sign in sign up
<<
Home , Agami heron, Black rail, Conservation in Belize, Crested guan, Ducks Unlimited, Jabiru

FINAL REPORT WATERBIRDS IN

Authors: Bruce W. Miller Ph.D. Carolyn M. Miller M.Sc.

2006

Belize Audubon Society – Wildlife Conservation Society

Miller & Miller 1

• INTRODUCTION This assessment is part of the regional Waterbird Conservation for the program supported by BirdLife. With its low human population (280,000 est. 2006), Belize is unique in with comparatively less human pressure on important habitats for species. Belize’s location, along the (Fig. 1), ensures that it is important for many coastal waterbird species. In fact the name Belize is thought by some to come from a Maya word meaning “muddy waters,” perhaps referring to its extensive inland wetland systems, habitat for many waterbird species.

Belize has been ahead of the conservation curve since at least 1969, with the establishment of the Figure 1. Belize within the context of (BAS), the country’s first conservation NGO Mesoamerica that initially centered around with an early conservation focus on the charismatic . Since then Belize has developed an international reputation as a “birding hotspot” with the growth of ecotourism, much of it birding related. Therefore, issues relating to birds and their habitats have long been of importance at a national level in terms of generating foreign exchange via tourism, conservation in the face of increased development and recreation in the form of birding.

The main objective of this project was to determine the status of all waterbird species and their habitats in Belize, in keeping with the regional waterbird assessment objectives. The aim of this national waterbird assessment is not only to evaluate waterbirds within Belize, but contribute to and promote the Waterbird Conservation for the Americas initiative. The data from this assessment will be combined with other country reports in contributing to the regional waterbird assessment.

The designation of the broader context of waterbird species was provided by the BirdLife program coordinator for species, Cristina Morales, based in Asociaciòn Guyra . A Regional Symposium on waterbirds was held during the MesoAmerican Congress for Conservation and Biology (22 November 2005, La Ceiba, Honduras) where consensus was reached on items to include in the national reports as well as the waterbird species list. Species categorized as waterbirds for this project consequently did not include the (Pandion haliaetus) or the . With that in mind, of the more than 570 bird species reported for Belize, 134 waterbirds were evaluated for this report (Table 1) as follows: Miller & Miller 2

Table 1. Waterbirds reported for Belize, alphabetic order, evaluated for this study Common Name Scientific Name Agami Agamia agami Recurvirostra americana American Botaurus lentiginosus American Fulica americana American Golden Pluvialis dominica American Oystercatcher Haematopus palliatus American White Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Anas americana Anhinga anhinga Audubon's Shearwater Puffinus iherminieri Baird's Calidris bairdii Bare-throated Tiger-heron Tigrisoma mexicanum Black Noddy Anous minutus Black jamaicensis Rynchops niger Black Chlidonias niger Black-bellied Plover Pluvialis squatarola Black-bellied Whistling Dendrocygna autumnalis Black-crowned Night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli Black-legged Kitiwake Rissa tridactyla Black-necked Stilt Himantopus mexicanus Black-tailed Larus crassirostris Blue-winged Teal Anas discors Boat-billed Heron Cochlearius cochlearius Sterna anaethetus Brown Sula leucogaster Anous stolidus Pelecanus occidentalis Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis Sterna caspia Cattle Bubulcus Anas cyanoptera Clapper Rail Rallus longirostris Charadrius collaris Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Sterna hirundo Double-crested Phalacrocorax auritus Calidris alpina Forster's Tern Sterna forsteri Franklin's Gull Larus pipixcan Dendrocygna bicolor Plegadis falcinellus Gray-breasted Crake Laterallus exilis Gray-necked Wood-rail Aramides cajanea Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus Ardea herodias Ardea alba Great Catharacta skua Miller & Miller 3

Greater Phoenicopterus ruber Greater White-fronted Anser albifrons melanoleuca Green Heron Butorides virescens Green-winged teal Anas crecca Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica Herring Gull Larus argentatus Hooded Merganser Lophodytes cucullatus Hudsonian Limosa haemastica Jabiru Jabiru Charadrius vociferus Larus atricilla Ixobrychus exilis exilis Least Tachybaptus dominicus Calidris minutilla Sterna antillarum Aythya affinis Tringa flavipes Aramus guarauna Little Blue Heron caerulea Long-billed Numenius americanus Long-billed Limnodromus scolopaceus Magnificent Fregata magnificens Anas platyrhynchos Puffinus puffinus puffinus Limosa fedoa Sula dactylatra Masked Duck Nomonyx dominicus Cairina moschata Phalacrocorax brasilianus Northern Jacana Jacana spinosa Anas acuta Anas clypeata Stercorarius parasiticus Calidris melanotos Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps Botaurus pinnatus Piping Plover Charadrius melodus Pomerine Jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus Purple Gallinule Porphyrula martinica Calidris canutus Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator Egretta rufescens colorata Red-footed Booby Sula sula Red-necked Phalaropus lobatus Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris Roseate Ajaia ajaja Sterna dougallii Sterna maxima Miller & Miller 4

Ruddy Crake Laterallus ruber Arenaria interpres Rufescent Tiger-heron Tigrisoma lineatum Rufous-necked Wood-rail Aramides axillaris Calidris alba Sterna sandvicensis Eudocimus ruber Charadrius semipalmatus Calidris pusilla Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus Chen caerulescens Egretta thula Snowy Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Tringa solitaria Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus Sterna fuscata Porzana carolina Southern Vanellus chilensis Spotted rail maculatus Actitis macularia Calidris himantopus Heliornis fulica Egretta tricolor ruficollis Uniform Crake Amaurolimnas concolor Bartramia longicauda Calidris mauri Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus White Ibis Eudocimus albus White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis White-tailed Phaethon lepturus Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Wilson's Plover Charadrius wilsonia Wilson's Snipe Gallinago delicata Mycteria americana Yellow-breasted Crake Porzana flaviventer Yellow-crowned Night-heron Nyctanassa violaceus

• Background Waterbird conservation measures began more than 20 years ago with the advocacy of the country’s largest and oldest NGO, the Belize Audubon Society (BAS). Formerly known as , the first waterbird was focused at , which lies 100 km offshore from Belize City. As early as 1928, it was a “Crown Reserve” by virtue of its breeding colony of white phase Red-footed Booby (Fig. 2). This Figure 2. Red-footed Booby, Half Moon Caye, Belize (C.M. Miller photo) Miller & Miller 5 species was added to the protected wildlife list in 1950 (Hartshorn et al., 1984).

