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Heat Process Values F (2nd Ed.) for several Commercial and Sterilization Processes: Overview, Uses, and Restrictions

Janwillem Rouweler - [email protected]; June 12, 2015

Which heat process value F should a particular food receive to make it safe and shelf stable? 10 * Section 1 lists reported sterilization values F0 = F 121.1 (= F zero) for commercial processes of all types of food products, for several package sizes and types. * Section2 contains reported pasteurization values F, or P, of a great variety of foods. The required storage conditions of the pasteurized foods, either at ambient temperature, or refrigerated (4-7 °C), are indicated. * Section 3 shows a decision scheme: should a particular food be pasteurized or sterilized? This depends on the intended storage temperature (refrigerated or ambient) after heating, the required (7 days to 4 years), the food pH (high acid, acid, or low acid), the food - activity aW, and on the presence of such as nitrite NO2 (E250) mixed with salt NaCl, or nisin. * In Section 4, two worked examples are presented on how to use an F value when calculating the actual sterilization time Pt: - C.R. Stumbo’s (1973) calculation method has been manually applied, verified by computer program STUMBO.exe, to find the sterilization time and the thiamine retention of bottled liquid in a rotating steam retort; - O.T. Pham’s (1987; 1990) formula method, incorporated in Excel program “Heat Process calculations according to Pham.xls”, has been used to find the sterilization time and the nutrient retention of canned carrot purée in a still steam retort. * The worked example in Section 5 illustrates the use of the pasteurization value F of apple , in calculating the required (average) residence time in the holding tube of a . The Excel program Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls next calculates the juice’s spoilage rate by a , a and an , and the nutrient retention of vitamins C and folic acid in the pasteurized juice. * Section 6 explains how F values can be calculated when a microbial analysis of the food is available. The actual pasteurization or sterilization time calculations should be based on all micro-organisms of concern present, and rather NOT on the highest F value only! An example calculation shows that the required F value for a food, to be sold in a moderate climate country, usually differs considerably from the F, required for the same food, to be sold in tropical areas.

10 °c 1. STERILIZATION VALUES: F0 = F 121.1 °C

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 Vegetables Almonds, 4 Decimal Heating for 1.6 Silva & Gibbs (2012), p. 698 roasted in oil reductions of min. in oil of sp 126.7 C. Due to the low water activity of dried almonds, the D value of Salmonella in Commercially almonds is increased considerably. 5 Decimal Heating for 2 reductions of min. in oil of Salmonella sp 126.7 C. Asparages 3 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 2 - 4 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) All 2 - 4 min. American Can Co. (1952); Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3.5 - 6 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -2-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 4 - 6 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 2.8 - 3.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) 2 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Baby foods Baby food; 3 - 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; 52x72; 140 ml Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Beans in tomato 8 - 15 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) 1.6 - 3.4 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) All 4 - 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 A2; 83x114; 7.0 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 580 ml core; 11.6 min. total. UT; 73x115; 5.8 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 8.3 min. total. Carrots 3 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 8 - 11 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 3.5 - 10.4 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) All 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Carrot purée A1; 65x101; 5.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 315 ml core; 8.0 min. total. Celery A2; 83x114; 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 580 ml Celeriac purée A1; 65x101; 4.2 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 315 ml core; 6.0 min. total. Champignons 4.1 - 9.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Chili con carne Various 6 min. American Can Co. (1952); Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) UT; 73x115; 4.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 6.6 min. total. Corn 5.6 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 8.9 - 12.4 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Corn, whole kernel, brine No. 2/A2; 9 min. American Can Co. (1952); packed 83x114; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 580 ml No. 10/A10; 15 min. American Can Co. (1952); 153x178; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3110 ml Corn, style corn No. 2/A2; 5 - 6 min. American Can Co. (1952); 83x114; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 580 ml No. 10/A10; 2.3 min. American Can Co. (1952); 153x178; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3110 ml

Drinks; still F123 = 15 s Tetrapak (2013) if 4.2 < pH < 4.6.

. F138 = 4 s Tetrapak (2013) if pH > 4.6. Green beans 3.0 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 3.5 - 6.0 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) 3.5 - 6 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 3.0 - 6.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) 3 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Green beans in brine up to A2; 4 - 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 up to 83x114; up to 580 ml A2 to A10; 6 - 8 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 83x114; 580 ml; to 153x178; 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -3-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 110 ml No. 2; A2 3.5 min. American Can Co. (1952) 87.3x115.9; 591 ml No. 10/A10; 6 min. American Can Co. (1952); 153x178; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3110 ml

Gudeg = young Canned in F0 = 20 min. Hariyadi et al (2013) jackfruits; mixture of (preferably at also known as Gori spices, palm TR = 121 min and and Pt = 57.1 min.). Jackfruits see at Gudeg

Juices, Nectars and Still F123 = 15 s Tetrapak (2013) Drinks (JNSD) if 4.2 < pH < 4.6.

F138 = 4 s Tetrapak (2013) if pH > 4.6. Mushrooms 4.2 - 7 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) Mushrooms: 4.1 - 9.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Champignons Mushrooms in brine A1; 65x101; 8 - 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 315 ml Mushrooms in up to A1; 6 - 8 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 up to65x101; up to 315 ml 10 1 Mushroom , cream A1; 65x101; F 115.7 = 3.5 Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 ) 315 ml min. in core; 10 F 115.7 = 5.8 min. total. Lentils with pork 3.9 - 4.6 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985)

Nectars F123 = 15 s Tetrapak (2013) if 4.2 < pH < 4.6.

F138 = 4 s Tetrapak (2013) if pH > 4.6. Onions 4 - 7 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 5.6 - 8 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 6.0 - 11.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Peas and potatoes 7.3 - 13.9 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Peas in brine up to A2; 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 up to 83x114; up to 580 ml A2 to A10; 6 - 8 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 83x114; 580 ml; to 153x178; 3110 ml No. 2/A2; 7 min. American Can Co. (1952); 83x114; 580 ml Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) No. 10/A10; 7 min. American Can Co. (1952); 153x178; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3110 ml

Potatoes 3 - 3.5 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 3.0 - 10.8 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Spinach 4 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) 7 - 11 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) 3.0 - 4.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Tomato juice 0.7 min. Schobinger, U. (Ed.) (1987) p. 513 (see also at section 2 of 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -4-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 pasteurized products) Tomato soup, non-cream All 3 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Tomato soup 0.5 min. Taylor, K.; Crosby, D. (2006) p. 7-9 if pH < 4.5 Vegetable juices 4 min.; 5 - 6 Schobinger, U. (Ed.) (1987) p. 513 min.; 10 min. Vegetables 3 - 6 min. Smith (2011) p. 254

Meat & Poultry in own 4.1 - 4.3 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) Beef: Minced Beef UT; 73x115; 6 min. in core; Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml 8.6 min. total. Brawn 4.5 - 4.7 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) Brhrst; can 0.6 min. Reichert (1985) p. 97; table 26 completely filled; so no separate sausages. - NO2 added. Chicken 6 - 8 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) Chicken, boned All 6 - 8 min. American Can Co. (1952); Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) Chicken supreme sauce UT; 73x115; 4.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 6.6 min. total. Chicken fillets (breast) in up to 16 oz; 6 - 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 jelly up to 73x118; 454 ml Corned Beef 5 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 4.0 - 4.9 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) 4.0 min. Reichert (1985) p. 130 300x200; 4.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 76x51; core; 180 ml 6.6 min. total. Corned Beef 12 min. Reichert (1985) p. 130 for tropics Frankfurters in brine up to 16A/16Z 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Game: Poultry and A2½ to A10; 15 - 18 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Game, whole in brine 99x119; 850 ml; to 153x178; 3110 ml Goulash 4.0 - 4.5 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) Ham 5 min. Alstrand-Ecklund in Reichert (1985) 0.1 - 0.3 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Ham sterile 1 and 2 lb; 3 - 4 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Ham 3.3% brine 0.3 - 0.5 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; (1986) Ham 4.0% brine 0.1 - 0.2 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; Codex Alimentarius (1986) Ham and Shoulder 3.3% 0.3 - 0.5 min. Footitt (1995) p. 203-204 - brine (150 ppm NO2 ) Ham and Shoulder 4.0% 0.1 - 0.2 min. Footitt (1995) p. 203-204 - brine (150 ppm NO2 ) Liver pate; 1.2 min. Reichert (1985) p. 103-105 coarse liver pate = Grobe leberrst; Pre-heating ingredients at 80 ⁰C while - NO2 added. stirring. Rotating retort; retort temperature 110 ⁰C; slow cooling. This all to prevent fat separation. Use small, flat cans or glass jars; 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -5-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 preferably H:D = 1:1; preferably product mass 200 grams.

A very high fat % reduces water activity, and thus increases shelf life. Liver pate; fine; spread 1.2 min. Reichert (1985) p. 103-105 - NO2 added. For organoleptic quality: Pre-heating ingredients at 80 ⁰C while stirring. Rotating retort; retort temperature 110 ⁰C; slow cooling. This all to prevent fat separation. Use small, flat cans or glass jars; preferably H:D = 1:1; preferably product mass 200 grams.

A very high fat % reduces water activity, and thus increases shelf life. Liver pate (spread): fine 5 min. Reichert (1985) p. 105-113 liver pate. For organoleptic quality: Use small flat cans; large diameter, small height, such as DxH = 163x10 mm. Retort temp 140 ⁰C, maximum product temperature 120 ⁰C. Preferably product mass 200 grams. Luncheon Meat 0.3 - 0.8 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Luncheon Meat 3.0 - 1.0 - 1.5 min. Footitt (1995) p 203-204; 4.0% brine (150 ppm Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; - NO2 ) Codex Alimentarius (1986) Luncheon Meat 4.0 - 1.0 min. Footitt (1995) p. 203-204; 4.5% brine (150 ppm Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 - NO2 ) Codex Alimentarius (1986) Luncheon Meat 5.0 - 0.5 min. Footitt (1995) p. 203-204; 5.5% brine (150 ppm Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; - NO2 ) Codex Alimentarius (1986) Meats: Cured meats and up to 16Z 8 - 12 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; vegetables Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Meats: Low acid canned 0.5 min. to 1.5 Holdsworth (1997) p. 174 cured meats: min. pH 4.5 A mixture of salt NaCl and sodium nitrite (NO2-), together with refrigerated storage, and control of the initial spore load, inhibit spore growth. 0.65 to 0.85 Reichert (1985); min. Sielaff (1996)

Shelf life at least 1 year if storage temperature T < 20 °C, and cred b a mixture of salt NaCl and sodium nitrite (NO2-). Meats in gravy All 12 - 15 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; Smith (2011) p. 254 Meat, Sliced meat in Ovals 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; gravy Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Meat loaf No. 2; A2; 6 min. American Can Co. (1952); 83x114; Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 580 ml Meat pies Tapered; flat 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Pork in own gravy 3.9 - 4.1 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) Poultry and Game, whole A2½ to A10; 15 - 18 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 in brine 99x119; 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -6-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 850 ml Roast Beef 5 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) Sausages 1 - 3 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) 4.2 - 4.7 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) 0.6 - 0.8 min. Heldtmann-Reichert in Reichert (1985) 0.6 - 0.8 min. Reichert (1985) p. 105. Preferably retort temperatures lower than 115 ⁰C to reduce quality deterioration. Shelf life 1 year. Sausages in brine. 0.8 min. Reichert (1985) p. 97. - NO2 added. Shelf life at least 1 year. Sausages, 2.5% brine 1.5 min. Footitt (1995) p. 203-204; - (150 ppm NO2 ) Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Sausages, Vienna, in Various 5 min. American Can Co. (1952); brine Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) Sausages: Frankfurters in up to 16A/16Z 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 brine Sausages in fat up to 1 lb 4 - 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 Sausage meat dough in 0.6 min. Reichert (1985) p. 97; table 26 can; Brhrst; can completely filled; so no - separate sausages. NO2 added. Schmatfleisch. 1.2 min. Reichert (1985) p. 103-105 - NO2 added. Pre-heating ingredients at 80 ⁰C while stirring. Rotating retort; retort temperature 110 ⁰C; slow cooling. This all to prevent fat separation. Use small, flat cans; preferably H:D = 1:1; preferably product mass 200 grams. Steak: Stewed Steak UT; 73x115; 9.0 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 12.0 min. total.

Fish products Crab in brine 3.5 - 3.9 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Crab Crabs shall be Georgia Dept of Agricultture cooked under steam pressure until such time that the internal temperature of the centermost crab reaches 235 degrees F(112.8 degrees C). Fish in brine 5.6 - 8 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 5 - 6 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Fish products 5 - 20 min. Frott & Lewis (1994) Herrings in Ovals 6 - 8 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 6 - 8 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 Langoustines 3.6 - 7.2 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) 3 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Lobsters 3.6 - 7.2 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) 3 - 4 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Mackerel in brine 301x411; 2.9 - 3.6 min. American Can Co. (1952) 78x118; 479 ml 301x411; 3 - 4 min. Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 78x118; 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -7-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 479 ml Mackerel in tomato sauce UT; 73x115; 7.0 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 10.9 min. total. Oysters - Atlantic 5.9 - 6.0 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Oysters - Pacific 2.7 - 6.0 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Sardines in mustard 0.7 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) sauce Sardines in tomato sauce 1.5 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Sardines in oil 2.4 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Tuna 2.7 - 7.8 min. NCA in Reichert (1985) Tuna; in oil, or in 2% 10 min. Ali et all (2005); brine, or in tomato 307 x 109; 10 min. Martin Xavier et al (2007) p. 162 sauce, or in curry. 87 x 40; 6 oz 170 ml

Dairy products Baby foods Baby food; 3 - 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; (in glass bottles) 52x72; Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 140 ml Chocolate Drinks Pre-heating De Wit (2001) p. 48 mixture at F90 = 15 min. Autoclave sterilization of bottled product F120 = 30 min. Cream 4 and 6 oz 3 - 4 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261; 114 and 170 ml Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 130 - 200 ml 3 - 4 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 16 Z 6 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 (approx 500 ml) 45 min. at Statutory Instruments 1509 (1983; UK). T 104 C 45 min. at Rees & Bettison (1991) p. 31 T 108 C 140 ⁰C for 2 UK Statutory heat treatment seconds. requirements for UHT products, quoted by Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 95- 96); and by Lewis (2006) in Brennan (2007) p. 62 Cream; sterilized coffee sterilization in 20 min. 115 °C; Walstra (2006) p. 449 cream 20% fat bottle 9 log reductions of Bacillus subtilus. Cream; sterilized coffee UHT sterilization 10 sec at 140 Walstra (2006) p. 449 cream 20% fat; UHT °C. Cream; UHT UHT sterilization 2 s at Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 271 T 140 C. ; coffee up to 16 oz; 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 milk up to 73x118; 454 ml Evaporated milk 5 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 Evaporated milk; coffee In bottle 10 - 40 min at HAS milk sterilization 115 - 120 °C. Evaporated whole milk In bottle Pre-heating in Walstra (2006) p. 499 sterilization heat exchanger 30 s 130 °C. In past: preheating in tank 20 min at T < 100 °C. Sterilization in bottle or can: 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -8-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 15 min. 120 °C. Evaporated whole milk UHT sterilization Pre-heating in Walstra (2006) p. 499 heat exchanger 30 s 130 °C. In past: preheating in tank 20 min at T < 100 °C. Flowing UHT sterilization 15 s 140 °C. Evaporated whole milk UHT sterilization Pre-heating in Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 274 heat exchanger 15 s 135-145 °C. Next concentrate 2.5 to 3x. Then UHT 142 ⁰C 5 s; Homogenize; packaging. UHT sterilization Pre-heating 10 Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 274 min. 90 ⁰C or in heat exchanger 15 s 135-145 °C. Next concentrate 2.5 to 3x. Then UHT 142 ⁰C 15 s; cool, Reheat to 115 ⁰C 20 min. Homogenize; packaging. Evaporated whole milk, 13 min. 117 °C. Walstra (2006) p. 501 recombined from skim milk powder, water and milk fat mix (UHT) 2 seconds at UK Statutory heat treatment 148.9 ⁰C. requirements for UHT products, quoted by Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 95- 96); and in Lewis (2006) in Brennan (2007) p. 62 Milk, Cocoa taste 10 - 40 min at HAS 115 - 120 °C. Milk 5 - 8 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) 8 min. Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 93 Milk; in bottle or can 5 - 8 min. Reichert (1985); Shapton (1994)

Milk: full cream F125 = 2-4 min. Westergaard (1994) p. 16 Milk; sterilized UHT UHT F149 = 2 sec. Shapton (1994) 10 UHT F 149 = 2 s. Reichert (1985) UHT 2 s - 40 s at HAS 140 - 145 °C. Milk; sterilized UHT; 1 s at The Milk and Regulations (1988): skimmed and semi- T 135 C. No. 2208, schedule 2; UK Govt; skimmed Lewis (2006) in Brennan (2006) p. 62 Milk, ltra-pasteried UHT direct; 2 - 4 s at 138 Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 92; not hermetically ⁰C; refrigerated Cornell University (2010) sealed, so unopened shelf life 30-90 days. required. 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -9-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 Milk, first UHT sterilized, UHT UHT 4 s at 137 Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 94 next filled in bottles, ⁰C, next mild sealed and then mildly conventional retorted retorting to kill recontamination caused during filling stage. Milk powder: Milk to 5 min. 90 °C; Walstra (2006) p. 530 produce high heat milk 1 min. 120 °C. poder (WPN Inde 5 mg N/g) Milk powder: Skim milk UHT: 30 s at Caric (1994) p. 98-99 to produce high heat milk 121 °C - 148 poder (WPN Inde 5 °C. mg N/g) Milk powder: Milk to 3-5 min. at 88 - Caric (1994) p. 65-66 produce milk powder 90 °C; several seconds at 130 °C. Milk powder: Milk to 1 min. at 95 ⁰C Walstra (2006) p. 515 produce full-cream milk (also to prevent powder auto-oxidation). From 60 C to Milk powder: Milk to ⁰ F125 = 2 - 4 Westergaard (1994) p. 16 produce full-cream milk 80 ⁰C indirect min. powder heating; from 80 ⁰C to 110 ⁰C direct steam injection to avoid interactions between proteins; from 110 ⁰C to 125 ⁰C direct steam injection. Milk powder; for skim UHT of skim 1 min. at 130 Walstra (2006) p. 500 milk powder to produce milk °C. recombined evaporated milk Milk puddings up to 16 Z 4 - 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 (approx 450 ml) 4 - 10 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 Milk-based drinks 45 min. at Statutory Instruments 1508 (1983) T 104 C. UK). Milk-based products UHT; 2 seconds UK Statutory heat treatment at 140 ⁰C. requirements for UHT products, quoted by Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 95- 96; and Lewis (2006) in Brennan (2006) p. 62

Sweetened condensed aW 0.84 2 min. in can; Walstra (2006) p. 508 milk or 5 s at 135 °C (UHT).

Other products

Dog food No. 2; 83x114; 12 min. American Can Co. (1952) 580 ml No. 10; 6 min. American Can Co. (1952) 153x178; 3110 ml Petfoods 6 - 12 min. Stork in Reichert (1985) up to 16 Z; 15 - 18 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 15 - 18 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -10-

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approximate Source size DxH mm; sterilization 10 ml value F 121.1 A2; 83x114; 12 min. Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 580 ml A10; 153x178; 6 min. Ahlstrand & Ecklund (1952) 3110 ml 10 1 UT; 73x115; F 128.5 = 12.0 Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 ) 445 ml min. in core; 10 F 128.5 = 20.0 min. overall. Soup 10 - 12 min. Andersen in Reichert (1985) Soup 4 - 5 min. Smith (2011) p. 254 Soup: Cream A1; 65x101; 4 - 5 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 315 ml to 16 Z up to A10; 6 - 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 up to 153x178; 3110 ml Soup: Meat soups up to 16 Z 10 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 10 1 Soup: Mushroom soup, A1; 65x101; F 115.7 = 3.5 Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 ) cream 315 ml min. in core; 10 F 115.7 = 5.8 min. total. Soup: Tomato soup, non- All 3 min. Brennan (1979) p. 261 cream Soup: Ox tail soup 4.0 - 4.9 min. Wirth, Tacács, Leistner in Reichert (1985) Spaghetti 5.5 min. Stumbo in Reichert (1985) Spaghetti hoops in U8; 73x61; 7.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) tomato sauce 230 ml core; 11.6 min. total. Spaghetti in tomato A2½; 99x119; 6.0 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) sauce 850 ml core; 9.0 min. total. White sauce UT; 73x115; 4.5 min. in Holdsworth (1997) p. 188 1) 445 ml core; 6.5 min. total.

Low water activity products Almonds, 4D of Heating for 1.6 Silva & Gibbs (2012) p. 698 roasted in oil Salmonella sp min. in oil of 126.7 ⁰C. Due to the low water activity, the D Commercially value of Salmonella in almonds is 5D reductions of Heating for 2 increased considerably. Salmonella sp min. in oil of 126.7 ⁰C.

1 10 ) Holdsworth (1997: 188) lists two different F 121.1 values: the lowest value measured in the coldest spot (core) of the packaged food; the higher ale is the overall or integrated F value. 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -11-

10 General principles on F 121.1 sterilization values for groups of foods Type of food Remarks Approx. sterilizing value Sources 10 F 121.1 10 Low acid canned : F 121.1 > 3.0 min. Holdsworth foods: Botulinum Cook for safety: after heat (1997) p. 174 pH 4.5 processing less than 1 C. botulinum spore per 1012 cans. Spoilage still possible. Low acid canned Food safety: Small cans D x H = 54.0 Stumbo (1983) foods: Botulinum Cook for safety: after heat mm x 57.2 mm (96.54 p. 537-538 pH 4.5 processing less than 1 C. botulinum cm3): 12 10 spore per 10 cans. F 121.1 2.80 min.

Assumption: initially 1 spore of Large cans D x H = 3 Clostridium botulinum per cm . 157.2 mm x 177.8 mm (3133.96 cm3): Spoilage still possible. 10 F 121.1 3.10 min.

