Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, rev. edn (London: Verso, 1991). 2. Romantic cosmopolitanism is a topic of increasing critical attention. Using the political and philosophical cosmopolitanisms of Kant and Habermas as his frame, Michael Scrivener has recently drawn attention to how feminism, slavery abolition, and Jewish emancipation operate as ‘areas of contestation between emergent cosmopolitan politics and an emergent nationalistic politics’ in early nineteenth-century Britain. See his The Cosmopolitan Ideal in the Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1776–1832 (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2007), 3. Other critics have explored alternative understandings of Romantic cosmopolitanism. See for example, Jon Klancher’s essay ‘Discriminations, or Romantic Cosmopolitanisms’, in Kevin Gilmartin and James Chandler, eds, Romantic Metropolis: The Urban Scene of British culture, 178–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Adriana Craciun’s British Women Writers and the French Revolution: Citizens of the World (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), and the European Romantic Review’s special issue on the subject (Volume 16, Number 2, April 2005). There has also been a lot of recent critical attention in Romantic studies to imperialism and colonialism as international or transnational energies in the period. See, for example, Julia Wright, Ireland, India, and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), Saree Makdisi, Romantic Impe- rialism: Universal Empire and the Culture of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), and the essays collected in two important volumes: Tim Fulford and Peter J. Kitson, eds, Romanticism and Colonialism: Writing and Empire, 1780–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) and Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh, eds, Romanticism, Race, and Imperial Culture, 1780–1834 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996). 3. Bruce Robbins, ‘Comparative Cosmopolitanism’, Social Text, 31–2 (1992), 173. 4. Tzvetan Todorov, On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in French Thought, Catherine Porter, trans. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, Leon S. Roudiez, trans. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991); Martin Thom, Republics, Nations, Tribes (London and New York: Verso, 1995). 5. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘On the Law of Nations’, in The Friend vol. 2, Barbara E. Rooke, ed., vol. 4 of The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 323. 6. Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, 133. 7. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Lord Byron’s Childe Harold’, Edinburgh Review, 19 (February 1812), 467.

155 156 Notes

8. Amanda Anderson, ‘Cosmopolitanism, Universalism, and the Divided Legacies of Modernity’, in Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation, Bruce Robbins and Pheng Cheah, eds (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 273. 9. Martha Nussbaum, ‘Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism’, in For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, Joshua Cohen, ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 7.

1. A Cosmopolitan Nation?: Kant, Burke and the Question of Borders

1. Hannah Arendt was instrumental in initiating the current interest in Kant’s political philosophy. Her influential Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982) argued persuasively that Kant’s political philosophy formed a neglected fourth critique. Among the numer- ous recent studies of Kant’s political philosophy, see for example Kimberly Hutchings’ Kant, Critique and Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), Hans Reiss’ ‘Introduction’ to Kant: Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) and Patrick Riley’s Kant’s Political Philosophy (Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1983). 2. Elie Kedourie, Nationalism, revised ed. (London: Hutchinson, 1985), 9. 3. In the introduction to the fourth edition of Nationalism (1993) Kedourie describes nationalism as a form of ‘ideological politics’ in that it sees itself as cure-all to social ills and is ‘necessarily and inevitably caught up in a perpetual disastrous and self-destructive tension between ends and means.’ Thus the ‘enshrinement of national self-determination as the organizing principle of international order’ has been both the greatest triumph and greatest failure of nationalism. Nationalism, 4th edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), xi, xvi. 4. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 1. 5. In an earlier work, Legitimation of Belief (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), Gellner stresses Kant’s mistake in supposing a universal human predicament rather than an historically specific one: ‘Kant did not suppose that we could take with us, when entering the cold cognisable world, all our luggage, whole lorry-loads of conceptual furniture. He took the absolute minimum to save our humanity, to make us more than mere things; the rest he spurned. He was like a refugee from a catastrophe who arrives nobly carrying but two or three beings dearest to him’ (188). The characterization of Kant here as refugee is an interesting one, considering Kant will later bear the related burden of cosmopolitanism for Gellner in Nations and Nationalism. 6. In the controversial Cosmopolitanism and the National State, rev. edn, Robert B. Kimber, trans (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), Friedrich Meinecke argues for a less abrupt transition from cosmopolitanism to nationalism in German political thought: ‘Cosmopolitanism did not merely sink to the ground, pale and exhausted; and the new national idea did not then spring up in its place, unimpeded and victorious. Cosmopolitanism and nationalism stood side by side in a close, living relationship for a long time. And even if the idea of the genuine national state could not come to full Notes 157

bloom within such a relationship, the meeting of these two intellectual forces was by no means unfruitful for the national idea’ (94). Felix Gilbert’s useful 1970 introduction to Cosmopolitanism and the National State puts Meinecke’s glorification of nationalism and the nation state into the context of pre-World War one politics. 7. Hurrell refers primarily to the following works in his argument: F. H. Hinsley’s Power and the Pursuit of Peace (1963); Ian Clark’s Reform and Resistance in the International Order (1980); Patrick Riley’s Kant’s Political Phi- losophy (1983); Howard Williams’ Kant’s Political Philosophy (1985); Hedley Bull’s ‘Society and Anarchy in International Relations’, in Herbert Butter- field and Martin Wight eds, Diplomatic Investigations (1966); Martin Wight’s ‘An Anatomy of International Thought’ in Review of International Studies,3 (July 1987). 8. Andrew Hurrell, ‘Kant and the Kantian Paradigm in International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 16 (July 1990), 204. 9. In his study Political Theory and International Relations, Charles R. Beitz divides international morality in modern political thought into three distinct conceptions: international moral scepticism, morality of states, and cosmopolitanism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979). He recog- nizes, however, that Kant’s political writings can be included under both morality of states and cosmopolitanism. 10. Immanuel Kant, ‘Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose’, in Kant’s Political Writings, Hans Reiss, ed., trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 41. All references to Kant are to this edition. 11. Immanuel Kant, ‘An Answer to the Question: “What is Enlightenment?’, in Kant’s Political Writings, 54. 12. Reason also extends the limits of the individual in a more basic way. As Kant explains in ‘Idea of a Universal History’: ‘Reason, in a creature, is a faculty which enables that creature to extend far beyond the limits of natural instinct the rules and intentions it follows in using its various powers, and the range of its projects is unbounded’ (‘Universal History’, 42). 13. Thomas Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan in Enlightenment Thought: Its Form and Function in the Ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694–1790 (Notre Dame and London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977), xii. 14. Immanuel Kant, ‘This May be True in Theory but it does not Apply in Practice’, in Kant’s Political Writings, 73. 15. Immanuel Kant, ‘Metaphysics of Morals’, in Kant’s Political Writings, 138. 16. Immanuel Kant, ‘Perpetual Peace’, in Kant’s Political Writings, 94. 17. Julia Kristeva, Nations without Nationalism, Leon S. Roudiez, trans. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 16. 18. One of the earliest reviews of Kant’s philosophy in Britain was Thomas Beddoes’ ‘Kant’s Project to perpetual Peace’, Monthly Review, 20 (August 1796) 486–9. A physician with ties to the lunar society, Beddoes conversed with many of the radical thinkers of the age, including Joseph Priestley, Richard Price, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, and the young Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and his engagement with fundamental tenets of Kant’s political philosophy points to the circulation of Kant’s model of nation within late eighteenth- century Britain. For a detailed history of Kant’s reception in Britain see 158 Notes

Giuseppe Micheli and René Wellek, Kant’s Thought in Britain: The Early Impact (London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press, 1993). 19. Edmund Burke, ‘Heads for Consideration on the Present State of Affairs’, The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, Paul Langford, ed., 12 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 401. All references to Burke’s essays are to this edition. 20. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France,inThe Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 56–7. 21. Price’s sermon was bound together with ‘The Congratulary Address to the National Assembly of France’ in A discourse on the love of country. Burke writes of this combined effort that ‘The whole of that publication, with the manifest design of connecting the affairs of France with those of England, by drawing us into an imitation of the conduct of the National Assembly, gave me a considerable degree of uneasiness’ (Reflections, 59). 22. Richard Price, A Discourse on the Love of Our Country (Oxford: Woodstock Books, 1992), 178. 23. As the Kedourie–Gellner debate suggests, the oppositional relationship between cosmopolitanism and nationalism continues to linger in twentieth- century thought. For an even more recent example, see the debate provoked by Martha C. Nussbaum’s ‘Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism’ in the Boston Review (Oct/Nov 1994). The core of this debate is published in For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, Joshua Cohen ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994). 24. Price, for example, claims that the English constitution is a model for the new French constitution, but also claims that England should imitate the French constitution and correct the inequality of representation it preserves in its own constitution. 25. Edmund Burke, ‘Thoughts on French Affairs’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 342. 26. Séamus Deane observes that long after Burke’s conspiracy theory was discred- ited, the English government ‘was willing to nurture this notion because it kept anti-French feeling alive and because it was a useful weapon in its own battle against Jacobins in England, Scotland, and Ireland’. See Séamus Deane, The French Revolution and Enlightenment in England, 1789–1832 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 170. 27. Deane shows that Burke was pivotal in the reception and the interpretation of the Enlightenment in England, creating a climate of hostility towards Enlightenment thinkers ‘by picturing them as a band of atheistic conspir- ators plotting revolution against throne and altar’ (The French Revolution and Enlightenment, 5). 28. The philosophes may have answered back. Hans Reiss suggests that Edmund Burke may be the ‘worthy man’ whom Kant addresses in his defence of theories and systems in ‘Theory and Practise’. Burke’s Reflections were trans- lated into German in 1793. See Kant’s ‘Theory and Practise’, 63, and Reiss’s note, 274. 29. Edmund Burke, ‘Letter to a Member of the National Assembly’, in The Writ- ing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 313. Burke clearly points out that the first statue the National Assembly erected was of Rousseau. Notes 159

30. David Simpson, Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt against Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 178. 31. Burke notes a similar non-correspondence between moral and geographical France in his ‘Remarks on the Policy of the Allies’ (1793) where he declares that ‘France is out of itself’ (465). 32. Edmund Burke, ‘Second Letter on a Regicide Peace’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 265, 277 33. As in Reflections, Burke clearly differentiates between the old France and the new: the old is a unified nation with clear borders, while the new is a sprawling entity of ‘questionable shape’ with pockets dispersed throughout Europe (‘Second Letter on a Regicide Peace’, 277). As he noted elsewhere, ‘[w]e are at war with a principle, and an example, which there is no shutting out by Fortresses or excluding by Territorial Limits. No line of demarcation can bound the Jacobin Empire.’ ‘To the Compte de Mercy-Argenteau’ (circa 6 August 1793), in vol. 9 of The Correspondence of Edmund Burke (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1958), 387. 34. Edmund Burke, ‘Heads for Considerations on the Present State of Affairs’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 402. 35. Edmund Burke, ‘Observations on the Conduct of the Minority’, in The Writ- ing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 404. Frank O’Gorman discusses the debate between Burke and Fox in the context of English politics in The Whig Party and the French Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1967). 36. Edmund Burke, ‘Fourth Letter on a Regicide Peace’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 105. Burke began to draft the ‘Fourth Letter on a Regicide Peace’ in 1795 but left it to write the First and Second ‘Letters on a Regicide Peace’. 37. Edmund Burke, ‘First Letter on a Regicide Peace’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 199. In an earlier attempt to convey the relation between English and French Jacobinism, Burke writes to Lord Grenville (18 August 1792) that ‘Every encouragement direct or indirect, given to their Brethren in France, stirs and animates the [English] Embers.’ ‘Letter to Lord Grenville’, vol. 7 of Correspondence of Edmund Burke, 177. 38. Edmund Burke, ‘First Letter on a Regicide Peace’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 641. 39. Edmund Burke, ‘Letter to William Smith’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 661. 40. In The French Revolution and Enlightenment, Séamus Deane notes the close connection Burke established between the French Jacobins and the Protestant Ascendancy: ‘Thus much of what had happened in Ireland was a stand- ing rebuke to all that was being attempted in France. National love and political affections were being broken or vulgarized by a despotic, enterpris- ing sect which had a persecuting edge to its deeply embedded fanaticism. The French were universalizing sectarianism into a theory of global benevolence and revolution. Neither the sect nor the party, the Ascendancy nor the Jacobinism, was a true aristocracy’ (17). For Burke, he suggests, ‘France was a threat, Ireland a dire warning, England the middle term between the two’ (19). Luke Gibbons has recently argued that when Burke’s conservative ‘critical stances on the Enlightenment, colonialism and indigenous 160 Notes

cultures’ are viewed in terms of his aesthetics theories, they contain ‘unre- solved counter-currents’. Edmund Burke and Ireland: Aesthetics, politics, and the colonial sublime (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 15. 41. Edmund Burke, ‘Letter on Affairs of Ireland’, in The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, 663. 42. Abbé Barruel, Memoirs, Illustrating the History of Jacobinism, Hon. Robert Clifford, trans., 4 vols (London: T. Burton and Co., 1797), 1: ix. Barruel’s translator, Robert Clifford, works with the same basic premises in his Applica- tion of Barruel’s Memoirs of Jacobinism, to the Secret Societies of Ireland and Great Britain (London: E. Booker, 1798). 43. Barruel’s indictment of Kant was echoed in British periodical press. Writing for the Monthly Review in 1799, for example, William Taylor draws direct line between Kant’s philosophy and French Jacobinism. Kant’s opinions, Taylor suggests, bear a marked affinity to French enlightenment thought and ‘must endear him to the patriotism of the philosophers of the Lyceum.’ [William Taylor], ‘Willich’s Elements of Kant’s Philosophy’, Monthly Review, 28 (January 1799), 65. 44. James Mackintosh, Vindiciae Gallicae. A defence of the French Revolution and its English Admirers, against the accusations of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, in The Miscellaneous Works of the Right Honourable Sir James Mackintosh (Boston: Phillips, Sampson and Co., 1858), 426. Mackintosh compares Burke’s treatment of the French monied class in Reflections to Tory treatment of the Whigs during the Glorious Revolution.