BAS also initiated the Crown Reserve Bird Sanctuaries on 7 small cayes (1977) that were known as waterbird rookeries for , Wood Stork, White Ibis, Great Egret, Snowy Egret, , Anhinga, Cormorant, Magnificent Frigate, (Man-o-War Caye), and Boat-billed Heron (Hilty, 1982; Hartshorn et al., 1984; Fig. 3). The BAS was in charge of these Crown Reserves at the behest of the (GOB) which lacked a national parks department. Without a budget, BAS used local people as unpaid wardens though these efforts were not altogether successful given remote access of some of the cayes. Hunters and fishermen killed birds from 3 of the cayes Figure 3. Boat-billed , and most were disturbed (Hartshorn et al., 1984). Black Creek, Belize (C.M. Miller photo) The Jabiru Stork came to the attention of the BAS as early as its first bulletin in March 1969 where its protection was promoted by two of the founding members, W. Ford Young and Dora Weyer, who regularly flew doing nest surveys across the country (Waight and Lumb, 1999). They actively documented nest location and successes and solicited sightings from members, and publicized this species during weekly BAS radio broadcasts.

In 1977, BAS documented its concern with the large scale of and waterbirds at the Big Falls Rice Station not far from Belize City (Waight and Lumb, 1999). In those days, hunters from Belize City conducted large scale shoots where waterbirds were shot and left behind including and herons. The Vice President of BAS, W. Ford Young, recommended that the shoots should be limited to migratory ducks and geese such as: White-fronted Goose, Blue Goose, Mallard, Green-winged Teal, American Wigeon, Northern Pintail, Blue-winged Teal, Cinnamon Teal, Northern Shoveler, Ring-necked Duck, Lesser Scaup, and the Masked Duck. Resident species such as Black-bellied Tree Duck and the Muscovy should be protected (Waight and Lumb, 1999). The rationale was that the migratory species were likely at the edge of their range and may not occur in high numbers in Belize but were in no danger of elsewhere.

The Mussel Creek drainage, including Cook’s Lagoon, Cox Lagoon and Mucklehany Lagoon, were also deemed important due to the presence of Wood thought to nest there, , Boat-billed Heron, Sungrebe and “at least 5 species of rails” (Hartshorn et al., 1984). In fact, the authors conducted early surveys here in 1986-1987 to recommend its protection by invitation of the then extant Belize Heritage Society (Miller and Miller, 1987; Fig. 4).

In Glover’s Reef, a large colony of Noddy nesting on Southwest Caye were highlighted as important by Hartshorn et al. (1984). A large Wood Stork rookery on a caye in Miller & Miller 6

Shipstern Lagoon was also of interest for conservation although the storks were regularly hunted over the years by local fishermen. This caye was also important for White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica) and Great . Reddish Egrets and White Ibis were also found at the mouth of this lagoon in the early 1980's (Hartshorn et al., 1984).

• METHODOLOGY Figure 4. Green Heron, Mussel Creek (C.M. • Data compilation Miller photo) Data was compiled from as many sources within Belize as were available. A literature search was conducted for both published accounts and gray literature including the Belize Audubon Society Newsletters that had a wealth of historical birding expedition reports. Distribution records for waterbirds were extracted from these sources. This data was supplemented with museum records, field notes and observations provided by birders and historical birding group trip reports (see Appendix 3). Data on waterbird species that had been compiled in the BERDS databases (Meerman, 2006) were also extracted. When adequate location data was available, species records were geo-referenced using a Geographic Information System (GIS). We also verified or corrected locations of species records from sources that included location coordinates using geo- referenced topographic maps in a GIS for Belize.

All species records were evaluated and those identifications that were unlikely to be correct, e.g., a Rufous-necked Woodrail erroneously reported for the Gallon Jug area, were discarded. Thus, of the original 134 species under consideration for this study, 129 were evaluated in this study. All remaining data was then entered into the relevant species account in the Belize Information System (BBIS) comprised of both textual and spatial databases (Miller and Miller, 2006). While several NGOs compiled bird records for areas where they work or manage, not all of these data or reports were available. Therefore, for some areas, such as the Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary, species may be under represented.

• Christmas Bird Count Data standardized and analyzed More than 50,000 observers participate each year in an all-day census of early-winter bird populations sponsored by the National Audubon Society over the Christmas holiday period. The results of their efforts are compiled into the longest running database in ornithology, representing over a century of unbroken data on trends of early-winter bird populations across the Americas (http://www.audubon.org/bird/cbc/history.html ). The Belize Audubon Society has participated in the annual Christmas Bird Count (CBC) since 1969 with four long term count circles, the oldest of which is the Belize City count.

• RESULTS • Species Occurring within the Country Of the 129 species of waterbirds listed for Belize 50 are considered migrants, 15 transients, 5 Miller & Miller 7 sporadic visitors, 20 accidental, 35 residents, 2 with both migrant and resident populations and 1 considered extirpated. Of the accidentals, 18 are represented by fewer than 5 records. Waterbirds have been included in a number of national conservation related assessments. The first National Protected Areas System Plan (NARMAP - Miller and Miller, 1995) listed 5 of conservation concern. The country avian risk assessment (Miller and Miller, 1997) included 20 species and the recent National Protected Areas Policy and System Plan (NPASP; Meerman et al., 2005) included 27. Fifty species were included in the analysis of trends from the four Belize annual Christmas Bird Counts (CBCs) for this waterbird assessment. Table 2 summarizes the status of these species for Belize. Distribution maps for each waterbird data point used in this analysis can be found in Appendix 1.

Table 2. Status of waterbirds within Belize. Sources include NARMAP (Miller and Miller, 1996); Avian Risk Assessment (Miller and Miller, 1997); NPASP (Meerman et al., 2005); CBC Trends - Christmas Bird Counts 1969-2005 (Miller and Miller, 2006). R = Rare, DD = Data Deficient, H= Hunted, CB = Colony nester, X=noted NARMAP, RD = Restricted distribution or habitat requirements, P = Persecuted as /aquiculture pest, E= Endangered, D=Downward trend, S=numbers about the Same, I=numbers Increasing. Common Name Status NARMAP Avian Risk NPASP CBC Trend Agami Heron R R CB, RD A M I American Wigeon M American Oystercatcher A American Avocet M R T Anhinga R D Audubon's Shearwater A Baird's Sandpiper M Bare-throated Tiger-heron R S Black Noddy E Black Rail R RD, DD NT DD T Black Skimmer T Black-bellied Whistling Duck R H, P H, P S Black-bellied Plover M I Black-crowned Night-heron M CB S Black-necked Stilt M I Black-tailed Gull A Blue-winged Teal M I Boat-billed Heron R I Bridled Tern M DD CB Brown Noddy V X DD CB Brown Booby V RD CB Brown Pelican T P CB, P S Buff-breasted Sandpiper T Caspian Tern V D Miller & Miller 8