For convection heating (= liquid) foods: F in coldest spot (core); for conduction heating foods (solids): F total = integral lethal capacity. Low acid canned Shelf life: Frequently Holdsworth 10 foods: To be safe, and to prevent spoilage. F 121.1 6.0 min. (1997) p. 174 pH 4.5 Low acid canned 12-log reduction of C. ICMSF (2002); foods: botulinum, or probability IOM NRC pH 4.5 of a viable spore being (2003); -9 present < 10 per can Bean (2012), table 2.1 (a can = 1kg) (if N0 = 1 -1 g ) Low acid canned Shelf life: Small cans D x H = 54.0 Stumbo (1983) foods: To be safe, and to prevent spoilage. mm x 57.2 mm (96.54 p. 537-538 pH 4.5 cm3): 10 Organism of concern is spoilage spore F 121.1 8.99 min. Clostridium sporogenes. Large cans D x H = Assumption: initially 1 spoilage spore of 157.2 mm x 177.8 mm 3 Clostridium sporogenes per cm . (3133.96 cm3): After heat processing less than 1 10 F 11.24 min. Clostridium sporogenes spore per 104 121.1

cans. For convection heating

(= liquid) foods: F in coldest spot (core); for conduction heating foods (solids): F total = integral lethal capacity. 10 Low acid canned Shelf life in moderate climate: F 121.1 = 3.0 min. to Reichert (1985); foods: 4 months to 4 years if storage 8.0 min. Sielaff (1996) pH 4.5 temperatre T 25 C. Microbial stable; thermophilic spoilage spores, which germinate at T > 35 °C, are present in 1:100 cans. Shelf life limited due to sensory deterioration by enzymatic and/or chemical spoilage at moderate storage temperature. 10 Low acid canned Shelf life in moderate climate: F 121.1 = 4.0 - 5.5 min. FAO (2007) Ch. foods: up to 4 years. 22 pH 4.5 In the food industry the most heat resistant are Clostridium botulinum spores for which a minimum 10 1. Sterilization values F 121.1 for commercial food processes -12-

10 General principles on F 121.1 sterilization values for groups of foods Type of food Remarks Approx. sterilizing value Sources 10 F 121.1 F-value of 2.52 needed. The most heat resistant spores for spoilage are the Clostridium sporogenes spores which require minimum F-values of 2.58. Based on these microbiological considerations and including a sufficient safety margin, sterilized canned products should be produced with F- values of 4.0-5.5. The retort temperatures to be used may vary between 117 and 130°C (depending on the heat sensitivity of the individual products). A shelf life of up to four years at storage temperatures of 25°C or below can be achieved. 10 Low acid canned Shelf life in tropical climate: F 121.1 = 16 min. to Reichert (1985); foods: 1 year at storage temperature 20 min. Sielaff (1996) pH 4.5 T 35-40 °C. (for tropics) Food is microbial stable. Thermophilic spoilage spores, which germinate at T > 35 °C, are present in the heated food in 1:100 000 cans. Shelf life in tropics is limited due to rapid sensory deterioration by enzymatic and/or chemical spoilage at high storage temperatures. 10 In tropical countries, where the F 121.1 = 12 - 15 min. FAO (2007) Ch. storage temperatures may exceed 25°C, 22 specific canned products for tropical conditions are manufactured. In these cases the summary F-values have to be increased to F-value = 12-15 min., which permits safe storage of the finished products under storage temperatures up to 40°C. 10 Low acid canned A mixture of salt NaCl and sodium nitrite F 121.1 = 0.5 min. to Holdsworth cured meats: (NO -), together with refrigerated 10 (1997) p. 174 2 F = 1.5 min. pH 4.5 storage, and control of the initial spore 121.1 load, inhibit spore growth. 10 Shelf life at least 1 year if storage F 121.1 = 0.65-0.85 Reichert (1985); temperature T < 20 °C, and salt NaCl min. Sielaff (1996) - and sodium nitrite (NO2 ). 10 Acid products: Control survival and growth of spoilage F 121.1 = 0.7 min. Hersom & 3.7 < pH < 4.5 spore formers such as Hulland (1980); Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus polymyxa, 8.3 Somers (1968) F = 10 min. if pH (in the past: Bacillus macerans, and of the spoilage 93.3 p. 67 = 4.3 - 4.5. acid products butyric anaerobes Clostridium butyricum were defined as and Clostridium pasteurianum. 8.3 Somers (1968) 4.0 < pH < 4.5) F 93.3 = 5 min. if pH = p. 67 4.0 - 4.3.

2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -13-

2. PASTEURIZATION VALUES F or P

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P and Beverages (see also section Fruits and Vegetables) 7 7 Beer F 60 = 5.6 min. F 60 = 5.6 min. is also called 5.6 Holdsworth (1992) pasteurization units: 5.6 PU. p. 57; Holdsworth (1997) p. 106-107; Tucker (2011) p. 59

Beer F65-68 = 20 min. Destruction of spoilage micro- Ramaswamy et al (in bottle) organisms (wild , (2005), table 3.1 species), and residual yeasts (Saccharomyces species).

Beer F60 = 15 min. Either flash pasteurization, followed Silva et al (2014) p. (= 15 PU) by aseptically packaging in metal 588 - 589 barrels, or pasteurization in bottles or cans in a tunnel pasteurizer.

F60 = 1 - 5 min. Effective for microbial (= 1 - 5 PU) inactivation.

F60 = 8 - 30 min. Generally used to ensure the (= 8 - 30 PU) absence of resistant organisms. 7 Beer, stabilized at room F 60 = 20 - 120 If beer is carbonated, contains Silva & Gibbs temperature min. alcohol, and is bittered with hops (2008) section (= 20 - 120 PU) (all natural ). 2.4.2.1 6.9 Beer F 75 = 30 s Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 223 7 Pilsner beer F 60 = 20 min. Heineken 7 Beer: Pilsner and Lager 15 min. < F 60 < EBC (1995) p. 13 25 min. 7 Beer: Ales and Stout 20 min. < F 60 < EBC (1995) p. 13 35 min. 7 Beer: low alcoholic 40 min. < F 60 < EBC (1995) p. 13 60 min. 7 Beer: non alcoholic 80 min. < F 60 < EBC (1995) p. 13 beers; less bitter beers 120 min. 7 120 min. < F 60 < In non-alcoholic beers the spoilage Lanthoen and 300 min. lactic acid (LAB) and the Ingledew (1996), (= 120 - 300 PU) pathogens such as E. coli and S. cited in Silva & typhimurium are considerably more Gibbs (2008) heat resistant compared to beer section 2.4.2.1 with 5 % v/v of alcohol. 7 Lemonades 300 min. < F 60 < EBC (1995) p. 13 500 min. 7 Fruit juices 3000 min. < F 60 EBC (1995) p. 13 < 5000 min.

Meat & Poultry Beef: Ready-to-Eat 6.5-log reduction of Salmonella FSIS (1999): (RTE) cooked beef Internal temperature 62.8 ⁰C. Appendix A ; products IOM NRC (2003); Bean et al (2012), table 2.1; p. 8+9 Beef: Ready-to-Eat See a Meats: Ready-To-Eat (RTE) Meats (RTE) cooked beef products 6 Burgers; Beef burger F 70 = 2 min. 6-log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 ACMSF (2007) p. 27 cells in minced meat; z = 6 ⁰C. Cooked Beef See at Meats: Ready-To-Eat (RTE) Meats

Cooking sauce F85 = 5 min. pH = 3.7; aW = 0.92. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -14-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P In jar process. D. (2006) p. 46 No preservatives. Storage instructions: refrigerate on opening; use within 1 week. Corned beef; Cooked See at Meats: Ready-To-Eat (RTE) Meats Corned Beef

Game: Commercially F63 = 15 s FDA (2013) raised game animals, Summary Chart 4A and exotic species of game animals

Game: Commuted F70 < 1 s FDA (2013) commercially raised F68 = 15 s Summary Chart 4A game animals, F = 1 min. and exotic species of 66 game animals F63 = 3 min.

Game: Wild game F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) animals Summary Chart 4A 10 Ham 3.3% brine F 121.1 = 0.3 - see table ith Steriliation ales Holdsworth (1997) 0.5 min. at section meat and poltr. p. 175-176; Can be stored at ambient Codex Alimentarius temperatures. (1986) 10 Ham 4.0% brine F 121.1 = 0.1 - Holdsworth (1997) 0.2 min. p. 175-176; Codex Alimentarius (1986) 10 Ham and Shoulder 3.3% F = 0.3 - Footitt (1995) p. - 121.1 brine (150 ppm NO2 ) 0.5 min. 203-204 10 Ham and Shoulder 4.0% F = 0.1 - Footitt (1995) p. - 121.1 brine (150 ppm NO2 ) 0.2 min. 203-204 10 Ham (Kochschinken) F 70 = 30 - 50 Refrigerated storage. Reichert (1985) p. min. Depending on the initial number of 146 + 148 micro-organisms, in particular D- streptococcus.

Ham filler (sauce) F95 = 5 min. pH = 4; aW = 0.97. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Process and in-bottle pasteurize. D. (2006) p. 46 No preservatives. Storage instructions: Refrigerate on opening; use within 1 week. 10 Luncheon Meat 3.0 - F 121.1 = 1.0 - see table ith Steriliation ales Footitt (1995) p. 4.0% brine (150 ppm 1.5 min. at section meat and poltr. 203-204; - NO2 ) Can be stored at ambient Holdsworth (1997) temperatures. p. 175-176); Codex Alimentarius (1986) 10 Luncheon Meat 4.0 - F 121.1 = 1.0 min. Footitt (1995) p. 4.5% brine (150 ppm 203-204; - NO2 ) Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176 Codex Alimentarius (1986) 10 Luncheon Meat 5.0 - F 121.1 = 0.5 min. Footitt (1995) p. 5.5% brine (150 ppm 203-204; - NO2 ) Holdsworth (1997) p. 175-176; Codex Alimentarius (1986)

Meat: Cooked meat as F70 2 min. Storage time 10 das if chilled at DOH (1989); an ingredient for chilled storage temp. 4 - 7 °C. Tucker (2011) p. foods 87; p. 90

Meat F63 = 15 s FDA (2013), Summary Chart 4A

Meat, chilled storage F85 > 19 min. and Chilled shelf life of not more than Peck (1995), cited stored at T < 12 ⁰C 28 days to reduce risk of food in Silva & Gibbs . (2008), section 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -15-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P

F95 = 15 min. and No botulism growth during chilled 2.4.1 stored at T < 12 ⁰C shelf life of 60days.

Meat Products F70 = 2 min. to achieve a 6-D reduction of E. coli ACMSF (2007); O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and L. Bean (2012) p. 13 monocytogenes. and p. 15

Meat: Commuted meats F70 < 1 s FDA (2013), and F68 = 15 s Summary Chart 4A Injected meats F = 1 min. and 66 Mechanically tenderized F63 = 3 min. meats 6 Meat, Minced meats F 70 = 2 min. 6-log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 ACMSF (2007) p. 27 cells in minced meat; z = 6 ⁰C.

Meats: stuffed F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A Meats: Ready-To-Eat These should F = Minimum F = Minimum FSIS (1999): (RTE) Meats: cooked receive a time and processing time processing time Appendix A - beef, cooked roast beef; temperature after minimum after minimum Compliance cooked corned beef combinations to (= reference) (= reference) Guidelines For meet either a 6.5- temperature is temperature is Meeting Lethality log10 or a 7 log10 reached for a 7 reached for a Performance reduction of log10 eduction 6.5 log10 Standards For Salmonella. of Salmonella: reduction of Certain Meat And Salmonella: Poultry Products. F54.4 = 121 F54.4 = 112 Food Safety min. min. Inspection Service, USDA. F55 = 97 min. F55 = 89 min. F55.6 = 77 min. F55.6 = 71 min. F56.1 = 62 min. F56.1 = 56 min. F56.7 = 47 min. F56.7 = 45 min. F57.2 = 37 min. F57.2 = 36 min. F57.8 = 32 min. F57.8 = 28 min. F58.4 = 24 min. F58.4 = 23 min. F58.9 = 19 min. F58.9 = 18 min. F59.5 = 15 min. F59.5 = 15 min. F60 = 12 min. F60 = 12 min. F60.6 = 10 min. F60.6 = 9 min. F61.1 = 8 min. F61.1 = 8 min. F61.7 = 6 min. F61.7 = 6 min. F62.2 = 5 min. F62.2 = 5 min. F62.8 = 4 min. F62.8 = 4 min. F63.3 = 182 s. F63.3 = 169 s. F63.9 = 144 s. F63.9 = 134 s. F64.4 = 115 s. F64.4 = 107 s. F65 = 95 s. F65 = 85 s. F65.6 = 72 s. F65.6 = 67 s. F66.1 = 58 s. F66.1 = 54 s. F66.7 = 46 s. F66.7 = 43 s. F67.2 = 37 s. F67.2 = 34 s. F67.8 = 29 s. F67.8 = 27 s. F68.3 = 23 s. F68.3 = 22 s. F68.9 = 19 s. F68.9 = 17 s. F69.5 = 15 s. F69.5 = 14 s. F70 = 0 s; *) F70 = 0 s; *) F70.6 = 0 s; *) F70.6 = 0 s; *) F71.1 = 0 s. *) F71.1 = 0 s. *) *) The required *) The required lethalities are 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -16-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P achieved lethalities are instantly when achieved the internal instantly when temperature of the internal a cooked meat temperature of product reaches a cooked meat 70.0 °C or product reaches above; 70.0 °C or only heating above; time required only heating until coldest time required point = 70 ⁰C. until coldest point = 70 ⁰C.

Pork F63 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A Poulty Heating to a core To destruct Campylobacter, NACMCF (2006) temperature of 74 Salmonella, and viruses. °C.

Poultry F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A

Poultry: stuffed F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A

Poultry: Cooked poultry; F70 2 min. Storage time 10 das if chilled at DOH (1989) in sold chilled storage temp. 4 - 7 °C. Tucker (2011) p. 90 Poultry: Cooked poultry These products should reach an internal temperature of at FSIS (1999): rolls and other cooked least 71.1 °C prior to being removed from the Appendix A - poultry products medium, except that cured and smoked poultry rolls and Compliance Poultry: cured and other cured and smoked poultry should reach an internal Guidelines For smoked poultry rolls and temperature of at least 68.3 °C prior to being removed Meeting Lethality other cured and smoked from the cooking medium. Performance poultry Standards For Certain Meat And Poultry Products. Food Safety Inspection Service, USDA. Poultry; Ready to eat Minimum proces- For cooked ready-to-eat (RTE) Silva & Gibbs sing time after meat products, the Canadian Food (2012) p. 698; minimum (= Inspection Agency requires a table 2 reference) PT-value (pasteurization value, temperature is minimum time of food exposure to reached: a specific temperature T) of 6.5 F55 = 476 min. decimal reductions (6.5D) in (as D55 = 68 min.) Salmonella spp. in the slowest heating point (usually the F = 112 min. 60 geometric centre) of (as D60 = 16 min.) foods not containing poultry; F65 = 14 min. whereas a minimum pasteurization (as D65 = 2.0 min.) causing 7D is needed if food contains poultry. F = 91 s. 70 (as D70 = 13 s.) D values derived from a cocktail of 6 F 75 = 21 s. Salmonella senftenberg with 6 (as D 75 = 3.0 s.) highest D value; the most 6 thermally resistant Salmonella spp. F 80 = 3.2 s. 6 (Senftenberg ATCC 43845). (as D 80 = 0.45 s.) 6 F 85 = 0 s; only heating time required until coldest point = 85 6 ⁰C (as D 85 0 s.) Poultry; Ready to eat Internal temperature of 62.8 ⁰C; ICMSF (2002); cooked poultry products 7 log reductions of Salmonella. Bean (2012) table 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -17-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 2.1 Poultry; Ready to eat F = Minimum A minimum pasteurization FSIS (1999) USDA processing time causing 7D reduction of Salmonella guidelines, after minimum (= is needed if food contains poultry. Appendix A; reference) temperature is ICMSF (2002); reached: Bean et al (2012) F54.4 = 121 min. table 2.1; p. 8+9;

F55 = 97 min. Also partly reported F = 77 min. 55.6 in Silva & Gibbs F56.1 = 62 min. These USDA recommended values (2012) p. 698; F56.7 = 47 min. for pasteurizing meat and poultry table 2 products are considerably lower F = 37 min. 57.2 than the values, suggested by Silva F57.8 = 32 min. & Gibbs above. F58.4 = 24 min. F58.9 = 19 min. F59.5 = 15 min. F60 = 12 min. F60.6 = 10 min. F61.1 = 8 min. F61.7 = 6 min. F62.2 = 5 min. F62.8 = 4 min. F63.3 = 182 s. F63.9 = 144 s. F64.4 = 115 s. F65 = 95 s. F65.6 = 72 s. F66.1 = 58 s. F66.7 = 46 s. F67.2 = 37 s. F67.8 = 29 s. F68.3 = 23 s. F68.9 = 19 s. F69.5 = 15 s. F70 = 0 s; the required lethalities are achieved instantly when the internal temperature of a cooked meat product reaches 70.0 °C or above; only heating time required until coldest point = 70 ⁰C. 7.5 Proteins: Cooked F 70 2 min. Pasteurization and next frozen Tucker (2011) p. proteins (such as meat) shipment from country of origin to 100; p. 104 in an assembled food importing country. Be aware of latent heat of freezing when processing. Roast beef See at Meats: Ready-To-Eat (RTE) Meats 10 Sausages, 2.5% brine F = 1.5 min. See also table ith Steriliation Footitt (1995) p. - 121.1 (150 ppm NO2 ) ales at section meat and 203-204; poultry. Holdsworth (1997) Can be stored at ambient p. 175-176 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -18-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P temperatures. 10 Sausage: Cooked F = 40 min. Refrigerated storage. 70 - Sausages; Brühwurst Nitrite NO2 added as . 10 Sausages: Liver F 70 = 40 min. Refrigerated storage. Reichert (1985) p. sausages; Brühwurst 41-42; p. 96 10 Sausages: Liver F 121.1 = 0.6 min. If 0.9550 < aW < 0.9600 and Reichert (1985) p. sausages stored at temperature T < 15 °C: 113 shelf life 6 - 12 months. If aW < 0.9550 and stored at Reichert (1985) p. temperatre T 20 C: shelf life 1 113 year.

Turkey slurry; F90 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions (2010) p. 102 Meat of BSE cattle A single cycle at BSE is closely related to scrapie in Rees & Bettison should be destructed by 134 ⁰C (± 4 ⁰C) for sheep and may cause Creuzfeld- (1991) p. 39 18 min. holding Jacobs disease in man. time; or six separate cycles at 134 ⁰C (± 4 ⁰C) for 3 min. holding time

Fish 9 Crab; blue crab meat F 85 = 31 min. For pasteurization processes that FDA (2011) p. 316- target C. botulinum type E and 317 non-proteolytic types B and F, generally a reduction of six orders of magnitude (six logarithms, e.g., 3 -3 from 10 to 10 ) in the level of contamination is suitable. This is called a 6D process. 8.9 Crab; blue crab F 85 = 31 min. The process provides a wide margin Gates et al (1993) of safety for the destruction of C. botulinum type E spores. After that: refrigeration to 2.2 ⁰C. A refrigerated shelf life of about 9 months is possible. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 = 10-15 min. ⁰ about 1.5 months. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 = 15-20 min. ⁰ about 2 - 4 months. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 = 20-25 min. ⁰ about 4 - 6 months. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 = 25 - 30 ⁰ min. about 6 - 9 months. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 = 30 - 40 ⁰ min. about 9 - 18 months. 8.9 Refrigerated shelf life ( 2.2 C) of F 85 40 min. ⁰ about 12 - 36 months.

Blue crab; F85 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102

Crab meat; F >95 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102

Cod homogenate; F95 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102 8.6 Crab; dungenes F 90 = 57 min. For pasteurization processes that FDA (2011) p. 316- crabmeat target C. botulinum type E and 317 non-proteolytic types B and F, generally a reduction of six orders of magnitude (six logarithms, e.g., from 103 to 10-3) in the level of contamination is suitable. This is called a 6D process. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -19-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 6 Crabmeat homogenate; F85 = 1 min. Sufficient to inactivate 10 cfu/g of Cockey and Tatro refrigerated storage type E C. botulinum spores (6D) (1974), cited in and keep the food safe (nontoxic) Silva & Gibbs for 6 months at 4.4°C. (2008) section 2.4.1

Fish; raw fish F63 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A Target organism: Salmonella. NACMCF (2007); Bean (2012) table 2.1

Fish: stuffed F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A Target organism: Salmonella. NACMCF (2007); Bean (2012) table 2.1

Fish: stuffing containing F74 = 15 s Target organism: Salmonella. NACMCF (2007); fish Bean (2012) table 2.1

Fish: Commuted fish F70 < 1 s FDA (2013), F68 = 15 s Summary Chart 4A F66 = 1 min. F63 = 3 min. NACMCF (2007); Fish: Commuted fish F68 = 15 s Target organism: Salmonella. Bean (2012) table 2.1

Fish and fishery products F90 = 10 min., FDA (2011) p. 316 with z = 7 ⁰C for reference temperatures < 90 ⁰C , and z = 10 ⁰C for reference temperatures > 90 ⁰C.

Fish: Ready-to-Eat (RTE) F70 = 2 min. 6-log reduction of NACMCF (2007); cooked fish and seafoods L. monocytogenes. ICMSF(2002); Bean (2012) table 2.1

Fish F90 = 10 min., FDA (2011) p. 316 Fish soups with z = 7 ⁰C for reference temperatures < 90 ⁰C , and z = 10 ⁰C for reference temperatures > 90 ⁰C.

Molluscan shellfish F100 = 5 min. To destruct virus. Rees & Bettison (1991) p. 40

Oyster homogenisate; F85 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102

Salmon F90 = 15 min. heating; Silva et al (2014) p. effective to ensure safety and to 589 extend the shelf life of sous-vide salmon. Seafoods: Ready-to-Eat F70 = 2 min. 6-log reduction of NACMCF (2007); (RTE) L. monocytogenes. ICMSF(2002); Bean (2012) table 2.1, and p. 14

Shrimps: Ready-to-Eat F70 = 2 min. 6-log reduction of NACMCF (2008); (RTE) L. monocytogenes. Bean et al (2012) p. To achieve absence per 25 g, or 14 per extention, absence per 100 g in 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -20-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P the RTE products.

