te Landelaan te Rijswijk The Influence of Relative Humidity on the Durability of Student: Marieke Jansen Concrete A Multi Scale Approach Student: B. Bruins Slot Malieveld congres centre Student: D.J. van Kan Design of a Lock Gate in Ultra High Strength Concrete Student: Macarena Falcon Concha Designing underground parking facilities for a 55 year- old Dutch national monument Performance of a Cable-Stayed Bridge Under Traffic Student: Evridiki Kiniakou Loading - Static and Dynamic Analysis Student: Nikolaos Fardis Exchangeability of BIM Student: P.J. van Mourik Dynamic positioning system for Hermod using Hi-Load DP Student: J. Jung Hydraulic & Geo Engineering The cost effectiveness of compartmentation of the Cracking on the unheated side during a fire in an immersed Orleans Metro Bowl. tunnel Student: M.L. Aalberts Student: B. Nieman Hypoplasticity Investigated -Parameter Determination Analysis of Thin Concrete Shells Revisited: Opportunities and Numerical Simulation due to Innovations in Materials and Analysis Methods Student: Kambiz Elmi Anaraki Student: B.H. Peerdeman The effect of non-linear soil behavior under vibrating Foundation of deep basements loads. Student: B.J.Verhoef Student: Nguyen Van Anh

The Use of Micronized Sand as Cement Replacement An Toe structures for rubble mound breakwaters exploring study into the new use of a material Student: S.A. Baart Student: W. de Vries The Elastocoast system Masterplan of Jebel Ali Port Student: E. Bijlsma Student: Zhuoyi Wang The spreading of corpse scent in water Dynamic behaviour of pedestrian bridges Student: R. Bil Student: T.P. van der Wardt

114 | Master’s Theses October 2009 7 Last year’s Theses

Investigation into soil displacement near a jacked-in pile Watermanagement in sand Student: Nguyen Thanh Chi Exploring shallow groundwater irrigation: current status and future application 58 Verification and numerical implementation of a 3d Student: J. van den Berg liquefaction model Student: Asaye Chemeda Dilbo Optimising process parameters to achieve advanced Implementation, validation and evaluation of a Quasi-3D chemical phosphorus removal model in Delft3D Student: F.H.van den Berg van Saparoea Student: J.J. Henrotte Potential Water Conflicts in Mali Morphodynamics Suriname River Student: G.J. van Dijk Student: M. Loose Higher water levels in new urban areas on soft subsoils “Fairway Maintenance of the river Ijssel” Student: M.L. Oppermann Student: Pedro Navarro Matin Forcing on the salinity distribution in the Pangani The longshore dimension in dune overwash modelling Estuary Development, verification and validation of XBeach Student: Wouter Sotthewes Student: R. McCall The value of flood warning systems The Stability of Synthetic Gabions in Waves Student: J.S. Verkade Student: J. Oosthoek Transport & Planning The use of pile groynes to reduce sediment exchange The effect of precipitation on travel time prediction and between river and harbour the influence on the reliability of travel times. Student: J. T. Castillo Rodriguez Student: Michiel Soetens

Preliminary feasibility study on the development of a marina at Noordwijk Student: M.C.J. Smits Offshore Engineering Theses Mooring design of a production and storage buoy Masterplan for the port of Meulaboh; Expansion project Student: N.J.P de Baar Student: A.M. Martin Soberon Load Distribution of Offshore Platforms Port of thessaloniki – masterplan Student J. Blauw Student: G.I. Vanidis Mining of Seafloor Massive Sulphide Mud dynamics in the Markermeer silt traps as a Student: Hyoun Joon Choi mitigation measure for turbidity Student: T. Vijverberg Breaking Ice Student: H.W.J. Dennert Exploratory Research into the Maintenance of the Slijkgat Analysis of the discharge processes in a hopper Student: R.C. de Winter Student: E. G. Dijkgraaf

A Study of the erosion problem along Rosslare Strand Ice-induced vibrations on Gravity Based Structures Student: S.A. Zweers Student: B. Haverkamp

Increment of the stiffness of the Pieter Schelte hull by a connection beam between the fore-ships. Student: K. Hoof

115 | Master’s Theses October 2009 The development of an improved transport and installation method of offshore windfarms Student: C. Kleipool

Riser system for slurry transport in deep sea mining conditions Student: M. van der Kooi

Challenges when producing gas offshore northern Siberia Student: M.M. Witteman

Challenges when producing gas offshore northern Siberia Student: M.M. Witteman

116 | Master’s Theses October 2009 117 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Research groups and professors within the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

Specialisation Name Telephone 015-27. . . . .