Cattle Egret R-M D Cinnamon Teal M Clapper Rail R Collared Plover M Common Tern M Common Moorhen M D Double-crested Cormorant R P H, CB, P D Dunlin M Forster's Tern T Franklin's Gull T Fulvous Whistling Duck M H, RD H, P Glossy Ibis M Gray-breasted Crake R Gray-necked Wood-rail R D A Great Blue Heron M H, P D Great Egret M D Great Black-backed Gull A Greater Yellowlegs M S Greater White-fronted Goose A Greater Flamingo A Green Heron R-M D Green-winged teal M Gull-billed Tern A Herring Gull M M Jabiru R X E, C, P H, P S Killdeer M S Laughing Gull M D Least Tern R DD CB Least Sandpiper M I Least Bittern R R D Lesser Yellowlegs M I Lesser Scaup M Limpkin R S Little Blue Heron M D Long-billed Dowitcher M Long-billed Curlew A R CB S Mallard M Manx Shearwater A Marbled Godwit M Masked Booby T Masked Duck R Muscovy Duck R X H H D Neotropic Cormorant R P H, CB, P D Northern Pintail M Northern Jacana R D Northern Shoveler M Miller & Miller 9

Parasitic Jaeger A Pectoral Sandpiper M Pied-billed Grebe M D Pinnated Bittern R Piping Plover M Pomerine Jaeger A Purple Gallinule R D Red Knot A Red-footed Booby R RD CB Red-necked Phalarope A Reddish Egret R DD CB, P D Ring-billed Gull M Ring-necked Duck M Roseate Spoonbill R X CB I Roseate Tern M DD CB Royal Tern V S Ruddy Turnstone T I Ruddy Crake R S Rufous-necked Wood-rail R Sanderling V Sandwich Tern R DD CB Scarlet Ibis A Semipalmated Sandpiper T D Semipalmated Plover T Short-billed Dowitcher T Snowy Plover T Snowy Egret M CB, P D Solitary Sandpiper M I Sooty Shearwater A Sooty Tern T DD CB Sora M Southern Lapwing A Spotted Sandpiper M S Spotted rail R Stilt Sandpiper T Sungrebe R D Tricolored Heron M CB, P S Uniform Crake R Upland Sandpiper M Western Sandpiper M Whimbrel M White Ibis R RD CB I White-rumped Sandpiper M White-tailed Tropicbird A Willet M I Wilson's Plover M D Wilson's Snipe M D Wood Stork R X RD H, CB, P D Yellow-breasted Crake A Yellow-crowned Night-heron R CB D Miller & Miller 10

• Population Estimates with Global Population Estimates (Status) Population estimates were derived from several sources including CBCs, Jones (2003) and the BBIS. Eighteen species designated as accidentals (Table 2) are “Aa” (0-50) are represented by 5 or fewer records and frequently only a single record (e.g., a Manx Shearwater carcass that washed ashore). Other than waterfowl overflights (Figueroa et al., 2004a; Martinez et al., 2004) which provided actual count estimates, estimates for other species are based upon available data and anecdotal reports (Table 3).

Table 3. Estimation of Belize populations with global estimates for the region. Categories: A< 10,000, A.a 0-50, A.b 50-100, A.c 100-250, A.d 250-500, A.e 500-1000, A.f 1000-5000, A.g 5000-10,000, B 10,0000-25,000, C 25,000-100,000, D 100,000-1,000,000, E> 1,000,000, * represented by <5 records.

Common name Belize pop. est. Global est. Agami Heron Ac American Avocet Ad D American Bittern Aa 2,976,000 American Coot Af >6,000,000 American Golden Plover Ab 200,000 American Oystercatcher Ad 11,000 American White Pelican Aa >180,000 American Wigeon Ab 2,700,000 Anhinga Ad Audubon's Shearwater Aa Baird's Sandpiper Aa* Bare-throated Tiger-heron Ae 10,000 Black Noddy Aa Black Rail Aa C Black Skimmer Ab 93,000-101,000 Black Tern Ae 150,000-750,000 Black-bellied Plover Ae Black-bellied Whistling Duck C D Black-crowned Night-heron Ae 75,000-150,000 Black-necked Stilt Ae D Black-tailed Gull Aa* Blue-winged Teal B 6,100,000 Boat-billed Heron Ae Bridled Tern Aa 12,000-18,000 Brown Booby Ae Brown Noddy Ac D Brown Pelican Ae 290,000 Buff-breasted Sandpiper Aa* Caspian Tern Ac 19,200 Cattle Egret Ag E Cinnamon Teal Ab 260,000 Clapper Rail Ad Collared Plover Aa A Common Moorhen Ae Common Tern Ae 270,000 Double-crested Cormorant Ae Miller & Miller 11

Dunlin Aa Forster's Tern Ad 9,100 Franklin's Gull Aa* 470,000-1,490,000 Fulvous Whistling Duck Af E Glossy Ibis Ab* 19,500-22,500 Gray-breasted Crake Ac Gray-necked Wood-rail Af Great Black-backed Gull Aa* Great Blue Heron Af Great Egret Af 38,800-54,300 Great Skua Aa* Greater Flamingo Aa* Greater Yellowlegs Ae 100,000 Green Heron Af Green-winged Teal Ae 2,900,000 Gull-billed Tern Ad B Herring Gull Ab 370,000 Hudsonian Godwit Aa Jabiru Ab B Killdeer Af 1,000,000 Laughing Gull Ae 15,000-30,000 Least Bittern Ad 128,000 Least Grebe Ae 10,000 Least Sandpiper Ae 700,000 Least Tern Aa 50,000-55,000 Lesser Scaup Af 2,994,000 Lesser Yellowlegs Ae 400,000 Limpkin Af E Little Blue Heron Ae 225,000-300,000 Long-billed Curlew Aa 18,000 Long-billed Dowitcher Ae 400,000 Magnificent Frigatebird Af Mallard Aa* Manx Shearwater Aa* Marbled Godwit Aa 168,000 Masked Booby Aa Masked Duck Aa Muscovy Duck Ab D Neotropic Cormorant Af Northern Jacana Af Northern Pintail Ac Northern Shoveler Aa 3,500,000 Parasitic Jaeger Aa* Pectoral Sandpiper Ad Pied-billed Grebe Ad 100,000 Pinnated Bittern Aa Piping Plover Aa* Pomerine Jaeger Aa Purple Gallinule Ad D Red Knot Aa* 35,000-50,000 Reddish Egret Ae A Red-footed Booby Af Red-necked Phalarope Aa* Miller & Miller 12