Surimi based products F90 = 10 min., FDA (2011) p 316 with z = 7 ⁰C for reference temperatures < 90 ⁰C , and z = 10 ⁰C for reference temperatures > 90 ⁰C. FDA (2011) p..316- Surimi F85 15 min. An example of a properly (with 2.4% salt on water pasteurized surimi-based product in 317 basis) which 2.4% water phase salt is present is one that has been pasteurized at an internal temperature of 85°C for at least 15 minutes.

Whitefish paste; F90 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated storage approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102

Egg, Liquid Egg and Liquid Egg products

Albumen (without use of F56.7 3.5 min. USDA (1980); chemicals) FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 55.6 Froning (2002) table 6

Baluts (= boiled, F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) fertilized egg) Summary Chart 4A Eggs: In shell 5 log reduction of Salmonella. NACMCF (2006); pasteurization of eggs Bean (2012) table 2.1

Eggs; raw eggs, broken F63 = 15 s FDA (2013) and prepared for Summary Chart 4A immediate service

Eggs; raw eggs, broken F70 < 1 s FDA (2013) and NOT prepared for F68 = 15 s Summary Chart 4A immediate service F66 = 1 min. F63 = 3 min. Egg: F60.0 3.5 min. USDA (1980); Whole egg, liquid FDA (2002) in Froning (2002) table 6

F60.0 3.5 min. 2.75 log reductions of Toledo (2007) p. L. monocytogenes; 325 14 log reductions of Salmonella enteritidis.

F60.0 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. based on 5 log reduction of 25 Salmonella. 8.75-log reductions in Salmonella. Bean (2012)NACMCF (2006 F60.0 3.5 min. table 2.1; NACMCF (2006)

F60.0 3.5 min. for USA. Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 219

F63.3 2.5 min. for China. Froning (2002) p. 9; Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 219

F62 2.5 min. for Australia. Froning (2002) p. 9 F62.5 2.5 min. for Australia. Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 219

F65 = 90-180 s. for Denmark. Froning (2002) p. 9 F65 - 69 = 1.5 - 3 for Denmark. Lewis & Heppell (2000) p. 219 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -21-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P min. F64.4 2.5 min. for Great Britain. Froning (2002) p. 9; (to negative alpha amylase Lewis & Heppell F 2.5 min. 64.4 activity). (2000) p. 219

F64.4 2.5 min. Destruction of pathogens Ramaswamy et al Salmonella senftenberg. (2005) table 3.1

F66.1 - 67.8 3 for Poland. Lewis & Heppell min. (2000) p. 219 Egg: F70 = 90 s 3 months shelf life at storage temp. Tetrapak, in Toledo Liquid whole eggs of 5 ⁰C. (2007) p. 325

Egg: F61.1 3.5 min. USDA (1980); Whole egg blends, liquid If less than 2% added non-egg FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 60 ingredients. Froning (2002) table 6

Egg: F62.2 3.5 min. If 24-38% solids, 2-12% added USDA (1980); Fortified whole egg and non-egg ingredients. FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. blends 61.1 Froning (2002) table 6

Egg: F62.2 2 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Fortified hole egg Te based on 5 log reduction of 25 product; 32% solids Salmonella.

Egg: F62.2 2.0 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. USDA Scrambled egg based on 5 log reduction of 25 mix (30% solids) Salmonella.

Egg: F60 2.4 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Scrambled egg mix based on 5 log reduction of 25 (22% solids) Salmonella.

Egg: F63.3 3.5 min. with 2% or more salt added. USDA (1980); Salted whole egg FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 62.2 Froning (2002) table 6

Egg: F63.3 5,7 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Salted whole egg (10%) based on 5 log reduction of 25 without storage Salmonella.

Egg: F63.3 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Salted whole egg (10%) based on 5 log reduction of 25 with 96-hours storage Salmonella. after salt addition

Egg: F61.1 3.5 min. with 2% or more sugar added. USDA (1980); Sugared whole egg FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 60 Froning (2002) table 6

Egg: F61.1 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Sugared whole egg based on 5 log reduction of 25 (10%) Salmonella.

Egg yolk: F63.3 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Fortified egg olk Te based on 5 log reduction of 25 product; 49% solids Salmonella.

Egg yolk: F61.1 3.5 min. USDA (1980); Plain yolk, liquid FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 60 Froning (2002) table 6

F61.1 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. based on 5 log reduction of 25 F 6.2 min. 60 Salmonella.

Egg yolk: F63.3 3.5 min. with 2% - 12% salt added. USDA (1980); Salted yolk FDA (2002); in F 6.2 min. 62.2 Froning (2002) table 6)

Egg yolk: F63.3 4.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Salted yolk (10%) based on 5 log reduction of 25 Salmonella.

Egg yolk: F63.3 3.5 min. with 2% or more sugar added. USDA (1980); Sugared yolk FDA (2002); in 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -22-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P

F62.2 6.2 min. Froning (2002) table 6

Egg yolk: F63.3 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. Sugared yolk (10%) based on 5 log reduction of 25 Salmonella.

Egg white; F56.7 3.5 min. Heat without chemicals. Froning (2002) p. 9 liquid; plain F55.6 6.2 min. Egg white: F57.7 6.3 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. liquid; without pH based on 5 log reduction of 25 adjusted Salmonella.

F56.7 4.3 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. based on 5 log reduction of 25 Salmonella.

Egg white: F54.4 3.5 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. liquid; pH = 8.6 with based on 5 log reduction of 25 hydrogen peroxide Salmonella. (Standard Brands Process)

Imitation egg product F56.7 4.6 min. New Pasteurization guidelines; Froning (2002) p. based on 5 log reduction of 25 Salmonella. Mayonaise No heat process pH = 3.9; aW = 0.88. Taylor, K.; Crosby, required Preservative: sorbate in larger sizes D. (2006) p. 46 for open shelf life. Storage instructions: refrigerate after opening.

Dried Egg and Dried Egg products

Dried egg white; bulk F54.4 =7 - 10 days. Hot room pasteurization of the dry Froning (2002) p. packed powder. Moisture content to be 10 6%.

Dairy products Baby milk powder See at Infant Formula Butter: skim milk and Skim milk fraction: Kill micro-organisms; inactivate Walstra (2006) p. cream for butter F90 = 30 min. . Destruction of bacterial 468; p. 487 production inhibitors to make the skim milk a Cream fraction: better substrate for the starter bacteria. F85 = 15 s. , conventional 15-25 s at 85-95 Kill micro-organisms; inactivate HAS and cultured buttermilk: °C. enzymes. Destruction of bacterial skim milk for the inhibitors to make the cream a production of buttermilk better substrate for the starter bacteria.

Cheese: milk for F72 = 15 s Flowing low pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. production of Gouda and (Gouda); exchanger. Kills pathogenic and 585; p. 703-704 Edam type harmful organisms (inactivation of F = 20 s 72 ), but serum (Edam). proteins remain soluble, Xantine oxidase is not destructed; native milk lipase is not destructed. Limited loss of soluble calcium. : 10 min. at 90 ⁰C. Ripened low fat quarg with low Walstra (2006) p. Kochkäse; Cancaillotte Ca2+; next yeasts + coryneform 739 Recently: heating bacteria grow; mixing with 1-2% of to 115 ⁰C. NaCl, butter, stirring and heating; next hot fill in cups and cooling.

Cheese: Cottage cheese; F73 = 15 s. Flowing low pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. milk for production of exchanger. Kills pathogenic and 700 cottage cheese: harmful organisms (inactivation of alkaline phosphatase), but serum Cream for the production proteins remain soluble for better of cottage cheese: F90 = 15 s. rennetability. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -23-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P

Cheese: Cheddar F71 = 15 s. Walstra (2006) p. cheese; milk for 713 production of cheddar cheese

Cheese: Emmentaler F53 = 35 min. Walstra (2006) p. cheese; milk for 720 production of Emmentaler cheese

Cheese: Mozzarella F72 = 15 s. Walstra (2006) p. cheese; milk for 723 production of traditional Mozzarella

Cheese: Soft cheeses, F72 = 15 s. Walstra (2006) p. having a surface mold; 726 milk for production of soft cheese Cheese: Fresh Cheese: see at Cheese: Processed: see at Processed cheese

Cream, pasteurized; F75 = 15 s Rees & Bettison 18% fat (1991) p. 32

Cream, pasteurized; F80 = 15 s 35% fat

Cream; whipping cream; F85 = 30 min. Batch pasteurization in tank. Walstra (2006) p. 35% fat Native milk lipase destructed; anti- 453 oxidants produced. Over 100 °C. Flowing pasteurization in a heat Walstra (2006) p. exchanger. Native milk lipase 453) destructed; anti-oxidants produced.

F103 = 20 min. In bottle pasteurization; in can Walstra (2006) p. pasteurization. Native milk lipase 453 destructed; anti-oxidants produced. Cream 200 s to 15 s Flowing pasteurization in heat HAS at 80 °C to 115 °C. exchanger. Production of anti- oxidants.

F72 15 s Minimum requirement in UK for Lewis (2003) in HTST. Smit (2003) p. 90 Custard: See at Vla Dutch custard

Ice cream mixture F80 = 25 s. Vegetative pathogens and spoilage Walstra (2006) p. organisms are killed. Milk lipase 459 should be destructed. Susceptibility to auto-oxidation is decreased.

F66 = 30 min. Lewis & Heppel (batch); (2000) p. 218 F71 = 10 min. (batch); F79 = 15 sec (HTST).

F79 15 s Minimum requirement in UK for Lewis (2003) in HTST. Smit (2003) p. 90

F80 = 20 s UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250

F80 = 15 s Destruction of pathogens. Ramaswamy et al (2005) table 3.1

Infant formula; milk F75 = 20 s for the First pasteurization of the skim milk Caric (1994) p. powder for babies initial skim milk; (F75 = 20 s). Next concentration to 128-131 F110 = 60 s after 40-48 mass% dry matter; addition mixing the other of other ingredients, homogenizing; ingredients. followed by pasteurization (F110 = 60 s) of concentrated mixture prior to spray drying.

Infant formula F73.2 = 20 s Tube heat exchanger; killing Dutch whey pathogenic micro-organisms. processing plant (2010) 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -24-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Kochkäse See at Cheese: Kochkäse; Cansailotte

Milk; low pasteurized F63 = 30 min. Batch pasteurization in tank; Lewis (2003) in Holder process. Smit (2003) p. 89; Constant stirring required. Great advantages of the batch Toledo (2007) p. system are that it does not 325; significantly modify the properties Silva et al (2014) p. of milk, the milk maintains its 588 nutritional value, and the germicidal effect is approximately 95%. Milk; low pasteurized F62.7 = 30 min. Batch pasteurization achieves a 5 European Economic log reduction in the number of Community (1992) viable micro-organisms in milk.

F63 = 30 min. 5 log reductions of Coxiella IOM NRC (2003) burnetti. Constant stirring required.

F68.3 = 30 min. Batch pasteurization in tank; Shapton (1994) p. Low Temperature Holding (LTH). 319 Thermoduric non-sporevormers survive. 30 min. at 62.8 Batch pasteurization. The Milk and Dairy °C < T < 65.6 °C. Constant stirring required. Regulations (1988)

F72 15 s Fast pasteurization, also known as Silva et al (2014) p. HTST, involves heating the milk to 588 to F 15 s 77 7277 ⁰C for at least 15 s. The germicidal efficiency of this method is approximately 99.5%, and alterations in the milk components are insignificant. This process is carried out in tubular or plate heat exchangers.

F71.5 = 15 s HTST in plate heat exchanger. Smith (2011) p. 250 F88 = 1 s F94 = 0.1 s F71.7 > 15 s. Flowing pasteurization in heat The Milk and Dairy exchanger. Regulations (1988) HTST pasteurization achieves a 5 European Economic log reduction in the number of Community (1992) viable micro-organisms in milk.

F72 = 15 s. UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250

F76 > 15 s. Flowing pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. exchanger. Native milk lipase is 425 destructed; part of the bacterial inhibitors are destructed; homogenization is possible.

F77 15 s. USA for HTST. Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 90

F90 0.5 s. USA for HTST. Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 90

F100 0.05 s. USA for HTST. Lewis (2003) in Smit (2003) p. 90 8 F 72 = 1 min. Holdsworth (1997) p. 106-107

F79.5 = 25 s. Flowing pasteurization in heat Shapton (1994) p. exchanger. High Temperature Short 319 Time HTST. Thermoduric non- sporevormers survive. 6 log reductions of Salmonella. Farber et al. (1988)

Milk; Microwave F71.1 = 8 min Complete inactivation (89 log10) of Silva et al (2014) p. pasteurization . 590

F71.1 = 3 min Complete inactivation (89 log10) of . 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -25-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P

F71.1 = 10 min Complete inactivation (89 log10) of monocytogenes.

Raw milk F75 = 15 s 6 log reduction of Farber et al. L. monocytogenes. (1988); Bean et al (2012), table 2.1; p. 8

Milk; also skim milk F63 = 30 min. 5 log reduction of . Farber et al. (batch process) (1988); Bean et al (2012), F = 15 s; 72 table 2.1; (continuous Rees & Bettison process) (1991) p. 32

Milk F63 = 30 min. Batch. Constant stirring required. Toledo (2007) p. 325 F75 = 15 s; Continuous process. F89 = 1 sec; Continuous process. F90 = 0.1 s; Continuous process. F96 = 0.05 s Continuous process.

F75 = 15 s; 58 log reductions of Mycobacterium ; 18.7 log reductions of L. monocytogenes; > 100 log reductions of E. coli 0157:H7; > 100 log reductions of Salmonella spp.

Milk F72 = 15 s - 25 s Results in 4 to > 6 log reductions of McDonald (2005), Mycobacterium avium ssp. cited in Silva et al F = 15 s - 25 s 75 (MAP), a (2014) p. 583 and F78 = 15 s - 25 s vegetative which causes p. 588, F72 = 15 s Johnes disease in cattle; the cited in Silva&Gibbs pathogenic effect of MAP in humans (2008), section F75 = 20 s is not yet established. 2.4.1.1, and cited in F = 25 s 78 Silva & Gibbs (2010) p. 100 Milk Shelf life = time required for Kessler and Horak number of colony forming units (1984); 6 cited in Toledo CFU) to reach 10 per ml at storage temperature of 5 ⁰C. (2007) p. 325 21 days at 5 C. F74 = 40 s; or ⁰ F78 = 15 s 17 days at 5 C. F74 = 15 s; or ⁰ F71 = 40 s 16 days at 5 C. F78 = 14 s; or ⁰ F85 = 15 s 12 days at 5 C. F71 = 15 s ⁰ Milk; low pasteurized, F72 = 15 s. Flowing pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. non-homogenized exchanger. Vegetative pathogens 425 such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella spp, enteropathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, . Alkaline phosfatase inactivated (indicator enzyme). Vegetative psychrotropic spoilage organisms sufficiently destructed. Also most of the other vegetative spoilage micro-organisms in are killed such as coliforms, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria. Anti-bacterial properties (bacterial 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -26-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P inhibitors) of milk remain intact.

F72.5 = 15 s. Sufficiently destruction (2 log Walstra (2006) p. reductions) of native milk lipase to 425 produce non-homogenized milk.

Milk; low pasteurized; F75 = 20 s. Sufficiently destruction (3 to 4 log Walstra (2006) p. homogenized reductions) of native milk lipase to 425 produce homogenized milk. Milk; low pasteurized, 15 s to 25 s at 72 If refrigerated: safe product; Walstra (2006) refrigerated storage ⁰C to 76 ⁰C pathogenic micro-organisms chapter 16 sufficiently destructed (alkaline phosphatase negative). If refrigerated: shelf stable product (1 week): spoilage micro- organisms destructed which can grow at refrigerator temperature.

Milk; pasteurized by F72 =15 s Lactoperoxidase system still active, Lewis (2003) in HTST thus exhibiting strong anti- Smit (2003) p. 86; microbial activity on Pseudomonas p. 87 aeruginosa, S. aureus, and S. thermophilus.

Milk; pasteurized by F72 =25 s Recommendation by the UK Food Lewis (2003) in HTST Standards Agency as part of a Smit (2003) p. 90 strategy for controlling Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) in cos milk. MAP is a vegetative pathogen hich cases Johnes disease in cattle; the pathogenic effect of MAP in humans is not yet established.

Milk; high pasteurized F85 = 15 s. Bacterial growth inhibitors are Walstra (2006) p. eliminated. Despite its lower initial 426 count, high pasteurized milk may have a shorter shelf life tan low pasteurized milk due to lack of inhibition at recontamination. Thus high pasteurized milk is often heated in the bottle because then recontamination cannot occur, and shelf life will be longer. Heating over 100 To kill spores of Bacillus cereus, Walstra (2006) p. °C. thereby enhancing shelf life. Mild 426 browning and cooking due to Maillard reactions. Milk; high pasteurized 30 s to 60 s at Full cream milk. This heating Westergaard (1994) 90°C to 95 °C. process produces anti-oxidants. p.15 Milk; sous vide Internal product Target organisms: Lactic acid Silva et al (2014) p. pasteurization temperature of 70 , Bacillus cereus, 589 ⁰C if 2 min. at 80 ⁰C Pseudomonas. or 2 min. at 91 ⁰C

Milk: Ultra heat treated F132.2 > 1 s Rees & Bettison (1991) p. 31

Milk: Ultra-pasteurized F138 = 2 s Ultra-Pasteurization milk is heated S. C. Murphy milk to 138 °C for a minimum of 2 (2010) Basic Dairy- seconds. This much higher heat 06-10- treatment results in the destruction CU-DFScience- of virtually all spoilage organisms. Notes- (1) Coupled with near sterile handling systems, UP processing results in milk with 60-90+ days of shelf- life.

Milk: Extended shelf life F115 15 s Much better keeping quality than Lewis (2003) in pasteurized milk with F72 = 15 s or F 90 = 15s. Smit (2003) p. 92 F115 - F120 = 1 s - These time-temperature Lewis (2003) in 5 s combinations are more effective Smit (2003) p. 92 than temperatures below 100 ⁰C for 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -27-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P extending the shelf life of refrigerated products.

F120 = 2 s Lewis & Heppel (2000) p. 228

F72 15 s + 40 Addition of 40 IU/ml of nisin, a Lewis (2003) in IU/ml of nisin; bacteriocin, reduced bacterial Smit (2003) p. 92 growth, in particular of F 15 s + 40 90 Lactobacillus. IU/ml of nisin In several countries addition of nisin is NOT permitted to milk or milk-based beverages.

Milk: Extended shelf life F117 2 s + 140 Such milks have been stored for Lewis (2003) in pasteurized milk, stored IU/ml of nisin over 150 days at 30 ⁰C with only Smit (2003) p. 92 at ambient temperature very low levels of spoilage.

F115-120 = 2 s + 75 Such milks have been stored for Lewis & Heppell - 150 IU/ml of nisin over 100 days at 30 ⁰C with only (2000) p. 231 low levels (1:50) of spoilage. If stored at 10 ⁰C, the majority of the samples showed no sign of spoilage after 1 year.

Milk: concentrated, F80 = 25 s Rees & Bettison evaporated pasteurized (1991) p. 32

Milk powder: Milk to F90 = 5 min.; or F value to be received in raw milk Walstra (2006) p. produce high heat milk pasteurizer. 530 F = 1 min. powder (WPN Inde 120 1.5 mg N/g) Milk powder: Skim milk UHT: 30 s at 121 In a plate or tube heat exchanger. to produce high heat °C - 148 °C. Caric (1994) p. 98- milk powder (WPN Index 15 - 30 min. at 85 - In a hot ell semi batch process. 99 1.5 mg N/g) 88 ⁰C Skim milk powder for bread production.

Milk powder: Milk to F85 =1 min. De Wit (2001) p. 43 produce medium heat skim milk powder WPN Index: 1.5 < WPNI < 6 mg N/g

Milk powder: Milk to F72 = 15 s. F value to be received in raw milk Walstra (2006) p. produce low heat milk pasteurizer. 530 poder (WPN Inde 6 1st stage of milk evaporator: T < mg N/g) 70 °C; Keep concentrate T < 60 °C; In milk dryer: ensure low temperature of air dryer out. Milk powder: Milk to 3 - 5 min. at 88 -90 Caric (1994) p. 65- produce milk powder °C; or 66 several seconds at 130 °C. Milk powder: Milk to F71.7 = 15 s. Plate or tube heat exchanger. Caric (1994) p. 98- produce skim milk Destros all pathogenic and most 99 powder saprophytic microorganisms and inactivates enzymes with minimum detrimental heat induced changes, such as serum protein denatration. Milk powder: Milk to Milk prior to drying: Intense pasteurization required to Walstra (2006) p. produce full cream milk F95 = 1 min. obtain resistance to auto-oxidation. 515 - 516 powder; Pasteurization of concentrate: to Next: concentrated milk Concentrate: kill recontamination due to heating at 78 °C. concentration, and to lower the during atomization. Milk powder: Milk to 30 to 60 seconds at To produce anti-oxidants. Westergaard (1994) produce full cream milk 90 ⁰C to 95 ⁰C p. 15 powder Porridge; sweet 30 - 60 min. at 90 - Batch pasteurization in tank; kill HAS 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -28-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 95 °C. vegetative micro-organisms; cooking of oats or rice. Porridge; sour; 20 - 120 min. at Batch pasteurization in tank; kill HAS barley gruel 90-95 °C. vegetative micro-organisms; cooking of flor or barle. Processed cheese 30 s at 65.5 ⁰C Pasteried process Cheese. Nath (1993) p. 230 Moisture 43%. Fat 47%. USA Legislation. 30 s at 65.5 ⁰C Pasteried process cheese food. Moisture 44%. Fat 23%. Cheese ingredients > 51%. USA legislation. 30 s at 65.5 ⁰C Pasteried process cheese spread. 44% < moisture < 60%. Fat 20%. Cheese ingredients > 51%. USA legislation. Max. 15 min. at 75 No substantial change in structure Meyer (1970) p. 58; ⁰C and consistency. Optimum p. 156 temperature for transfer from disperse casein gel to homogenous casein soltion; casein peptization. 5 - 15 min. at 70 - Batch; direct (steam injection) or Shaw (1986) 85 ⁰C indirect heating. 5 min at 75 ⁰C Steam jacketed processor that Caric (1987) p. 347 grinds, mixes, processes; steam injection.