Design and Construction

Construction Mechanics Research Group Construction mechanics Prof. J.G. Rots 83799 Dynamics Prof. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder 84782 Numerical mechanics Prof. L.J. Sluys 82728

Materials Science and Sustainable Construction Research Group Acting chairman Prof. K. van Breugel 84954 Fund. and Applied Materials Science vacancy

Road and Rail Construction Research Group Road Construction Prof. A.A.A. Molenaar 84812 Rail Construction Prof. C. Esveld 87122

Building and Civil Engineering Structures Research Group General Construction Design Prof. L.A.G. Wagemans 84752 Concrete structures Prof. J.C. Walraven 85452 Concrete modelling & materials Prof. K. van Breugel 84954 Building physics and installations Prof. J.J.M. Cauberg 83387 Timber structures vacancy Steel structures Prof. J. Wardenier 82315 Steel structures Prof. F.S.K. Bijlaard 84581 Steel construction of buildings Prof. J.W.B. Stark 82303 Building Technology vacancy Utility buildings Prof. J.N.J.A. Vamberský 85488

Product Design Research Group Methodical Design Prof. H.A.J. de Ridder 84921 Building Informatics vacancy

Hydraulic Engineering

Fluid Mechanics Research Group Fluid Mechanics Prof. G.S. Stelling 85426 Environmental hydro informatics Prof. A.E. Mynett General Fluid Mechanics Prof. J.A. Battjes 85060

Hydraulic and Offshore Engineering Research Group Probabilistic design and Hydraulic Structures Prof. J.K. Vrijling 85278 Coastal Engineering Prof. M.J.F. Stive 84285 Ports and Inland Waterways Prof. H. Ligteringen 84285 River morphology & River Engineering Prof. H.J. de Vriend 81541 Offshore Engineering Prof. J. Meek 84777

118 | Master’s Theses October 2009 Specialisation Name Telephone 015-27. . . . .

Water Management

Sanitary Engineering Research Group Sewerage Prof. F.H.L.R. Clemens 83347 Waste Water treatment Prof. J.H.J.M. van der Graaf 81615 Drinking Water Prof. J.C. van Dijk 85227

Water Resources Research Group Hydrology Prof. H.H.G. Savenije 81433 Water Resources Prof. N.C. van de Giesen 87180 Geohydrology Prof. Th. N. Olsthoorn 87346 Water Resources Management and Earth Observations Prof. Bastiaanssen 87346

Transport & Planning Transport Planning Prof. P.H.L. Bovy 84611 Traffic and Transport Management Prof. H.J. van Zuylen 82761 Traffic and Transport Facilities Prof. I.A. Hansen 85279 Infrastructure Planning Prof. F.M. Sanders 81780 Traffic Flow Theory and Simulation Prof. S.P. Hoogendoorn 85475

Applied Earth Sciences Applied Geology Research Group General Geology Prof. S.B. Kroonenberg 86025 Production Geology Prof. S.M. Luthi 86019

Resource Engineering Research Group Petroleum Engineering Research Group Oil- and Gas production systems Prof. P.K. Currie 86033 Reservoir Technology Prof. W.R. Rossen 86038 Reservoir Engineering Prof. C.P.J.W. van Kruijsdijk unknown

Applied Geophysics and Petrophysics Geophysical Imaging Methods Prof. W.A. Mulder 83666 Integrated Time-Lapse Methods Prof. R.J. Arts 85190 Technical Geophysics Prof. C.P.A. Wapenaar 82848 Reservoir Systems & Control Prof. J.D. Jansen 87838

Geo Engineering Research Group Soil mechanics Prof. F. Molenkamp 85280 Groundwater mechanics Prof. F.B.J. Barends 85423 Foundation Engineering Prof. A.F. van Tol 85478 Underground Space Technology Prof. J.W. Bosch 82844 Geo environmental engineering Prof. J. Bruining 86032

119 | Master’s Theses October 2009 © 2010 – Technische Universiteit Delft

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120 | Master’s Theses October 2009