Ring-billed Gull Aa 2,550,000 Ring-necked Duck Ae 1,220,000 Roseate Spoonbill Ad 100,000-250,000 Roseate Tern Aa 13,050 Royal Tern Af 139,000 Ruddy Crake Ae Ruddy Turnstone Ab 180,000 Rufous-necked Wood-rail Ad Sanderling Ae 300,000 Sandwich Tern Ae 100,000 Scarlet Ibis Aa* Semipalmated Plover Ad 150,000 Semipalmated Sandpiper Af 3,500,000 Short-billed Dowitcher Ab 110,000 Snowy Egret Ae 215,000 Snowy Plover Aa 13,200 Solitary Sandpiper Ae 100,000 Sooty Shearwater Aa* Sooty Tern Af 690,000-1,200,000 Sora Ad Southern Lapwing 1 E Spotted rail Aa Spotted Sandpiper Ac 150,000 Stilt Sandpiper Aa* Sungrebe Ad Tricolored Heron Ae 293,000 Uniform Crake Aa Upland Sandpiper Aa Western Sandpiper Af 3,500,000 Whimbrel Ad White Ibis Ad White-rumped Sandpiper Ac White-tailed Tropicbird Aa* Willet Ac 90,000-160,000 Wilson's Plover Ad 6,000 Wilson's Snipe Ae 2,000,000 Wood Stork Ae B/C Yellow-breasted Crake Aa Yellow-crowned Night-heron Ae 75,000-150,000

• CBC Results and Trends Of the 129 waterbird species occurring in Belize, 51 have been recorded during the annual Christmas Bird Counts that take place in four long term (>16 years) locations in the country (Belize City, , Gallon Jug, Gorda; Fig. 5 ). After standardizing data, 26 of these species show downward trends since the counts began in 1969; 10 of these species are migrant or transients. The Laughing Gull, Least Grebe, Little Blue Heron and Green Heron have not been recorded during CBC counts since the late 1990's or only in very small numbers. Of the waterbirds evaluated in CBCs and Breeding Bird Surveys (BBS) in between 1996-2003, the Green Heron shows an increase (Butcher et al., 2005) in contrast to Belize (the Miller & Miller 13 other species were not evaluated in this paper).

Resident species that also showed a downward spiral included Caspian Tern (not recorded since 1997), Double-crested Cormorant, Neotropic Cormorant, Northern Jacana, Purple Gallinule, and the Reddish Egret. In contrast, North American CBCs and BBS showed that Double-crested Cormorant, as well as other eating birds (e.g., Great Blue Heron) had recovered well after the pesticide DDT was banned in the early 1970's (Butcher et al., 2005). It may be that the decline in both species of cormorants in Belize is directly related to being shot at aquiculture facilities in Belize as pests.

Thirteen species stayed about the same over time (8 of these were migrants or transients) while 12 species actually increased and of these 9 were migrants or transients (see Appendix 2).

Figure 5. Belize Christmas Bird Count areas showing 15 mile diameter count circles Miller & Miller 14

• Species of Special Concern Many waterbirds have appeared over and over as early as 1969 (Hartshorn et al., 1984) as species of concern. This has included the Whistling Ducks, Reddish Egret, Agami, Wood Stork, Jabiru, White Ibis, Roseate Spoonbill (Fig. 6), Muscovy, Spotted Rail, Uniform Crake, Black Rail, and Sungrebe.

More recently of the 27 waterbird species identified as species of concern by the Figure 6. Roseate , Chetumal Bay, NPASP, 21 of these are colonial nesters, one Belize (C.M. Miller photo) of which has “specialized ecological requirements” (Agami, Fig. 7) and others are hunted as pests (Meerman et al., 2005). Twenty of these same species were highlighted in the Avian Risk Assessment as being of concern, for many of the same reasons (Miller and Miller, 1997).

Many of the seabirds, such as the terns, are considered “vulnerable” in Belize simply due to insufficient data. However, a nesting colony of Sooty Terns is reported for Middle Snake Caye, within a preservation zone in the Port Honduras Marine Reserve, with an estimate of 1000-2000 birds (Chub, J.; marine biologist with TIDE, in lit.). This is the only mapped location for this pelagic species in Belize. Figure 7. Agami Heron, Laguna Seca, Gallon Jug Estate (C.M. Miller photo)

• Locations and Descriptions of Key Sites Used by Aquatic Species

• Ramsar sites in Belize The Convention on , signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 151 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1593 wetland sites, totaling 134.7 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. The Convention's mission is the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world" (http://www.ramsar.org/ accessed 6 April 2006). Miller & Miller 15

Belize became a signatory party in 1998 when CTWS wetlands were designated of international importance. A key challenge for Belize and other signatories “is whether they are willing to provide the financial and human resources needed for the management of these Ramsar sites” (Hoare, 2006).

• Crooked Tree WS Crooked Tree Lagoon and some of its floodplains were declared a Wildlife Sanctuary by the Government of Belize in 1994, and as such protected by the regulations of the National Park Systems Act of 1981. The BAS manages the site on behalf of the Government. Because the village had been established before the area was designated as a , special conditions were made which allow villagers to do some subsistence collection and cultivation (http://www.ramsar.org/ accessed 6 April 2006).

Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctukary (CTWS) is 6,637 ha, a wetland mosaic composed of , freshwater lagoons and creeks. It is in a transitional zone of pine savannah and coastal lowlands.

• Temash Sarstoon National Park The Temash Sarstoon NP was designated 19 October 2005, and encompasses 16955 ha. This site is co-managed with the government by the Sarstoon Temash Institute for Indigenous Management (SATIIM) and consists of several different terrestrial types including seasonally flooded and permanently flooded as well as a lowland sphagnum moss and brackish inland lagoon. The Sarstoon River forms the southern border with Guatemala while the Temash bisects the park.. SATIIM is currently challenging the legality of oil drilling by a US company in this park.

• Critical Waterbird Areas in Belize Although a small country, Belize has extensive inland wetlands (Table 4) that are habitat for many species. A plethora of waterbirds including ducks, cormorants, , terns, herons, rails, crakes and can be found throughout Belize along river courses (Fig. 8), roadside drainage areas, marshes, lagoons and ephemeral flooded areas such as rice fields. While there are many large rivers in Belize that have small flocks (8-10 individuals) of species such as Neotropic Cormorants, the important wetlands are the marshes and lagoon systems identified and discussed here.

Figure 8. Tricolored Heron, Mussel Creek, Belize (C.M. Miller photo) Miller & Miller 16

Table 4. Areas of Belize’s key wetlands Name Hectares Acres Aguacaliente 1255.8 3103.1 Airport marshes 4258.9 10524.0 Almond Hill Lagoon 907.3 2241.9 Between Spanish & Black Creek 519.2 1282.9 Biscayne 161.7 399.5 Black Creek 255.3 630.8 Cooks Lagoon 4846.5 11976.0 Crooked Tree 1431.7 3537.8 Crooked Tree-May Pen 7149.3 17666.3 Doubloon-Honey Camp Lagoons 1373.3 3393.4 Freshwater Creek 7613.7 18813.8 Gallon Jug Estate 3346.4 8269.1 Jones Lagoon 500.5 1236.8 Laboring Creek 6102.0 15078.3 Mussel Creek 728.4 1799.9 Near Grace Bank 452.6 1118.5 New River Lagoon area 11822.9 29215.0 Private lands 844.6 2087.0 Shipstern Lagoon 11902.5 29411.7 Shipstern northwest wetlands 747.0 1845.8 Sierra de Agua 186.5 460.7 Southern Lagoon 7518.7 18578.9 Total 73924.8 182671.4

Twenty-three wetland areas have been identified as important for waterbirds in Belize (Fig. 10). Of the twelve important areas identified during the National Protected Areas Management Plan Zoological Report Faunal and Site Analysis (Miller and Miller, 1995) four were identified as areas of concern that are included here as well. The coastal region and off-shore cayes are also important for many seabirds and shorebirds (Fig. 9).