2. ‘A Great Federacy’ of Nations: Internationalism and the Edinburgh Review

1. John Clive has documented the connection between the Edinburgh Review and the Enlightenment in detail in his foundational study Scotch Review- ers: The Edinburgh Review, 1802–1815 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957). See also Donald Winch’s chapter on Dugald Stewart and his pupils in Stefan Collini, Donald Winch, and John Burrow’s That Noble Science of Politics: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Intellectual History (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1983). Biancamaria Fontana has noted the Edinburgh’s strong eighteenth-century roots, paying special attention to the source of its socio-economic methodology in the political economy of the Scottish Enlightenment. See her Rethinking the Politics of Commercial Society: the Edin- burgh Review, 1802–1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). For recent essays on the Edinburgh’s place in British Romanticism, see Massim- ilian Demanta and Duncan Wu, eds., British Romanticism and the Edinburgh Review (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave, 2002). 2. [Sydney Smith], ‘Bowles on the Peace’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (October 1802), 96. 3. [Thomas Brown], ‘Villers, Philosophie de Kant’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (January 1803), 253. See also [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Mounier, De L’influence des Philosophes’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (October 1802) 1–18, and [Francis Horner], ‘M.Canard, Principes d’economie politique’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (January 1803), 431–50. 4. [Francis Jeffrey and James Loch], ‘Orders in Council’, Edinburgh Review,20 (July 1812), 234. Notes 161

5. The same 1808 article also drew R. Wharton’s rancour in his Remarks on the Jacobinical Tendency of the Edinburgh Review, where he uses the article as a step- ping stone to a more general criticism of the Edinburgh’s Jacobinical politics (London: J. Hatchard, 1809). 6. In their landmark essay ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, John A. Gallagher and Ronald E. Robinson argue that there is no qualitative difference between mid- and late-Victorian imperialism and that free trade is merely one of many tech- niques for British expansion used throughout the century. ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review 6 (1953), 1–7. The essay is reprinted, along with various responses, in W.M. Roger Louis, ed., Imperialism: The Robinson and Gallagher Controversy (New York: New Viewpoints, 1976). Earlier in the century (1902), J.A. Hobson had posited imperialism as a ‘perversion’ of international free trade that coincided with the advent of nationalism. See his Imperialism: A Study (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1965). 7. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, J. M. Robson, ed., vols 2 and 3 of Collected Works (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1965), 3: 588. 8. Jeremy Bentham, Principles of Penal Law, vol. 1 of The Works of Jeremy Bentham, John Bowring, ed. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1962), 563. 9. Bentham’s own connection to cosmopolitanism is strong. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), for example, he lays out the parameters for an international system of law and coins the word ‘international’: ‘[International law] is calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law which goes commonly under the name of the law of nations: an appellation so uncharacteristic, that, were it not for the force of custom, it would seem rather to refer to internal jurisprudence.’ An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, vol. 1 of The Works of Jeremy Bentham, 149. His Principles of International Law (1786–89) demonstrates an ongoing intellectual investment in cosmopolitan ideals, with the concluding essay, ‘A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace’, arguing for European disar- mament, the universal emancipation of colonies, and the establishment of a Common Court of Judicature to mediate conflict between nations. 10. Throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth-century, for instance, political economy was considered a subsection of moral philosophy in British universities. On the intersection of political economy and moral philosophy see chapters 5 and 6 of Mary Poovey’s A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998). 11. Thomas Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan in Enlightenment Thought (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1977), 97. 12. Karen O’Brien traces Hume’s cosmopolitanism in Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan history from Voltaire to Gibbon, arguing that Hume’s historical works present the history of the English nation in conjunction with European history (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 13. David Hume, ‘Of the Jealousy of Trade’, Writings on Economics, Eugene Rotwein, ed. (Freeport: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), 81–2. 14. In a letter to Smith written shortly after the publication of Wealth of Nations (1 April 1776), Hume gives the work a favourable review: ‘I am much pleas’d with your Performance; and the Perusal of it has taken me from a State of great Anxiety. It was a work of so much Expectation, by yourself, by your 162 Notes

Friends, and by the Public, that I trembled for its Appearance; but am now much relieved’ (Writings on Economics, 216). He does, however, say that if Smith were at his fireside, he would dispute some of his principles. 15. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 5th ed., Edwin Cannan, ed. (New York: Modern Library, 1985), 156. 16. Smith explains that the invasion of German and Scythian nations interrupted the commerce between town and country and led to an amalgamation of smaller land holdings into vast dominions. Land ceased to be passed from generation to generation according to the natural law of succession (which divided land holdings between different family members), and began to be passed on according to the law of primogeniture (which consolidated land holdings in the hands of the first born male). Coincident with these changes came a re-valuing of land as a means of power rather than as a means of sub- sistence, one of the results of which was that surplus capital went towards fur- ther land acquisition and not to the improvement of already-held lands. Such political changes, then, blocked the ‘natural progress of opulence’ in Europe by disrupting domestic commerce and by discouraging agricultural improvement. Accordingly, international commerce is the impetus for national improvement in Europe: ‘But what all the violence of the feudal institution could never have effected, the silent and insensible operation of foreign commerce and manufactures gradually brought about’ (Wealth of Nations, 188). 17. Smith notes that, among other things, commerce has created domestic and foreign markets for agricultural produce, infused the countryside with wealthy merchants bent on agricultural improvement, and introduced into the countryside order and good government by helping to break up the vast dominions perpetrated by the feudal system. Its benefit has therefore been both economic (in that it encouraged agriculture) and political (in that it ensured the ‘liberty and security of individuals, among the inhabitants of the country’ (Wealth of Nations, 185). Smith stresses that the benefit ‘was not even confined to the countries in which [the towns] were situated, but extended more or less to all those with which they had any dealings. To all of them they afforded a market for some part either of their rude or manufac- tured produce, and consequently gave some encouragement to the industry and improvement of all’ (Wealth of Nations, 184). 18. Hume posits a similar connection between public good and individual commercial interest in his essay ‘Of Commerce’ when he states that ‘[t]he greatness of a state, and the happiness of its subjects, how independent soever they may be supposed in some respects, are commonly allowed to be insep- arable with regard to commerce; and as private men receive greater security, in the possession of their trade and riches, from the power of the public, so the public becomes powerful in proportion to the opulence and extensive commerce of private men’ (Writings on Economics, 5). 19. For Stewart on Smith see his Biographical Memoirs of Adam Smith (read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 21 January and 18 March, 1793), vol. 10 of The Collected Works of Dugald Stewart, Sir William Hamilton, ed. (Edinburgh: Thomas Constable, 1971). 20. Dugald Stewart, ‘Of Patriotism’ in The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man,vol.6ofThe Collected Works of Dugald Stewart, 180. Notes 163

21. Stewart’s early Elements of the Philosophy of Human Mind (1792), for instance, was declared Jacobinical, in particular because it expressed a sympathy for Condorcet that Stewart himself soon regretted. He tells Lord Craig on 20 February 1794, for example, that he ‘dishonoured some of [his] pages by mentioning with respect the name of Condorcet’ and reminds Craig that although he defended the Economists, he opposed the French philosophers in general. Quoted in John Veitch’s Memoir of Dugald Stewart, vol. 10 of The Collected Works of Dugald Stewart, lxxiv. 22. Quoted in John Veitch, Memoir of Dugald Stewart, li. These lectures were delivered in various forms during Stewart’s time as Chair of Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh from 1785 until his retirement in 1810. His first course on political economy alone, however, was conducted in the winter of 1800. Veitch outlines Stewart’s professional career in his Memoir of Dugald Stewart. 23. Also listed among Stewart’s students are Sydney Smith and Macvey Napier both of whom also wrote for the Edinburgh Review. James Mill also noted the important role of political economy in the early Edinburgh Review in his detailed review of early nineteenth-century periodical literature in the first number of The Westminster Review. See his ‘Periodical Literature: Edinburgh Review’, Westminster Review, 1 (January 1824) 206–49. The standard modern account of the Edinburgh Review draws a direct line of influence from Thomas Reid and Adam Smith through Dugald Stewart to the Edinburgh Review. See John Clive, Scotch Reviewers. 24. [Henry Brougham], ‘Politique de tous les Cabinets de L’Europe’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (January 1803), 346. 25. One such advocate was James Anderson, who insists in A Calm Investiga- tion of the Circumstances that have led to the Present Scarcity of Grain in Great Britain (London: J. Cumming, 1801) that history has proven the success of corn bounties. Anderson argues that when the bounties were fully operative between 1689 and 1773, British agriculture flourished, prices fell, and Britain was a net exporter of grain. However, when the bounties were lifted in 1773 (partly because of Adam Smith) agriculture suffered, prices rose, and Britain became a net importer of grain. 26. [Francis Horner], ‘Observations on the Bounty upon Exported Corn’, Edin- burgh Review, 5 (October 1804), 194. 27. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘The Frauds of the Neutral Flags’, Edinburgh Review,8 (April 1806), 13. 28. [Henry Brougham], ‘Examination of the late Orders in Council’, Edinburgh Review, 11 (January 1808), 490–1. 29. ‘Baring and others on the Orders in Council’, Edinburgh Review, 12 (April 1808), 226. 30. See, for example, Francis Jeffrey and James Loch’s ‘Orders in Council’. 31. [John Barrow and William Gifford], ‘America – Orders in Council’, Quarterly Review, 7 (March 1812), 32. 32. [Robert Southey and John Wilson Croker], ‘Capt. Pasley on the Military Policy of Great Britain’, Quarterly Review, 5 (May 1811), 410. 33. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘State and Prospects of Europe’, Edinburgh Review, 23 (April 1814), 39. 164 Notes

34. [Henry Brougham], ‘Appeal of the Poles’, Edinburgh Review, 22 (January 1814), 331. 35. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Letter on the French Government’, Edinburgh Review,16 (April 1810), 29. 36. [James Mackintosh], ‘France’, Edinburgh Review, 24 (February 1815), 506. 37. The Edinburgh Review continued to criticize the Congress long after the meet- ings in Vienna were over. ‘The sovereigns have, in fact, erected themselves into a sort of council for arranging the interests of Europe; under the sanction of which, they consider themselves authorized to extend or contract the terri- tories of other independent kingdoms and states, without the smallest respect for the personal interests of the subjects which compose those States’, writes a reviewer in his 1819 assessment of the ongoing influence of the Congress on post-Napoleonic Europe: ‘We cannot agree with those who think, that by the creation of powerful and extensive kingdoms of the first order, and the annihilation of the smaller states, the peace or security of the rest is better ensured; for, besides the total want of justice or principle in such a system, it seems to us still more objectionable on the score of expediency’ (401). [D. Constable?], ‘Congress of Vienna’, Edinburgh Review, 32 (October 1819). The Congress of Vienna has attracted recent critical interest. See David King’s Vienna, 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna (New York: Harmony Books, 2008) and Adam Zamoyski’s Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (New York: Harper Collins, 2007). 38. [David Buchanan], ‘Corn Laws’, Edinburgh Review, 24 (February 1815), 492. 39. The vision, however, was periodically taken up elsewhere before mid-century, most notably, by the Manchester School in the 1830s and 40s. William Cob- den’s England, Ireland, and America (1835), for example, evoked international commerce as the ‘grand panacea, which, like a beneficent medical discovery, will serve to inoculate with the healthy and saving taste for civilization all the nations of the world.’ Political Writings of Richard Cobden, (London: William Ridgeway, 1878), 20. Ronald Hyam implicates Cobden’s internationalism in the imperial project in Britain’s Imperial Century 1815–1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion (London: B.T. Batsford, 1976). 40. E.H. Carr, Nationalism and After (London: Macmillan, 1945), 8. 41. [James Mill?], ‘Liberty of the Continental Press’, Edinburgh Review,25 (June 1815), 112. 42. Of course the Edinburgh Review did not overlook the censorship taking place on home-ground during the post-Napoleonic period. In ‘Liberty of the Press and its Abuses’, for example, Brougham argues that the new libel laws will curtail the freedom of the press and put English liberty at risk. Edinburgh Review, 27 (September 1816) 245–63.

3. ‘An Alternative Formulation: The Idea of National Literature in Staël and the Edinburgh Review

1. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Correspondence Littéraire et Philosophique de Grimm’, Edin- burgh Review, 21 (July 1813), 263; [Francis Jeffrey], ‘De Lille, Malheur et Pitié: Poëme’, Edinburgh Review, 3 (October 1803), 26–42. Written in French, Notes 165

addressed to a German audience, and attributed to Diderot as well as Grimm, Grimm’s Correspondance Literaire, Philosophique et Critique: Adressée à un Souverain d’Allemagne straddles national demarcations as well. 2. Margaret Cohen and Carolyn Dever, ‘Introduction’ to The Literary Channel: The Inter-National Invention of the Novel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 6. See also, Gregory Maertz’s collection of essays, Cultural Interactions in the Romantic Age: Critical Essays in Comparative Literature (New York: State University of New York Press, 1998). 3. Haun Saussy, ‘Exquisite Cadavers Stitched from Fresh Nightmares’, Compar- ative Literature in an Age of Globalization (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2006), 6. 4. Germaine de Staël, Literature Considered in Its Relation to Social Institutions,in Madame de Staël on Politics, Literature, and National Character, Morroe Berger, ed. trans. (Garden City: Doubleday and Co., 1964), 145. 5. Staël’s close ties to the Scottish enlightenment nicely exemplify the kind of international literary exchange that Schlereth identifies with Enlightenment cosmopolitanism. See Chapter 1 of The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought. 6. Of course ‘literature’ itself was an unstable category during this period. Stael uses ‘literature’ here to refer broadly to ‘works of philosophical writings and works of the imagination – in short, everything that involves the exercise of thought in writing, the physical sciences excepted’ (Literature, 141–2). 7. For Staël’s treatment of classical republicanism and its relationship to Roman- tic nationalism, see Martin Thom’s Republics, Nations, and Tribes (London: Verso, 1995). 8. Staël repeats this division in On Germany, where she divides the nations of Europe into three ‘distinct strains’ – Latin, Germanic, and Slavic – each with its own ‘natural’ genius. On Germany,inMadame de Staël on Politics, Literature, and National Character, 274. 9. There have been several recent explorations of how Staël destabilizes national borders, including Deidre Lynch’s, ‘The (Dis)locations of Romantic National- ism: Shelley, Staël, and the Home-Schooling of Monsters’, in Margaret Cohen and Carolyn Dever, eds, The Literary Channel: The Inter-National Invention of the Novel, and Madelyn Gutwirth, Avriel Goldberger, and Karyna Szmulo, eds, Germaine de Staël: Crossing the Borders (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1991). 10. Staël, Germaine de, Delphine, trans. Avriel H. Goldberger (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995), 5. 11. On Germany, 276. 12. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Mad. de Staël – Sur la Literature’, Edinburgh Review,21 (February 1813), 2–3. Jeffrey selected his review of Literature to be reprinted for posterity in his Contributions to the Edinburgh Review (1844). Its inclusion in Contributions was noticed by Lord Cockburn in his biography of Jeffrey, where it exemplifies Jeffrey’s literary criticism. Staël returned the compliment. Writ- ing on ‘Learning, Religion, and Morality among the English’ in Considérations sur les principaux événements de la Révolution françoise (1816), Staël praises the Edinburgh Review: ‘Literary criticism is carried to the highest point in the reviews, especially that of the Edinburgh, where writers who may be famous in their own right – Jeffrey, Playfair, Mackintosch [sic] – do not disdain to 166 Notes

