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Islamic Terrorism’ Film and ‘Islamic terrorism’ Anneriken Wehrens ‐ 0255009 RMA Media Studies Utrecht University 2009 Supervisor: Vincent Crone Foreword I would like to thank my supervisor Vincent Crone for his efforts and cooperation. I also want to thank Nanna Verhoeff for being my second reader, but also for her support as my tutor and friend. Of course, I could not have done it without the never ending support of my parents, now and during my whole studies. Many thanks to my sisters Maike and Femke as well as to my friends. Thank you Jirsi for all your positive energy. 2 Contents Introduction The ‘Islamic Other’ 5 Defining terrorism 9 Methodology and theoretical framework Audiovisual analysis and discourse analysis as interrelated 12 Materials: three Western critiques 13 Reception of the films: the reality of torture 14 Segmentation and filmic narratives 18 The (re)presentation of terrorism and beyond 20 Binary narratives 22 Islamic terrorism as a discourse 24 The binary categorization of terrorism and practices of ‘outcasting’ 26 Problemising the discursive categories 27 ‘Cultural semiotics’ and ‘contingency’ 29 Discourse and the metaphor of the ‘rhizome’ 31 Theorizing the image: analysis Segmentation, narratives and themes 34 Actors within the narratives 36 Filmic narratives in perspective 38 The discursive contextuality and outcasting: Bush versus the detainee 39 The filmic narrative; cultural translation and identification 40 The face of terrorism 41 Constructing filmic narrative: metatext 42 Discourse as a rhizome 44 Creating an alternative 47 3 Conclusion From a distance 50 Theoretical implications 52 ‘Meta‐discursive' practices 54 Bibliography 56 Attachments 1 Segmentation THE ROAD TO GUANTANAMO 61 2 Segmentation TAXI TO THE DARK SIDE 70 3 Segmentation THE POWER OF NIGHTMARES 84 4 Story outline THE ROAD TO GUANTANAMO 93 5 Story outline TAXI TO THE DARK SIDE 97 6 Story outline THE POWER OF NIGHTMARES 101 7 Analysis of actors within the narratives 104 4 Introduction The ‘Islamic Other’ Because of the events of 9/11, the Muslim world has become the centre of attention while it became associated with radical fundamentalist Muslims and terrorism. The media play an important role in this as they function to portray the ‘Islamic other’ and in this sense, serve as discursive spaces in which knowledge about the Islam is produced and mediated. In this respect, Terrorism Studies scholar Richard Jackson notes that; “(…) the terrorism discourse – the terms, assumptions, labels, categories and narratives used to describe and explain terrorism – has emerged as one of the most important political discourses of the modern era (…). As a term of elite and popular discourse, terrorism has come to possess clearly observable ideographic qualities. That is, like 'freedom', 'democracy' and 'justice', 'terrorism' now functions as a primary term for the central narratives of the culture, employed in political debate and daily conversation, but largely unquestioned in its meaning and usage.”1 Jackson’s quote stresses the subtle integration of a certain meaning of ‘terrorism’ in our contemporary society to define our own culture; the term ‘terrorism’ provides us with a larger narrative to interpret our own cultural state. If the terrorism discourse is indeed so important in shaping our understanding and interpretation of contemporary culture, this overall narrative needs to be questioned. Ever since 9/11, images of the airplanes crashing into the Twin Towers have been frequently portrayed by media, alongside with images of Osama Bin Laden, Bush declaring the ‘war against terror,’ Arab fighters whose faces are covered up in scarves while holding guns, men with beards and turbans in long 1 Richard Jackson, “Constructing Enemies: ‘Islamic Terrorism’ in Political and Academic Discourse,” Government and Opposition 42 (2007): 394. 5 dresses and military troops moving through dusty sandy landscapes. This way, these images have ‘codified’ our perceptions of the terrorist threat. Several films and series have been produced that portray narratives of terrorism; be it either documentary or fiction, they all position themselves within the theme of the terrorist threat related to the Muslim world in specific. On the one hand, there are films and television series like THE AGE OF TERROR (Jon Blair, 2002), 9/11 (2002), THE VOICE OF THE PROPHET (Robert Edwards, 2002), WTC THE FIRST 24 HOURS (Etienne Sauret, 2002), DC 9/11: TIME OF CRISIS (Brian Trenchard‐Smith, 2003), WORLD TRADE CENTER (Oliver Stone, 2006) and UNITED 93 (Paul Greengrass, 2006), which all tell the story from the perspective of the Westerners as being the victims. These films heavily draw upon the distinction between ‘the West’ and the Middle East, meaning the ‘Muslim world.’2 This distinction, which we find not only in films and television series, but in Western news media too, is reinforced by these film and television productions, and in that way contribute to the further