Figure 9. Brown Noddy, Middle Caye, Belize (Archie III photo) Miller & Miller 17

Figure 10. Important wetlands of Belize Miller & Miller 18

The most comprehensive data available for ducks and waterbirds using these wetlands came from over flights during 2001 to 2004 (Figueroa et al., 2004a; Martinez et al., 2004). Data from these flights were linked to wetland locations shown in Fig. 11. Each wetland was ranked based on the estimated number of individuals and the number of species using them. The rankings range from “low importance” to “critical importance” for the country of Belize.

Figure 11. Wetlands, coastal and off-shore areas ranked by importance for waterbirds in Belize Miller & Miller 19

Areas of importance ranked for waterbirds (Fig.11):

• Area 1 Shipstern Lagoon and wetlands to the north west of Sarteneja are ranked moderately important for ducks and waders. Shipstern Lagoon has been historically an important area for nesting Wood Storks although there are reports that they have not nested there in recent years.

• Area 2 The Freshwater Creek wetland is ranked extremely important for ducks.

• Area 3 Doubloon Bank and Honey Camp Lagoon are ranked very important for ducks, Jabiru and waders. • Area 4 Crooked Tree and May Pen lagoons are ranked extremely important and are part of the Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary (see comments under Ramsar sites). These lagoons shrink during the dry season, providing an important foraging area for many species. Historically, large flocks of wintering American and waterfowl have used the area. These lagoons are important for ducks, Jabiru, Wood Storks and waders. Many waterbirds gravitate to these lagoons from around the country as small ephemeral wetlands shrink or disappear during the dry season. A unique new country record (recorded as "accidental") is Figure 12. Southern Lapwing at CTWS the single Southern Lapwing that arrived two (C.M. Miller photo) years ago and remains highly visible to the delight of birders (Fig. 12).

• Area 5 New River Lagoon and Laboring Creek wetlands are ranked as very important for Jabiru, ducks and wading birds. The Laboring Creek area is also important for Wood Storks. Whitewater Lagoon and Laboring Creek have long been recognized as unique and often proposed as worthy of protection (de Rahm, 1990; Miller, M., 1990; Miller and Miller, 1995). This areas lies within the privately held Yalbac Ranch and Cattle Company lands. Anecdotal information suggests that currently the periphery of this property is subject to heavy hunting pressure, mainly for game species and larger terrestrial birds such as the Ocellated , Crested and . While we have not had any reports of waterfowl being taken, it seems likely they could be hunted.

• Area 6 The Gallon Jug Estate wetlands below the Booth River Escarpment are ranked very important for Miller & Miller 20 ducks, Jabiru and wading birds thanks to overflights ( Caribbean Section, 2005. http://www.ducks.org/Conservation/International/57/LACMain.html). The smaller wetlands to the south include Sierra de Agua, moderately important for ducks and wading birds.

• Area 7 Laguna Seca is also on the Gallon Jug Estate lands and is ranked moderately important for ducks, Jabiru, Wood Storks and wading birds. This lagoon, as its name implies, occasionally dries completely during low rainfall years. During these times there is almost a complete die off of fish, providing a feast of easily accessible prey for water birds during the decreasing water levels and concentration of fish into smaller and smaller pools. There are also historical records of Jabiru nesting in the area (Young, F., pers. comm.).

• Area 8 This is a mosaic of 10 areas comprised of lagoons and marshy wetlands and that vary in rank from moderately important to very important. The largest of these is the "U" shaped area included within the southern boundary of the Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary. Three are within the Mussel Creek drainage. The areas are relatively close and it is likely that there is much movement between the various wetlands as resource availability shifts due to climatic conditions. These areas are important for Wood Stork, Jabiru, ducks and wading birds.

Miller and Miller (1995) identified the area along the Belize River valley that included Cox Lagoon, Mussel Creek drainage system and the Big Falls Rice Station as important areas for conservation. Mussel Creek has long been considered unique and worthy of protective status (Anon. 1987; Hartshorn et al., 1984; Miller, M., 1990; Weyer, 1994). Miller and Miller (1987) conducted preliminary avian surveys at the request of the Belize Heritage Society, both at Cox Lagoon and Mussel Creek. Cooks Lagoon has been identified as an important area for ducks, Jabiru and wading birds. Privately owned Big Falls Rice Station was flooded for upland rice production in the 1980s thus attracting waterfowl. While there has been interest in developing this area as a private reserve (Hunt and Tamarack 1992, 1993), it remains unprotected.

• Area 9 Cooks Lagoon area is ranked extremely important for Jabiru, ducks and wading birds.

• Area 10 This area includes "the airport marshes" that surround the Belize international airport and the Almond Hill Lagoon. Both are ranked as very important for ducks, Jabiru and wading birds.

• Area 11 This area is comprised of Northern and Southern Lagoons ranked important and very important respectively. Southern Lagoon includes a number of small islands that appear to be important nesting areas for wading birds while both are important for herons, cormorants, ducks and wading birds. • Area 12 The Aguacaliente Swamp is the only major inland wetland in southern Belize and is ranked Miller & Miller 21 extremely important for ducks and Wood Storks. One of the few verified records of the Greater Flamingo for the country came from here (Figueroa et al., 2004b). The Aguacaliente Swamp and the adjacent Laguna Hills have long been considered for protection (Anon., 1987; Miller, M., 1990; Miller and Miller, 1995). This is now a formally protected area as the Aguacaliente-Luha Nature Reserve. • Coastal and off-shore areas Belize’s coastline is important for shorebirds, seabirds, gulls and terns. With increasing private and tourism development pressures on the multitude of off-shore cayes, historical nesting areas are being lost (see also the Risk Section). The Magnificent Frigate, Brown Pelican, Double-crested Cormorant, gulls and terns are ubiquitous along these areas. Half Moon Caye (not shown on the map) remains a critically important nesting site for and .

The coastal zone and off-shore islands are very important for seabird colonies (McRae, 1994). The area provides unique and limited habitats for species of special concern not only in Belize, but within the Caribbean. Many sea birds require undisturbed nesting sites on coastal areas and cayes. Miller and Miller (1995) pointed out that the status of Belize's seabird colonies was unknown which remains the case today. McRae (1994) suggested that many breeding colonies were at risk as coastal and offshore development increased.