enlighten authors by the judgements they make upon them’. See ‘England’, in Madame de Staël on Politics, Literature, and National Character, 350–1. 13. For a general history of Staël’s reception in England, see Roberta J. Forsberg, Madame de Staël and the English (New York: Astra Books, 1967). 14. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Southey’s Thabala’, Edinburgh Review, 1 (October 1802), 63. 15. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Lord Holland’s Account of Lope de Vega’, Edinburgh Review,9 (October 1806), 241. The early Edinburgh Review’s general treatment of foreign literature is explored by J.H. Alexander in ‘Learning from Europe: Continen- tal Literature in the Edinburgh Review and Blackwood’s Magazine 1802–1825’, The Wordsworth Circle, vol. 21 (Summer 1990) 118–23. For the treatment of French literature in the early Edinburgh Review, see Seamus Deane’s ‘The Reputation of the French “Philosophes” in the Whig Reviews between 1802 and 1824’, Modern Language Review, 70 (April 1975) 271–90. 16. Mackintosh was on intimate terms with Staël during her 1813 stay in England. He had close connections to her circle as well: his sister-in-law was married to Simonde de Sismondi, and Benjamin Constant had been a friend and class- mate at the University of Edinburgh. See J. Christopher Herold, Mistress to An Age: a Life of Madame de Staël (New York: Harmony Books, 1958), 140, 440–1. 17. [James Mackintosh], ‘De l’Allemagne, par Mad. de Staël’, Edinburgh Review,22 (October 1813), 198, 204. 18. [James Mackintosh], ‘Rogers’s Poems’, Edinburgh Review, 22 (October 1813), 32. 19. Rogers’ ‘Voyage of Columbus’ was published in 1810. Staël’s Corinne was published in 1807. 20. Campbell’s ‘Ye Mariners of England’ was first published in 1801. 21. Stefan Collini, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 347. 22. [Francis Palgrave], ‘Goethe’s Life of Himself (Part I)’, Edinburgh Review,26 (June 1816), 305. Palgrave’s Golden Treasury came out in 1861. 23. This tension is reflected in nineteenth-century criticism of the early Edin- burgh Review. In his 1824 assessment of early nineteenth-century periodical literature for the Westminster Review, for example, J.S. Mill characterizes the Edinburgh Review as self-servingly and uncritically nationalistic: ‘English and excellent it employs as synonymous terms;’ he writes, ‘that a foreigner admires England, is a sure passport to its praise; that he does not, is of itself sufficient to draw down upon him its censure’ (‘Periodical Literature’, 521). By contrast, Goethe finds the periodical richly cosmopolitan, the exemplar of a new literary ideal: ‘These journals,’ he writes of the Edinburgh Review and the Foreign Review in an 1828 note, ‘as they win an ever wider public, will contribute in the most effective way towards that universal world-literature for which we are hoping’ (Goethe, 92). See [J.S. Mill], ‘Periodical Literature: Edinburgh Review’, The Westminster Review, 1 (April 1824) 505–41; Wolfgang von Goethe, Goethe’s Literary Essays: A Selection in English, J.E. Spingarn, ed. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1964). 24. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Lessing’s Nathan the Wise’, Edinburgh Review, 8 (April 1806), 149. 25. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘German Genius and taste: Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’, Edinburgh Review, 42 (August 1825), 409. Notes 167

26. [Thomas Carlyle], ‘State of German Literature’, Edinburgh Review, 46 (October 1827), 312. 27. Simon During, ‘Literature – Nationalism’s other? The Case for Revision’, in Nation and Narration, Homi K. Bhabha, ed. (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 138.

4. Porous Borders: Maria Edgeworth and the Question of National Identity

1. Maria and Robert Lovell Edgeworth, ‘Carr’s Stranger in Ireland’, Edinburgh Review, 10 (April 1807), 59. 2. Séamus Deane, ‘Virtue, travel and the Enlightenment’, in Nations and Nation- alisms: France, Britain, Ireland and the Eighteenth-century Context, Michael O’Dea and Kevin Whelan, eds (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1995), 291. 3. Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace, for instance, argues that Maria Edgeworth appropriates peasant life, while Mary Jean Corbett focuses on how she ensures colonial stability. See Kowaleski-Wallace’s Their Fathers’ Daughters: Hannah More, Maria Edgeworth, and Patriarchal Complicity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), Corbett’s ‘Another Tale to Tell: Postcolonial Theory and the Case of Castle Rackrent’, Criticism, 36 (1994) 383–400, and ‘Public Affections and Familial Politics: Burke, Edgeworth, and the “Common Naturalization” of Great Britain’, English Literary History, 61 (1994) 877–97. 4. On Maria Edgeworth’s life, see the standard biography by Marilyn Butler, Maria Edgeworth: A Literary Biography (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972). 5. Recent years have seen an upsurge of interest in the category of Anglo-Irish. See, for example, Mary Jean Corbett’s Allegories of Union in Irish and English Writing, 1790–1870: Politics, History, and the Family from Edgeworth to Arnold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Terry Eagleton’s Heathcliff and the Great Hunger: Studies in Irish Culture (London: Verso, 1995), and Julian Moynahan’s Anglo-Irish: The Literary Imagination in a Hyphenated Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). 6. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, vol. 8 of The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, Paul Longford, ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), 82. 7. The intersection of the political and the domestic in Burke has received ongoing critical attention. See, for example, Deirdre Lynch, ‘Nationalizing Women and Domesticating Fiction: Edmund Burke and the Genres of Englishness’, Wordsworth Circle, 25 (Winter 1994) 45–9; W.J. McCormack, Ascendency and Tradition in Anglo-Irish Literary History from 1789–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); and Ronald Paulson, Representations of Revolution, 1789–1820 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983). 8. Marilyn Butler notes Edgeworth’s rejection of Burke’s historical model of nat- ioninher‘Introduction’to CastleRackrent andEnnui (London: Penguin, 1992). On the other hand, Mary Jean Corbett has argued for an unproblematic adap- tion of Burke’s ‘familial plot’ in The Absentee that supports English hegemony over Ireland. See her ‘Public Affections and Familial Politics’ noted above. 9. Maria Edgeworth, Castle Rackrent in Castle Rackrent and Ennui, Marilyn Butler, ed. (London: Penguin, 1992), 84. 168 Notes

10. Edgeworth’s representation of Jews in the Irish tales has received much critical attention. 11. In The Absentee a similar point is made when O’Halloran points to the advantages of an exchange between Irish and English militia: ‘The two countries have the same interest; and, from the inhabitants discovering more of each other’s good qualities and interchanging little good offices in common life, their esteem and affection for each other would increase, and rest upon the firm basis of mutual utility.’ Maria Edgeworth, The Absentee, W.J. McCormack and Kim Walker, eds (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 117. In both Castle Rackrent and The Absentee the direction of national influence is not from England to Ireland, centre to periphery, as one would be led to expect from descriptions of Edgeworth as colonial writer. 12. Edgeworth’s connection to eighteenth-century cosmopolitanism was pointed out by contemporaries such as Francis Jeffrey in ‘Maria Edgeworth’s Tales of Fashionable Life’, Edinburgh Review, 14 (July 1809) 375–88, and it has been noted as well by modern critics like Marilyn Butler (‘Introduction’ to Castle Rackrent and Ennui; Maria Edgeworth: A Literary Biography) and W.J. McCormack (‘Introduction’ to The Absentee). 13. Maria Edgeworth and Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, 2 vols (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1969), 1: 247–8. Maria lifts the quotation from her father’s speech on education delivered 25 February 1799. 14. On this point, Edgeworth quotes Sir John Davies who goes so far as to sug- gest that ‘fostering hath always been a stronger alliance than blood; and the foster-children do love and are beloved of their foster-fathers and their sept (or clan) more than of their natural parents and kindred’ (Ennui, 159). For a complex reading of the nurse in the imperial context, see Chapter Five of Katie Trumpener’s Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). 15. Richard Lovell Edgeworth was in the same tenuous situation during the Irish rebellion of 1798. Trying to mediate between Irish and Anglo-Irish factions, he found himself suspected by both. See Chapter Ten of Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth. Katy Brundan addresses Ennui as a text of competing cosmopolitanisms in ‘Cosmopolitan Complexities in Maria Edgeworth’s Ennui’, Studies in the Novel, 37 (Summer 2005) 123–40. 16. Maria Edgeworth, Ennui in Castle Rackrent and Ennui, Marilyn Butler, ed. (London: Penguin, 1992), 263. 17. It is not until her last Irish tale, Ormond (1817) that Edgeworth grants unqual- ified narrative recognition to the potential inherent in the socio-cultural attribution of kinship. In Ormond, belonging as inheritance and belonging as socio-cultural relationship are conflated: the orphaned Anglo-Irish Ormond ‘inherits’ the Black Islands from one of his foster-fathers, the Irish King Corny. 18. In ‘Privileged Assimilation: Maria Edgeworth’s Hope for the Ascendancy’, Meredith Cary suggests that this is ‘a postulation which would have aroused protests from both contemporary cultures if its implications had not been obscured by Edgeworth’s naturalistic detail.’ Eire-Ireland, 26 (Winter 1991), 31. 19. My thanks to Marilyn Butler who noted informally that the Nugents had cousins in County Leitrim named Nugent Reynolds, some of whom had Notes 169

been in the public eye as recently as 1799. On names in The Absentee, see also McCormack’s Introduction and Appendix II. For the ambiguities of Irish or English in relation to Grace Nugent, see Robert Tracy’s influential essay, ‘Maria Edgeworth and Lady Morgan: Legality versus Legitimacy’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 40 (June 1985) 1–22. 20. The Edgeworths warn against that ‘yawning demon of Ennui’ in their earlier treatise on practical education: ‘Young men who are most ready to yield their companions, are not therefore to be considered as of really compliant dispo- sitions; the idle or indolent, who have no resources in their own minds, and no independent occupations, are victims to the yawning demon of Ennui the moment they are left in solitude.’ Practical Education, 2nd edn, 3 vols (London: J. Johnson, 1801), 1: 291. 21. In contrast, Glenthorn’s first energetic foray into Irish affairs on the eve of Irish rebellion lacks the grounding necessary to ensure an ongoing and critical commitment to Irish improvement: ‘I had been driven to exertion by a mix- ture of pride and generosity; my understanding being uncultivated, I had acted from the virtuous impulse of the moment, but never from rational motive, which alone can be permanent in its operation’ (Ennui, 249). When the direct threat of rebellion disappears, Glenthorn sinks back into his ennui. Mitzi Myers examines the public and private significance of Glenthorn’s ennui in ‘“Completing the Union:” Critical Ennui, the Politics of Narrative, and the Reformation of Irish Cultural Identity’, Prose Studies, 18 (December 1995) 41–77. 22. Maria Edgeworth, The Absentee, W.J. McCormack and Kim Walker, eds (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 6. 23. Unlike the Clonbronys, the Irish Sir Terence O’Fay exploits English stereotypes of the Irish, exaggerating his ‘native brogue, and his natural propensity to blunder’ to meet English expectations (Absentee, 22). 24. As with Nugent Reynolds, Brooke is an English-sounding Irish name of some importance. See McCormack’s note on the Brooke family of Rantavan in County Cavan (Absentee, 297). 25. For an account of R.L. Edgeworth’s connection to Enlightenment thought, see Desmond Clarke’s The Ingenious Mr. Edgeworth (London: Oldbourne, 1965). 26. For two foundational readings of Richard Lovell’s influence on Maria see Marilyn Butler’s Maria Edgeworth: A Literary Biography and Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace’s Their Fathers’ Daughters: Hannah More, Maria Edgeworth, and Patriarchal Complicity. 27. Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, Leon S. Roudiez, trans. (Columbia: Colombia University Press, 1991), 148. 28. Joep Leerssen, ‘Anglo-Irish Patriotism and its European Context: Notes Towards a Reassessment’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland, 3 (1988), 15. 29. Bruce Robbins, ‘Comparative Cosmopolitanism’, Social Text, 31–2 (1992), 173. 30. Maria Edgeworth and Richard Lovell Edgeworth, ‘Essay on Irish Bulls’, in vol. 4 of Tales and Novels (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1969), 90. 31. [Sydney Smith]. ‘Edgeworth’s Essay on Irish Bulls’, Edinburgh Review, 2 (July 1803), 399 32. In ‘Goring John Bull: Maria Edgeworth’s Hibernian High Jinks versus the Imperialist Imaginary’, Mitzi Myers reads the ‘Essay on Irish Bulls’ as a parody 170 Notes

