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Infrastructural Violence, School Districting, and Spatialized Inequity in the San Francisco Bay Area

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Infrastructural Violence, School Districting, and Spatialized Inequity in the San Francisco Bay Area Provisioning Public Education: Infrastructural Violence, School Districting, and Spatialized Inequity in the San Francisco Bay Area By Anne Kiyono Calef BA in Asian American Studies Pomona College Claremont, CA (2012) Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in City Planning at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY May 2020 © 2020 Anne Kiyono Calef. All Rights Reserved The author here by grants to MIT the permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of the thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created. Author_________________________________________________________________ Department of Urban Studies and Planning 20 May 2020 Certified by _____________________________________________________________ Assistant Professor Devin Michelle Bunten Department of Urban Studies and Planning Thesis Supervisor Accepted by____________________________________________________________ Ceasar McDowell Professor of the Practice Chair, MCP Committee Department of Urban Studies and Planning Provisioning Public Education: Infrastructural Violence, School Districting, and Spatialized Inequity in the San Francisco Bay Area By Anne Kiyono Calef Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning on May 20, 2020 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in City Planning ABSTRACT With an alarming budget deficit and mounting fiscal pressures, Oakland Unified School District made a contentious and familiar decision in 2019- to close and consolidate schools. The ensuing conflict exposed a deeper structural fault line with roots in the racialized plunder that has fueled American prosperity and poverty from its founding. Situating the legal and political history of public education within an infrastructural violence framework, this thesis examines how the United States’ system for provisioning schooling has created conditions in which school closures are structurally inevitable in low-income, urban communities of color. I look closely at the boundary between two vastly different but adjacent school districts in the San Francisco Bay Area to argue that the infrastructure of public education enacts violence through its segregation of resources, inequitable distribution of opportunity, and abjection of Black and Latinx students. Under such a framework, school closures emerge as more than the mere consequence of administrative failure, but as the product of a socially constructed and maintained distributional regime. Thesis Supervisor: Devin Michelle Bunten Title: Assistant Professor of Urban Economics and Housing, MIT DUSP Thesis Reader: Gabriella Carolini Title: Associate Professor of International Development and Urban Planning, MIT DUSP 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis is wholly indebted to the insightful comments, deep care, and patient guidance of Professor Devin Michelle Bunten and Professor Gabriella Carolini. I am incredibly grateful for your ongoing support, care, and, above all else, joy that you shared with me throughout this process. In a semester defined by social-distancing, tumult, and deep Zoom fatigue, I would also like to thank my roommates (and apartment dog, Jojo) for being constant sources of humor, levity, and empathy. Without you Jojo, my Instagram story would have been much bleaker. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 5 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 INFRASTRUCTURAL THEORY 9 CHAPTER 1: LOCAL CONTROL AND THE PROVISIONING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 12 OVERVIEW OF THE PROVISIONING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 12 LOCALISM AND THE POLITICAL TRADITION OF RESOURCE SEQUESTRATION 14 HISTORY OF THE SCHOOL DISTRICT IN THE UNITED STATES 17 THE SCHOOL DISTRICT AND LOCALISM 20 CHAPTER 2: POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION AND THE MAINTENANCE OF SEGREGATION 21 WHITE FLIGHT AND MUNICIPAL PROLIFERATION 21 SCHOOL DISTRICT FRAGMENTATION 24 LEGAL CHALLENGES TO SCHOOL DESEGREGATION 26 STATE FUNDING EQUALIZATION IN CALIFORNIA 28 INEQUITABLE DISTRICTS AND UNEVEN EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES 30 CHAPTER 3: SCHOOL DISTRICT BORDERS AND INFRASTRUCTURAL VIOLENCE 31 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE STUDIES AND INFRASTRUCTURAL VIOLENCE 31 SCHOOL DISTRICTING IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 32 INFRASTRUCTURAL VIOLENCE AND THE DISCRETIONARY ENFORCEMENT OF SCHOOL DISTRICT BOUNDARIES 34 ABJECTION AND EMBODIED DISTINCTION 36 CONCLUSION: ON INFRASTRUCTURE, SCHOOL CLOSURES, AND THE INTIMACY OF SCHOOLING 40 WORKS CITED 42 4 INTRODUCTION Oakland Unified School District (OUSD) parent Saru Jayaraman arrived at a recent OUSD school