• Threats to Waterbirds and Their Habitats The threats facing waterbirds and other wildlife in Belize are not unlike those found in other countries. They can be broadly lumped in two main categories: habitat loss due to development and human impact and lack of enforcement of the country’s laws governing wildlife including waterbirds. As Jacobs and Castañeda state in the National Biodiversity Action Plan (1998):

“ and species are threatened by a lack of an adequate solid waste and sewage management system; pesticides, herbicides, biocides and inorganic nutrients from agricultural and aquaculture activities; for agriculture, tourism and residential developments; mangrove clearance for tourism and residential developments; destruction of beach habitats by tourism and other activities, unsustainable fishing practices; unsustainable harvesting of products; indiscriminate killings and illegal hunting; inadequate legislation; ; lack of monitoring and enforcement; introduction of exotic species; ; dredging and sand mining; damage to the reef; unregulated maritime transportation of toxic substances; and natural disasters.”

This grim assessment unfortunately applies today and undoubtedly affects waterbirds to an even greater degree than many other species. Specifically, these impacts include:

• Habitat Loss & Disturbance of Roosting and Foraging Sites Clearly the loss of habitat from increasing development pressures is one of the main risks to waterbirds. However disturbance to colonial rookeries and roosting areas should also be considered as loss of nesting habitat. Continued disturbance to such areas may cause birds to abandon them altogether. Even short term disturbance, such as boats, vehicles and human Miller & Miller 22 presence, may cause the birds to fly from their nests, which can result in nest abandonment (Ciuzio. and Murphy, 2006).

Colonial nesting waterbirds are of conservation concern since their nesting strategy makes them especially vulnerable to habitat degradation with hundreds of birds nesting in one tree or many hundreds on a small caye. The loss of feeding, roosting and breeding habitat is one of the biggest threats to colonial wading birds (Dodd and Murphy, 1998). In North America many of these species have been identified as vulnerable to habitat alterations, and are of concern due to declining population trends (Sauer et al., 2004). Other waterbirds (shorebirds) that use coastal and shore areas for nesting habitats are most productive when they are free from human disturbance (Wildlife Habitat Management Institute, 2000).

• Introduced and exotic species Introduced species are perhaps the one of the most insidious and overlooked threats as well. Belize's offshore islands provide critical nesting and roosting areas for many seabirds (McRae, 1994). These islands face an even greater threat from introduced species than mainland habitats. The magnitude of the impact of introduced species on island birds is well documented (Atkinson, 1985; Moors, 1985; Moors and Atkinson, 1984; Veitch, 1985). While a rat eradication program was proposed and methods were prescribed by Veitch in 1997 for Half Moon Caye, they were never carried out. Veitch (pers. com.) noted that in New Zealand, for example, a rat eradication project would take a couple of years to plan and a couple of hours to conduct. For the 22 ha island, Veitch said that it would not be a difficult task, but it must be done the right way first time to obtain satisfactory results.

Introduced species such as tilapia in Belize’s inland wetland may have some impact on waterbirds countrywide although no quantifiable data exist. Conceivably tilapia could effect waterbird food resources, both positively and negatively.

The introduction of tilapia in CTWS has apparently led to a reduction of food resources for wading birds. This was been identified as the main threat to the biodiversity within the CTWS (Salas, 2001). Although it is still not known exactly how they invaded the wetlands, tilapia were first observed within the CTWS in 1985 during an assessment of the Crooked Tree freshwater fishery. By 1999, however, tilapia were observed within the CTWS in alarming numbers (Salas, 2001).

The impacts to the of the bird life within the CTWS resulting from the Tilapia invasion are still mostly unknown. Generally through competitive exclusion Tilapia spp. will replace many of the native that the birds historically fed upon. Additionally since the Tilapia are herbivores, they more than likely have caused habitat modification to the underwater vegetation that aquatic and snails may have favored, further reducing the food availability for the water birds.

• Aquaculture Aquaculture has grown rapidly in Belize over the last decade with 8 farms in operation along the Miller & Miller 23 coast (Fig.13) that generate BZD$62.5 million/year (Williams, T., in lit.). Nine years ago, we reported that cormorants and were occasionally shot as pests (Miller and Miller, 1997) but given the downward trend of these species as indicated in Belize’s Christmas Bird Count results, it appears this management technique may be taking its toll. At that time, we also reported that jabiru storks fed at the drained pools rather than on the shrimp themselves. At this writing, we have no information to report otherwise other than anecdotal reports that are sometimes shot as aquaculture pests.

Figure 13. Aquaculture sites that may pose threats to water birds. Critical wetlands are shown for proximity Miller & Miller 24

Thirty species have been reported at shrimp farms, 8 of these are considered pests (Table 5). Waterbirds commonly visiting aquaculture sites are the Double-crested Cormorant, the Magnificent Frigatebird, the Brown Pelican, the Great Blue Heron and the Osprey (Grimshaw, 2003). Some shrimp farms make an effort to harvest at night to minimize predation by birds during the harvest (Steed et al., 2005).

Table 5. Species reported at shrimp farms Name Pest American White Pelican X Bare-throated Tiger-heron Black Tern Black-crowned Night-heron Black-necked Stilt Brown Pelican X Cinnamon Teal Collared Plover Common Tern Double-crested Cormorant X Dunlin Great Blue Heron X Great Egret Hudsonian Godwit Jabiru X Laughing Gull Little Blue Heron Long-billed Dowitcher Muscovy Duck Neotropic Cormorant X Red Knot Scarlet Ibis Tricolored Heron X Western Sandpiper White Ibis White-rumped Sandpiper Willet Wilson's Phalarope Wood Stork X Yellow-crowned Night-heron Miller & Miller 25

A representative of Environmental Defense reports that a major national US supermarket that imports Belize farm grown shrimp, is interested in environmentally friendly, “green” shrimp. Efforts are underway for certification “to minimize or eliminate any killing of bird or mammalian predators and in particular, not to kill any birds...listed as a declining species” (Hammond, B. in lit.).

• Hunting Threats to protected areas include indiscriminate killing and hunting of wildlife (Ching, 2005). While no waterbird species are legally hunted in Belize, anecdotal reports indicate they are being shot for recreation and as potential pests at rice fields. The local name “full pot” for the Great Blue Heron (Fig. 14) gives some indication of historical use of this large wading bird. Without a doubt, waterbirds are hunted and there is no good estimate of losses each year. Figure 14. Great Blue Heron, local name “full pot” (C.M. Miller photo) • Infectious diseases • Avian flu Since November 2005, the Belize Agricultural Health Authority (BAHA) has “prohibited all importation of live birds, poultry, poultry products and hatching from countries affected with the highly virulent H5N1 Avian Influenza virus” and currently, a National Avian Influenza Prevention Plan is being drafted 1. This is an important first step and signals that Belize is aware of the risk. • West Nile virus A case of West Nile virus was confirmed in a horse in Crooked Tree village (RAMSAR site) by Belize’s Director of Health in November 20052). Although no die off of birds has been reported, the situation bears watching.