that destabilizes gender, genre, and national identity. In Cutting Edges: Post- modern Critical Essays on Eighteenth-Century Satire, James E. Gill, ed. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995). 33. On the centrality of the notion of merit to the Edgeworths, see Gary Kelly, ‘Class, Gender, Nation, and Empire: Money and Merit in the Writing of the Edgeworths’, The Wordsworth Circle, 25 (Spring 1994) 89–93. 34. Edward Said, ‘Secular Criticism’, The World, the Text, and the Critic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983) 1–30. 35. The idea of a ‘rooted cosmopolitanism’ has received quite a bit of critical attention. See, for example, Mitchell Cohen, ‘Rooted Cosmopolitanism’, Dis- sent, 39 (Autumn 1992) 478–83, Bruce Ackerman, ‘Rooted Cosmopolitanism’, Ethics, 104 (April 1994) 516–35, and Kwame Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). 36. William Howard argues that in Ormond Edgeworth attempts to ‘convey a relatively consistent regional outlook, which would supersede not only the level of individual characters but also her own cosmopolitan bias’. ‘Regional Perspective in Early Nineteenth-Century Fiction: The Case of Ormond’, The Wordsworth Circle, 10 (Autumn 1979), 332. 37. Maria Edgeworth, Ormond: A Tale (Belfast: Appletree Press, 1992), 169. 38. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), 5. 39. Catherine Gallagher, Nobody’s Story: the Vanishing Acts of Women Writers in the Marketplace, 1670–1820 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 307. 40. Sheila Spector, ‘The Other’s Other: The Function of the Jew in Maria Edgworth’s Fiction’, European Romantic Review, 10 (Summer 1999), 308. See also Judith Page, ‘Maria Edgeworth’s Harrington: from Shylock to Shadowy Pedlars’, The Wordsworth Circle, 32 (Winter 2001) 9–13. For Maria Edgeworth’s treatment of Jews in her fiction, see Edgar Rosenberg’s From Shylock to Sven- gali: Jewish Stereotypes in English Fiction (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960). 41. In The Absentee, for example, the Jewish character Mordicai functions as – in Spector’s terms – the ‘other’s other’, assuaging Anglo-Irish absentee guilt and facilitating English–Irish unity. ‘Thus, in the end,’ McCormack explains in his Introduction to The Absentee, ‘Grace Nugent can be both agent and beneficiary of a redemptive/conclusive reading of history, and for this to be possible the fictional Mordicai remains under a sentence, a scapegoat for the evils of absentee extravagance’ (‘Introduction’, xxix). 42. The notion of tolerance is of course also central to Edgeworth’s political idea of a non-nationalistic patriotism. ‘Why should children be told that the Italians are naturally revengeful; the French naturally vain and perfidious, “excessively credulous and litigious”; that the Spaniards are naturally jealous and haughty?’, the Edgeworths write years earlier in Practical Education: ‘The patriotism of an enlarged and generous mind cannot, surely, depend upon the early contempt inspired for foreign nations’ (137). 43. Maria Edgeworth, Harrington, Susan Manly, ed. (Peterbourgh: Broadview Press, 2004), 228. For her part, Berenice later vows ‘never to marry any man whose want of the spirit of toleration, whose prejudices against the Jews, might interfere with the filial affection she feels for her father – though he be a Jew’ (Harrington, 291). Notes 171

44. Edgeworth’s Jewish-American correspondent and ideal reader for Harrington, Rachel Mordecai, for instance, praises Edgeworth’s ‘benevolent intentions’ in ‘asserting the cause of toleration’, but also expresses her disappointment that ‘Berenice was not a Jewess’ (Education of the Heart, 14). More recently, Michael Ragussis has argued that despite Edgeworth’s ‘self-conscious initia- tion of a revisionist tradition’ in Harrington, she ultimately submits to the ruling ideology. ‘[W]hen we are told at the end of Harrington that Berenice is no Jew, but a Christian, we come upon a covert form – at once literary and cultural – by which Jewish identity is once again exiled,’ Ragussis con- cludes: ‘Berenice’s suddenly disclosed Christianity is a way of converting her’ (Figures of Conversion, 77). See Rachel Mordecai Lazarus and Maria Edgeworth, The Education of the Heart: The Correspondence of Rachel Mordecai Lazarus and Maria Edgeworth, Edgar E. MacDonald, ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1977); Michael Ragussis, Figures of Conversion: ‘The Jewish Question’ and English National Identity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1995). 45. Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought, 74. 46. Interestingly, these lines were removed from the second and subsequent editions, as Susan Manly notes in her Introduction to Harrington (47).

5. Pilgrim, Exile, Vagabond: Byron and the Citizen of the World

1. Kirsten Daly examines Byron’s use of Enlightenment cosmopolitanism in Don Juan in ‘Worlds Beyond England: Don Juan and the Legacy of Enlightenment Cosmopolitanism’, Romanticism, 4 (1998) 189–201. 2. Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, Leon S. Roudiez, trans. (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1991), 133. 3. Lord George Gordon Byron, Byron’s Letters and Journals, Leslie A. Marchand, ed., 12 vols (London: John Murray, 1973), 2: 34. 4. Andrew D. McKillop, ‘Local Attachment and Cosmopolitanism – The Eighteenth-Century Pattern’, in From Sensibility to Romanticism: Essays Pre- sented to Frederick A. Pottle, Frederick H. Hilles and Harold Bloom, eds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), 202. Maria Edgeworth’s cosmopolitanism, as the previous chapter suggested, is also characteristic of the second phase of cosmopolitanism. 5. Oliver Goldsmith, Citizen of the World, vol. 2 of Collected Works of Oliver Gold- smith, Arthur Friedman, ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), 21. Goldsmith’s Citizen of the World; or Letters from a Chinese Philosopher, Residing in London, to his Friends in the East was originally published as a series of ‘Chinese Let- ters’ in The Public Ledger during 1760 and 1761. Donna Isaacs Dalnekoff takes up Goldsmith’s point, arguing that ‘the figure of the traveller, the outsider or stranger in a foreign land, is the natural paradigm of the philosophical critic’. ‘A Familiar Stranger: The Outsider of Eighteenth Century Satire’, Neophilologus, 57 (April 1973), 125. 6. Oliver Goldsmith, ‘A Comparative View of Races and Nations’, Collected Works of Oliver Goldsmith,3:68. 172 Notes

7. Séamus Deane, ‘Goldsmith’s Citizen of the World’, in The Art of Oliver Goldsmith, Andrew Swarbrick, ed. (London: Vision Press, 1984). 8. Lord George Gordon Byron, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, vol. 2 of Lord Byron: The Complete Poetical Works, Jerome J. McGann, ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 3. All references to Byron’s poetry are to this edition. 9. Denis Porter, Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 126–7. 10. James Clifford, ‘Traveling Cultures’, in Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds, Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992), 108. 11. Byron distinguishes his methodology from Mr. Eustace’s in his Classical Tour of Italy which Byron describes as ‘a mere compilation of former notices, strung together upon a very slender thread of personal observation, and swelled out by those decorations which are so easily supplied by a system- atic adoption of all the common places of praise, applied to every thing, and therefore signifying nothing’ (Childe Harold, 262). 12. Interestingly, Goldsmith’s citizen of the world seems to have been on Byron’s mind while writing the fourth canto, which Byron prefaces by declaring himself ‘weary of drawing a line which every one seemed determined not to perceive: like the Chinese in Goldsmith’s ‘Citizen of the World’, whom nobody would believe to be a Chinese’ (Childe Harold, 122). 13. Simon Bainbridge argues that writers such as Southey and Wordsworth used their poems on Waterloo to consummate their conservative plotting of the war, whereas Byron refused to recognize the battle’s importance. See his Napoleon and English Romanticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 14. Karen O’Brien, Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan History from Voltaire to Gibbon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 234. 15. According to Thomas Moore’s The Life of Lord Byron, Byron attributed his own exile to general opinion: ‘The man who is exiled by a faction has the conso- lation of thinking that he is a martyr; he is upheld by hope and the dignity of his cause, real or imaginary: he who withdraws from the pressure of debt may indulge in the thought that time and prudence will retrieve his circumstances: he who is condemned by the law, has a term to his banishment, or a dream of its abbreviation; or, it may be, the knowledge or the belief of some injustice of the law, or of its administration in his own particular; but he who is outlawed by general opinion without the intervention of hostile politics, illegal judgement, or embarrassed circumstances, whether he be innocent or guilty, must undergo all the bitterness of exile, without hope, without pride, without alleviation. This case was mine.’ The Life of Lord Byron; with his Letters and Journals, 2 vols (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1846), 2: 666–7. 16. Jerome McGann, The Beauty of Inflections: Literary Investigations in Historical Method and Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 277. 17. Robert Southey, ‘Pilgrimage to Waterloo’, in The Poetical Works of Robert Southey (New York: D. Appleton and Co, 1851), 749. Subsequent references to ‘Pilgrimage to Waterloo’ and A Vision of Judgement are to this edition. 18. Part two of the poem picks up on this allegorical subtext and pits the poet Laureate against the ‘evil prophet’. Their conversation serves to reassert Tory values in the face of French materialism. The poem ends with Southey’s confirmation that the ‘hopes of man’ rest on the continued prosperity of Notes 173

the British empire, a point brought home by a ‘magic picture’ that provides glimpses of all of England’s colonies. 19. Robert Southey, A Vision of Judgement in The Poetical Works of Robert Southey, 793. 20. Thomas Medwin, Medwin’s Conversations of Lord Byron, Ernest J. Lovell, Jr., ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), 228. Medwin met Byron in late 1821 and saw him for the last time in August 1822. 21. Lord George Gordon Byron, Don Juan, vol. 2 of Lord Byron: The Complete Poetical Works,9:24. 22. I draw the term ‘pleasurable instruction’ from Charles L. Batten, Jr, Plea- surable Instruction: Form and Convention in Eighteenth-Century Travel Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). 23. According to McGann, the ‘Addition to the Preface’ was added to the fourth edition of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, published in September 1812. 24. ‘Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’, Antijacobin Review, 42 (August 1812), 345. 25. ‘Lord Byron’s Bride of Abydos and the Corsair’, Antijacobin Review, 46 (March 1814), 234. 26. ‘Lord Byron’s Siege of Corinth and Parisina’, British Critic, 5 (April 1816), 430. 27. ‘Don Juan’, British Critic, 12 (August 1819), 204. 28. ‘Lord Byron’, British Critic, 15 (May 1821), 466. 29. M.M. Bakhtin, ‘Author and Hero in Aesthetic Activity’, in Art and Answer- ability: Early Philosophical Essays, Michael Holquist and Vadim Liapunov, eds, Vadim Liapunov, trans. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 180. Bakhtin points to the heroes of Byron, Chateaubriand, and Goethe as examples of the romantic character. 30. The habit carried on well into the twentieth century. Peter Quennell, for example, refers to Byron as ‘Childe Harold’ throughout his study Byron: the Years of Fame (London: St. James, 1950). 31. [Francis Jeffrey], ‘Lord Byron’s Childe Harold’, Edinburgh Review, 19 (February 1812), 467. 32. ‘Lord Byron’s Childe Harold, and Prisoner of Chillon’, British Critic,6 (December 1816), 609. 33. [Walter Scott], ‘Childe Harold 3 and the Prisoner of Chillon’, Quarterly Review, 16 (October 1816), 174. 34. Gerald Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987), 47. 35. Certainly, in yoking anti-cosmopolitan and anti-aristocratic sentiment, Newman’s argument leaves more ‘bourgeois’ cosmopolitanisms such as Edgeworth’s or Felicia Hemans’ unaccounted for. The key point here, however, is that Newman’s argument brings into useful view the class politics underpinning the critical reception of Byron’s aristocratic cosmopolitanism. For Hemans’ relationship to cosmopolitanism see Nanora Sweet, ‘“Lorenzo’s” Liverpool and “Corinne’s” Coppet: The Italianate Salon and Romantic Educa- tion’, in Lessons of Romanticism, Thomas Pfau, ed. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), and William D. Brewer, ‘Felicia Hemans, Byronic cosmopolitanism and the ancient Welsh bards’, in English Romanticism and the Celtic World, Gerard Carruthers and Alan Rawes, eds (Cambridge: Cambridge 174 Notes

University Press, 2003). For British women writers’ engagement with eighteenth-century cosmopolitan ideals during the French Revolution, see Adriana Craciun’s British Women Writers and the French Revolution: Citizens of the World (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). 36. The implications of Byron’s aristocratic status have been variously under- stood. Andrew Rutherford finds in his satire style the synthesis of poet and aristocrat, casting him as a Regency figure (Byron: A Critical Study), whereas Michael Robertson foregrounds the more democratic impulses of Byron as Whig aristocrat (‘The Byron of Don Juan as Whig Aristocrat’). See also Robertson’s more recent ‘Aristocratic Individualism in Byron’s Don Juan’. Jerome Christensen’s important study, by contrast, argues that ‘Byronism’ helped consolidate Britain’s commercial society by exploiting the affective charge of aristocracy in order to reproduce it in commodities that could be vended to a reading public avid for glamour (Lord Byron’s Strength, xvi). See Andrew Rutherford, Byron: A Critical Study (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967); Michael Robertson, ‘The Byron of Don Juan as Whig Aristocrat’, Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 17 (Winter 1976) 709–24; Michael Robertson, ‘Aristocratic Individualism in Byron’s Don Juan’, Studies in English Literature, 17 (Autumn 1994) 639–55; Jerome Christensen, Lord Byron’s Strength: Romantic Writing and Commercial Society (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1993). 37. [William Roberts], ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’, British Review, 3 (June 1812), 276. 38. [William Roberts], ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage. Canto the Third’, British Review, 9 (February 1817), 8. 39. [William Roberts], ‘Beppo’, British Review, 11 (May 1818), 329. 40. [William Roberts], ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage. Canto 4’, British Review,12 (August 1818), 5. 41. Even Hazlitt makes the most of Byron’s connection to the cosmopolitan class in his comparison of Byron and Sir Walter Scott: ‘Lord Byron, who is in his politics a liberal, in his genius is haughty and aristocratic: Walter Scott, who is an aristocrat in principle, is popular in his writings’. The Spirit of the Age in Lectures on English Poets and The Spirit of the Age (London: J.M. Dent, 1922), 236–7. 42. Calantha’s Catholicism is only suggested in the first edition, but it is openly declared in the second edition. See John Clubbe, ‘Glenarvon – Revised and Revisited’, The Wordsworth Circle, 10 (1979) 205–17. 43. On Glenarvon as a novel of passion, see Gary Kelly’s English Fiction of the Romantic Period, 1789–1830 (London: Longmans, 1989). See also his ‘Amelia Opie, Lady Caroline Lamb, and Maria Edgeworth: Official and Unofficial Ideology’, Ariel, 12 (October 1981) 3–24. 44. Robert Tracy discusses Edgeworth’s and Morgan’s national tales in light of the old trope of Ireland as woman in ‘Maria Edgeworth and Lady Morgan: Legality versus Legitimacy’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 40 (June 1985) 1–22. 45. Lady Caroline Lamb, Glenarvon (London: Everyman, 1995), 109. 46. Peter Graham notes that Lamb settles the contradiction between Byron- the-aristocrat and Byron-the-revolutionary in favour of the aristocrat. ‘Fic- tive Biography in 1816: The Case of Glenarvon’, Byron Journal, 19 (1991) 53–68. Notes 175

47. Malcolm Kelsall reads Lamb’s novel as a critical examination of Whig politics, arguing that Byron serves as a scapegoat for the Whig failure to find a solution for the Irish problem. See ‘The Byronic Hero and Revolution in Ireland: The Politics of Glenarvon’, Byron Journal, 9 (1981) 4–19. 48. ‘The Vampyre: A Tale by Lord Byron’ was published in the New Monthly Maga- zine on 1 April 1819. Before revisions, Polidori’s villain shared his name with Lamb’s and was called ‘Ruthven’. 49. John William Polidori, The Vampyre in The Vampyre and Ernestus Berchtold; or, The Modern Oedipus: Collected Fiction of John William Polidori, D.L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf, eds (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1994), 33. 50. When the first two cantos of Don Juan were reviewed a few months later in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, Polidori’s The Vampyre was still fresh in the minds of the reviewers, and they exploited Polidori’s vampyric rhetoric in their characterization of Byron: ‘It appears, in short, as if this miserable man, having exhausted every species of sensual gratification – having drained the cup of sin even to its bitterest dregs, were resolved to shew us that he is no longer a human being, even in his frailties; – but a cool unconcerned fiend, laughing with a detestable glee over the whole of the better and worse elements of which human life is composed – treating well nigh with equal derision the most pure of virtues, and the most odious of vices – dead alike to the beauty of the one, and the deformity of the other – a mere heartless despiser of that frail but noble humanity, whose type was never exhibited in a shape of more deplorable degradation than in his own contemptuously distinct delineation of himself.’ No longer even a ‘human being’, the poet is indifferent to virtue and vice alike, and his Don Juan just adds new sins to an already damnable canon of crimes. ‘Remarks on Don Juan’, Blackwood’s, 5 (August 1819), 513. This review is attributed to John Gibson Lockhart and John Wilson.