4 - 15 min. at 71 ⁰C Batch processing, constant Caric (1987) p. - 95 ⁰C agitation; direct or indirect heating. 346-347 Also a pasteurizing effect. 71 ⁰C - 80 ⁰C; Processed cheese for slicing; block Caric (1987) p. cheese. 340; p. 348; 80 ⁰C - 85 ⁰C; 4 - 8 Nath (1993) p. 235 min. 74 ⁰C - 85 ⁰C If moisture 45 . 79 ⁰C - 85 ⁰C Processed Cheese for food, and Caric (1987) p. Processed . 340; If moisture 44%, and fat < 23%. Nath (1993) p. 235 Several minutes at Batch heating while stirring; next Walstra (2006) p. 80 ⁰C hot filling in container, and then 737-739) cooling. 4 - 8 min. at 80⁰C Processed cheese for slicing; block Meyer (1970) p. 60; to 85 ⁰C cheese. p. 158; Caric (1987) p. 340 4 - 8 min. at 80 ⁰C Processed cheese for slicing; block Kammerlehner - 85 ⁰C cheese; usually aW 0.95 so no (2003) p. 748-749 outgrowth of Clostridium spores. 4 - 6 min. at 78 ⁰C Processed cheese for . Kammerlehner - 85 ⁰C (2003) p. 749 85 ⁰C Processed cheese. Nath (1993) p. 230 8 - 15 min. at 85 ⁰C Processed cheese for spread. Meyer (1970) p. 60; - 98 ⁰C (-150 ⁰C) Above 90 ⁰C all vegetative micro- p. 156; p. 158; organisms will be destructed Caric (1987) p. 30 min. at 85 ⁰C - (pasteurization). 340; p. 348 98 ⁰C if cheese is very young 8 - 15 min. at 85 ⁰C Processed cheese for spread. Kammerlehner - 98 ⁰C; (2003) p. 748 UHT to 145 ⁰C 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -29-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 88 ⁰C - 91 ⁰C Processed cheese for spread. Caric (1987) p. If 44 % % moisture 60%. 340; Nath (1993) p. 235 90 ⁰C - 95 ⁰C If moisture 55%. over 70 ⁰C to a Water absorption capacity of casein Meyer (1970) p. max. of 90 ⁰C increases; cream like consistency 156 4 - 5 min. 70 ⁰C - Block cheese. Processing in steam Tetrapak (2003) p. 95 ⁰C; or even jacketed , and by direct 342-343 higher. steam injection; constant agitation. Hot packaging at cooking temperatures; slow cooling! 10 - 15 min. 70 ⁰C Spread cheese Processing in steam - 95 ⁰C; jacketed cookers, and by direct steam injection; constant agitation. Hot packaging at cooking temperatures; rapid cooling! Over 90 ⁰C Low viscosity product. Meyer (1970) p. 156 80 ⁰C - 120 ⁰C Batch processing; vigorous mixing Meyer (1970) p. (and cutting) during the heating 147 process. (3 - 5 min. at) 125 Batch process in stirred tank; next Kammerlehner ⁰C cooling to < 100 ⁰C; hot fill at 85 (2003) p. 747 ⁰C. 130 ⁰C - 145 ⁰C; Continuous processing: heating by Meyer (1970) p. 58; at 145 ⁰C only direct steam injection; rapid cooling p. 148-151; p. 156 some seconds by flash evaporation and in scraped heat exchanger (votator). Spore destruction; sterilization. 2 - 3 s at 130 ⁰C - Continuous processing. Caric (1987) p. 340 145 ⁰C 110 ⁰C; max 140 ⁰C Continuous processing: heating and Meyer (1970) p. cooling by scraped heat exchanger 151 (votator). Processed Cheese 110 ⁰C - 125 ⁰C Continuous processing: heating and Kammerlehner cooling (to 80 ⁰C) by stirrers or (2003) p. 747 scraped heat exchanger (votator); next packaging. 125 ⁰C Continuous process; heating; next Kammerlehner cooling and hot fill at 85 ⁰C; (2003) p. 747-748 packaging air tight and hermetically sealed; cold storage and distribution. Then 4 - 6 months shelf life. 4 min. 121 ⁰C or Sufficiently inactivation of spores of Kammerlehner seconds at 140 ⁰C Clostridium tyrobutiricum, C. (2003) p. 748 butyricum, C. sporogenes. UHT to 140 ⁰C only suitable for cheese spreads. 4 - 180 seconds at Continuous processing; steam Kammerlehner 100 ⁰C injection in mixing tubes; next flash (2003) p. 747 cooling and further processing. Processed cheese, to be 130 ⁰C - 145 ⁰C UHT Sterilization; next aseptically Meyer (1970) p. sold in cans or in UHT filling in tubes or cans. 157 consumer tubes Heating at 95 ⁰C. Only if the % of dry matter is over 53%; net asepticall filling in cans or tubes, or hot filling and next cooling. 10 - 15 min. at 95 Heating in bulk during mixing; next Meyer (1970) p. ⁰C asepticall filling in tbes or cans, 158 or hot filling and then cooling. Processing of bulk Retort processing in packaging. Meyer (1970) p. at max. 95 ⁰C; next 157 in container 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -30-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P sterilization in retort Processed Cheese with Max. 95 ⁰C; Prevention of Maillard browning = additional lactose or UHT heating to non-enzymatic browning reaction max. 120 ⁰C between casein and lactose. Processed Cheese for 4 - 8 min. at 80⁰C Processed cheese for slicing; block Meyer (1970) p. 60; slicing to 85 ⁰C cheese p. 157 70⁰C - 75 ⁰C Processed cheese for slicing; block Meyer (1970) p. spread cheese. Only for very large 157 batches of cheese which cool extremely slow. Processed Cheese spread 8 - 15 min. at 85 ⁰C Processed cheese spread; Meyer (1970) p. 60; - 98 ⁰C (-150 ⁰C) creamlike consistency. p. 157)

Quark: milk for F74 = 15 s. Flowing low pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. production of low fat exchanger. Kills pathogenic and 697-698 quark harmful organisms (inactivation of alkaline phosphatase), but serum proteins remain soluble for better rennetability. Vla (Dutch custard) 10 - 30 min. at 90- Batch pasteurization in tank; kills HAS 95 °C. vegetative micro-organisms; gelation of starch. 10 - 30 seconds at Flowing pasteurization in heat 110 °C to 140 °C. exchanger; kills vegetative micro- organisms; gelation of starch.

F125 = 4 s. Flowing pasteurization by UHT Direct steam injection. Whey; heat processing at in tube heat exchanger; or in plate Dutch whey whey for production of 70 - 100 ⁰C heat exchanger. processing plants whey powders Using direct steam injection. (2010) Yoghurt: milk for 20 min. to 5 min. at Batch pasteurization in tank. Walstra (2006) p. production of yoghurt 85 °C to 95 °C. Bacterial inhibitors destructed; 563 viscosity of yoghurt increases. 10 min. to 5 min. at Flowing pasteurization in heat Walstra (2006) p. 85°C to 90 °C. exchanger. 563; Safe: pathogenic vegetative micro- Walstra (2006); organisms destructed; chapter 22.4.2. Vegetative spoilage organisms which could grow during , destructed. Bacterial inhibitors destructed, and phages destructed; thus lactic acid bacteria can grow during fermentation; viscosity of yoghurt increases. 5 min. at 90 °C to Flowing pasteurization in heat De Wit (2001) p. 46 95 °C. exchanger. Improves properties of milk for yoghurt starter; ensures firm structure of the finished product with less risk of serum separation. Yoghurt drinks: milk for 15 min. at 85 °C to Either batch or flowing. Destruction Walstra (2006) p. production of yoghurt 95 °C initially. of bacterial inhibitors and of all 564-565 drinks other vegetative micro-organisms. After fermentation to yoghurt: Flowing pasteurization of yoghurt F75 = 20 s or itself. Destruction of lactic acid bacteria and of yoghurt viscosity. F110 = 5 s. Yoghurt-like, acidified, F140 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient Von Bockelman flavored milks; (continuous flow) temperature storage if = 4.6. (1998) cited in F = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient 130 Toledo (2007) p. (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 4.5. 326 F120 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient temperature storage if ph = 4.4. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -31-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P (continuous flow)

F110 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 4.3.

F100 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 4.2.

F98 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 4.1.

F94 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 4.0.

F90 = 40 s 3 month shelf life at ambient (continuous flow) temperature storage if ph = 3.9.

Yoghurt-like, acidified, F115 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient Von Bockelman flavored milks (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.6. (1998) cited in F = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient 110 Toledo (2007) p. (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.5. 326 F105 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.4.

F100 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.3.

F95 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.2.

F90 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.1.

F85 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 4.0.

F75 = 20 min. 3 month shelf life at ambient (batch process) temperature storage if ph = 3.9.

Acid products, High acid products, Acidified products 5.5 Ambient (= at room F 65 = 16.7 min. if pH < 3.7 CCFRA-Tucker temperature) safe and and target organism is yeasts. (1999) p. 8-11 or F70 = 2.1 min. stable acidified foods: 8.3 F 85 = 5 min. if 3.7 pH 4.2, Tucker (2011) p. 83 or and target organisms are butyric 8.3 anaerobes such as B. macerans F = 30 s 95 and B. polymyxa. 8.3 F 93.3 = 5 min. if 4.0 < pH 4.3, National Food and target organisms are butyric Processors anaerobes such as B. macerans Association (USA), and B. polymyxa. in Tucker (2011) p. 8.3 67; p. 83 F 93.3 = 10 min. if 4.3 < pH < 4.6, and target organisms are butyric anaerobes such as B. macerans and B. polymyxa (e.g. tomato based products). 8.9 Ambient (= at room F 93.3 = 0.1 min. if pH < 3.9. Tucker (2011) p. 80 temperature) safe and 8.9 F = 1.0 min. if 3.9 < pH < 4.1 min. stable high acid and 93.3 8.9 if 4.1 < pH < 4.2 min. acidified foods: F 93.3 = 2.5 min. 8.9 F 93.3 = 5.0 min. if 4.2 < pH < 4.3 min. 8.9 F 93.3 = 10 min. if 4.3 < pH < 4.4 min. 8.9 F 93.3 = 20 min. if 4.4 < pH < 4.5 min. 10 Acidic sauces and acidic F 85 = 200 min. if pH 4.4; Unox soups in cans to sufficiently kill D-streptococcus and Micrococcus luteus. Acidic vegetables and See at Pasteriation Vales in section Fruits and Vegetables fruits Yoghurt, Quark, and See at Pasteriation ales in section Dairy products Cheese:

Fruits and Vegetables 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -32-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 10.83 Acidified or naturally F 71.11 = 1.2 If pH 4.1, then 5 log reductions Breidt et al (2010) high acid vegetables, min. in bacterial pathogens (E. coli acidified by acetic acid, O157:H7, Salmonella, and stored at ambient Listeria), for acidified products with temperature a pH of 4.1 or below. pH 4.0; F71.1 = 6 s Penn State University (2010); F = 2.8 s 5-log reduction for oocysts of 73.9 parasite Cryptosporidium parvum., F76.7 = 1.3 s Because this parasite is believed to Derived from F79.4 = 0.6 s be more heat resistant than E. coli FDA/CFSAN (2004) F = 0.3 s O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria, section C.V.5.2; 82.2 these F parameters will also control

bacterial pathogens.

FDA/CFSAN (2004) F = 15 s is also considered F71.7 = 15 s is also 71.7 section C.V.5.2 considered adequate to achieve a 5-log adequate reduction of oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum and the three vegetative bacterial pathogens (E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes) when this process is used for apple juice (at juice pH values of 4.0 or less). Apple juice: Single F71.1 = 3 s Adequate to ensure a 5-log Penn State strength apple juice, reduction of the three vegetative University (2010) adjusted to a pH of 3.9. bacterial pathogens E. coli quoting FDA O157:H7, Salmonella and Listeria Comments/Recomm monocytogenes at juice pH values endations; pH 3.9. FDA/CFSAN (2004) section V.C.5.2

Apple F68.8 = 14 s 5-log reduction of acid adapted E. Penn State coli O157:H7 in apple cider (pH University (2010); values of 3.3 and 4.1). F = 6 s 71.1 FDA/CFSAN (2004) These F ales are adeqate to section V.C.5.2 ensure a 5-log reduction of the three stated bacterial pathogens, (E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes) (..) if any of these pathogens are the pertinent microorganism in your juice. FDA/CFSAN (2004). 8.9 Apples; canned; stored F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.6 pH = 3.3. Eisner (1988) in at ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Heating until can If 3.8 < pH < 4.2. Tucker (2011) p. 65 centre temperature Apples; canned; stored (CCT) = 85 °C for 5 at ambient temperature min.; or to Can Centre Temperature of 95 °C for 30 s

Apple puree F78 = 10 seconds Effective for polyphenol-oxidase Silva & Gibbs inactivation. (2004) p. 355 8.9 Apricots; stored at F 93.3 = 1.0 - 8.0 pH = 3.2 - 4.0. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Apricot puree F78 = 10 s. Effective for polyphenol-oxidase Silva & Gibbs inactivation. (2004) p. 355

Beetroot; F82 = 20 min. Measured in liquor, not centre, for Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity whole baby beetroot. D. (2006) p. 7-9 1% acidity. 8.9 Bilberries; stored at F 93.3 = 0.5 min. pH 3.7. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -33-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Blackberries; stored at ?? pH = 3.3. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 Brown sauce F65 = 17 min. pH = 3; aW = 0.95. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat during process. D. (2006) p. 46 No preservatives. 7 Capers pickles, 1-2% F 87 > 5 min. pH < 3.7. Holdsworth & acetic acid, no sugar; Simpson (2007) p. stored at ambient 136 temperature 7 Carrot pickles, 1-2 % F 87 > 20 - 25 min. pH = 3.7 - 3.9. acetic acid, with sugar; stored at ambient temperature

Carrot homogenate; F90 = 6 min. Target organism: C. botulinum; Silva & Gibbs refrigerated approximately 6D reductions. (2010) p. 102 Catsup: see at

Cauliflower; pickled; F71 = 15 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9 8.9 Cherries: Sour cherries; F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.4 pH = 3.5. Eisner (1988) in stored at ambient min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 temperature 8.9 Cherries: Sweet F 93.3 = 0.6 - 2.5 pH 3.8. cherries; stored at min. ambient temperature Citrus juice If you are a citrus juice processor FDA/CFSAN (2004): and rely on, as your pathogen section V.C.1.0 control measure, a series of surface sanitization treatments and an extraction process that limits juice/peel contact as provided for under 21 CFR 120.24 (b), these treatments must consistently achieve at least a 5-log reduction in the "pertinent microorganism." 7 Cucumber pickles, 1-2% F 87 > 5 min. pH < 3.7. Holdsworth & acetic acid, no sugar; Simpson (2007) p. stored at ambient 136 temperature

Cucumbers; F74 = 25 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9 7.8 Cupuacu nectar; F 98 = 9 min. in a 5D reduction of spores of Vieira et al (2002) = 25% of Cupuacu continuous system acidoterrestris (Theobroma (rapid heating in results in 55 % retention of grandiflorum) pulp and plate heat ascorbic acid 15% sugar exchanger; hot fill and hold) z and F for fresh, NOT for long-time frozen, Cupuacu. 7.8 F 115 = 8 seconds 5D reduction of spores of in a continuous Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris system (plate heat results in 98.5 % retention of exchanger; HTST) ascorbic acid.

z and F for fresh, NOT for long-time frozen stored, Cupuacu.

Cupuacu (Theobroma F90 = 80 sec., pH = 3.3 (non-heated). Silva & Silva (2000) grandiflorum) puree (excluding heating pH = 3.4 immediately after p. 56 time Come Up Time pasteurization. of 220 sec.) pH = 3.5 after pasteurization and 26 weeks of storage at 38 ⁰C.

F70 = 5 min. No peroxidase activity. Silva & Gibbs (2004) p. 355

Drinks: F95 = 15 s if pH < 4.2. Tetrapak (2013) still drinks, juices, F = 15 s if 4.2 < pH < 4.6. nectars (JNSD) 123 F138 = 4 s. pH > 4.6. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -34-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 10 Fruits: F 85 = 5 min. 3.7 < pH < 4.2. Tucker (1999) p. Acid fruits, stored at 225 ambient temperature Fruit juices: see at Juices Fruit products: 30 - 90 s at 90 - 95 to inactivate yeasts, moulds, and Skudder (1993) p. High acid (pH < 4.0) °C Lactobacillus organisms. 76 fruit products; shelf life at ambient temperature

Fruit products: F60 = 5 min. Spores and vegetative cells of most Silva & Gibbs High acid (pH < 4.0) molds are inactivated upon (2004) p. 356 fruit products exposure to 60 ⁰C for 5 min. Notable exceptions are the ascospores of certain strains of Neosartorya fischeri, Byssochlamys nivea, Talaromyces flavus, Eupenicillium javanicum, and Byssochlamys fulva . Fruit products: Pasteurization should be based on Alicyclobacillus Silva & Gibbs Acid (high acid) fruit acidoterrestris spores, because: (2004) p. 358; products (pH < 4.6), 1) The heat resistance of other microorganisms stored at ambient (vegetative/spore forms) is much lower than that found Silva & Gibbs temperature for spores of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris. (2006) section 2) Although the common assumption is that microbial 2.4.2 spores present in pasteurized acidic fruit products (pH<4.6) do not grow because of the acidity of the product, several cases of A. acidoterrestris spore germination and growth in high-acid fruit products have been reported in the literature.

The required F value should be based on the following experiments performed with the product to be pasteurized: i. Determination of D-value and z-value of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores; ii. Potential for A. acidoterrestris spore germination and growth during product storage for at least 1 month at 25 and 43 ⁰C; iii. Monitor product quality during storage following pasteurization treatments of different severities.

In fruit concentrates, the high content of soluble solids (i.e. the low water activity aW) inhibits the growth of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores; so a F value of less than 6D may be applied.

Growth of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores in drinks can also be prevented by carbonation, or by adding 300 mg/L of sorbic acid, 150 mg/L , or both.

Fruit puree F80 = 5 min. If pH < 3.7. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat to 90 ⁰C If pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys. D. (2006) p. 7-9 Most spoilage caused by yeast/mould.

F65 = 17 min. If pH < 3.7. Heat to 90 ⁰C If pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys.

Gherkins; F74 = 25 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9 8.9 Gherkins: Pickled F 93.3 = 0.5 - 1.0 pH 3.5 - 3.8. Eisner (1988) in gherkins, stored at min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 ambient temperature 8.9 Gherkins: Sweet and F 93.3 = 0.5 - 1.0 pH 3.6 - 4.1. sour gherkins, stored at min. ambient temperature 8.9 Gooseberries; stored at F 93.3 = 0.5 min. pH = 3.0. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -35-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P

Grape juice: Single F71.1 = 3 s Adequate to ensure a 5-log Penn State strength white grape reduction of the three vegetative University (2010) juices adjusted to a pH bacterial pathogens E. coli quoting FDA of 3.9. O157:H7, Salmonella and Listeria Comments/Recomm monocytogenes at juice pH values endations; pH 3.9. FDA/CFSAN (2004) section V.C.5.2

Grape puree F78 = 10 seconds Effective for polyphenol-oxidase Silva & Gibbs inactivation. (2004) p. 355 8.9 Grapefruit juice; stored F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.4 pH = 3.2. Eisner (1988) in at ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Grapefruit juice; stored Flash Toledo (2007) p. at ambient temperature pasteurization: 325 F74 = 16 s, or F85 = 1 sec 8.9 Greengages; stored at F 93.3 = 0.8 min. pH = 3.2. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 8.9 Guavas; stored at F 93.3 = 0.8 min. pH = 3.8. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 F80 = 4 min. There were practically no Escriche, I, et al differences between the raw, the (2009) liquefied (48 h at 45 ⁰C), and the pasteurized samples of each honey. .... industrial processes conducted under controlled conditions should not significantly alter the intrinsic aroma of honey. Jalepeno: see at Peppers 8.9 Jams; stored at ambient F 93.3 = 0.8 min. pH = 3.5. Eisner (1988) in temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 Juices: F80 = 30 s. if pH < 4.5, and flowing heating in Shapton (1994) p. High acid fruit juices; heat exchanger. 348-349 stored at ambient 7 3000 min. F 60 EBC (1995) p. 13 temperature 5000 min. Juices: First Heating in a The National Food Processors National Food Fruit juices, shelf stable heat exchanger to Association states that a typical hot Processors after hot fill-hold 90 ⁰C: fill/hold process used for shelf Association (NFPA), pasteurization stable juices might be to treat the cited in F90 = 2 seconds; next Filling at 85 juice at 90 degrees C (194 degrees FDA/CFSAN (2004) ⁰C; F) for 2 seconds, followed by filling Section V 4.2. then Holding: at 85 degrees C (185 degrees F) and holding for 1 minute at that Mena et al (2013) F = 1 min. 85 temperature. Based upon research p. 2127 it conducted for E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella species (spp.) and Listeria monocytogenes in fruit juices, NFPA calculated that this typical process used for shelf stable juices would achieve a 50,000 log reduction for these pathogens without taking into account the cumulative lethality during the cool down period. The normal processing conditions Mena et al (2013) of hot-filled shelf-stable juices p. 2127 cause often microbial lethality in excess, flavor loss, browning and nutritional degradation. Juices: First Heating (in a Hot fill-cool procedure for fruits National Canners Fruit juices, shelf stable heat exchanger) to with pH < 4.0. Association after hot fill-hold T > 85 ⁰C; Filling temperature higher than cited in pasteurization Next Filling, and 85⁰C, followed by can sealing, and Silva & Silva (1997) can sealing. (immediately) immersion for 2 min. p. 535 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -36-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Then Holding: in steam or water of 88 ⁰C before F88 = 2 min. cooling. Juices: F71.1 = 3 seconds Recommended general thermal National Food Fruit juices for 5-log reduction process of 3 seconds at 71.1 Processors of the pathogenic E. degrees C (160 degrees F), for Association, cited in coli O157:H7, Salm achieving a 5-log reduction for E. Mazzotta (2001), onella, and Listeria coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Liste and in monocytogenes in ria monocytogenes in fruit juices. FDA/CFSAN (2004) fruit juices. The efficacy of this process was Section V.C.5.2 measured using single strength apple, orange, and white grape juices adjusted to a pH of 3.9. The authors noted that a pH in the range of 3.6 to 4.0 has been reported as a non-significant variable in the heat resistance of E. coli O157:H7. The authors also noted that the heat resistance of these vegetative bacterial pathogens might be considerably greater at pH values of 4.0 and higher. This process assumes that the pathogens will have increased thermal resistance due to their being acid-adapted. Juices: 30 - 15 s at 93 ⁰C - Inactivation of micro-organisms Shapton (1994) p. Fresh juices, stored at 96 °C. (shelf life). 348-349 ambient temperature

Juices: F88 = 15 s. Inactivation of enzymes ( Ramaswamy et al Fruit juices, stored at esterase; polygalacturonase). (2005) table 3.1 ambient temperature F88 = 15 s. UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250

F90 = 1 min. Inactivation of micro-organisms Eagerman and (shelf life) and inactivation of heat- Rouse (1976) in stable pectin methyl esterase Timmermans et al (PME) to prevent cloud loss. (2011) p. 235

Juices: F80 = 5 min. if pH < 3.7. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Fruit juice Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys. Most D. (2006) p. 7-9 spoilage caused by yeast/mould.