board meeting on crutches. When asked by a reporter about her injuries, Jayaraman responded, “four cops threw me to the ground, injured my knee, tore my ACL, injured my MC meniscus and bone and another parents' ribs were cracked” (quoted in Katsuyama 2019). The violence that Jayaraman described began not on the street, but in an elementary school auditorium. Along with five other community members, Jayaraman was arrested for protesting school closures at the prior OUSD School Board meeting on October 23, 2019. Amidst shouts of “Oakland is not for sale,” Jayaraman pledged to sue the City of Oakland and continue disrupting school board meetings, declaring that “every school board meeting is important, every school board meeting is a chance for us to tell the board that it’s not going to happen, it’s not going to be business as usual until they listen to our demands” (Tadayon, 2019). Source: Teresa Harrington / Ed Source (2019) Jayaraman, along with other parents, teachers, community members, and students were protesting the school district’s plan to close up to 24 schools in the next ten years. With an alarming budget deficit, OUSD officials assert that schools must be consolidated in order to return the district to financial solvency (Harrington, 2019; McEvoy, 2019). The budget shortfall follows years of “poor business practices”(Alameda County Grand Jury, 2019) which, combined with declining enrollment and increased pension obligations, have led to mounting fiscal pressures despite the backdrop of ongoing gentrification in Oakland and corporate investment. In this light, OUSD’s rationale for shuttering school buildings and reassigning their students, teachers, and staff, could be viewed as a cold-eyed cost-benefit analysis, and indeed, it echoes 5 arguments heard around the country that view shrinkage as the primary solution to financial stress (Bierbaum, 2020). However, attention of school reformers has been pulled inexorably towards a familiar target: “underutilized” schools whose students are predominantly Latinx and/or African American (Ewing, 2018; Tieken & Auldridge-Reveles, 2019).1 In this context, police violence can be understood less as a shocking breach of decorum and more as the traditional mode of interaction. Sharpening tensions around school closures in cities like Oakland expose a deeper structural fault line: the tectonic forces of racialized plunder that have fueled American prosperity and poverty from its founding (Hannah-Jones, 2019). The larger historical and legal context makes clear how these forces have oriented public school construction, finance, and management toward the benefit of the powerful and connected. Situating urban public education within a framework of infrastructural violence, this paper examines how the system for provisioning public education in the United States has created conditions in which school closures are structurally inevitable in low-income, urban communities of color. An infrastructural framework not only highlights the material consequences of school districting policies but also how the legal and political architecture itself is a “terrain of power and contestation” (Appel et al., 2018). Focusing on the distributive system for education prompts key questions related to governance, citizenship, and exclusion. It invites larger questions about belonging and abjection- as Appel, Anand and Gupta (2018) ask, “to whom will resources be distributed and from whom will they be withdrawn? … Which communities will be provisioned with resources for social and physical reproduction and which will not?” (p. 2). I argue that the infrastructure developed in the United States to provision public education has reified social stratification, perpetuated racialized violence and furthered spatialized inequality. Studying the history of racism within the “double helix” (Ewing, 2018) of education and urban policy, I demonstrate how the infrastructure of public education, and the normative values embedded within it, operates to segregate resources, differentially distribute opportunity, and abject Black and Latinx students. I look closely at two vastly different but adjacent school districts to chart infrastructural violence as it becomes opaque at district borders. This study ultimately seeks to relocate equity-driven education policy within the realm of urban planning by presenting another example of “state-sanctioned infrastructural abandonment” (Appel, et al, 2018, p. 2) and extending theoretical lenses familiar to planning mainstays such as water (Acey, 2019; Anand, 2012) and energy (Harrison et al., 2019; Pilo, 2017) to the American schoolhouse. Under such a framework, school closures emerge as more than the mere consequence of 1 Roots International Academy, the first school to close under the OUSD “Blueprint for Quality Schools” plan, stands as an example of this logic. At a January 2019 board meeting, OUSD Deputy Chief of Innovation Yvette Renteria commented that
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