6. Cosmopolitan Figures and Cosmopolitan Literary Forms

1. Slavoj Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989), 5. 2. On the national tale, see Katie Trumpener’s Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997); Ina Ferris’s The Achievement of Literary Authority: Gender, History, and the Waverley Novels (Ithica: Cornell University Press, 1991), and The Romantic National Tale and the Question of Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Nicola Watson’s Revolution and the Form of the British Novel 1790–1827 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Gary Kelly’s Women, Writing, and Revolu- tion (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993); Joep Leerssen’s Remembrance and Imagination: Patterns in the Historical and Literary Representation of Ireland in the Nineteenth- Century (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997); and Ian Dennis’ Nationalism and Desire in Early Historical Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1997). 3. Miranda Burgess, ‘Violent Translations: Allegory, Gender, and Cultural Nationalism in Ireland, 1796–806’, Modern Language Quarterly, 59 (March 1998), 50. 4. Mary Jean Corbett, Allegories of Union in Irish and English Writing, 1790– 1870: Politics, History, and the Family from Edgeworth to Arnold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 80. 176 Notes

5. Madame de Staël, Corinne, or Italy, Avriel H. Golgberger, ed., trans. (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 20. 6. See, for example, Madelyn Gutwirth’s influential Madame de Staël, Novelist: The Emergence of the Artist as Woman (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), and Ellen Moers’ ‘Performing Heroinism: The Myth of Corinne’, in Literary Women, The Great Writers (Garden City: Doubleday, 1975). For a more recent discussion about Corinne see Karyna Szmurlo, ed., The Novel’s Seductions: Staël’s Corinne in Critical Inquiry (London: Bucknell University Press, 1999). 7. The Milesian Chief has not received much critical attention, but Ina Ferris, Katie Trumpener, Ian Dennis, and Fiona Robertson have offered some suggestive commentary. 8. Even the name of Maturin’s heroine recalls Staël’s Corinne. ‘Was there some magic in her charm or was it poetic inspiration?’ Oswald asks of Corinne: ‘Was she Armida or Sappho?’ (39). 9. Charles Maturin, The Milesian Chief, 4 vols (New York: Garland, 1979), 1: 9–10. 10. Maturin’s Armida in this sense bears a striking similarity to another real- life cosmopolitan heroine: Lord Edward Fitzgerald’s wife, Pamela. Rumoured alternatively to be an Englishwoman of respectable lineage and the French daughter of Mme Genlis and the Duke of Orléans, Pamela was accused of leading her husband astray during the events leading up to the 1798 rebellion and thus contributing to the Irish defeat. 11. Marilyn Butler, Romantics, Rebels and Reactionaries: English Literature and its Background, 1760–1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 160. 12. Chapter 23 of Biographia Literaria is a reprint of five letters on Bertram that Coleridge published in the Courier from 29 August to 11 September 1816. Byron’s positive recommendation helped to get Bertram produced at Drury Lane. 13. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria,inThe Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge vol. 7, James Engell and W. Jackson Bate, eds (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 229 14. As I suggested in Chapter 3, Jeffrey and Mackintosh experience the same problem in their attempts to formulate a national literature. The Edgeworths also experienced this problem in their etymology of Irish Bulls. 15. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘Shakespeare’s Judgement Equal to His Genius’, in Shakespearean Criticism vol. 2, T.M. Tayson, ed., 2nd ed. (London: Dent, 1930), 198. 16. ‘Melmoth the Wanderer’, Blackwood’s, 8 (November 1820), 161. 17. [John Wilson Croker], ‘Maturin – Melmoth the Wanderer’, Quarterly Review,24 (January 1821), 303 18. ‘Melmoth the Wanderer’, Edinburgh Review, 35 (July 1821), 354. P.L. Carver has argued convincingly that William Hazlitt was the author of this review in ‘Hazlitt’s Contributions to the Edinburgh Review’, Review of English Studies, 4 (October 1928) 385–93. 19. The same logic plays itself out on a grander level as well: literature from a nation in ‘one of the earlier stages of civilization and refinement’ (such as Ireland) can infect the literature of a more advanced nation (such as England). Notes 177

20. Charles Robert Maturin, Melmoth the Wanderer, Douglas Grant, ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 5. 21. Other sources, however, go unacknowledged. A large section of the ‘Tale of the Spaniard’, for instance, was drawn from Diderot’s La Religieuse (1796). This plagiarism gives a different stress to the question of organic unity than Maturin’s own self-plagiarism does. What happens to a work of art’s unity, for example, when it is not the product of a single author? For a discussion on Melmoth the Wanderer and La Religieuse, see Amy Elizabeth Smith’s ‘Experi- mentation and “Horrid Curiosity” in Maturin’s Melmoth the Wanderer’, English Studies, 6 (December 1993) 524–35. 22. Veronica M.S. Kennedy, ‘Myth and the Gothic Dream: C.R. Maturin’s Melmoth the Wanderer’, Pacific Coast Philology, 4 (April 1969), 41. 23. As Gary Kelly points out, the Wanderer’s mission is co-terminus with the establishment of Protestant hegemony in Ireland, English Fiction of the Roman- tic Period, 1789–1830 (London: Longmans, 1989). For the significance of Melmoth the Wanderer within an Irish context, see also Terry Eagleton’s Heath- cliff and the Great Hunger: Studies in Irish Culture (London: Verso, 1995), and Julian Moynahan’s Anglo-Irish: The Literary Imagination in a Hyphenated Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). 24. Dale Kramer, Charles Robert Maturin (Twayne: New York, 1973), 101. In his discussion of Melmoth the Wanderer, Kramer notes that either Constable or Henry Colburn of London offered Maturin five hundred pounds for a second set of tales. 25. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Brian Massumi, trans. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 4. 26. Leigh A. Ehlers points out that Maturin’s informational footnotes sometimes contradict the text and so subvert narrative authority. ‘The “Incommunicable Condition’ of Melmoth’, Research Studies, 49 (September 1981) 171–82. 27. See Eve Sedgewick’s The Coherence of Gothic Conventions (New York: Arno Press, 1980). 28. Georg Lukàcs, The Historical Novel, Hannah Mitchell and Stanley Mitchell, trans. (London: Merlin Press, 1962), 39. 29. Amanda Anderson, ‘Cosmopolitanism, Universalism, and the Divided Lega- cies of Modernity’, in Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, eds, Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 275.

Epilogue: Reactionary Cosmopolitanism

1. William Godwin, ‘Essay on History and Romance’, in Political and Philosoph- ical Writings of William Godwin, vol. 5, Pamela Clemit, ed. (London: William Pickering, 1993), 294–5. 2. This thread was picked up at different points during the century by various writers, including Michelet, Ranke, Hegel, and Marx. 3. For a more detailed reading of Southey’s Colloquies as a response to the larger cultural debate over the question of reform in Britain see my ‘Southey, Macaulay and the Idea of a Picturesque History’, Romanticism On the Net, 323 (November 2003–February 2004) 1–21. 178 Notes

4. Robert Southey, Sir Thomas More: or Colloquies on the progress and prospects of society, 2nd edn, 2 vols (London: John Murray, 1831), 29. 5. De Quincey’s translation of Kant’s ‘Idea of a Universal History on a Cosmo- political Plan’ first appeared in the October 1824 issue of the London Magazine. 6. As I suggested in Chapter 1, the reception of Kant’s philosophy in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Britain provides a useful parallel to the way in which cosmopolitanism was viewed during the Romantic period. ‘My ignorance of German would have prevented me from saying anything of the philosophy of Kant’, writes Dugald Stewart in his 1821 history of modern philosophy, ‘if the extraordinary pretensions with which it was at first brought forward in this island, contrasted with the total oblivion into which it soon after very suddenly fell, had not seemed to demand some attention to so wonderful a phenomenon in the literary history of the eighteenth century’. Dugald Stewart, Dissertation: exhibiting the progress of Metaphysi- cal, Ethical, and Political Philosophy since the revival of Letters in Europe, Sir William Hamilton, ed., 2 vols (Edinburgh: Thomas Constable, 1854), 1: 389. Stewart’s observations about the curious rise and decline of Kant’s popularity in late eighteenth–early nineteenth-century Britain belong to the second rise of Kant’s reputation in post-Napoleonic Britain, the same rise that carried Southey’s Colloquies. 7. [Thomas De Quincey], ‘Kant in his Miscellaneous Essays’, Blackwood’s Magazine 28 (August 1830), 268. De Quincey’s attitude towards Kant shifts through the 1820s and 1830s. See Daniel Sanjiv Roberts’ Revisionary Gleam: De Quincey, Coleridge, and the High Romantic Argument (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000). 8. Immanuel Kant, ‘Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose’, 41. 9. Mary Shelley, The Last Man, Hugh J. Luke, Jr, ed. (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 3. 10. For critical discussion of The Last Man as a critique of British imperialism, see Julia Wright, ‘Little England: Anxieties of Space in Mary Shelley’s The Last Man’, in Mary Shelley’s Fictions: From Frankenstein to Falkner, Michael Eberle-Sinatra ed. (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan Press; St. Martin’s Press, 2000), Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1999), and Paul A. Cantor, ‘The Apocalypse of Empire: Mary Shelley’s The Last Man’, in Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after Frankenstein: Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley’s Birth, Syndy M. Conger, Frederick S. Frank, Gregory O’Dea, eds (Madison: Fairleigh Dickenson University Press, 1997). 11. In her Introduction to The Last Man, Anne Mellor notes that Shelley ‘reveals the failure of all dominant political ideologies of her day – both radical (republican and democratic) and conservative (monarchical and theocratic)’. ‘Introduction,’ The Last Man, xix. Lee Sterrenburg makes a similar point about the anti-political stance of The Last Man. See his ‘The Last Man: Anatomy of Failed Revolutions’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction 33 (1978) 324–47. Bibliography

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The Absentee (Edgeworth), 7, 77, aristocracy: cosmopolitanism and, 78–81, 86, 168n11, 170n41 115–17; liberal, 96, 117; Account of Lope de Vega (Holland), 62 middle-class ideology and, 114 Act of Navigation,39 Aristotle, 130 Act of Union (1801), 71, 84, 90, 107, asymmetry: in international trade, 36; 126 of Kant’s model of nation, 17; of Melmoth the Wanderer, 139; of Act to Regulate the Importation and nations, 3; in Smith’s political Exportation of Corn,45 economy, 36 affiliation(s): alternative, 67; dual, 76, ‘Author and Hero in Aesthetic 124, 134; filiation and, 85; Activity’ (Bakhtin), 112–13 flexibility of, 54; multiple, and authorial distance, 113 national identity, 90; between national literatures, 58–9; new cosmopolitanism and, 142; trade Bainbridge, Simon, 172n13 and, 80 Bakhtin, Mikhail. ‘Author and Hero in Aesthetic Activity’, 112–13 Alien Act of 1793, 30 balance of power/states, 42–4, 148 altruistic cosmopolitanism, 96, 98 ‘Baring and others on the Orders in America: Revolution, 24; trade with Council’, 47–8 Britain, 48 Barrow, John. ‘America – Orders in ‘America – Orders in Council’ (Barrow, Council’, 48 Gifford), 48 Barruel, Abbé, 32 Anderson, Amanda, 141–2; Beddoes, Thomas. ‘Kant’s Project to ‘Cosmopolitanism, Universalism, perpetual Peace’, 157n18 and the Divided Legacies of Beitz, Charles R. Political Theory and Modernity’, 8 International Relations, 157n9 Anderson, Benedict, 55; Imagined belonging: affiliative vs. filiative, 85; Communities,1 and national affinity, 82; national Anderson, James. A Calm Investigation vs. universal, 93. See also national of the Circumstances that have led to belonging the Present Scarcity of Grain, 163n25 Bentham, Jeremy: An Introduction to Anglo-Irishness, 72, 76, 78, 81, 167n5; the Principles of Morals and Jewishness and, 90 Legislation, 161n9; Principles of International Law, 161n9; Principles ‘An Answer to the Question “What is of Penal Law,35 Enlightenment?”’ (Kant), 13, 14 Berlin Decree, 46 antagonism, 17, 18, 19; inter-state, Bertram (Maturin), 127–8 19–20; of Ireland, 124, 126; social Bhabha, Homi, 55 union and, 119 Blackwood’s Magazine, 149; on Antijacobin Review, 111, 112 Melmoth the Wanderer, 130 Appeal of the Poles (Brougham), 49 borders: Anglo-Irishness and, 72, Arendt, Hannah. Lectures on Kant’s 74–5; Britain and, 71; in Castle Political Philosophy, 156n1 Rackrent, 74–5; co-existence and,