F65 = 17 min. if pH < 3.7. Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys. Juices: 5 log reductions of E. coli O157:H7, NACMCF (2006); Fruit juice and Salmonella. Bean (2012) table 2.1 The initial nmber of pathogens FDA/CFSAN (2004): present in your untreated juice is section V.C. 1.0 likely to be far less than 5 10 organisms per gram, i.e., only 1 2 10 or 10 organisms per gram. Applying a 5-log treatment to juice that may contain such levels of pathogens achieves a tolerable level of risk by ensuring that the process is adequate to destroy microorganisms of public health significance or to prevent their groth. Ths, if o se pasteriation as your pathogen control measure, that treatment must be carried out to achieve consistently at least a 5- log reduction in the "pertinent microorganism."

Juices: F80 = 30 s. To ensre the safet of a FDA/CFSAN (2004): 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -37-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Fruit juice concentrates "thermally processed concentrate" section V.C.4.3 we recommend all of the juice receive a pretreatment consisting of a thermal treatment of at least 80 degrees Centigrade for thirty seconds. Such a process delivers a degree of thermal inactivation of pathogens that is extraordinarily beyond the required 5-log reduction.

Juices: F90 = 2 s; Mazzotta (2001); Fruit juices; premium These processing conditions b far F = 20 s. 84 exceed the criterion for microbial Timmermans et al inactiation. (2011) p. 235

Juices, Nectars and Still F95 = 15 s tradi- If pH < 4.2. Tetrapak (2013) Drinks (JNSD) tionally. New approach: F95 - 98 = 10-30 s.: first pasteurization, to deactivate enzymes and kill micro-organisms. F80 = 15 s: second pasteurization (prior to filling)

F80 = 15 s Juice with pulp if pH < 4.2. F123 = 15 s If 4.2 < pH < 4.6. F138 = 4 s. pH > 4.6. Ketchup; (Catsup) F71 = 15 min.; 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity or hot fill at 82 ⁰C D. (2006) p. 7-9 7 Leek pickles, 1-2 % F 87 > 20 - 25 min. pH = 3.7 - 3.9. Holdsworth & acetic acid, with sugar; Simpson (2007) p. stored at ambient 136 temperature 7 Lemonades; stored at 300 min. F 60 EBC (1995) p. 13 ambient temperature 500 min. 8.9 Lemon juice; stored at F 93.3 = 0.1 min. pH = 2.5. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 8.9 Mandarins; stored at F 93.3 = 1.0 - 2.0 pH = 3.2 - 3.4. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Mango extract F76.7 = 1 min. Sufficient for inactivation of mango Silva & Gibbs pectin-esterase (PE). (2004) p. 355 Mango puree Heat puree to 76 to Hot fill - cool process. Nanjudaswamy 80 ⁰C; fill can; seal; 0.57 L cans of DxH = 103.2x119.1 (1973), cited in keep inverted for 2- mm. Silva & Silva (1997) 3 min. for lid This process ensured adequate p 353 sterilization commercial sterility.

F99 = 1 min. Sufficient for inactivation of mango Silva & Gibbs pectin-esterase (PE). (2004) p. 355 8.9 Nectarines; stored at F 93.3 = 1.5 - 8.0 pH = 4.0. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68

Nectars F95 = 15 s If pH < 4.2. Tetrapak (2013) traditionally. New: F80 = 15 s if turbulent flow

F123 = 15 s. If 4.2 < pH < 4.6. F138 = 4 s. pH > 4.6. 20 Olives, green; stored at F 62.5 > 15 min. pH = 3.6. Holdsworth & ambient temperature Simpson (2007) p. 136

Olives; F66 = 10 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -38-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 7 Onion pickles, 1-2% F 87 > 5 min. pH < 3.7. Holdsworth & acetic acid, no sugar; Simpson (2007) p. stored at ambient 136 temperature

Onions; F80 = 10 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9

Onions: silverskin F71 = 15 min. 1% acidity. onions; 1% acidity 8.9 ; stored at F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.6 If pH = 3.5 - 3.8. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Flash Toledo (2007) p. pasteurization; 325 hold time =

F90 = 1 min. or F95 = 15 seconds. Orange juice: Single F71.1 = 3 s Adequate to ensure a 5-log Penn State strength orange juice, reduction of the three vegetative University (2010) adjusted to a pH of 3.9. bacterial pathogens E. coli quoting FDA O157:H7, Salmonella and Listeria Comments/Recomm monocytogenes at juice pH values endations; pH 3.9. FDA/CFSAN (2004) section V 5.2

Orange juice F71.1 = 3 s 5 log redction of the pertinent FDA /CFSAN (2004) micro-organism; in orange jice section V.C. 1.0; this is E. coli 0157:H7. section V.C.1.3; If pH = 3.6 - 4.0. section VII.B.3.0

This specific temperature-time is insufficient to inactivate spoilage Timmermans organisms. (2011) p. 236

F72 = 20 s Mild heat pasteriation of orange Timmermans jice. (2011) p. 236 Orange juice; 12 Brix Second If pH < 4.2. Tetrapak (2013) pasteurization, prior to filling: See also at Juices, Nectars and Still F95 = 15 s Drinks (JNSD). (traditionally). F80 = 15 s: New Papaya pulp F70 = 5 min. No peroxidase activity. Silva & Gibbs (2004) p. 355

Papaya puree; F99 = 1 min. Sufficient for inactivation of papaya Silva & Gibbs papaya nectar pectin-esterase (PE). (2004) p. 355 8.9 Peaches; stored at F 93.3 = 1.5 - 8.0 pH = 4.0. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Heating until can If 3.8 < pH < 4.2. Tucker (2011) p. 65 centre temperature = 85 °C for 5 min.; or to can centre temperature of 95 °C for 30 s. Flash If pH < 4.5. Toledo (2007) p. pasteurization; 325 hold time = F110 = 30 seconds Pears F100 = 6 min. pH = 4.2 to 4.49. Taylor, K.; Crosby, D. (2006) p. 7-9 8.9 Pears; stored at ambient F 93.3 = 1.3 - 10 pH = 4.0. Eisner (1988) in temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Heating until can pH must be pH < 4.2. Tucker (2011) p. 68 centre temperature (CCT) 96 C. Green fruit is significantly 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -39-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P harder and takes longer to process. Heating until can If 3.8 < pH < 4.2. Tucker (2011) p. 65 centre temperature (CCT) = 85 °C for 5 min.; or to CCT of 95 °C for 30 s Heating until can If 4.2 < pH < 4.5. Tucker (2011) p. 66 centre temperature (CCT) = 100 °C to If product texture is unable to 104 °C withstand this high process, the product must be acidified and a lower process applied.

Pear puree F78 = 10 seconds Effective for polyphenol-oxidase Silva & Gibbs inactivation. (2004) p. 355 Peppers: in hot Blanched prodct is packed into Tucker (2011) p. 80 Whole pepper pickles, water of 70 - 80 °C jars, which are then filled with hot fresh-packed; stored at for 3-6 min.; brine, containing approximately 5% ambient temperature. acetic acid and 9% salt. The jars Jars pasteurized are then capped and pasteurized to Sweet cherry peppers; until can centre achieve 7080°C at the coldest stored at ambient temperature CCT = spot in the container. The jars are temperature. 70-80 °C. cooled with cold water. Preservatives, like sodium Hot cherry peppers; benzoate, may be added to extend stored at ambient the shelf-life of the product once temperature. the jar has been opened. Calcium chloride (0.2%) may be Jalepeno; stored at added to the brine to help the ambient temperature. peppers retain their texture (calcium in the brine replaces calcium lost in the cell wall, which helps it retain its structure).

Piccalilli; F71 = 15 min.; 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity or hot fill at 82 ⁰C D. (2006) p. 7-9

Piccalilli pickle F65 = 17 min. pH = 3; aW = 0.97. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat during process. D. (2006) p. 46 Preservative: mustard. 8.9 Pickled vegetables; F 93.3 = 0.5 min. pH = 3.0. Eisner (1988) in stored at ambient Tucker (2011) p. 68 temperature 7 Pickles, Leek, Carrot, 1-2 F 87 > 20 - 25 min. pH = 3.7 - 3.9. Holdsworth & % acetic acid, with Simpson (2007) p. sugar; stored at ambient 136 temperature 7 Pickles: Onion, F 87 > 5 min. pH < 3.7. Cucumber, Capers, 1-2% acetic acid, no sugar; stored at ambient temperature

Pickles F80 = 5 min. if pH < 3.7. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys. Most D. (2006) p. 7 - 9 spoilage caused by yeast/mould.

F65 = 17 min. if pH < 3.7. Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys.

Pickles; F71 = 15 min.; 1% acidity. 1% acidity or hot fill at 82 ⁰C

Pickles: Clear pickled F71 = 15 min. 1% acidity. vegetables; 1% acidity

Pickles: Fresh-pack dill F74 = 15 min. Shelf stable; microbial stability and Monroe et al (1969) pickles; quality factors, including the stored at ambient inactivation of softening enzymes. temperature Pickles: Quick fresh-pack After water in Fill canner halfway with water and Iowa State 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -40-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P dill pickles. canner reboils preheat to 83 ⁰C for hot pack or 60 University (2014) Raw pack; again at 100 ⁰C: ⁰C for raw pack. Load jars into jar size: Pint 10 min. canner. Be sure water can circulate Pickles: Quick fresh-pack After water in freely around each jar. Add dill pickles. canner reboils water to a level of 2,5 - 5 cm Raw pack; again at 100 ⁰C: above the jars. Bring water in jar size: Quart 15 min. canner to a vigorous boil, adjust Pickles: Bread and After water in heat to maintain a gentle boil, butter pickles. canner reboils cover, and process for the time Hot pack; again at 100 ⁰C: specified in column at left. Leave jar size: Pint or Quart 10 min. the lid on the canner. Keep water Pickles: Pickle relish. After water in boiling (100°C) during the entire Hot pack; canner reboils processing period. If water jar size: Half pint or Pint again at 100 ⁰C: evaporates, add boiling water 10 min. to keep it at least one inch over the Pickles: Dill pickles. After water in top of jars. Do not Raw pack; canner reboils reduce the processing time. When jar size: Pint again at 100 ⁰C: processed for the 10 min. recommended time, turn off the Pickles: Dill pickles. After water in heat and remove the Raw pack; canner reboils canner lid. Wait five minutes before jar size:Quart again at 100 ⁰C: removing the jars. 15 min. Pickled Gherkins: see at Gherkins

Pineapples F100 = 6 min. pH = 4.2 to 4.49. Taylor, K.; Crosby, D. (2006) p. 7-9 8.9 Pineapples; stored at F 93.3 = 0.6 - 0.8 if pH = 3.5. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 8.9 F 93.3 = 5 min. if 4.0 < pH < 4.3. Toledo (2007) p. 8.33 325 F 98.9 = 1.06 pH = 4.0. min. 8.9 F 93.3 = 10 min. pH > 4.3. 8.9 F 93.3 = 0.2 min. pH = 2.8. Eisner (1988) in Tucker (2011) p. 68 If refrigerated storage (5 C), no juice F65 = 30 s; LTP ⁰ Vegara et al (2013) F = 5 s; HTP microbial spoilage within 120 days. 90 If stored at 25 ⁰C, browning was unacceptable in 7 days.

Pomegranate juice F65 = 30 s (LTP low Both heat treatments (cloudy and clarified or temperature combined with refrigeration (5 o centrifuged) pasteurization) C) prevented microbial growth for 120 days. Although processing and storage of F90 = 5 s (HTP high pomegranate juice had a decisive temperature impact on the degradation of pasteurization) compounds and the consequent formation of brown pigments, storage temperature was the main factor affecting both browning index (BI) and red color loss in pasteurized pomegranate juices. Samples stored at 5 °C had a lower and slower loss of red color than those stored at 25 °C. Results showed that browning indexes BIs increased rapidly with time in juices stored at 25 °C, being not acceptable (>1.00) after 7 days. The juices stored at 5 °C showed less browning regardless of pasteurization treatment they were subjected. In particular LTP- treated cloudy and clarified 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -41-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P juices stored at 5 °C for 90 days exhibited BI values of 0.93 and 0.85, respectively.

Pomegranate juice F80 = 30 s; The F80 values were sufficiently Mena, P. et al (2013) p. 2122; p. F80 = 60 s; effective to decrease the mean Aerobic Plate Counts (APC) for a 2124 F = 30s; 90 significant inactivation (approx 4.5 F90 = 60 s. log reductions); The F90 values resulted in a nil mean Aerobic Plate Counts (APC). 8.9 Rhubarb; stored at F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.4 pH = 3.2. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 Salad cream F65 = 17 min. pH = 3.4; aW = 0.94. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat liquor phase Preservatives: Mustard/sorbate. D. (2006) p. 46 only Storage instructions: refrigerate after opening.

Salad cream, Light F65 = 17 min. pH = 3.4; aW = 0.96. Heat liquor phase Preservatives: Mustard. only

Sandwich spread F80 = 5 min. if pH < 3.7. Taylor, K.; Crosby, Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys. Most D. (2006) p. 7-9 spoilage caused by yeast/mould.

Sandwich spread F65 = 17 min. if pH < 3.7. Heat to 90 ⁰C if pH < 3.7, for Byssochlamys.

Sandwich spread, mild F85 = 5 min. pH = 3.7; aW = 0.94. Taylor, K.; Crosby, In bottle pasteurization. D. (2006) p. 46 No preservatives. Storage instructions: Refrigerate after opening. 8.9 ; stored at F 93.3 = 0.5 min. pH = 3.5 - 3.9. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 Silverskin onions; F71 = 15 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9

Soft drinks F95 = 10 s UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250 Soups and Sauces: see at Pasteurization Values, section Other Food Products

Still drinks F95 = 15 s If pH < 4.2. Tetrapak (2013) (traditionally). New: F80 = 15 s F123 = 15 s If 4.2 < pH < 4.6. F138 = 4 s. pH > 4.6. 8.9 Strawberries; stored at F 93.3 = 0.8 min. pH = 2.3 - 4.0. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 Tomatoes F100 = 6 min. pH = 4.2 to 4.49. Taylor, K.; Crosby, D. (2006) p. 7-9 8.9 Tomato products; stored F 93.3 = 2.0 - pH = 4.2 - 4.5. Eisner (1988) in at ambient temperature Tucker (2011) p. 68 10.0 min. 8.8 F 93 > 20 min. If pH = 3.9 - 4.6 Holdsworth & Simpson (2007) p. 136 Heating until can if 4.2 < pH < 4.5. Tucker (2011) p. 66 center temperature (CCT) = 100 °C to If product texture is unable to 104 °C withstand this high process, the product must be acidified and a lower process applied. 8.9 F 93.3 = 5 min. If pH = 4.0 - 4.3. Tucker (1999) p. 8.9 225 F 93.3 = 10 min. If 4.3 < pH < 4.5. 8.9 F 93.3 = 1 min. If pH = 4.1. Toledo (2007) p. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -42-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P 8.9 F 93.3 = 3 min. If pH = 4.2. 324+325 8.9 F 93.3 = 5 min. If pH = 4.3. Tomato products F93.3 = 5 min. If pH = 4 to 4.3. Taylor, K.; Crosby, At pH range 3.80 to 4.50 the heat D. (2006) p. 7-9 resistant thermophile Bacillus coagulans var. thermoacidurans may grow; use cooling to prevent outgrowth.

F93.3 = 10 min. If pH = 4.3 to < 4.50. Based on tomato products.

Tomato based products F93.3 = 10 min. If 4.3 < pH < 4.6. Tucker (2011) p. 83 Tomato based products F85 = 5 min. If pH = 3.7 to 4.2. Taylor, K.; Crosby, (i.e. ketchup) At product pH of pH > 3.80 butyric D. (2006) p. 7-9 anaerobes may grow. 8.9 Tomato products with F 121.1 = 0.5 min. if pH = 4.3. Toledo (2007) p. starch or sugar added; 325 stored at ambient temperature Tomato juice; stored at 45 - 30 s at Destruction of Bacillus coagulans, a Shapton (1994) p. ambient temperature 124 °C - 126.7 °C. thermophilic spoilage spore forming 348-349 micro-organism, in tomato juice with pH close to 4.6.

Tomato juice F118 = 60 s. UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250

Tomato ketchup F85 = 5 min. If pH = 3.7 to 4.2. Taylor, K.; Crosby, At prodct pHs of pH > 3.80 D. (2006) p. 7-9 butyric anaerobes may grow

F85 = 5 min. pH = 3.7; aW = 0.94. Taylor, K.; Crosby, (pre filling). No preservatives. D. (2006) p. 46 Heat and clean fill. Storage instructions: refrigerate after opening.

F85 = 5 min. pH = 3.7; aW = 0.94. In bottle No preservatives. pasteurization. Storage instructions: refrigerate after opening. Tomato paste First heating; Hot fill-hold-cool process of tomato Sandoval (1994), next hot fill at paste in glass jars; target organism cited in either 94 ⁰C, or 92 Bacillus coagulans; initial bacterial Silva & Silva (1997) 5 ⁰C, or 90 ⁰C. population 10 per jar. p. 353 Then pasteurization Fill temperature 94 ⁰C if jar of 0.2 of filled glass jars of L. F90 = 24.5 min. Fill temperature 92 ⁰C if jar of 0.5 L. Fill temperature 90 ⁰C if jar of 4 L. 8.9 Tomato paste; stored at F 93.3 = 1.0 - 5.0 pH = 4.2 - 4.5. Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature min. Tucker (2011) p. 68 10 Tomato soup F 121.1 = 0.5 min. if pH < 4.5. Taylor, K.; Crosby, D. (2006) p. 7-9 10.83 Vegetables: F 71.11 = 1.2 If pH 4.1, then 5 log reductions Breidt et al (2010) Acidified or naturally min. in bacterial pathogens (E. coli high acid vegetables, O157:H7, Salmonella, and acidified by acetic acid, Listeria), for acidified products with stored at ambient a pH of 4.1 or below. temperature 8.9 Vegetables: F 93.3 = 0.5 min. pH = 3.0. Eisner (1988) in Pickled vegetables, Tucker (2011) p. 68 stored at ambient temperature Vegetables: see also at pickles

Walnuts; pickled; F71 = 15 min. 1% acidity. Taylor, K.; Crosby, 1% acidity D. (2006) p. 7-9

aW reduced foods 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -43-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Almonds, roasted in oil A minimum P-value D value of Salmonella, so its heat Silva & Gibbs (low moisture food) of 4D of Salmonella resistance, increases tremendously (2012) p. 698 spp. was at low water activity. recommended for almond producers in California. A process exposing almonds to oil at 126.7 °C for 1.6 min. is sufficient, although commercially 2.0 min. is applied (this treatment achieves 5D in Salmonella numbers).

Honey F57 = 1 hour; Aim is to prevent yeast growth. Verma, L.R.; Joshi, V.K. (2000) F = 22 min. 60 p. 968 F63 = 7.5 min. F60-63 = 30 min. F70 = 10 min. F80 = 2-4 min. F71 = 300 s UK Food Safety Act (1990). Smith (2011) p. 250

Safe refrigerated foods F70 = 2 min. C. botulinum can NOT grow at Hygiënecode (1994) with aW < 0.96 aW < 0.96. p. 5

Safe and shelf stable High pasteurization. Food of aW < 0.92 and of any pH. FDA Food Code food with aW < 0.92; Due to high pasteurization, no (2005) Chapter 1, stored at ambient vegetative micro-organisms are p. 14-16 temperature present. Due to aW < 0.92, no spores can germinate.

Safe and shelf stable High pasteurization. Food of aW < 0.95 and of pH < 5.6. food with aW < 0.95 ànd Due to high pasteurization, no pH < 5.6; stored at vegetative micro-organisms are ambient temperature present. Due to aW < 0.95 ànd pH < 5.6, no spores can germinate.

Safe packed, not heat No heat treatment Safe food if aW < 0.88 (spoilage is treated foods, foods, necessary. possible!). stored at ambient Safe food is pH < 4.2 (spoilage is temperatures, but possible!). spoilage is possible Safe food if pH < 5.0 and aW 0.90 (spoilage is possible!). Safe food if pH < 4.6 and aW 0.92 (spoilage is possible!).