polarization of the West on the one side and the Middle East, or Muslim world, at the other side. However, there are also films that tell the story from another perspective; both the fiction film THE ROAD TO GUANTANAMO (Mat Whitecross and Michael Winterbottom, 2006), which bases itself on the actual story of the famous ‘Tipton Three’, and the documentary TAXI TO THE DARKSIDE (Alex Gibney, 2007) portray the suspected terrorists as the victims, while BBC documentary THE POWER OF NIGHTMARES (Adam Curtis, 2004), comments on the construction of fear for terrorism by our own political leaders. In this sense, all three films convey what we might call a ‘counter‐narrative’; they are critical evaluations of the dominant discourse of terrorism and its mediation. In the current academic debate on terrorism there is a sharp division between, one the one hand, the Middle East, which is heavily associated with the Islam, and on the other hand, the West, which involves Europe and America in particular. Commenting on our current cultural state philosopher Hans Koechler, who is concerned with trans‐cultural understanding and the relations between 2 For further reading on the attitude of the West towards the (Middle) East and the false assumptions about the oriental ‘Other,’ see Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Routledge, 1978). 6 the Islam and the West in specific, writes: “The present ‘‘New World Order’’ is characterized by an unequal power balance that results, as far as the socio‐cultural consequences are concerned, in an increasing alienation between the Western‐industrialized and the developing world. The undeniable tensions between the Western and Muslim world are a vivid expression of this imbalance. This situation creates feelings of being threatened on both sides of the cultural or civilizational divide: there exists fear for the preservation of one’s identity and independence on the one side, and fear for the loss of one’s dominant role and the preservation of one’s way of life, system of values, etc. on the other side. It is exactly here where the stereotype of a threat supposedly emanating from the respective ‘‘other’’ civilization comes into play.”3 According to Koechler, the threat of our identity comes from the ‘other’ civilization, which is in this case the ‘Muslim world.’ This is in line with European ethnologist Wolfgang Kaschuba. Kaschuba doesn’t directly refer to the other as being Muslim, but does note that; “The difference between, the distance from and the contrast to the Other seem to be the most important qualities of collective feelings and identities in a context where they are confronted by strange and threatening external worlds, brought ever closer by images of worldwide migration and crisis.”4 So the current sharp division of the Middle East and the West seems to stem from a major threat of the ‘Other.’ It is important to understand that this threat of the ‘distant Other’ is getting near by because of the images that are presented to us. The ‘Other’ is getting 'closer,' because of its frequent portrayal 3 Hans Koechler, “The dialogue of civilizations: Philosophical basis, current state and prospects,” Asia Europe Journal 1 (2003): 319. 4 Wolfgang Kaschuba, “The Emergence and Transformation of Foundation Myths,” in Myth and Memory in the Construction of Community. Historical Patterns in Europe and Beyond, ed. Bo Strath (Brussels: P.I.E. Lang, 2000), 221. 7 on television and films.5 This way, the ‘Other’ becomes integrated in our daily lives and the ‘threat’ becomes more ‘real.’ Therefore, it is important to study how the Other is ‘brought closer’ to us by media, so how the Other is presented, and the way these media contribute to the debate on terrorism. Scholars within the field of Media Studies in particular, have mainly studied terrorism by focusing on the role and effect of mass media coverage on terrorism.6 These studies all seem to confirm the binary division between the Western world on the one hand and the Islamic world on the other hand. While acknowledging the dichotomy of the Middle East versus the West, with this thesis I aim to study this dichotomy and explore the boundaries in between. I want to move away from using rigid concepts such as ‘the West’ and ‘Middle East’. Instead, I mean to mobilise them, creating a space for debate and negotiation of meanings that are inherent to the temporary Islamic terrorism discourse. Using the metaphor of the 'rhizome' I will suggest we think of the Middle East and West as 'rhizomatic,' or 'next to each other,' rather than as opposites in a hierarchy.7 On a more general level then, I hope to contribute to 5 That the 'Other' is 'getting closer' means here that the 'Other' becomes 'present' in our daily lives, rather than that it becomes truly 'known' to us. It's just a presentation we encounter, rather then learning about the 'true' nature of the 'Other.' 6 Norris, Pepita, Montague Kern and Marion Just, Framing Terrorism.
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