190 Index 191

78; crossing of, 21; of genres, 132; Burgess, Miranda, 120 Ireland and, 71; literature and, 55; Burke, Edmund, 3; and circles of local attachment and, 72; Melmoth attachment, 35; on congress of the Wanderer and, 8, 133–5; and European powers, 22; on national literatures, 59, 64; plague cosmopolitanism, 26–7, 72, 88; and, 151; spatial, 134; temporal, Edgeworth compared to, 72; 134–5; trade and, 35, 38; travel as Edinburgh Review and, 34; on crossing, 101; universal tropes and, England as historical continuity, 84 25–6; on English Revolution, 25; on Boston Review. For Love of Country: familial relations, 72; ‘First Letter Debating the Limits of Patriotism,9 on a Regicide Peace’, 31; ‘Fourth Britain: absence of enlightenment in, Letter on a Regicide Peace’, 30; on 28; Act of Union (1801) and, 71; France as ‘faction’, 29–30; on and borders, 71; censorship in, French philosophes, 26–7, 72–3; 164n42; corn trade, 44–5, 50–1; and French Revolution, 5, 25, 26, dependence on foreign nations, 42, 27, 28, 33, 34, 73, 104; ‘Heads for 45; Enlightenment in, 158n27; Consideration on the Present State heterogeneity of, 90, 91; as of Affairs’, 22; on Ireland, 31–2; on historical continuity, 25–6; Jacobinism, 30–3; Kant’s ideas homogeneity of, 4, 90, 120; compared to, 18; ‘Letter on Affairs Jacobinism and, 30–1; and Jewish of Ireland’, 32; ‘Letter to a Member finance during Napoleonic wars, 93; of the National Assembly’, 27, 30; literature of, 106, 132 (see also ‘Letter to Richard Burke’, 31; ‘Letter English literature); as non-unified to William Smith’, 31–2; on ‘little and heterogenous, 90; 1807 Orders platoon’, 5, 26, 29; and London in Council, 46–9; as organic whole, Revolutionary Society’s 26; poetry of, 64–5; ‘Congratulary Address’, 22–3; post-Napoleonic, 143, 144; post-war Mackintosh on, 33; ’Observations depression in, 50; and Roman on the Conduct of the Minority’, Catholicism, 147; 1756 rule of war, 30; and patriotism, 5, 7; Reflections 46; as self-enclosed, 72; on the Revolution in France,5,18, self-sufficiency of, 42, 45, 49; 22–3, 24–33, 32, 66, 72–3; ‘Remarks Southey on, 147–8; succession in, on the Policy of the Allies’, 159n31; 25; trade war with France, 46–9; on Rousseau, 27–8; ‘Second Letter trade with America, 48; war with on a Regicide Peace’, 29–30; France, 22, 44, 49, 89–90; women ’Thoughts on French Affairs’, 29; on in, 58 universalism, 27–8 British Critic, 111–12, 113 Burkean model of nation: Childe British Review, 114 Harold and, 100, 101; cosmopolitan Britons: Forging the Nation (Colley), heroine and, 124; cosmopolitan vs., 89–90 143; Edgeworth and, 73, 74, 75, 80, Brougham, Henry, 6, 35, 41–2; Appeal 81, 82; plague and, 151; of the Poles, 49; ‘Examination of the post-Napoleonic boundary late Orders in Council’, 47–8; redrawing and, 120; Romantic ‘Liberty of the Press and its Abuses’, nationalism of, 55, 61–2. See also 164n42; ‘Politique de tous les local attachment Cabinets de l’Europe’, 42–4 Butler, Judith, 9 Buchanan, David, 35, 41–2, 50, 51 Butler, Marilyn, 81, 86, 167n8; Rom- Bull, Hedley, 12 antics, Rebels and Reactionaries, 127 192 Index

Byron, Anne Isabella, Lady, 111 Jacobinism, 32; Southey and, 147; Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 89, 90; in Wild Irish Girl, 121 adultery of, 111–12; Antijacobin Childe Harold (Byron), 4, 7, 8, 89, 133 Review on, 111, 112; British Critic Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Byron), on, 111–12, 113; Childe Harold’s 98–9, 100–6, 110–11, 113–15, 133 Pilgrimage, 4, 7, 8, 89, 98–9, 100–6, Christensen, Jerome, 174n36 110–11, 113–15, 133; as citizen of Christianity: and east, 138; and Holy the world, 106–7; cosmopolitan Alliance, 148–9; and Islam, 101; liberality of, 115; and Jewishness and, 171n44; and cosmopolitans, 95; Don Juan,4,7, national literature, 58; and 107–12; on Eustace’s Classical Tour northern-southern amalgamation, of Italy, 172n11; as exemplar of 57; and perfectibility, 146; and aristocracy, 114–15; ‘Fare Thee reason, 147; and universal history, Well’, 111; as Glenarvon, 116; 144. See also Catholicism; poetry of, 117; Roberts on, 114–15; Protestantism satire of, 115; Scott compared to, Citizen of the World (Goldsmith), 7, 174n41; ‘Sketch from Private Life’, 95, 96–9 111; Southey and, 105–6, 108; ‘To a citizens of the world: Byron and, Lady Weeping’, 111; on travels, 106–7, 108; cosmopolitan 95–6; The Vampyre and, 117–18 education and, 9; Goldsmith and, 7, Byron: the Years of Fame (Quennell), 95, 96–9; in The Last Man, 154; Price 173n30 and, 24 Clarissa (Richardson), 129 A Calm Investigation of the Clark, Ian, 12 Circumstances that have led to the classical character, 112–13 Present Scarcity of Grain (Anderson), Classical Tour of Italy (Eustace), 163n25 172n11 Campbell, Thomas. ‘Ye Mariners of classical unities, 130 England’, 65 Clifford, James, 99–100, 108 Candide (Voltaire), 7, 95 Cobden, William. England, Ireland, ‘Capt. Pasley on the Military Policy of and America, 164n39 Great Britain’ (Croker, Southey), Cockburn, Lord, 41, 165n12 48–9 Cohen, Margaret, 55 Carlyle, Thomas, 6, 61; ‘State of German Literature’, 69–70 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 2–3, 8, Carr, E.H.: Nationalism and After, 51–2; 127–9, 141 Stranger in Ireland,71 Colley, Linda. Britons: Forging the Cary, Meredith. ‘Privileged Nation, 89–90 Assimilation’, 168n18 Collini, Stefan, 66 Castle of Otranto (Walpole), 129 The Colloquies (Southey), 8, 143 Castle Rackrent (Edgeworth), 7, 73–5 commerce. See trade Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, ‘Comparative Cosmopolitanism’ 107 (Robbins), 8 categorical imperative, 4 comparative literature, 55 Catholicism: Britain and, 89–90, 91, ‘Congratulary Address to the National 147; and British-French war, 89–90; Assembly of France’ (London Edinburgh Review and, 71; in Revolutionary Society), 22, 23, 26 Glenarvon, 116; Gordon Riots and, Congress of Vienna, 50 91; in Ireland, 31–2; and ‘Contest of the Faculties’ (Kant), 15 Index 193

Corbett, Mary Jean, 120, 167n3, benevolence, 152; and universal 167n8 subject, 75, 91 Corinne; or Italy (Staël), 7–8, 59, 65, cosmopolitan liberality, 115 121–4 cosmopolitan purpose, 13–14, 15, 19; corn, 44–5, 50–1 Southey and, 147 cosmopolitan heroines, 7, 8, 120–7 cosmopolitans, 7–8, 14; as alter ego of The Cosmopolitan Ideal in national man, 95, 105; and Enlightenment Thought (Schlereth), destruction of domestic relations, 14–15, 92–3 152 ‘Cosmopolitanism, Universalism, and Le Cosmopolite (Fougeret de the Divided Legacies of Modernity’ Monbron), 98–9 (Anderson), 8 cosmopolites, Fougeret de Monbron’s Cosmopolitanism and the National State definition of, 99 (Meinecke), 156–7n6 country, love of, 5, 23–4, 35, 55. See cosmopolitanism(s): altruistic, 96, 98; also local attachment aristocracy and, 115–17; Burke on, critical consciousness, 85 26–7, 72, 88; of capital, 35; Croker, John Wilson, 130–1; ‘Capt. Coleridge on, 2–3, 8; Pasley on the Military Policy of commercially-based Great Britain’, 48–9 internationalism and, 42, 52; critical literature on, 8–9, 155n2; discrepant, 100; Edgeworth and, 75, Dallas, Robert Charles, 96 89, 90, 171n4; Edinburgh Review Dalnekoff, Donna Isaacs, 171n5 and, 34; Enlightenment, 2, 10, 12, Deane, Séamus, 73, 98, 158n26–7; The 14–15; exilic, 104; and French French Revolution and Enlightenment, nationality, 72–3; internationalism 159n40; Nations and Nationalisms, and, 15; Jacobinism and, 5–6, 26–7, 71–2 32; Jews and, 90, 102; Kant and, Declaration of Right (England), 25 11–12, 13–14, 15, 19; Kristeva on, Declaration of the Rights and Freedoms 21; libertarian, 108; literature and, of Man and Citizen,82 6, 8, 58–9, 122; local attachment Deleuze, Gilles. A Thousand Plateaus, and, 7, 88, 96; Mackintosh on, 33; 138 meanings of, 1–2, 35; model of De Lille, Jacques. Malheur et Pitié,54 nation vs. Burkean model, 143; and Delphine (Staël), 59 moral philosophy–political De Quincy, Thomas, 146; ‘Kant in his economy intersection, 36–7; Miscellaneous Essays’, 149 Napoleonic wars and, 42; and Dever, Carolyn, 55 national interest, 70; nationalism d’Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron, and, 2–3, 6, 10, 15, 18, 25, 113–14, 93 155n2, 156–7n6; and national taste, Diderot, Denis, 93; La Religieuse, 67–8, 69–70; new, 141–2; patriotism 177n21 and, 2–3, 9, 24, 40–1; and peace, Discourse on the love of our country 152; plague and, 151; political (Price), 4, 23–4, 25, 26 economy and, 41; positive, 82, displacement: foreignness as, 77; 85–6, 89, 90; reactionary, 8, 143–54; pilgrimage and, 99 religion and, 92–3; rooted, 86; division of labour, 37, 40 Smith’s political economy and, 35; domestic attachment. See home and as social symptom, 120; trade and, hearth, attachment to 6, 36, 151; and universal Don Juan (Byron), 4, 7, 107–12 194 Index drama: British, 127–8; German, 128–9 Ehlers, Leigh A., 177n26 Drury Lane Theatre, 128 Elements of the Philosophy of the Human During, Simon. ‘Literature – Mind (Stewart), 163n21 Nationalism’s other?’, 70 England. See Britain England, Ireland, and America Edelston, John, 103 (Cobden), 164n39 Edgeworth, Maria, 6–7, 120; The English literature, 66; foreign Absentee, 7, 77, 78–81, 86, 168n11, influences on, 64–5; as 170n41; and Anglo-Irishness, 72, homogeneous, 66; national 85–6; and Burkean model of nation, character and, 58; Staël on, 58 73, 74, 75, 80, 81, 82; Burke English Revolution, 24, 25 compared with, 72; on Carr’s Enlightenment: cosmopolitanism, 2, Stranger in Ireland, 71; Castle 10, 12, 14–15; and cosmopolitan Rackrent, 7, 73–5; and purpose, 14; in England, 158n27; cosmopolitanism, 75, 89, 90, and French Revolution, 27, 28; and 171n4; and critical consciousness, idea of nation, 143; narrative, 71, 85; and dual affiliation, 134; 73; reason and, 14; Scottish, 6, 56, education of, 81; Ennui, 7, 75–8, 86; 68; and universal history, 14, 144; ‘Essay on Irish Bulls’, 82–5; on and universal standards, 69 French, 88; Harrington, 7, 90–4; Irish enlightenment: absence of, in tales, 4, 7, 72; and Jewishness, 90, England, 28; cosmopolitan purpose 91–2; Memoirs of Richard Lovell and, 147; of Europe, 44; Edgeworth, 75; Ormond, 7, 86–9, 93, international trade and, 151 168n17 ennui,77 Edgeworth, Robert Lovell, 81, 168n15; Ennui (Edgeworth), 7, 75–8, 86 ‘Essay on Irish Bulls’, 82–5; review ‘Essay on History and Romance’ of Carr’s Stranger in Ireland,71 (Godwin), 143–4 Edinburgh Review, 4, 5–6; and Burke, ‘Essay on Irish Bulls’ (M. Edgeworth; 34; and commercially-based R.L. Edgeworth), 82–5 internationalism, 35, 42, 52; and ethnography as pilgrimage, 99 cosmopolitanism, 34; and Europe: free press and, 52–3; cosmopolitanism in literature, 54; international union and, 49; on international trade, 41–2; on literature in, 70; national taste in, Irish-English relations, 71; literary 70; post-Napoleonic restructuring patriotism of, 6, 60–6; mandate of, of, 50, 145; as united whole, 43 62; on Melmoth the Wanderer, 131–2; Eustace, John Chetwode. Classical J.S. Mill on, 166n23; on Orders in Tour of Italy, 172n11 Council, 47–8; and patriotism, 34; ‘Examination of the late Orders in and political economy, 34–5, 41; on Council’ (Brougham), 47–8 post-Napoleonic restructuring of expatriates, 104 Europe, 50; retreat from liberal political economy, 50–2; Romantic literary criticism in, 56. See also ‘Fare Thee Well’ (Byron), 111 names of individual reviewers fascism, 119–20 education: cosmopolitan, 9; and federations of states, 18–20 national development, 75; and Fenelon, François de Salignac de la national difference, 75; and Mothe-, 35 national identity, 76; and national Fielding, Henry, 58 prejudice, 91 filiation, affiliation and, 85 Index 195