Simultaneous action of pH and aW blocks the germination of pathogenic spores, and blocks the growth of pathogenic vegetative micro-organisms.

Other food products Food cooked in a T = 74 ⁰C and hold for 2 minutes after FDA (2013) removing from microwave oven. Summary Chart 4A

Pasta: stuffed F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) Summary Chart 4A

Pies and pastries F70 2 min. Storage time 10 das if chilled at DOH (1989); in storage temp. 4 - 7 °C. Tucker (2011) p. 87; p. 90

Rarities: stuffed F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -44-

PASTEURIZATION VALUES F FOR COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approximate Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Summary Chart 4A

Ready meals F70 2 min. Storage time 10 das if chilled at DOH (1989); in storage temp. 4 - 7 °C. Tucker (2011) p. 87; p. 90

Soups and sauces F70 2 min. Storage time 10 das if chilled at DOH (1989); in storage temp. 4 - 7 °C. Tucker (2011) p. 87; p. 90

F90 = 10 min. To eliminate C. botulinum type E FDA (2011) p. 318 with z = 7 ⁰C if and non-proteolytic types B and F. converted to T < 90 ⁰C, and z = 10 ⁰C if converted to T > 90 ⁰C

Stuffing, containing fish, F74 = 15 s FDA (2013) meat, poultry or rarities Summary Chart 4A

2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -45-

General principles on pasteurization values for groups of foods Product Additional information; Remarks Pasteurization value Source F or P Refrigerated foods; (storage temperature 4 °C - 7 °C) 10 Refrigerated Safe food, F 70 = 1000 min.; or Hygiënecode foods and shelf life 3 - 6 weeks 10 (1994) F = 10 min. if refrigerated at 4-7 °C. 90 If pasteurizing temperature 7 T < 90 °C: F 90 = 10 min. Low-acid cooked Recommended target organism of low F90 = 10 min. Silva & and chilled foods acid foods: non-proteolytic C. botulinum, for shelf life 10 das. Gibbs because its lethality to humans and its (2008) higher heat resistance compared to section other psychrotropic pathogens. 2.4.1; C. botulinum is anaerobic, so it can grow in vacuum-packed and semi-preserved Silva & foods such as cured and cooked ham, Gibbs cold-smoked fish, fermented marine (2010) p. foods, and dried fish. 100 Check if other psychrotropic spore- forming pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, present in the food, have a higher heat resistance than the non-proteolytic C. botulinum. If F90 = 10 min. is not sufficient to achieve 6D inactivation of C. botulinum, add preservatives for food safety. Surviving Clostridium and Bacillus spores must be controlled with refrigeration (T < 8°C) and other hurdles such as salts (>3.5% salt-on-water, e.g., sodium chloride, sodium lactate) and nitrites (>100 ppm, e.g., sodium nitrite); or aW < 0.97. A salt content 3.5% in the food stops botulinum growth during chill storage. The addition of salt to levels of 2.5% and 4.3% increase the number of days required for growth of non-proteolytic C. botulinum strains in an anaerobic meat medium stored at temperatures from 5°C to 16°C.

Low-acid cooked In addition to chill temperatures which F90 = 10 min. FSA (2008) and chilled foods should be maintained throughout the if target organism is non- item 13 and food chain, the following controlling proteolitic strains of C. item 16; factors should be used singly or in botulinum. combination to prevent growth and Silva & production by non-proteolytic C. Gibbs botulinum in chilled foods with a shelf- (2010) p. life of more than 10 days: 102 a heat treatment of 90C for 10 minutes or equivalent lethality; a pH of 5 or less throughout the food and throughout all components of complex foods; a minimm salt leel of 3.5% in the aqueous phase throughout the food and throughout all components of complex foods; a ater actiit of 0.97 or less throughout the food and throughout all components of complex foods; a combination of heat and preseratie factors which can be shown consistently to prevent growth and toxin production by non-proteolytic C. botulinum. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -46-

General principles on pasteurization values for groups of foods Product Additional information; Remarks Pasteurization value Source F or P

Refrigerated Food products sold chilled, with shelf life F70 2 min. Tucker foods; up to 10 days. (2011) p. Heat preserved Target organisms are vegetative, non- 87-88; p. chilled foods spore forming aerobic pathogens such as 90-91; Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp, Campden E. coli. (1992); DOH (1989)

Refrigerated If packed under aerobic conditions, F70 = 2 min. Tucker foods and if refrigerated at storage temp. (1999) p. 8- T 5 °C: shelf life 6 - 10 days. 10) Campden If anaerobic conditions may occur in the F70 = 100 min. (1992) product, and if stored at T 5 C: shelf life less than 10 days.

If anaerobic conditions may occur in the prodct, if stored at T 5 C, and shelf F90 = 10 min. life should be greater than than 10 days. 7.5 Safe refrigerated Destruction of pathogenic vegetative F 70 2 min. Hygiënecode foods; if Listeria micro-organisms such as Listeria (1994); monocytogenes is monocytogenes. Tucker organism of (2011) p. concern 100 7.5 6 decimal destructions of pathogenic F 70 2 min. Brown vegetative micro-organisms such as (2000) p. Listeria monocytogenes. Shelf life 10-14 312-316 days at 4 - 7 °C.

8 decimal destructions of pathogenic vegetative micro-organisms such as 7.5 F 2 min. Listeria monocytogenes. Shelf life 10-14 72 days at 4 - 7 °C.

6 decimal destructions of pathogenic F70 2 min. Tucker vegetative micro-organisms such as (1999) p. 8- Listeria monocytogenes. 10 Shelf life 6-10 days at storage Campden temperatre 5 C. (1992) 10 L. monocytogenes is now considered to F 72 2 min. Bean et al be the most heat-resistant vegetative (2012) p. 8 pathogenic bacterium in high water activity foods excluding milk and, as such, is regarded as the target organism in setting performance objectives in thermal processing. The current consensus is that the D-value of L. monocytogenes at 72°C does not exceed 15 s in foods. This means that the pasteurization of cooked chilled foods, for a minimum of 2 min at 72°C would result in at least an 8-log reduction of the organism. To address variability in microbial populations as well as in the application of thermal processes, some processors apply time and temperature combinations that are above the minimum requirements. 10 Cook-chill if pH > 4.5. F 70 2 min. Tucker refrigerated foods (1999) p. 225

Safe refrigerated Destruction of the heat resistant, F90 = 10 min. Hygiënecode foods; if psychrotropic, non-proteolytic spores of (1994) Clostridium Clostridium botulinum types B, E and F. * If conversion to pasteurizing botulinum is temperatres T 90 C: = 10 organism of To prevent growth of such C. botulinum: °C; 10 10 concern Advised storage temperature T = 0 °C - so F 90 = 10 min. = F 95 = 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -47-

General principles on pasteurization values for groups of foods Product Additional information; Remarks Pasteurization value Source F or P 10 5 °C. 3.2 min. = F 100 = 1 min.

Even better: storage temperature T < * If conversion to pasteurizing 3.3 °C (catering) temperatures T < 90 °C: z = 7 °C; 7 7 so F 90 = 10 min. = F 85 =52 min.

Safe refrigerated 6-log reduction of non-proteolytic F90 = 10 min. Peck foods; if non- C. botulinum; (2006); (or equivalent lethality proteolytic combined with storage at chill e.g. F = 129 min. Clostridium temperature 80 ICMSF botulinum is or F85 = 36 min.). (2002); organism of Bean (2012) concern table 2.1

6 decimal destructions of the heat F90 = 10 min. Brown resistant, psychrotropic, non-proteolytic (2000) p. spores of Clostridium botulinum types B, 312-316); E and F. FSA (2008); Tucker (1999) p. 8- 10; Tucker 2011) p. 88; 93; Campden (1992) 9 Safe refrigerated 6 decimal destructions of the F 90 = 10 min. so z = 9 °C. FSA (2008) foods psychrotropic spores of Clostridium in Tucker botulinum. Chilled shelf life: 30 days. (2011) p. 99; Tucker (1999) p. 225) Refrigerated Safe food, Initial pasteurization of all Profood foods; assembled and shelf life 3 weeks individual components: (HAS) 10 after primary if refrigerated at 4-7 °C. F 90 = 10 min. pasteurization Target organism: sufficient destruction If assembled at good hygienic of the heat resistant, psychrotropic, non- conditions, recontamination can proteolytic spores of Clostridium be destructed by secondary botulinum types B, E and F. 10 pasteurization of F 70 = 2 min. 10 Refrigerated Destruction of most thermo resistant F 70 = 1000 min. HAS foods vegetative spoilage organisms such as 10 or F = 10 min. fecal Streptococcus. 90 Shelf life 43 days at 4-7 °C; consisting of 3 weeks internal shelf life at cold storage (< 3 °C), and 3 weeks external shelf life at refrigerator 4-7 °C.

Sous vide Safe food; shelf life over 10 days if F90 = 10 min. Campden processes chilled; 6 log reductions of target (1992); organism C. botulinum. 10 Tucker Originally F = 40 min. when 70 (2011) p. storage temp. < 3.3 °C. 88, p. 91;

Tucker (1999) p. 225; FSA (2008)

Pasteurized high acid foods, stored at ambient temperatures Acidified or Apple juice, orange juice, pear juice, Pasteurization temperature of Silva & naturally high juice blends, canned diced tomatoes, 95 ⁰C required to sufficiently Gibbs acid fruit juices and ice tea, of pH 4.5, if cooled slowly destruct Alicyclobacillus (2008) after pasteurization, or to be stored at acidoterrestris spores. section 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -48-

General principles on pasteurization values for groups of foods Product Additional information; Remarks Pasteurization value Source F or P relatively high ambient temperatures, 2.4.2; and if thermo-acidophilic (pH 3.54.5; Silva et al temperature 3553 ⁰C), non-pathogen, (2014) p. spoilage spore-forming Alicyclobacillus 583-584. acidoterrestris is present.

Acidified or If pH < 4.0 then F87.8 = 1 min. Toledo naturally high (2007) p. If pH = 4.0, then F = 30 seconds. acid products 96.1 324 If pH = 4.1, then F100 = 30 seconds. If pH = 4.2, then F102.2 = 30 seconds. If pH > 4.2, to pH = 4.5 then F118.3 = 30 seconds. If sugar or starch is added to the For Example: if sugar or starch product, the time/temperature for the is a component of a product next higher pH should be used. with pH = 4.1, use a process of F102.2 = 30 seconds (process for pH = 4.2 if no sugar or starch is added). Acid products If product has 4.0 < pH < 4.3 Process equivalent to National 8.3 that may contain F 93.3 > 5 min. Food butyric anaerobes More seere processes ma be Processors required to control excessive Association contamination. in Tucker If product has 4.3 < pH < 4.6 Process equivalent to (2012) p. 8.3 342, and in F = 10 min. 93.3 Rees & More seere processes ma be Bettison required to control excessive (1991) p. contamination. 33 10.83 Acidified or If pH 4.1, then 5 log reductions in F 71.11 = 1.2 min. Breidt et al naturally high bacterial pathogens (E. coli O157:H7, thus: (2010) table acid products 10.83 3 Salmonella, and Listeria), for acidified F 60 = 12.7 min. products with a pH of 4.1 or below: 10.83 F 65 = 4.4 min. 10.83 F 70 = 1.5 min. 10.83 F 71.11 = 1.2 min. 10.83 F 75 = 0.5 min. 10.83 F 80 = 0.2 min. 10.83 F 82.78 = 0.1 min. 8.9 Acidified or If pH < 3.9 F 93.3 = 0.1 min. Tucker naturally high 8.9 (2011) p. If 3.9 < pH < 4.1 F 93.3 = 1.0 min. acid products 8.9 80 If 4.1 < pH < 4.2 F 93.3 = 2.5 min. 8.9 If 4.2 < pH < 4.3 F 93.3 = 5.0 min. 8.9 If 4.3 < pH < 4.4 F 93.3 = 10.0 min. 8.9 If 4.4 < pH < 4.5 F 93.3 = 20.0 min. Acid foods, with If pH < 3.7 F65 16.7 min. Tucker normal (2011) p. or F 2.1 min. contamination 70 83 both at slowest heating spot of loading container.

If 3.7 < pH < 4.2 F85 5 min. or F95 30 s. both at slowest heating spot of container.

If 4.0 < pH < 4.3 F93.3 5 min. If 4.3 < pH < 4.6 F93.3 10 min. 5.6 Acidified foods If finished equilibrium pH = 3.1 - 3.2 F 90.6 = 0.1 min. FDA (2010), 5.6 table 8, p. If finished equilibrium pH = 3.3 - 3.5 F = 1.0 min. 90.6 25 in pdf If finished equilibrium pH = 3.5 - 4.0 5.6 F 90.6 = 16 - 23 min. version. 8.3 If finished equilibrium pH = 4.0 - 4.2 F 93.3 = 5.0 min 8.3 (The several If finished equilibrium pH = 4.3 - 4.4 F 93.3 = 23 min. 2. Pasteurization values F for commercial food processes -49-

General principles on pasteurization values for groups of foods Product Additional information; Remarks Pasteurization value Source F or P 8.3 If finished equilibrium pH = 4.3 - 4.4 F 93.3 = 10 min. different 8.3 sources If finished equilibrium pH = 4.3 - 4.4 F = 10 min. 100 have been If finished equilibrium pH = 4.5 - 4.6 8.3 F 100 = 10 min. reported in 10 If finished equilibrium pH = 4.5 - 4.6 F 110 = 1.6 min. FDA report) Acid foods, or If finished product pH < 3.7 F65 = 17 min. Taylor, K.; Acidified foods Crosby, D. If finished product pH = 3.7 - 4.0 F = 5 min. 85 (2006) p. 7- If finished product pH = 4.01 - 4.20 F95 = 5 min. 9 If finished product pH = 4.21 - 4.40 F95 = 10 min. 10 If finished product pH = 4.41 F 121.1 = 0.5 min.

High acid foods which do NOT require heat processing High acid foods Products with acetic acid as the primary acidulent and a pH below 3.3 do Breidt et al (pH < 3.3), not require a heat process, but do require a temperature dependent holding (2010); acidified by time to assure safety (Breidt et al (2007)). E. coli O157:H7 has been found addition of acetic to be the most acid resistant pathogen of concern for these products (Breidt Breidt et al acid et al (2007)). To achieve a five log reduction at 25 ⁰C, a holding time of 48 (2007). hours is needed. However, at 10 ⁰C, a holding time of six days is required for a five log reduction. Interestingly, L. monocytogenes, a psychrotro-phic organism, which can grow at refrigeration temperatures at neutral pH, does not survive as well as E. coli O157:H7 under similar cold and acidic conditions (Breidt et al (2007)). A holding time of 48 hrs at pH < 3.3 (caused by acetic acid), and at 25 ⁰C, causes 5D reduction of E. coli O157:H7. The same storage conditions cause > 5 log reductions of L. monocytogenes. A holding time of 6 days at pH < 3.3 (caused by acetic acid), and at 10 ⁰C, causes 5D reduction of E. coli O157:H7. The same storage conditions cause > 5 log reductions of L. monocytogenes.

3. Decision scheme: Pasteurization or Sterilization? -50-

3. DECISION SCHEME: PASTEURIZATION OR STERILIZATION?

DECISION SCHEME: PASTEURIZATION OR STERILIZATION? (based on destruction of micro-organisms) ╔═════════════════════════╗ ╔════════╗ ║ VERY SHORT SHELF LIFE: ║ Yes ║PASTEU- ║ ║ about 7 days ──────────────────────────────────>RIZATION║ stored at 4 ºC - 7 ºC F ║ ║ ║ 70 ║ ║ in refrigerator ║ ║2.0 ║ ╚═════════════════════════ ║min. ║ ╚════════ ╔═════════════════════════╗ ╔════════╗ ║ SHORT SHELF LIFE: ║ Yes ║PASTEU- ║ ║ maximum 6 weeks ──────────────────────────────────>RIZATION║ stored at 4 ºC - 7 ºC F10 = ║ ║ ║ 90 ║ ║ in refrigerator ║ ║10 min. ║ ╚═════════════════════════ ╚════════ ╔════════╗ ╔═══════════════════════════╗ ╔═══════════════════╗ Yes ║ ║ ║ LONG SHELF LIFE: ─>Is pH < 3,7? ─────────> ║ ║ (some months - 4 years) ║ ╚══════════════════ ║PASTEU- ║ ║ stored at ambient tempera-║ No ║RIZATION║ ║ ture outside refrigerator ║ ╔═════════════════════════╗Yes ║ ║ ╚═══════════════════════════ ║Is aW 0.95 and pH < 5.6,───> ║ ║o i aW 0.92? ║ ║ ║ ╚═════════════════════════ ╚════════ No ╔════════════════════╗ ╔═════════════╗ ║Does product contain ║ Yes ║MILD ║ 150 ppm niie NO - > STERILIZATION ║ 2 ║──── ║ (E250) + NaCl? F10 = F = ║ ║ ║ 121.1 0 ║ ╚════════════════════ ║ 0.1 - 2 min.║ │ ╚═════════════ No ╔═════════════╗ └────────────>STERILIZATION║ F10 = ║ 121.1 ║ ║F 3.0 min.║ ╚══0 ═══════════ PASTEURIZATION aims to sufficiently destruct vegetative micro-organisms. Usually, bacterial spores survive pasteurization. If such spores can NOT germinate to vegetative micro-organisms, sterilization is not required! * Germination of spores to vegetative micro-organisms can be considerably slowed down by refrigerated storage, after rapidly cooling of the product immediately after pasteurization. (Rapid cooling prevents (thermophilic) spoilage spores to germinate during the cooling stage.) * Germination of spores can be completely blocked by either: - reduction of water activity aW to aW < 0.92; - reduction of water activity aW < 0.95 and at the same time pH reduction to pH < 5.6; - reduction of pH to pH < 3.7 1); - - addition of 150 p.p.m. nitrite NO2 , mixed with salt NaCl.

STERILIZATION is a heating process aimed at destruction of bacterial spores. Vegetative micro-organisms, present in the food, are considerably less heat resistant than bacterial spores. Thus, due to the intense heat dose of sterilization, all vegetative micro- organisms will be killed completely during sterilization. Immediately after sterilization, sterilized products marketed in moderate climate countries such as N.W.-Europe, must be cooled down rapidly to a core temperature below 35 ºC. Such rapid cooling prevents germination of thermophilic spoilage spores to spoilage vegetatives, which still could spoil the sterilized foods during ambient storage. 1 ) Exception: In pasteurized acid fruit products (pH 4.5), Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris, a thermo- acidophilic (pH 3.54.5; temperature 3553 ⁰C), non-pathogen, spore-forming bacterium sometimes produces spoilage aromas and tastes (bromophenol; guaiacol) in shelf-stable juices (apple, orange, pear), juice blends, canned diced tomatoes, and ice tea, if these were cooled slow, or stored at relatively high temperatures (Silva et al (2014), p. 583-584; Silva & Gibbs (2008), section 2.4.2). Sufficient destruction of A. acidoterrestris in acid fruit products requires pasteurization temperatures of 95 ⁰C, so an exceptionally heavy pasteurization. 4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -51-

4. Use of F to calculate the sterilization time Pt of a packaged food Example 4.1: Use of F value to calculate the sterilization time Pt Calculate the sterilization time Pt of milk in a glass bottle in a rotating retort. Sterilization temperature = retort temperature TR = 124 °C. Come up time of retort L = 3 min. Initial temperature of the milk in the bottle: Tih = 4 °C. Heat penetration factor of bottle with liquid milk in rotating retort: fh = 5 min. Lag factor at heating of bottle with liquid milk in rotating retort: jh = 1.0. Lag factor at cooling of bottle with liquid milk in rotating retort: jc = 1.0. Use C.R. Stmbos (1973) calculation method. For ho-to-proceed: see Appendix A.

Worked answer 4.1: Step 1: Calculate, or find in tables, the required F value for sterilization of milk in a bottle. Table STERILIZATION VALUES F, in subsection Dairy products, shows:

10 STERILIZATION VALUES (F0 = F 121.1) FOR SOME COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Can name; Approx. sterilizing value Source 10 size DxH mm; F 121.1 ml Dairy Products Milk; in bottle or can 5 - 8 min. Reichert (1985); Shapton (1994)

10 10 Thus: required F0 = F 121.1 = 5 - 8 min. Let us choose a F0 = F 121.1 = 7 min.

Step 2: Convert F value to U; U = F at retort temperature TR (Appendix A). 10 Retort temperature TR = 124 °C; so U = F at retort temperature, or U = F 124. 10 10 (121.1 - 124)/10 Conversion formula from F121.1 to U124 : U = F 124 = F 121.1 · 10 . (121.1 - 124)/10 -0.29 10 Or U = 7 · 10 = 7·10 = 7·0.513 = 3.59 min. So U (= F 124) = 3.59 min.

Step 3: Find value of g in Stumbo table fh/U versus g for z = 10 °C, at jc = 1.0 The Stumbo table fh/U erss g for of z = 10 °C can be found in Appendix C. For a small part of that table: see below. First calculate fh/U. fh = 5 min. (given) U = 3.59 min. (calculated at step 2) So fh/U = 5/3.59 = 1.39. Unfortunately, in Stumbo table fh/U versus g for z = 10 °C, no row fh/U = 1.39 is listed. So an interpolation between row fh/U = 1.00 and fh/U = 2.00 is required.

. . . . .