• Climate change Belizean meteorologist Carlos Fuller3 projects that with climate change, temperatures will rise (1-2/C), rainfall patterns will change (±10-20%) and sea levels will rise (4-50 cm). These will have inevitable effects on waterbirds although it is difficult to project how species will be affected. Some may adjust and some may be adversely affected by shrinking habitat. Over the long term and taken within a regional perspective, climate change is likely to negatively impact waterbird species.

1 See http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/11/21/steps.shtml

2 See http://www.oie.int/eng/info/hebdo/AIS_43.HTM#Sec11

3 See http://www.aiaccproject.org/meetings/Buenos_Aires_04/Day3/Aug_26Fuller.ppt. Miller & Miller 26

• Watch List for Belize Taking into account all of the previously discussed considerations, risks and evaluations, following is a list of 44 Belize waterbird species that should be “watched” as sensitive species of conservation concern. Two of these, the Agami Heron and Black Rail, are considered “near threatened” by IUCN (NB: the American White Pelican does not appear on this list since it is an infrequent transient in Belize; however, it is also considered “near threatened” by IUCN).

Agami Heron Little Blue Heron Anhinga Magnificent Frigatebird Black Rail Muscovy Duck Black-bellied Whistling Duck Neotropic Cormorant Black-crowned Night-heron Northern Jacana Bridled Tern Pied-billed Grebe Brown Booby Purple Gallinule Brown Noddy Reddish Egret Brown Pelican Red-footed Booby Caspian Tern Roseate Spoonbill Cattle Egret Roseate Tern Common Moorhen Sandwich Tern Double-crested Cormorant Semipalmated Sandpiper Fulvous Whistling Duck Snowy Egret Gray-necked Wood-rail Sooty Tern Great Blue Heron Sungrebe Great Egret Tricolored Heron Green Heron White Ibis Jabiru Wilson's Plover Laughing Gull Wilson's Snipe Least Grebe Wood Stork Least Tern Yellow-crowned Night-heron

• Recommendations Aside from the sporadic monitoring of Half Moon Cay seabird nesting areas, and the recent waterfowl data generated from overflights by Figueroa and Martinez (2001-2005), there is little solid data on locations of or estimated abundances of colonial waterbirds. This important information was lacking for the NPASP. We suggest that BAS and possibly others set as a priority to conduct several days of flights when LightHawk is next available in 2007. Perhaps chartering a plane locally and engaging Wilber Martinez, who has been trained in aerial survey population estimates by Ducks Unlimited, to oversee such an initiative would be in order. Such a comprehensive aerial and marine survey of the coastal and offshore islands during the nesting season would provide a better picture of the status of these species. Miller & Miller 27

There is no question that introduced rats (Rattus spp.) pose a great risk to island avifaunas (Atkinson, 1985, 1989). This includes adverse impacts on nesting waterbirds. During avian surveys on Half Moon Cay, Miller and Miller (1995) expressed concern about the level of infestation of Rattus spp. After discussions with BAS, it was determined that an assessment of the problem should be carried out. Dick Veitch, with the Auckland Conservancy, had experience in evaluating island introduced species and eradicating such threats (Fitzgerald and Veitch 1991, Veitch 1985), was contacted and asked to evaluate Half Moon Cay. He reported to BAS (Veitch, 1997) that it was feasible to eradicate the ship rats (R. rattus) on Half Moon Cay following a short study of the ecosystem.

Unfortunately, this project was never carried through to completion. With the rapid loss of nesting habitat as a result of increased development on Belize's offshore cayes, it is imperative that those that are being managed for conservation have the maximum conservation impact. Therefore, we recommend that a renewed effort be undertaken to eradicate rats from Half Moon Caye. Such efforts would contribute to the long term survival of nesting shorebirds and waders that are likely adversely affected by the rats.

Habitat restoration and creation should be considered for appropriate offshore cayes to attract nesting shorebirds displaced by development or other pressures. In Honduras, an artificial cay was successfully created in ca. 2000 (Shoch and Canefield, 2005). This was constructed on a reef off the southwest coast of Utila. The cay features a roughly rectangular area (23 m X 14 M; 322 square meters) of exposed sand with sparse low vegetation (Suriana maritima, Sesuvium portulacastrum, grasses, Euphorbia, Ipomea, one low Casuarina) in front of a vacant structure (Fig. 15). Roseate and Least terns incubating eggs and attending downy young were observed in August 2005. The colony was made up of 178 adult Roseate terns and 8 adult Least terns (Shoch and Canfield, 2005). Cayes without introduced predators (e.g., rats) would make logical candidates.

A national wildlife policy established to deal with the killing of waterbirds for both the aquaculture industry and rice farms should be developed. This would be to regulate such practices the present "understanding" is that if wildlife is perceived as a pest and may pose an economic loss it can be dispatched. Currently the lack of monitoring or enforcement of the killing of waterbirds is related to the overall lack of a national wildlife policy and lack of enforcement of existing regulations.

Figure 15. Artificial caye, Honduras (David Schoch When all is said and done, the most photo) carefully thought out recommendations Miller & Miller 28 and initiatives for waterbirds will be for naught without the political will and desire at all levels of government to carry them out. Since 1995, habitat loss has continued with increasing development pressures on Belize's coastal areas and offshore islands. This continues to threaten seabird colonies and shorebird nesting areas.

Development adjacent to the CTWS, a RAMSAR site has apparently continued unabated with dredging and other habitat modifications. And this is but one example. Vast amounts of international funding, national and international NGO efforts, in-country human resources and multitudes recommendations and “action plans” have been developed during the past 15 years with regard to conservation and biodiversity issues within Belize. It remains for us now to act.

• Acknowledgments For the past 20 years, WCS has provided major funding for our projects. Bowen & Bowen Ltd. has provided infrastructure and in country support while Terra Foundation has provided technology and computer. Many birding groups, in particular Paul Wood with Victor Emmanuel Nature Tours, have shared species lists from throughout the country. Philip Balderamos and Lee Jones have shared field notes and personal observations. Mildred de la Rosa and Jason Swenson were helpful with compilation of data. We thank BAS for the opportunity to be involved with this project.

• Literature Cited Anon. 1987. Park Planning in Belize: Now til the year 2000. Belmopan. Workshop proceedings.

Atkinson, I. 1985. The Spread of Commensal Species of Rattus to Oceanic Islands and their effects on Island Avifauna. p.35-81. [in] Conservation of Island Birds. Moors, P. J. ed. ICBP Technical Publication No.3.

Atkinson, I. 1989. Introduced and . [in] Conservation for the Twenty-first Century. Western and Pearl (Eds). Oxford University Press.