‘First Letter on a Regicide Peace’ Gellner, Ernest: Legitimation of Belief, (Burke), 31 156n5; Nations and Nationalism, 10, Fitzgerald, Lord and Lady Edward, 11–12 176n10 genres: of English literature, 58; foreign commerce. See trade literature cutting across, 132; and foreignness, as socio-cultural national literatures, 132 relationship, 77, 78 Germany: literature, 62–4, 67, 69; For Love of Country: Debating the Limits Southey on, 148. See also On of Patriotism (Boston Review),9 Germany (Staël) fosterage, 75 Gibbon, Edward, 57, 104 Fougeret de Monbron, Louis Charles. Gifford, William. ‘America – Orders in Le Cosmopolite, 98–9 Council’, 48 Fox, Charles, 5, 30 Gilbert, Felix, 157n6 France: alliance of European powers Glenarvon (Lamb), 7, 116–17 against, 22; colonies, 46; Godwin, William, 150; ‘Essay on cosmopolitanism and, 72–3; and History and Romance’, 143–4 destabilization of other nations, 29, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Life of 30; Edgeworth and, 88; as ‘faction’, Himself, 66; Wilhelm Meister, 67–9 29–30; geographical Golden Treasury (Palgrave), 66 re-territorialization of, 29; National Goldsmith, Oliver, 63, 92, 104, 108; Assembly, 27, 28, 73; philosophes, Citizen of the World, 7, 95, 96–9 73; Southey on, 148; trade war with Gordon Riots, 91, 93 Britain, 46–9; ungroundedness of, Great Britain: as Burkean nation, 4; 28–9; war with Britain, 22, 44, 49, and Europe, 43; Scotland’s role in, 89–90 4. See also Britain; Scotland Franklin, Benjamin, 93 Greece: Byron and, 102–3, 106; as ‘The Frauds of the National Flag’ fragmented nation, 120; in The Last (Jeffrey), 46 Man, 152; liberty in society of, 56; freedom: fighters, 108; individual, 4, literature, 56, 64, 83; in The 15–16; and individual Vampyre, 118 development, 17, 18; of nations, 4, Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, Baron, 54 18–19, 20, 52–3; of press, 52–3; and The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy reason, 14; reform and, 14; of Restricting the Importations of restricted, 17, 18. See also liberty Foreign Corn (Malthus), 50–1 French language, 99 Guattari, Félix. A Thousand Plateaus, French literature, 59, 65 138 French Revolution, 2, 26, 27; Burke Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 95 and, 5, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 73, 104; Enlightenment and, 27, 28; Habermas, Jurgen, 142, 155n2 Mackintosh on, 33; and patriotism, Harrington (Edgeworth), 7, 90–4 23; Price on, 24 Hazlitt, William, 174n41 The French Revolution and ‘Heads for Consideration on the Enlightenment (Deane), 159n40 Present State of Affairs’ (Burke), 22 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 60, Gallagher, Catherine, 90 141 Gallagher, John A. ‘The Imperialism Helvetius, Claude Adrien, 5, 26, 28, 73 of Free Trade’, 161n6 Hemans, Felicia, 173n35 Galland, M. ‘The Remarkable Sayings Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 60 of the Eastern Nations’, 83 Hervey, James. Meditations, 128–9 196 Index heterogeneity: of Britain, 90, 91; of interdependence: and Kant’s nation German literature, 64; of Kant’s state, 17; of national literatures, 70; model of nation, 17, 18, 19, 20; of of nation-states, 42 Lake poetry, 61, 66; of Melmoth the interloper, the, 119–20 Wanderer, 131, 132; of nation, 6; in international federation, 4–5, 147–8 national literatures, 62, 66 internationalism: Hinsley, E. H., 12 commercially-based, 6, 35, 42, 52; The Historical Novel (Lukàcs), 141 and cosmopolitanism, 15; Schlereth Hobhouse, John Cam, 115 on, 15 Hobson, J.A., 161n6 international relations: balance of Holland, Lord. Account of Lope de Vega, power in, 42–4; Brougham on, 62 42–4; Mackintosh on, 33; as Holy Alliance, 148–9 relations between sovereigns, 51; home, pilgrimage and, 102–3 three periods of, 51–2; universal home and hearth, attachment to: and cosmopolitanism and, 6, 18; borders, 72; Childe Harold and, 100; unsocial sociability and, 19–20 as heart of nation, 27; and national international trade. See trade identity, 72; nationness as, 67; international union: for Brougham, patriotism as, 5 44; cosmopolitan purpose and, 19; homebodies, travellers vs., 102, 103, future of Europe and, 49; Kant’s 105 nation and, 18; national union and, 20; and peace, 22 homogeneity: of Britain, 4, 90, 120; An Introduction to the Principles of and English literature, 66; fascism Morals and Legislation (Bentham), and, 119–20; and Ireland, 124 161n9 Horner, Francis, 6, 35, 41–2, 50; Ireland: Act of Union (1801) and, 71, ‘Observations on the Bounty upon 84, 90, 107, 126; and borders, 71; Exported Corn’, 44–5 bulls, 82–5; Burke on, 31–2; Howard, William, 170n36 Catholic emancipation in, 31–2; Hume, David, 41, 58, 60, 93; ‘Of cosmopolitan heroine and, 124–6; Commerce’, 161n18; ‘Of the dual status of, 74; as fragmented Jealousy of Trade’, 36–7 nation, 120; homogeneity and, 124; Hurrell, Andrew. ‘Kant and the Jacobinism and, 31–2; patriotism Kantian Paradigm in International in, 31; Protestantism in, 31–2, Relations’, 12–13 177n23; 1798 rebellion, 76, 107, 116; as woman, 116. See also Anglo-Irishness; Edgeworth, Maria ‘Idea for a Universal History with a Irish-English relations: Act of Union Cosmopolitan Purpose’ (Kant), 4, and, 84; Edinburgh Review on, 71 12–19, 154; Southey and, 146–9 Irish Rebellion, 6–7 identity: as differential, 95; travel and, Italy: Byron and, 103–4, 107; as 105. See also national identity fragmented nation, 120; in The Imagined Communities (Anderson), 1 Milesian Chief, 124; Southey on, imperialism, 35, 155n2 148. See also Corinne; or Italy (Staël) ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’ (Gallagher; Robinson), 161n6 Jacobinism: Burke on, 30–3; Coleridge individual development: education on, 127–9; cosmopolitanism and, and, 75; restricted freedom and, 17, 5–6, 26–7, 32; English, 30–1; in 18 Ireland, 31–2; and Lake poets, 62; Index 197

and literature reviews, 62; and 15–16; and Romantic nationalism, nations, 30–1; and patriotism, 31; 11; on state as pathologically Protestantism and, 159n40; reviews enforced social union, 119; statism of foreign literature and, 6; Roman and cosmopolitanism of, 12–13; Catholicism and, 32 tree image, 17–18; union of states, Jefferson, Thomas, 48 20, 71; and universal history, 13–14; Jeffrey, Francis, 5, 6, 35, 41–2, 54; on ’unsocial sociability’, 15–17, 19–20, Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, 119 113; ‘The Frauds of the National ‘Kant and the Kantian Paradigm in Flag’, 46; on Goethe’s Wilhelm International Relations’ (Hurrell), Meister, 67–9; on Lessing’s Nathan 12–13 the Wise, 67; ‘Southey’s Thabala’, ‘Kant in his Miscellaneous Essays’ (De 61–2, 67; State and Prospects for Quincy), 149 Europe,49 ‘Kant’s Project to perpetual Peace’ Jewish Naturalization Act, 91, 94 (Beddoes), 157n18 Jews and Jewishness: Anglo-Irishness Kedourie, Elie, 12; Nationalism, 10–11 and, 90; and cosmopolitanism, 90, Kelly, Gary, 177n23 93, 102; in Harrington, 90–2; Jew as Kelsall, Malcolm, 174–5n47 intruder, 120; national identity, 93; Kennedy, Veronica, 132–3 Wandering Jew, 90, 102 kinship, 72 Kowaleski-Wallace, Elizabeth, 167n3 Kant, Immanuel, 1, 4–5; Anglo-Irish Kramer, Dale, 137 relations and philosophy of, 78; ’An Kristeva, Julia, 2, 7, 82, 105, 107–8; Answer to the Question “What is Nations without Nationalism, 21; Enlightenment?”’, 13, 14; Arendt Strangers to Ourselves, 8, 20–1, 95 and, 156n1; Barruel on, 32; on boundary crossing, 21; Burke’s ideas laissez-faire economics, 51, 52 compared, 18; and civil state, Lake poets, 61, 62, 66 15–17; ‘Contest of the Faculties’, 15; Lamb, Caroline. Glenarvon, 7, 116–17 and cosmopolitanism, 11–12; Lamb, William, 116 ‘cosmopolitan purpose’, 13–14, 15, The Last Man (Shelley), 8, 143, 149–54 19; De Quincey on, 149; ‘double Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy logic’ of, 12–13; and Enlightenment (Arendt), 156n1 cosmopolitanism, 12; and Lectures on Political Economy (Stewart), federation of states, 18–19; Gellner 41 on, 10, 11–12, 156n5; Hurrell on, Leerssen, Joep, 82 12–13; ‘Idea for a Universal History Legitimation of Belief (Gellner), 156n5 with a Cosmopolitan Purpose’, 4, Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. Nathan 12–19, 146–9, 154; on international the Wise,67 union and national security, 22; ‘Letter on Affairs of Ireland’ (Burke), Kedourie on, 10–11, 12; 32 ‘Metaphysics of Morals’, 16–17, 19, ‘Letter to a Member of the National 20, 21; and nationalism, 5, 11–12; Assembly’ (Burke), 27, 30 on national unions, 17, 18; and ‘Letter to Richard Burke’ (Burke), 31 non-unified state, 18, 19, 29; ‘On ‘Letter to William Smith’ (Burke), 31–2 Perpetual Peace’, 4, 12, 18, 19–20, Lettres Persanes (Montesquieu), 7, 95 21, 148–9, 154; ‘On the Common Lewis, M.G., 133 Saying: “This May be True in Theory liberalism: aristocratic, 96, 117; but it does not Apply in Practice”’, Byron’s adultery and, 111–12; 198 Index

cosmopolitanisms and, 86; Holy National Assembly of France’, 22, Alliance and, 149; and universal 23, 26 improvement, 146 Lukàcs, Georg. The Historical Novel, libertarian cosmopolitanism, 108 141 liberty: Byron and, 107–8; in Greece, 56; libertinage and, 108; literature Macaulay, Thomas, 144 and, 56–7; revolutions and, 24. See Mackintosh, James, 6, 50, 61; on also freedom English literary history, 64–5, 66; ‘Liberty of the Continental Press’, relationship with Staël, 166n16; on 52–3 Staël’s On Germany, 62–4; Vindiciae ‘Liberty of the Press and its Abuses’ Gallicae,33 (Brougham), 164n42 Magna Charta, 25 Malheur et Pitié (De Lille), 54 Life of Himself (Goethe), 66 Malthus, Thomas: The Grounds of an The Life of Lord Byron (Moore), 172n15 Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Literature Considered in Its Relation to Importations of Foreign Corn, 50–1; Social Institutions (Staël), 55–60, 61, Observations on the Effects of the Corn 122 Laws, 50–1 ‘Literature – Nationalism’s other?’ Mandeville, Bernard, 17 (During), 70 marriage, 120–1 literature(s): as category, 165n6; Marx, Karl, 151 cosmopolitan forms of, 8; and Maturin, Charles, 90; Bertram, 127–8; cosmopolitanism, 6; cosmopolitan heroines of, 121; Melmoth the vs. national, 60; international, 55; Wanderer, 4, 8, 129–42, 151; Jacobinism and, 6, 62; and liberty, Milesian Chief, 4, 7–8, 124–6; 56–7; and morality, 60; and Women; or Pour et Contre, 126–7 national borders, 55; national McGann, Jerome, 105 character and, 58; national identity McKillop, Allan D., 96, 98 and, 54, 66; perfectibility and, 57, Meditations (Hervey), 128–9 68; in post-Napoleonic Europe, 70; Medwin, Thomas, 106 progress and, 57; Roman, 56–7; Meinecke, Friedrich. Cosmopolitanism root- and rhizome books, 138–9; and the National State, 156–7n6 socio-political approach to, 55–60, Mellor, Anne, 178n11 70; southern vs. northern origins of, Melmoth the Wanderer (Maturin), 4, 8, 58–9; Southey on, 106; 133–42, 151; Edinburgh Review on, transnational, 55; tyranny and, 57; 131–2; as generic hybrid, 130–1; universal standards in, 69. See also narrative construction in, 137–42; national literature(s) reviews of, 129–33; as local attachment: and absenteeism, rhizome-book, 138–9 79; and borders, 72; Memoirs of Richard Lovell Edgeworth cosmopolitanism and, 88, 96; and (Edgeworth), 75 international trade, 79–80; and mercantilism, 6, 36–7, 38–9, 39–40, national identity, 72; and 47, 51, 52 partisanship, 80–1; ‘Metaphysics of Morals’ (Kant), 16–17, re-territorialization of France and, 19, 20, 21 29. See also country, love of; home middle class, 114 and hearth, attachment to Milan Decree, 47 London Revolutionary Society. Milesian Chief (Maturin), 4, 7–8, ‘Congratulary Address to the 124–6 Index 199