At jc = 1.00, and fh/U = 1.00 (see table above), the value of g = 0.291 °C; At jc = 1.00, and fh/U = 2.00, the value of g = 1.07 °C. Interpolation: at fh/U = 1.39, g = 0.291 + [(1.39 - 1)/(2-1)]·(1.07 - 0.291) = = 0.291 + 0.304 = 0.595 °C = g. So if fh/U = 1.39, then the value of g = 0.595 °C. 4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -52-

Step 4: Calculate the sterilization time Pt from equation 10 Pt = fh · log[jh · (TR - Tih)/g] - 0.4·L (see Appendix A) fh = 5 min. (given) jh = 1.0 (given) TR = 124 °C (given) Tih = 4 °C (given) g = 0.595 °C (calculated at step 3) L = 3 min. (given) Substitution of these values in the Pt equation results in: Pt = 5·log[1·(124 - 4)/0.595] - 0.4·3 = 5·log201.7 - 0.4·3 = 11.52 - 1.2 = 10.3 min. So Pt = 10.3 min. 10 Conclusion: To receive a required F 121.1 = 7 min., the milk bottles should be rotating sterilized during Pt = 10.3 min. at retort temperature TR = 124 °C. Computer program STUMBO 2.2.exe also finds a sterilization time Pt = operators process time of 10.3 min. if the F value center should be 7 min.:

10 Example 4.2: Use of required F 121.1 = 7 min. to calculate the nutrient retention 28.8 Calculate which % of the originally 100% thiamine (with D 120 = 127.5 min.), present in the raw unheated milk, is retained after the sterilization process of Example 4.1.

Worked answer 4.2: For ho-to-proceed: see Appendix B. In example 4.1 above, the left hand part of the calculation procedure of Appendix B has already been executed. At step 3 of example 4.1, the value of g = gX = gN = 0.595 ⁰C was found. So in Appendix B, now proceed from g = gN (in the page centre) to the required % bN at the bottom right of Appendix B. Step 1: In the fh/U versus g table of thiamine (z = 28.8 °C), find the heat dose U which was received by thiamine during the sterilization process C.R. Stumbos (1973) book does NOT have a fh/U versus g table of z = 28.8 °C. So let us use the fh/U versus g table for z = 27.8 °C (see Appendix D; selection at next page). The required g value has been calculated in Example 4.1: g = 0.595 °C. The fh/U versus g table of z = 27.8 °C, at jc = 1.0, does NOT show a value of g = 0.595 °C; only g = 0.484 °C and g = 0.676 °C are listed. So interpolation is required: 4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -53-

As can be seen from the above selection of table fh/U versus g for z = 27.8 °C: At jc = 1.00 and g = 0.484 °C (see small table above), fh/U = 0.80; at jc = 1.00 and g = 0.676 °C, fh/U = 0.90. Interpolation: If g = 0.595 °C, then fh/U = 0.80 + [(0.595 - 0.484)/(0.676 - 0.484)]·(0.90 - 0.80) or: fh/U = 0.80 + 0.0578 = 0.858. 28.8 As fh = 5 min., and fh/U = 0.858, the value of U = 5/0.858 = 5.83 min. = U = F 124. 28.8 N.B.: For nutrients, some authors use symbol C instead of F. They will write: C 124 = 5.83 min.

Step 2: Recalculate U (at retort temperature TR = 124 °C), to 120 °C; 120 °C is the reference temperature of the decimal reduction time D of thiamine 28.8 U = F124 =5.83 min. at z = 28.8 °C of thiamine (step 1). So U = F 124 = 5.83 min. 28.8 28.8 (124 - 120)/28.8 0.139 Conversion equation: F 120 = F 124 · 10 = 5.83 · 10 = 5.83 · 1.38; 28.8 So F 120 = 8.03 min.

Step 3: Calculate the thiamine retention b% from equation 28.8 28.8 10 10 F 120 = D 120 · ( log initial% - log retention%) 28.8 F 120 = 8.03 min. = U (calculated at step 2) 28.8 D 120 = 127.5 min. (given) initial % of thiamine = 100% (given) Let thiamine retention % = b 28.8 28.8 10 10 Substitution in retention equation F 120 = D 120 · ( log initial% - log retention%), results in: 8.03 = 127.5 · (log100 - logb); or: 8.03/127.5 = log100 - logb; so logb = log100 - 8.03/127.5 = 2 - 0.063 = 1.937. If logb = 1.937, then the % thiamine retention b = 101.937 = 86.5%. After the sterilization process of the milk, about 86.5% of the original amount of thiamine is left in the sterilized milk. Some 13.5% of thiamine is lost during sterilization. Computer program STUMBO 2.2.exe also finds a nutrient retention (%) of 86.5%:

Computer program STUMBO 2.2.exe, including converted Stumbo tables, worked examples, validation, and help files, can be obtained at a CD-ROM by sending your name and postal address to [email protected]. 4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -54-

Example 4.3: Use of F to calculate the spoilage rate and the nutrient retention A can, containing 315 grams of carrot purée of pH = 5.9, has to be sterilized in a still, steam retort at retort temperature TR = 123 ⁰C. Carrot purée behaves as a solid, conduction heating food 4.3.1) Find the required F value in the tables of section 1 and 2 above, and calculate: 4.3.2) the sterilization time Pt; 4.3.3) the spoilage rate of the sterilized cans by pathogenic Clostridium botulinum; 4.3.4) the % thiamine (vitamine B1) retained after sterilization of carrot purée. Use the additional process and product information below, and apply computer program Pham.xls, down-loadable from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janwillem_Rouweler/contributions or from https://hasdenbosch.academia.edu/JanwillemRouweler Additional process and product information: Carrot purée is heated in A1 cans; size Diameter x Height = 65 mm x 101 mm; can volume = 315 ml. Initial product temperature after filling of can, at steam on of retort: Tih = 4 ⁰C. Retort temperature = sterilization temperature TR = 123 ⁰C. Come up time CUT of the still retort L = 5 min. Heat penetration factor of A1 cans with carrot purée: fh = fc = 37.0 min. (see Holdsworth (1997), p. 188, cited in Rouweler (2014)). Heating lag factors of carrot purée in still retort: jh = jc = 2.0 (estimation). Cooling water temperature Tw = 23 ⁰C. 10 Clostridium botulinum spores: D 121.1 = 0.2 min. Initial C. botulinum spore load = 1 spore per gram of carrot purée; so the can, containing 315 grams of carrot purée, will initially have 315 x 1 = 315 spores of C. botulinum. 25 Thiamine (vitamin B1) in carrot purée of pH = 5.9: D 121.1 = 158 min.; initially 100%. (Source: Feliciotti, E.; Esselen, W.B. (1957): Thermal destruction rate of thiamine in puréed meat and vegetables. Food Technol. 11 (1957), 77-84).

Worked Answer 4.3: Step 1: Find the required heat process F value of carrot puree in A1 cans at sterilization. In this document, Section 1 Sterilization Values, subsection Vegetables, it says: 10 Carrot purée; A1 can; F 121.1 = 5.5 min. (in core). This is answer 4.3.1)

Step 2: Download the most recent ersion of the Ecel file HEAT PROCESS CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO PHAM FOR CONDUCTION-HEATED CANNED FOODS - Sterilization Time, Heat Process Value F, Microbial Spoilage Rate and Nutrient Retention Calculations by Q.T. Pham and C.R. Stumbo's Formula Methods.xls. See download links above.

Step 3: In the red-outlined section of Excel file Pham.xls, fill in all pale yellow cells (see the print screen of Pham.xls at the next page.) This results in a sterilization time (see CALCULATION RESULTS a-1) of Pt = 56.47 min. This is answer 4.3.2).

Step 4: To find the CALCULATION RESULTS b) Microbial spoilage rate by micro- organism C. botulinum”, first two iterations are reqired. Use Ecels Goal Seek. For help: see row 100, explaining ho to do a Rapid iteration b sing Ecels Goal Seek. The number of surviving C. botulinum spores per can, thus the spoilage rate, will be 3.13 x 10-28 per can. This is answer 4.3.3). 28 This spoilage rate of 3 cans per 10 cans is extremely much lower than the minimum required -12 12 botlinm cook of 10 per can, which is 1 can per 10 cans. So the sterilized cans of carrot 28 purée are safe (commerciall sterile): onl abot 3 cans per 10 cans may develop botulinum poison.

Step 5: To find the CALCULATION RESULTS c) % Nutrient retention of thiamine”, again two iterations are required. Result: % nutrient, retained in the whole can = 56.1%. This is answer 4.3.4). So 56% of vitamin B is still in the can after sterilization. 4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -55-

HEAT PROCESSING CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO PHAM FOR CONDUCTION-HEATED CANNED FOODS Protected. Version 1.0 Janwillem Rouweler

6 worked examples: see row 121 and tab pages July 2014 [email protected]

Yellow cell = input Pink cell = iteration requided; use Goal Seek!

Blue cell = calculation results (for help: see from row 100)

Select the required calculation, by typing either P or F:

If you want to calculate the pasteurization or sterilization time Pt : type P in the yellow cell: ↓ P or F

If you want to calculate the heat process value F: type F in the yellow cell: p

Heat penetration Heat penetration factor for heating fh = 37 min. properties Lag factor for heating jh = 2 during heating Heat penetration factor for cooling fC = 37 min. and cooling Lag factor for cooling jC = 2

o Retort Initial product temperature at "Steam On" Tih = 4 C properties Come up time of retort C.U.T. L = 5 min.

o during Sterilization temperature of retort TR = 123 C o process Temperature of cooling water TW = 23 C

Known F value: Known heat process value F = 5.5 min.

o Reference temp. of F Reference temperature of F value is: Tref,F = 121.1 C o and z of F value z value of F value is: zF = 10 C

4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -56-

Micro-organism Decimal reduction time of micro-organism: DM = 0.2 min.

o of concern M Reference temperature of microbial DM is: Tref,M = 121.1 C o to be killed z value of the microbial D is: zM = 10 C is: Initial number of micro-organisms in whole can = 315

Nutrient N, or Decimal reduction time of the nutrient: DN = 158 min.

o food component N Reference temperature of nutrient DN is: Tref,N = 121.1 C

o (initially 100%) z value of the nutrient DN is: zN = 25 C

CALCULATION RESULTS a-1) Sterilization time or Pasteurization time Pt:

Sterilization Time or Pasteurization Time, Pt = 56.47 min.

T between centre of food and retort at start of cooling, g = 6.25755345 oC

o Product temperature at center of food at start of cooling, Tic = 116.7424466 C

CALCULATION RESULTS a-2) Heat process value F in slowest heating point:

0.0831506 <-Do NOT change

Heat process value in center of can, F = 5.50 min. o at reference temperature TRef,F = 121.10 C and zF = 10 ⁰C

4. Use of F to calculate the actual sterilization time Pt; Example calculations -57-

CALCULATION RESULTS b) Microbial spoilage rate by micro-organism M: 1st ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate: CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.19817789 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0000 3.12880 3.12878

2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.09596628 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0004 6.25791 6.25755

Number of surviving organisms M per whole can = 3.13E-28 per can

Mass average lethal heat value US for M, at TR, integrated over can, US = 3.87 123

Mass average lethal heat value F for M, at T , integrated over can, F 6.00 121.1 S Ref,F S ↑reference Temp CALCULATION RESULTS c) % Nutrient retention of nutrient N:

1st ITERATION REQUIRED for % retention of nutrient N: CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WN < 1) in this YELLOW WN cell: WN = 0.491556233 <-Use Goal Seek and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0002 3.12894

3.12878

2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for % retention of nutrient N:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WN < 1) in this YELLOW WN cell: WN = 0.353301372 <-Use Goal Seek and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0000 6.25756

6.25755

% nutrient, retained in the whole can = 56.1093 %

Mass average lethal heat value US for N, at TR, integrated over can, US,N = 33.29 min.

5. Use of F to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt; Example calculation -58-

5. Use of F value to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt in a heat exchanger

Example 5: Calculate the holding time in the holding tube of a plate heat exchanger, used to pasteurize freshly extracted apple juice of pH = 3.3. After heat treatment, the juice is packed in laminated of 1000 grams. The packed juice should be shelf-stable at ambient storage temperatures. Also calculate the spoilage rate by a mold (Byssochlamys fulva) and by a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and calculate the % retention of 2 vitamins (folic acid and ), and of an enzyme (pecterinase). For details of nutrients: see table 5.2. Pasteurization temperature TR = 90 °C (see temperature in holding tbe in table 5.1). Use computer program Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls.

Table 5.1: Given details of the heat exchanger: Juice temperatures Average residence Sections of heat exchanger↓ Temperature Temperature time in the section ↓ section IN section OUT Regenerative (heating) 20 °C 80 °C 120 s = 2 min. Heating section 80 °C 90 °C 20 s = 0.33 min. Holding section 90 °C 90 °C ?? To be calculated Regenerative (cooling) 90 °C 30 °C 120 s = 2 min.

Pasteurization temperature 90 °C (see holding section) Correction factor for residence time distribution: Vav/Vmax = 0.80 Multiplication factor for initial fluid flow rate through all sections: 1

Table 5.2: Details about thermo-labile components in the fresh apple juice: Component Comment Decimal Initial number in reduction time D the raw juice 7.8 Byssochlamys fulva Pathogenic mold. D 93 = 5 min. = 0.001 per gram Produces 300 s patulin 5.5 Saccharomyces Spoilage yeast D 60 = 22.5 100 per gram cerevisiae (ascospore) min. = 1350 s 35 Folic acid Important vitamin D 121.1 = 492 100% min. = 29 520 s 16.5 Pecterinase Enzyme D 96 = 0.58 100% min. = 35 s 110 Vitamin C Important vitamin D 80 = 1200 100% min. = 72 000 s

Worked answer 5:

Step1: Find the required F value for apple juice from the section 2 table Paeiaion ale F, a subecion Fi and Vegeable.

PASTEURIZATION VALUES FOR SOME COMMERCIAL FOOD PROCESSES Product Approx. Additional information; Remarks Source pasteurization value F or P Fruits and vegetables 8.9 Apples; stored at F 93.3 = 0.2 - pH 3.3 Eisner (1988) in ambient temperature 0.6 min. Tucker (2011: 68)

8.9 8.9 According to section 2, the F 93.3 = 0.2 - 0.6 min. Choose F 93.3 = 0.6 min. = 36 s. 5. Use of F to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt; Example calculation -59-

Step 2: Download program Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls, and insert information Excel file Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls is available from : https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janwillem_Rouweler/contributions or from https://hasdenbosch.academia.edu/JanwillemRouweler First include, in the pale yellow cells of the top input table of Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls, all information about the F to be calculated, the micro-organisms, the vitamins and the enzyme (see table 5.2). When inserting the initial nmber in whole pack, please realize that the apple juice, after heating, will be packed in 1000 g laminated cartons. The Correction factor for residence time distribution should be: Vav/Vmax = 0.8. Assume the Multiplication factor for initial fluid flow rate through all sections = 1. This results in the following top input table: BUILD-HEAT-EXCHANGER Compose your own heat exchanger and make calculations Initial number D value Reference z value in whole pack [in SEC] temp [oC] [oC] F value to be calculated: XXX XXX 93.3 8.9 Byssochlamys fulva 1 300 93 7.8 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 100000 1350 60 5.5 Folic acid 100% 29520 121.1 35 Pecterinase 100% 35 96 16.5 Vitamin C 100% 72000 80 110

Correction factor for residence time distribution : 0.8 = Vav/Vmax Multiplication factor for initial fluid flow rate through all sections: 1 x initial fluid

Next, in the second input table, type the names of each of the sections (= stages) of the heat exchanger in the correct order. Include the IN and OUT temperatures of the apple juice in each stage; and insert the average residence time in each stage. Initially, choose the residence time in the holding section to be = 0 s. (See table 5.1 for information about the stages of the heat exchanger.) Thus, the second input table will look as follows: Temp [oC] Average Name the stages residence in the heat exchanger time in the correct order In Out [s] Regenerative (heating) 20 80 120 Heating section 80 90 20 Holding section 90 90 0 Regenerative (cooling) 90 30 120

Step 3: Stepwise change the average residence time of the holding section, until the (Corrected) Total F ale for this and preios stages of the apple juice after leaing section Regeneratie (cooling), is equal to the required F value of 36 s. After some trial and error, the (corrected) total F = 36 s will be obtained if the average residence time of the juice = 90.3 s. This 90.3 s is the required average holding time. (Instead of trial and error, you could use the Excel fnction Goal Seek). For calculation results of Build-Heat-Exchanger.xls, and conclusions: see next page. 5. Use of F to calculate the pasteurization holding time Pt; Example calculation -60-

Temp [oC] Average Av. residence F F, per stage, (corrected) Total F time, Name the stages residence corrected per stage corrected for value for this and in the heat exchanger time for flow residence time previous stages [s] in the correct order In Out [s] [s] [s] distribution [s] 0 Regenerative (heating) 20 80 120 120 0.247919145 0.198335316 0.198335316 Heating section 80 90 20 20 3.047461932 2.437969546 2.636304861 Holding section 90 90 90.3 90.3 38.45043288 30.7603463 33.39665116 Regenerative (cooling) 90 30 120 120 3.295380524 2.636304419 36.03295558

(corrected) Total F Spoilage rate Spoilage rate Retention Retention Retention value for this and b by b by Folic acid Pecterinase Vitamin C Name the stages Saccharomyces in the heat exchanger previous stages [s] Byssochlamys fulva cerevisiae [%] [%] [%] in the correct order 0 1 100000 100 100 100 Regenerative (heating) 0.198335316 0.99910315 5.39127E-08 99.98441585 90.37615455 99.78146129 Heating section 2.636304861 0.982968965 0 99.96962842 66.45961616 99.71041467 Holding section 33.39665116 0.782021698 #GETAL! 99.87866096 5.078522936 99.35605223 Regenerative (cooling) 36.03295558 0.768703059 #GETAL! 99.84861137 3.375406529 99.08843059

Conclusions: After some trial and error of the average residence time in the holding section, it was found:

8.9 * To obtain the required F 93.3 = 0.6 min. = 36 s, a holding time of about 90.3 s in the holding tube at 90 °C is needed. After the heat processing: * ... the number of cells of mold Byssochlamys fulva per juice of 1 kg was reduced from 1/carton to 0.77/carton. So almost no destruction! This means: if the mold Byssochlamys fulva can grow in pasteurized apple juice of pH = 3.3, the heat process should be much more severe; or the initial load of the mold (at present 0.001 per gram = 1 per kg) should be reduced at least a million-fold by much better selection of the fruits, better fruit cleaning, etc. * ...the spoilage rate by Saccharomyces cerevisiae will be extremely low; 0 in Ecel means: < 1 spoiled carton per 10307 cartons. * ...of the original 100% enzyme pecterinase, after pasteurization only about 3.4% is over; about 96.6% pectinase is destructed. * .. both vitamins folic acid and vitamin C will be retained for over 99%. So less than 1% of these vitamins is destructed by heating. 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -61-

6. Calculation of the required F value for moderate and for tropical climate countries, based on a microbial analysis; restrictions

Example 6: A solid food in 1 kg cans should be sufficiently heated. The food has to be both safe and shelf-stable for some years when stored at ambient temperature (so no refrigeration). Food-pH = 6.7. Food-aW = 0.995. No preservatives added. Microbial and chemical analysis of the raw food shows: Table 6.1: Microbial and chemical analysis of the raw solid food Name organism Comments Decimal Initial load or food reduction per gram of component time and z raw material Clostridium Pathogen. Produces exo- inside the 10 1 per gram D 121.1 = 0.2 botulinum canned food, in absence of oxygen. min. Spores germinate at T >10 °C. Acceptable spoilage rate after heating: 1 can per 1012 cans. Listeria Infectious pathogen (acts in intestines). 6.7 1 per gram D 70 = 0.3 monocytogenes Grows at T > 0 °C. min. Acceptable spoilage rate after heating: < 1 organism per can at the last day of the shelf life. Clostridium Spoilage organism. Cases ptrid 12 100 per D 121.1 = 1.0 sporogenes sell, being a putrefactive anaerobe min. gram (PA 3679) (PA). Spores germinate at T >10 °C (mesophilic). Acceptable spoilage rate after heating: 1 can per 105 cans. Clostridium Spoilage organism. 9.5 0.01 per D 121.1 = nigrificans Spores germinate at T > 35 °C 3.3 min. gram (thermophilic). Acceptable spoilage rate after heating: 1 can per 102 cans in moderate climate countries. 1 can per 105 cans in tropical climate countries. Pseudomonas Spoilage organism. 7.5 100 per D 60 = 3.2 fluorescens Grows at T > 0 °C. min. gram Acceptable spoilage rate after heating: < 1000 organism per can at the last day of the shelf life. Vitamin B1 = Essential vitamin. 25 100% D 121.1 = Thiamine 124 min. Red food color (from beetroot). 36.5 100% D 100 = 21.3 min Initial temperature of the solid food in the can prior to heating: Tih = 20 °C. Heat penetration factors: fh = 83 min.; fc = 83 min. Lag factors: jh = 2; jc = 2. Come up time of steam retort: L = 5 min. Cooling water temperature: Tw = 20 ⁰C.

6.1) Decide about the type of heating process: pasteurization or sterilization. Explain.

6.2a) Name all micro-organisms, listed in table 6.1 which may be the target organisms (= organisms of concern) for the type of heating process of answer 6.1. Explain. 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -62-

6-2b) Calculate the F90 (pasteurization) or F121.1 (sterilization) values for each of the target organisms for sale (and storage) in moderate climate countries.

6.2c) Select the best of either the F90 (pasteurization) or the F121.1 (sterilization) values for sale (and storage) in moderate climate countries. Explain.

6.3) The food company plans to export the solid food in 1 kg cans also to a country with a tropical climate, to be stored without refrigeration, with a shelf life of about 1 year.

Frequently the storage temperature (in warehouses, shops, houses) is TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C. 6.3a) Which of the F values, calculated for moderate climate countries in answer 6.2b), is NOT valid for export to tropical countries? Explain.

6.3b) Calculate the required F121.1 value for export to tropical areas. 6.3c) Using the required F value for tropical countries of answer 6.3b), calculate the resulting sterilization time Pt, the spoilage rate by C. nigrificans, and the vitamin B1 retention if the 1 kg food is sterilized in a retort at a retort temperature of TR = 127.1 ⁰C. Use Excel program Pham.xls, down-loadable from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janwillem_Rouweler/contributions or from https://hasdenbosch.academia.edu/JanwillemRouweler For help in using Excel sheet Pham: see Worked Answer 4.3.