Butcher, G. S., Niven, D.K. and J.R. Sauer. 2005. Using Christmas Bird Count Data to Assess Population Dynamics and Trends of Waterbirds, American Birds 105th Christmas Bird Count. p. 23-25

Ching, E. W. 2005. Final Report Belize’s Policy On Protected Areas in Meerman, J. C., Wilson, J. R., 2005. eds. The Belize National Protected Areas System Plan. Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment.

Ciuzio, E. A. and T. M. Murphy. 2006. Colonial Nesting Wading Birds. www.dnr.sc.gov/wcp/pdf/Colonialnestingwadingbird.pdf. accessed 6-22-2006. 6 pp. de Rahm, P. 1990. Summary Report of the Freshwater Fishes and Aquatic Ecosystems Observed in Belize. ITCF unpublished report. Miller & Miller 29

Dodd, M.G. and T.M. Murphy. 1998. Colonial wading birds in the Charleston harbor . The Charleston Harbor Project. South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. Columbia, South Carolina.

Figueroa, O. A., W. E. Martinez and B. W. Miller. 2004. Synthesis of duck and waterbird data compiled from over flights for the years 2001-2003. Flights supported in part by a grant from Ducks Unlimited to O.A. Figueroa.

Figueroa, O. A., M. Wilber, M. Teul, G. Albense, and V. D. Piaskowski. 2004. Additional notes on eight bird species from Belize. 21:31-33.

Fitzgerald, B. M., B. J. Karl, and C. R. Veitch. 1991. The Diet of Feral Cats (Felis catus) on Raoul Island, Kermadec Group. New Zealand Journal of ecology 15(2):123-129.

Grimshaw, T. 2003. Draft - National Aquaculture Zoning Plan for Belize. Belize City, Tunich-Nah Consultants & Engineering. 216 pp.

Hartshorn, G. S., L. Nicolait, L. eds. 1984. Belize Country Environmental Profile. U.S. Agency for International Development, San José, Costa Rica. 151 pp.

Hilty, S. L. 1982. Draft Environmental Report on Belize. National Park Service, U.S. MAB.

Hoare, A. D. 2006. 9th Meeting, Belize Audubon Newsletter, Vol.37, No. 4, p. 16-17

Hunt, R. H. and J. Tamarack. 1992. Cox Lagoon Crocodile Preserve, A proposal for a wildlife Preserve Featuring Crocodiles on Big Falls Rice Farm, Belize, Central America.

Hunt, R. H. and J. Tamarack. 1993. Feasibility Study to Assess Cox Lagoon, Belize, Central America as a Morelet's Crocodile Preserve. New York Zoological Society , Atlanta. 10 pp.

Jacobs, N.D. and Castañeda, A., 1998. Eds., Belize National Biodiversity Action Plan, National Biodiversity Committee, Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, Belmopan, Belize, September 1998, 134 p.

Jones, H. L. Birds of Belize. 1st ed. Austin: University of Press; 2003. pp. 317.

Martinez, W. E. , O. A. Figueroa and B.W. Miller. 2004 (Martinez et al 2004) Synthesis of duck and waterbird data compiled from over flights 2004. Flights supported in part by a grant from Ducks Unlimited to W. E. Martinez.

McRae, E. 1994. The Birds of Belize's Coastal Zone: Species, Distribution, Current Status, Threats to their Well Being, and Potential Measures to Reduce their Impact. Unpublished report to NPAMP Project. Miller & Miller 30

Meerman, J. C. ed. 2005. Protected Area System Assessment & Analysis National List of Critical Species. Belize Protected Areas Policy and System Plan: Appendix 2.4.8pp. in Meerman, Jan, Wilson, J. Roger, 2005. eds. The Belize National Protected Areas System Plan. Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment.

Miller, B. W., C. M. Miller. 1987. Conservation of a Critical Marsh and Lowland habitat, Mussel Creek Drainage System, Belize, C.A. Report to NYZS/Wildlife Conservation Society.

Miller, B. W. and C. M. Miller. 1995. National Protected Areas Management Plan Zoological Report Faunal and Site Analysis. Volume 3. USAID, NARMAP , Belmopan. 236 pp.

Miller, B. W. and C. M. Miller. 1997. An Avian Risk Assessment, Bird Species of Conservation Concern. Technical Report Series: Tropical Forest and Reserve Planning Project, Belize. Gallon Jug, Belize, Wildlife Conservation Society, Programme for Belize and .

Miller, B. W. and C. M. Miller. 2006. Belize Biodiversity Information System Database, administrators. Gallon Jug, Belize.

Miller, C. M. and B. W. Miller. 1995. Avian Surveys Half Moon Caye Natural Monument. WCS Technical Report, Gallon Jug, Belize. 18 pp.

Miller, M. 1990. Belize Survey. 31 Dec. Belize. Belize Center for Environmental Studies. Report to WWF and USAID.

Moors, P. J., I. A. E. Atkinson. 1984. Predation on Seabirds by Introduced Animals, and Factors Affecting its Severity. ICBP Tech. Publ. ; No. 2. p. 667-690.

Moors, P.J., 1985. Eradication Campaigns against Rattus norvegicus on the Noises Islands, New Zealand, Using Brodifacoum and 1080. P.143-155. [in] Conservation of Island Birds. Moors, P.J. ed. ICBP Technical Publication No.3.

Salas, O. 2001. Case Study Title: Towards a Co-management System for the Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize. http://www.cerc.columbia.edu/training/forum_01cs/SalasCS.html

Sauer, J.R., J.E. Hines and J. Fallon. 2004. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966 - 2003. Version 2004.1. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Shoch, D. and E. Canfield. 2005. Result 2: Protected Areas Managed Requirement 2.2: Natural Resources Identified, Characterized and Made Available: An Inventory of Colonial Seabirds in the Islas De La Bahía, Honduras. International Resources Group/USAID. 33p.

Steed, A., Dean, J., Johnson, K., Casas, A. and M. Altland. 2005. Field Assessment of Miller & Miller 31

Agricultural Practice and Pest Management in the Monkey River Watershed, Belize. Central American Field Study Rural Sociology, 497A report.

Veitch, C.R. 1985. Methods of Eradicating Feral Cats from Offshore Islands in New Zealand. P.125-141.[in] Conservation of Island Birds. Moors, P.J. ed. ICBP Technical Publication No.3.

Veitch, D. 1997. Eradication of Rats From Half Moon Caye, A Report prepared for the Belize Audubon Society. Auckland Conservancy, 1 - 41 pp.

Waight, L. and J. Lumb. 1999. Belize Audubon Society, the First 30 Years, Producciones de la Hamaca, Caye Caulker, Belize.

Weyer, D. 1994. Proposal to Establish the Mussel Creek Drainage as a Wildlife Sanctuary. Unpublished proposal.

Wildlife Habitat Management Institute 2000. Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet Number 17. www.lmvjv.org/shorebird/pdf/shorebird.pdf