Mill, J. S.: on Edinburgh Review, states and, 20; as inheritance, 72, 166n23; Principles of Political 75, 76; Jewish, 93; and literature, Economy,35 54, 66; local attachment and, 72; Mill, James, 35, 41–2, 163n23 middle-class vs. aristocratic, 113–14; Mill, J.S., 151 multiple affiliations in, 90; national Miller, Joe. Natural History,83 character as, 75; national literature Monbron, Louis Charles Fougeret de. and, 67; national origin and, 76–7; See Fougeret de Monbron, Louis socio-cultural foundation, 75, Charles 78, 85 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, national interest: balance of power Baron, 58; Lettres Persanes,7,95 and, 43; cosmopolitanism and, 70; Moore, Thomas. The Life of Lord Byron, free trade and, 39–40 172n15 nationalism: cosmopolitanism and, morality: international, 157n9; 2–3, 6, 10, 15, 18, 25, 113–14, literature and, 60; nationality and, 155n2, 156–7n6; Gellner on, 11; 115; national taste and, 60, 127–8 invasion and, 117; Irish Rebellion moral philosophy, 36–7 and, 6–7; Kant and, 5, 11–12; Mordecai, Rachel, 171n44 Kedourie on, 10; and national More, Sir Thomas, 145–9 character, 71; religion vs., 2; Morgan, Sydney, 120, 124; Wild Irish Romantic, 2, 10, 11, 12, 18; Girl, 121 self-determination and, 10–11; universalism and, 2. See also Napier, Macvey, 163n23 Romantic nationalism Napoleon I, Emperor, 46–7 Nationalism and After (Carr), 51–2 Napoleonic wars: Britain’s Nationalism (Kedourie), 10–11 dependence on Jewish finance national literature(s): affiliations during, 93; cosmopolitanism and, between, 58–9; borders and, 64; 42; Edinburgh Review and, 5, 6, 34; cosmopolitan heroine and, Jacobinism and, 6 national literature(s) – continued Narratives of Enlightenment (O’Brien), 120–7; cosmopolitanism and, 58–9, 161n12 122; cross-border movement and, Nathan the Wise (Lessing), 67 59; English, 58, 64–5, 66; national belonging: inheritance vs. Enlightenment narrative and, 73; education and, 76; ‘little platoon’ French, 59, 65; genres and, 132; and, 29; local attachment and, 29; German, 62–4, 67, 69; Greek, 56, redrawing of boundaries of, 120; as 64; heterogeneity in, 62; socio-cultural, 77; to two nations, interdependence of, 70; 76–7 international literary exchange and, national character: Irish bulls and, 84; 59–60; and national identity, 67; and literature, 58; as national progress of, 132; Romantic identity, 75; nationalism and, 71 nationalisms and, 55, 61–2; national development: conflict and, socio-political approach and, 57–8, 141; education and, 75; 61, 64; stages of progress, 68; international trade and, 37–8 variables shaping, 58 national heroines, 120–1, 123, 124, national taste(s): cosmopolitanism 126 and, 67–8, 69–70; and cultural national histories, 104, 144 relativism, 69; foreign literature national identity: British, 89–90; and, 62, 67; international trade and, education and, 76; federation of 68; local attachment and, 67; and 200 Index

morality, 60, 115, 127–8; in ‘Of Commerce’ (Hume), 161n18 post-Napoleonic Europe, 70 ‘Of Patriotism’ (Stewart), 40–1 national unions, 18; antagonism and, ‘Of the Jealousy of Trade’ (Hume), 36–7 17, 18; and international unions, 20 On Germany (Staël), 56, 58, 60, 62–4, national wealth: free trade and, 39–40; 115 international trade and, 48–9 ‘On Perpetual Peace’ (Kant), 4 Nations and Nationalism (Gellner), 10, ‘On the Common Saying: “This May 11–12 be True in Theory but it does not Nations and Nationalisms (Deane), Apply in Practice”’ (Kant), 15–16 71–2 Ormond (Edgeworth), 7, 86–9, 93, nation(s) and nationness: asymmetry 168n17 of, 3; Burkean model of (see Burkean Owenson, Sydney. See Morgan, model of nation); cosmopolitan Sydney heroine and, 126; cosmopolitanism as rooted in soil of, 3; cosmopolitan Palgrave, Francis, 67; on Goethe’s Life vs. Burkean model of, 143; of Himself, 66; Golden Treasury,66 Enlightenment and idea of, 143; patrilineal descent, 73–4 fragmentation of, 120; freedom of, patriotism: Burke and, 5; Childe 4, 18–19, 20, 52–3; heterogeneity Harold and, 110–11; and citizens of of, 3; and international federation, the world, 97; cosmopolitanism 4–5; in international structure, 3; and, 2–3, 9, 24, 40–1; Edinburgh Jacobinism and, 30–1; Kantian idea Review and, 34; French Revolution of, 18–19; kinship and, 72; ‘little and, 23; in Ireland, 31; Irish, 78; platoon’ and, 5; as love of hearth Jacobinism and, 31; literary, 6, and home, 27, 67; as non-unified, 60–6; ‘little platoon’ and, 26; 3–4, 5, 8, 10, 18, 19, 29, 62; as non-nationalistic, 82; Price and, 5, organic wholes, 55, 120; and 23; rational vs. instinctive, 40–1; sovereign, 51; stages in progress of, Staël on, 55–6 68; unified models of, 120; and ‘Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism’ universalisms, 143; unsocial (Nussbaum), 9 sociability and, 4; visitations to vs. peace: cosmopolitanism and, 152; settlement in, 21. See also state(s) international trade and, 151; Nations without Nationalism (Kristeva), international union and, 20, 21, 22; 21 Kant on (see ‘Perpetual Peace’ Natural History (Miller), 83 (Kant)); Southey on, 148–9 Newman, Gerald, 117; The Rise of perfectibility: literature and, 57, 68; English Nationalism, 113–14 Southey and, 146 Night Thoughts (Young), 129 ‘Perpetual Peace’ (Kant), 12, 18, Nussbaum, Martha. ‘Patriotism and 19–20, 21, 148–9, 154 Cosmopolitanism’, 9 Persian Letters (Montesquieu). See Lettres Persanes (Montesquieu) O’Brien, Karen, 104; Narratives of philosophes, 92–3; Burke on, 26–7, Enlightenment, 161n12 72–3, 88; Childe Harold as, 110–11; ‘Observations on the Bounty upon Edgeworth and, 88 Exported Corn’ (Horner), 44–5 Philosophie de Kant (Villers), 5, 34 ‘Observations on the Conduct of the pilgrimage, 99–100 Minority’ (Burke), 30 ‘Pilgrimage to Waterloo’ (Southey), Observations on the Effects of the Corn 105–6 Laws (Malthus), 50–1 Pinsky, Robert, 9 Index 201 plague, universal, 149–54 religion: and cosmopolitanism, 92–3; ‘Pleasures of Memory’ (Rogers), 65 cosmopolitan nationness and, 143; Poems (Rogers), 64–5 and Enlightenment poetry: of Byron, 117; English, 64–5; cosmopolitanism, 92–3; and Greek, 65; Lake, 61, 62, 66 Kantian model of nation, 21; Poland, 49 nationalism vs., 2; and national Polidori, John William. The Vampyre, literature, 57–8. See also 117–18 Christianity; Jews political economy, 41, 52; and ‘The Remarkable Sayings of the cosmopolitanism, 41; Edinburgh Eastern Nations’ (Galland), 83 Review and, 34–5; moral philosophy Remarks on the Jacobinical Tendency of and, 36–7; of Smith, 37–41 the Edinburgh Review (Wharton), Political Theory and International 161n5 Relations (Beitz), 157n9 ‘Remarks on the Policy of the Allies’ ‘Politique de tous les Cabinets de (Burke), 159n31 l’Europe’ (Brougham), 42–4 revolutions, 24 Porter, Denis, 99 Richardson, Samuel. Clarissa, 129 Price, Richard, 5, 93; A Discourse on the Riley, Patrick, 12 Love of Our Country, 4, 23–4, 25, 26 The Rise of English Nationalism Principles of International Law (Newman), 113–14 (Bentham), 161n9 Robbins, Bruce, 1, 55, 82; Principles of Penal Law (Bentham), 35 ‘Comparative Cosmopolitanism’, 8 Principles of Political Economy (Mill), 35 Roberts, William, 114–15 ‘Privileged Assimilation’ (Cary), Robertson, Michael, 174n36 168n18 Robinson, Ronald E. ‘The Imperialism protectionism, 6, 38, 42, 44 of Free Trade’, 161n6 Protestantism: and British-French war, Rogers, Samuel: ‘Pleasures of 89–90; in Glenarvon, 116; and Memory’, 65; Poems, 64–5; ‘Voyage Gordon Riots, 91; in Ireland, 31–2, of Columbus’, 65 177n23; and Jacobinism, 159n40; Roman Catholicism. See Catholicism in Wild Irish Girl, 121 romantic character, 112–13 Romantic nationalism: comparative Quarterly Review, 34, 50, 130; on literature and, 55; cosmopolitanism Orders in Council, 48–9 and, 2, 10, 12; Kant and, 11, 18; Quennell, Peter. Byron: the Years of and national literature, 55, 61–2; Fame, 173n30 and Romantic literature, 70. See also nationalism Radcliffe, Anne, 133 Romantics, Rebels and Reactionaries Ragussis, Michael, 171n44 (Butler), 127 reactionary cosmopolitanism, 8, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 5, 15, 19, 26, 143–54 27–8, 61, 73, 88 reason: cosmopolitan purpose and, Rutherford, Andrew, 174n36 14; and Enlightenment, 14, 147; Southey and, 147 Reflections on the Revolution in France Said, Edward. ‘Secular Criticism’, 85 (Burke), 5, 18, 22–3, 24–33, 32, 66, Saussy, Haun, 55 72–3 Schlereth, Thomas, 36; The Reiss, Hans, 158n28 Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment La Religieuse (Diderot), 177n21 Thought, 14–15, 92–3 202 Index

Scotland: Albania compared to, 101; ‘State of German Literature’ (Carlyle), Enlightenment, 6, 56, 68; 69–70 Jacobinism in, 31; role in Great state(s): civil, 15–17; difference Britain, 4. See also Edinburgh Review among, 20–1; national groups and, Scott, Sir Walter, 8, 34, 113, 141, 144, 17; as pathologically enforced social 174n41 union, 119; as tree, 18; unions of, Scrivener, Michael, 155n2 18–20. See also nation(s) and ‘Second Letter on a Regicide Peace’ nationness (Burke), 29–30 Sterne, Laurence, 58 ‘Secular Criticism’ (Said), 85 Stewart, Dugald, 56, 178n6; Elements self-determination, 10–11 of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, self-interest, 6, 39 163n21; Lectures on Political Shakespeare, William, 58 Economy, 41; ‘Of Patriotism’, 40–1 Shelley, Mary, 8; The Last Man, 8, 143, St Pierre, Abbé, 19 149–54 Stranger in Ireland (Carr), 71 Simpson, David, 28 Strangers to Ourselves (Kristeva), 8, Sir Thomas More: or Colloquies on the 20–1, 95 progress and prospects of society The Sublime Object of Ideology (Žižek), (Southey), 145–9 119–20 ‘Sketch from Private Life’ (Byron), 111 Swift, Jonathan, 58, 131; Gulliver’s Smith, Adam, 5–6, 35, 56; Bentham Travels,95 on, 35–6; on corn, 44–5; Horner on, 44–5; Stewart and, 40; Wealth of Taylor, William, 160n43 Nations, 4, 5–6, 6, 37–41 Thabala (Southey), 61–2, 67 Smith, Sydney, 84, 163n23 Thom, Martin, 2 social contract, 15, 18 A Thousand Plateaus (Deleuze, social symptoms, 119–20, 121, 126 Guattari), 138 Southey, Robert, 8, 95, 172n13; Byron ‘To a Lady Weeping’ (Byron), 111 and, 105–6, 108; ‘Capt. Pasley on Todorov, Tzvetan, 2 the Military Policy of Great Britain’, Tracy, Robert, 120 48–9; The Colloquies, 8, 143; on trade: asymmetry in, 36; and borders, contemporary literature, 106; 35; between Britain and America, ‘Pilgrimage to Waterloo’, 105–6; 48; Britain’s war with France, 46–9; Preface to A Vision of Judgement, Burke on, 25; corn, 44–5, 50–1; and 105–6; Sir Thomas More: or Colloquies cosmopolitanism, 6, 36; division of on the progress and prospects of labour in, 37, 39–40; and domestic society, 145–9; Thabala, 61–2, 67 economy, 48–9; domestic vs. ‘Southey’s Thabala’ (Jeffreys), 61–2, 67 international, 36–8; free, 6, 35; Kant Spector, Sheila, 90 on, 19; local attachment and, Staël, Germaine de, 6, 55; Corinne; or 79–80; mercantilism vs., 39–40; Italy, 7–8, 59, 65, 121–4; Delphine, mutual advantages of, 35–6, 39–40; 59; On Germany, 56, 58, 60, 62–4, and national development, 37–8; 115; heroines of, 121; Literature and national interest, 39–40; and Considered in Its Relation to Social national tastes, 68; and national Institutions, 55–60, 61, 122; wealth, 48–9; plague and, 151; Mackintosh and, 166n16 reciprocal view of, 36–7; Smith on, ‘State and Prospects of Europe’ 37–8; and universal enlightenment, (Jeffrey), 49 151 Index 203 travel: as border crossing, 101; Byron A Vision of Judgement, 105–6 on, 95–6; ennui vs., 77; and identity, Voltaire: Burke and, 5, 26, 28, 73; 105; as pleasure, 109; in Southey’s Candide, 7, 95; Edgeworth’s ‘Pilgrimage to Waterloo’, 105 Montanero compared to, 92; and travellers: homebodies vs., 102, 103, Jews, 93; and national histories, 105; philosophical, 97–8, 98; as 104; and national vs. cosmopolitan romantic rebels, 99 literature, 60 Treaty of Paris, 50 ‘Voyage of Columbus’ (Rogers), 65

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Walpole, Horace. Castle of Otranto, 129 Ireland, 84. See also Great Britain; Wandering Jew, 90, 102 Ireland wars, Kant on, 19, 20 universal, local vs., 9 Waterloo, battle of, 104, 105 universal benevolence, 35–6, 96, 152 Wealth of Nations (Smith), 4, 6, 37–41 universal history, 13–14, 143–7, 150, Weishaupt, Johann Adam, 32 152–3, 154 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Universal History from the Earliest Duke of, 107 Account of Time to the Present, 143–4 Wharton, R. Remarks on the Jacobinical universal hospitality, 21 Tendency of the Edinburgh Review, universalism(s): abstract, 142; Burke 161n5 on, 27–8; cosmopolitanism and, 75; Wight, Martin, 12 of literary standards, 69; and Wild Irish Girl (Morgan), 121 nationalism, 2; nationness and, Wilhelm Meister (Goethe), 67–9 143; new cosmopolitanism and, Women; or Pour et Contre (Maturin), 141–2; new Kantian, 142 126–7 universal law of right, 4–5, 11 Wordsworth, William, 95, 172n13 unsocial sociability, 4, 15–17, 19–20, 119 ‘Ye Mariners of England’ (Campbell), vagabonds, 98, 109–10, 111 65 The Vampyre (Polidori), 117–18 Young, Edward. Night Thoughts, 129 Villers, Charles de. Philosophie de Kant, 5, 34 Žižek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Vindiciae Gallicae (Mackintosh), 33 Ideology, 119–20