6.4a) Calculate, for storage in a moderate climate country, so TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C, the sterilization time Pt at retort temperatures TR = 117.1 °C to 127.1 °C step 2 °C, based on each of the target micro-organisms. At the same time calculate the vitamin B1 retention. Use computer program Stumbo.exe 1). 1 ) Computer program STUMBO.exe, including converted Stumbo tables, worked examples, validation, and help files can be obtained at a CD-ROM by sending your name and postal address to [email protected]

6.4b) Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most appropriate sterilization time Pt at sterilization temperature TR = 117.1 °C? Explain. 6.4c) Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most appropriate sterilization time Pt at sterilization temperature TR = 127.1 °C? Explain.

Worked Answers 6: Answer 6.1: Pasteurization or Sterilization? Use DECISION SCHEME: PASTEURIZATION OR STERILIZATION of Chapter 3. - Shelf life, at ambient temperature (= no refrigeration), should be long (some ears). - pH = 6.7; so NOT pH < 3.7.

- aW = 0.995; so NOT aW < 0.95. - - No preservatives added; so NOT 150 ppm Nitrite NO2 + NaCl. 10 Conclusion: Sterilization required; F 121.1 3.0 min.

Answer 6.2a: Target organisms? - When sterilization takes place (according to answer 6.1), bacterial spores are the target organisms (= organisms of concern). During sterilization, the numbers of vegetative organisms will be reduced to extremely small numbers, so they are NOT the target organisms at sterilization. - Which of the organisms in table 6.1 are spores? Spores are very heat resistant, and thus spores can be recognized by their high

reference temperature (see subscript) of D: usually TREFERENCE >> 100 °C for the decimal reduction time D of spores. So Clostridium botulinum (TREF = 121.1 °C), Clostridium sporogenes (TREF = 121.1 °C), and Clostridium nigrificans (TREF = 121.1 °C) will be microbial spores, and thus are the target organisms at sterilization. 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -63-

Note that Vitamin B1 and Betanin (table 6.1) too are more or less heat resistant, but these food components are nutrients, not micro-organisms.

Answer 6.2b: Calculate F values of all target organisms for moderate climate countries: Equation: F = D · [10log(total initial number in can) - 10log(spoilage rate after heating)]. * Clostridium botulinum (see table 6.1): Initial number 1 per gram, so total number of 1000 spores per can of 1 kg. Spoilage rate after heating should be 1 spore per 1012 cans, = 1/1012 = 10-12. 10 D 121.1 = 0.2 min. (Why 1 pathogenic survivor per 1012 cans is acceptable: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419). 10 10 10 -12 Substitution in F equation: F 121.1 = 0.2 · [ log1000 - log10 ] = 0.2 · [3 - (-12)] = 10 3.0 min. Such a process, with F 121.1 = F0 = 3.0 min., is called the botulinum cook. 10 So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium botulinum, F 121.1 3.0 min. is required. * Clostridium sporogenes (see table 6.1): Initial number 100 per gram, so total number of 100 000 spores per can of 1 kg. Spoilage rate after heating should be 1 spore per 105 cans, = 1/105 = 10-5 (Why 1 spoilage survivor per 105 cans is acceptable: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419). 12 D 121.1 = 1.0 min. 12 10 10 -5 Substitution in F equation: F 121.1 = 1.0 · [ log100 000 - log10 ] = = 1.0 · [5 - (-5)] = 10.0 min. 12 So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium sporogenes, F 121.1 10.0 min. is required. * Clostridium nigrificans (see table 6.1): Initial number 0.01 per gram, so total number of 10 spores per can of 1 kg. Spoilage rate after heating in moderate climate countries should be 1 spore per 102 cans, = 1/102 = 10-2. (Why 1 thermophilic spoilage survivor per 102 cans is acceptable in moderate climate countries: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419). 9.5 D 121.1 = 3.3 min. 9.5 -2 Substitution in F equation: F 121.1 = 3.3 · [log10 - log10 ] = 3.3 · [1 - (-2)] = 9.9 min. 9.5 So to sufficiently destruct Clostridium nigrificans, F 121.1 9.9 min. is required.

Answer 6.2c) Select the best of these F values. Some microbiologists old sggest: If F ales are all at same reference temperatre, 12 select the highest F ale. The ths old select F 121.1 = 10.0 min. However: although for each F the reference temperature 121.1 °C is the same, the z value of each F is different. This difference in z may have considerable influence on the microbial destruction. Better: Select the highest sterilization time Pt at the intended retort temperature TR. See answer 6.4a and answer 6.4b, in which sterilization times are calculated.

Answer 6.3a) Which of the F values, calculated in answer 6.2b) for moderate climate countries, is NOT valid for export to tropical countries? Explain The F value, in answer 6.2b) calculated for C. nigrificans, is valid for moderate climate countries: countries where TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C. Spores of this thermophilic spoilage (= NOT pathogenic!!) organism will not germinate in such moderate climate countries. Thus it is generally agreed upon that, for sale in moderate climate countries, the acceptable number of thermophilic spoilage spores surviving sterilization, should be 0.01 per can ( 10-2 per can). So if such cans, unintentionally, will be stored at temperatures of T > 35 ⁰C, then about 1 can per 100 cans will spoil. However, if cans containing C. nigrificans spoilage spores are stored in tropical countries (TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C), these thermophilic spores can germinate. So it is generally agreed upon that for use in tropical areas the acceptable number of thermophilic spoilage spores surviving sterilization should be 10-5 per can. Thus only one can per 100 000 cans may be spoiled by a thermophilic organism during storage in a tropical region. 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -64-

Answer 6.3b) Calculate the F121.1 value, required for export to tropical areas. Equation: F = D · [10log(total initial number in can) - 10log(spoilage rate after heating)]. For C. nigrificans (see table 6.1): 9.5 Decimal reduction time D: D 121.1 = 3.3 min. (see table 6.1) Total initial number in of C. nigrificans in 1000 g can: 0.01 spore per gram = 1000 g • 0.01 spores/g = 10 spores/can (see table 6.1). Spoilage rate after heating 10-5 spores/gram in tropical climate countries (table 6.1). (Why 1 thermophilic spoilage survivor per 105 cans is acceptable in tropical countries: see Teixeira (2007), p. 419). Substitution in the equation above results in: 9.5 10 10 -5 9.5 F 121.1 = 3.3 • [ log10 - log10 ] = 3.3 • [1 - (-5)] = 3.3 • 6 = 19.8 min. = F 121.1. The required F value of F = 19.8 min. for C. nigrificans in tropical countries is considerably larger than the F values for sufficient destruction of the other spore species 10 12 in the can, e.g. F 121.1 = 3.0 min. for Clostridium botulinum, and F 121.1 = 10.0 min. for Clostridium sporogenes; see answer 6.2b. 9.5 So for sale in tropical countries, F 121.1 = 19.8 min. is applicable.

9.5 9.5 (Compare the F 121.1 = 19.8 min. for tropics to the F 121.1 = 9.9 min., required to sufficiently destruct Clostridium nigrificans for sale in moderate climate countries. Due to the high heat resistance of thermophilic spores such as C. nigrificans, F values for products to be sold in tropical countries usually are considerably larger than F values for products, sold in moderate climate countries).

Answer 6.3c) Using the required F value of answer 6.3b) for tropical countries, calculate the resulting sterilization time Pt, the spoilage rate by C. nigrificans, and the vitamin B1 retention, if the 1 kg food cans are sterilized at a retort temperature of TR = 127.1 ⁰C. Use Excel program Pham.xls. For a print-screen of the calculation by the Pham Excel file: see the next pages. Summary of the findings of the Pham calculation are in the middle column of table 6.2: Table 6.2: Process and product properties of the 1 kg cans of solid food after sterilization at retort temperature TR = 127.1 ⁰C, intended either for sale in tropical countries or for sale in moderate climate countries: Process parameters Tropical countries: Moderate climate countries: storage temperature storage temperature

TSTORAGE > 35 ⁰C; TSTORAGE < 35 ⁰C; (calculations by Pham.xls; (calculations by Stumbo.exe; answer 6.3 ) answers 6.2 and 6.4) 9.5 9.5 Required F121.1 value F 121.1. = 19.8 min. F 121.1 = 10 min. (answer 6.3b) (answer 6.2c and table 6.3) Calculated sterilization Pt = 117.3 min. Pt = 95.3 min. time Pt (Pham, Pt next pages) (Stumbo; answer 6.4c) Calculated spoilage 1 can per 107 cans by 1 can per 105 cans by rate after sterilization C. nigrificans 1) C. sporogenes during storage; (Pham: number of surviving spoilage organism mo at next pages) (Stumbo; fig. 6.2) Calculated nutrient 18 % 35.9 % Vitamin B1 retention (Pham, % nutrient next pages) (Stumbo; fig. 6.2)

1) The required spoilage rate in the whole can should be 1 can per 105 cans. The Pham calculation method assumes that the input F is the F in the coldest core; thus the Pham Excel spreadsheet calculates the spoilage rate in the 1 cm3 coldest core. The actual spoilage rate for the whole can (in this example: 1000 cm3) will be considerably higher, and will be close to the required 1 spoiled can per 105 cans! 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -65-

HEAT PROCESSING CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO PHAM FOR CONDUCTION-HEATED CANNED FOODS Protected. Version 1.0 Janwillem Rouweler

July 2014 [email protected]

Yellow cell = input Pink cell = iteration requided; use Goal Seek!

Blue cell = calculation results (for help: see from row 100)

Select the required calculation, by typing either P or F:

If you want to calculate the pasteurization or sterilization time Pt : type P in the yellow cell: ↓ P or F If you want to calculate the heat process value F: type F in the yellow cell: p

Heat penetration Heat penetration factor for heating fh = 83 min. properties Lag factor for heating jh = 2 during heating Heat penetration factor for cooling fC = 83 min. and cooling Lag factor for cooling jC = 2

o Retort Initial product temperature at "Steam On" Tih = 20 C properties Come up time of retort C.U.T. L = 5 min. o during Sterilization temperature of retort TR = 127.1 C o process Temperature of cooling water TW = 20 C

Known F value: Known heat process value F = 19.8 min.

o Reference temp. of F Reference temperature of F value is: Tref,F = 121.1 C o and z of F value z value of F value is: zF = 9.5 C

Micro-organism Decimal reduction time of micro -organism: DM = 3.3 min.

o of concern M Reference temperature of microbial DM is: Tref,M = 121.1 C 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -66-

o to be killed z value of the microbial D is: zM = 9.5 C is: Initial number of micro-organisms in whole can = 10

Nutrient N, or Decimal reduction time of the nutrient: DN = 124 min.

o food component N Reference temperature of nutrient DN is: Tref,N = 121.1 C

o (initially 100%) z value of the nutrient DN is: zN = 25 C

CALCULATION RESULTS a-1) Sterilization time or Pasteurization time Pt:

Sterilization Time or Pasteurization Time, Pt = 117.35 min.

T between centre of food and retort at start of cooling, g = 7.81472665 oC

o Product temperature at center of food at start of cooling, Tic = 119.2852734 C

CALCULATION RESULTS a-2) Heat process value F in slowest heating point:

0.0831506 <-Do NOT change

Heat process value in center of can, F = 19.80 min. o at reference temperature TRef,F = 121.10 C and zF = 9.5 ⁰C C

CALCULATION RESULTS b) Microbial spoilage rate by micro-organism M:

1st ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.135556501 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0001 3.90727 6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -67-

3.90736

2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for microbial spoilage rate:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WM < 1) in this YELLOW WM cell: WM = 0.055717456 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WM value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 0.0001 7.81487 7.81473

Number of surviving organisms M per whole can = 1.06E-07 per can

Mass average lethal heat value US for M, at TR, integrated over can, US = 6.15 127.1

Mass average lethal heat value FS for M, at TRef,F, integrated over can, FS 26.32 121.1

↑reference Temp

CALCULATION RESULTS c) % Nutrient retention of nutrient N: 1st ITERATION REQUIRED for % retention of nutrient N:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WN < 1) in this YELLOW WN cell: WN = 0.407581786 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0006 3.90674 3.90736

2nd ITERATION REQUIRED for % retention of nutrient N:

CHOOSE a value (0.04 < WN < 1) in this YELLOW WN cell: WN = 0.278398498 <-Use Goal Seek

and adapt that WN value, until the value in this PINK cell = 0.000 -0.0001 7.81466 7.81473

% nutrient, retained in the whole can = 17.9848 %

Mass average lethal heat value U for N, at T , integrated over can, U = 53.17 min. S R S,N

6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -68-

Answer 6.4a: Calculate the sterilization time Pt at retort temperatures TR = 117.1 to 127.1 °C step 2 °C, based on each of the target micro-organisms of table 6.1. At the same time calculate the vitamin B1 retention. Use computer program Stumbo.exe. General considerations when using computer program STUMBO.exe (see fig. 6.1 - 6.3): Left hand column: calclation options: condction heating food. Place a (•). Gien: probabilit of srial; is different for each target organism. Reqested: place a tick at each option. Middle column: Heat penetration and processing parameters: Tick at ealate a series of process temperatres. loest or onl process temperatre: 117.1 C highest process temperatre: 127.1 C. temperatre steps: 2 C. heat penetration factor, fh: 83 min. heating lag factor, jh: 2. cooling lag factor, jc: 2. initial food temperatre: 20 C. come-p time retort: 5 min. Right hand column: F ale - organism of concern - ntrient reference temperatre of F ale: 121.1 C. ale of F and/or org. of concern: is different for each target organism. D ale of organism of concern: is different for each target organism. reference temperatre of D: in this case each time 121.1 C. container olme: 1000 g. contamination ith org. of concern: is different for each target organism. BE AWARE: contamination to be inserted in organisms per gram! ale of ntrient: 25 C (for itamin B1). D ale of ntrient: 124 min. (for itamin B1). reference temperatre of D: 121.1 C (for itamin B1). The 3 print screens of computer program STUMBO.exe for each of the 3 micro-organisms of concern, and for nutrient Vitamin B1, can be found in fig. 6.1, fig. 6.2, and fig. 6.3. Table 6.3 summarizes the Stumbo.exe calculation results: Table 6.3: Overview of calculated sterilization times Pt for each of the target organisms for moderate climate countries, calculated by computer program Stumbo.exe. (See fig. 6.1, fig. 6.2, and fig. 6.3 for details.) Micro-organism Required Sterilization Comment Sterilization time Comment of concern F value for time Pt at Pt at (highest) (= target moderate (lowest) retort retort organism) climate temperature temperature

countries TR = 117.1 °C TR = 127.1 °C 10 C. botulinum F 121.1 = 3.0 Pt = 116.1 min. Pt = 87.2 min. (fig. 6.1) min. 12 C. sporogenes F 121.1 = Pt = 132.8 min. Pt = 95.3 min. highest (fig. 6.2) 10.0 min. Pt 9.5 C. nigrificans F 121.1 = Pt = 138.8 highest Pt Pt = 93.5 min. (fig. 6.3) 9.9 min. min.

6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -69-

Fig. 6.1: Calclation of operators process time (= steriliation time), final center temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism of concern is Clostridium botulinum. Nutrient = vitamin B1.

Fig. 6.2: Calclation of operators process time (= steriliation time), final center temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism of concern is Clostridium sporogenes. Nutrient = vitamin B1.

6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -70-

Fig. 6.3: Calclation of operators process time (= steriliation time), final center temperature, F value in center, integrated F value, and nutrient retention, if organism of concern is Clostridium nigrificans. Nutrient = vitamin B1.

Answer 6.4b: Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most appropriate sterilization time at retort temperature TR = 117.1 ⁰C? At retort temperature TR = 117.1 °C, the appropriate sterilization time Pt is Pt = 138.8 min., which is the largest of the 3 Pt values (see table 6.3). This sterilization time is needed to sufficiently destruct C. nigrificans. The 2 other organisms of concern, each with lower required sterilization time Pt, then certainly will be sufficiently destructed.

Note 1: At retort temp. TR = 117.1 °C, the largest of the 3 sterilization times, Pt = 9.5 138.8 min. causes an integrated F value of F 121.1 = 9.9 min. This is NOT the highest F value of the 3 organisms of concern! Restriction in the use of the large F value when calculating the pasteurization or sterilization time: Calculating the pasteurization or sterilization time Pt, based on the largest F value at a particular reference temperature, may not always give the best result. This has been illustrated in the example above, at retort temperature TR = 117.1 °C (Answer 6.4b). Advised calculation procedure to find the best Pt: For each micro-organism of concern separately, the pasteurization or sterilization time Pt should be calculated at the requested retort temperature. After that, the largest of these Pt values at a particular retort temperature should be selected. Only then you can be sure that all target organisms will be destructed sufficiently: the organisms requiring this largest Pt, as well as the other target organisms which require a lower Pt.

6. F value calculations for moderate and tropical climate countries, based on microbial analysis -71-

Answer 6.4c: Consider the calculated sterilization times of answer 6.4a. Which is the most appropriate sterilization time at retort temperature TR = 127.1 ⁰C? At retort temperature TR = 127.1 °C, the appropriate sterilization time Pt is Pt = 95.3 min., the largest of the 3 Pt values (see table 6.2). This sterilization time is needed to sufficiently destruct C. sporogenes. The 2 other organisms of concern, each with lower required sterilization time Pt, then certainly will be sufficiently destructed.

Note 2: At retort temp. TR = 127.1 °C, the largest of the 3 sterilization times, so Pt 9.5 = 95.3 min., causes an integrated F value of F 121.1 = 10 min. This is also the highest F value of the 3 organisms of concern!

Note 3: 1) The Pham Excel file uses the F in the coldest core, and thus calculates the spoilage rate in the 1 cm3 coldest core. The actual spoilage rate for the whole can (= 1000 cm3) will be considerably higher, and be close to the required 1 can per 105 cans! 2) Computer program Stumbo.exe, however, uses the integrated sterilization value for its calculations, and thus calculates the spoilage rate of the whole can (= 1 per 105 cans).

Note 4: Computer program Stumbo calculates both the integrated F value, AND the F value in the 1 cm3 coldest core (F value center). In case of solid products these figures differ, as can be seen in fig. 6.1 to fig. 6.3. If calculations are based on the F value in the (1 cm3) coldest center, then the number of micro-organisms of concern in that 1 cm3 center will have been reduced to the required number. However, in a can of 1000 cm3, there still will be the possibility of some surviving micro-organisms in the 999 cm3 surrounding the centre. Thus the actual spoilage rate of the can will be higher than expected!

Remark on the optimum vitamin B1 retention: During retorting of a solid food, the nutrient retention sometimes goes through a maximum when processing at different retort temperatures. See example calculation in fig. 6.3, on Clostridium nigrificans: vitamin B1 has a maximum retention of about 38.0% at retort temperatures near TR = 121.1 °C.

APPENDIX A: Calculation Scheme STUMBO for liquid foods; from F value to heating time Pt -72-

APPENDIX A: CALCULATION SCHEME STUMBO for manual calculation of the heating time Pt of a liquid food if microbial data (D, z, a, b) or F value are known

Follow the arrows from b at the bottom up to Pt at the top to calculate Pt of a liquid food: LIQUID FOOD

CALCULATION OF THE STERILIZATION TIME Pt [in case the required spoilage rate b by the micro-organism of concern X and the thermal destruction data D, z and a of micro-organism X are known; or if the F value with regard to sufficiently killing micro-organism X is known]

Liquid food: a = TOTAL initial number of micro-organism of concern X in the whole container, prior to heating. ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════ COMPUTER PROGRAM: STUMBO.exe

APPENDIX B: Calculation Scheme STUMBO for liquid foods; from F value to nutrient retention -73-

APPENDIX B: CALCULATION SCHEME STUMBO for manual calculation of the % nutrient retention bN of a liquid food, if microbial data (D, zX, aX, bX) or F value are known, and if nutrient data (DN, zN, initial % = 100) are known

Follow the arrows from bottom left (micro-organism: bX or F) via g to bottom right (nutrient: bN), to calculate the % nutrient retention bN in a liquid food after heating:

LIQUID FOOD

CALCULATION OF THE % NUTRIENT RETENTION bN

[in case the required spoilage rate bX by the micro-organism of concern X and the thermal destruction data D, zX and aX of micro-organism X are known; or if the F value with regard to sufficiently killing micro-organism X is known]

Liquid product: For aN = initial % of nutrient N in food, aX = total initial number of please substitute aN = 100%; micro-organisms X in the whole then the calculated nutrient retention bN will container, prior to heating. be the % nutrient left after heating. For nutrients, some authors use C instead of F Micro-organism of concern X Nutrient N COMPUTER PROGRAM: STUMBO.exe

ZN ZN N.B.: For nutrients, some authors use symbol C instead of F. Thus C TA = F TA .

APPENDIX C: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for z = 10 ⁰C -74

APPENDIX C: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for several jc values if z = 10 ⁰C

Adapted from C.R. Stumbo (1973). Original g values [in ⁰F] converted to ⁰C. How to use this table: If fh/U = 5.00 (left hand column), and jc = 1.20 (top row), then value of g = 3.17 ⁰C. [g in middle section of table, at intersection of row fh/U = 5.00 and column jc = 1.20]. If jc = 1.00 (top row) and g = 4.58 ⁰C (middle section of table), then fh/U = 9.00 (left hand column). [In column jc = 1.00, find g = 4.58 (in middle section of table); row of g leads to fh/U = 9.00 at left side]. APPENDIX D: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for z = 27.8 ⁰C -75

APPENDIX D: Stumbo Table fh/U versus g for several jc values if z = 27.8 ⁰C

Adapted from C.R. Stumbo (1973). Original g values [in ⁰F] converted to ⁰C.

How to use this table: If fh/U = 10.00 (left hand column), and jc = 1.00 (top row), then value of g = 13.7 ⁰C [g in middle section of table, at intersection of row fh/U = 10 and column jc = 1.00]. If jc = 1.40 (top row) and g = 8.54 ⁰C (middle field), then fh/U = 4.00 (left hand column). [In column jc = 1.40, find g = 8.54 (in middle section of table); row of g leads to fh/U = 4.00 at left side].

APPENDIX E: Decision Tree to determine the Minimum Hygienic Status for Chilled Products -76-

APPENDIX E: DECISION TREE TO DETERMINE THE MINIMUM HYGIENIC STATUS FOR CHILLED PRODUCTS

References -77-

References:

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