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The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/35424 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation
Author: Pop, E.A.L. Title: Neandertal adaptations to Interglacial conditions : a case study from the Eemian site Neumark-Nord 2 (Germany) Issue Date: 2015-09-22 1. Introduction
1.1 HOMININ ADAPTATIONS TO PLEISTOCENE ago (Hublin, 2014). Around that time, the European ENVIRONMENTS continent was colonized by Homo heidelbergensis- like populations, from which Neandertals eventually Evidence for hominin presence in Europe goes back evolved. When this divergence took place is still more than one million years before present (Arzarello uncertain, but Neandertal features are already visible et al., 2009; Carbonell et al., 2008; Garcia et al., 2013; in the 400 ka old fossils from Sima de los Huesos, Muttoni et al., 2013; Toro-Moyano et al., 2013). which are generally ascribed to Homo heidelbergensis Over one million years, hominins in Europe have (Arsuaga et al., 2014). The oldest “classic” Neandertal been exposed to several glacial/interglacial cycles fossils can be dated to around 200 ka (Hublin, 2009), of increasing amplitude, characterized by extreme after which their more or less continuous presence in climatic conditions ranging from polar deserts to warm, Europe can be traced to about 40 ka (Higham et al., forested conditions comparable to our current warm 2014; Hublin, 2014). This large time period covers period, the Holocene. Before half a million years ago the Saalian complex with both interstadial and stadial evidence for hominin presence is limited, while the (full glacial) conditions, the Eemian Interglacial evidence is more substantial for the following half a characterized by climatic conditions comparable to the million years (Roebroeks, 2006, 2001; Roebroeks and current interglacial, and the Weichselian glacial. The Van Kolfschoten, 1994), despite featuring some of the distribution of Neandertal fossil remains covers an area PRVW VHYHUH FOLPDWLF ÀXFWXDWLRQV RI WKH 3OHLVWRFHQH IURP3RUWXJDOLQWKHZHVWWRWKH$OWDL0RXQWDLQVLQWKH HSRFK 0F0DQXV 7KHVHFOLPDWLFÀXFWXDWLRQV east, and from the Netherlands/Germany in the north VLJQL¿FDQWO\ DIIHFWHG WKH GRPLQDQW YHJHWDWLRQ RI to Israel in the south (Villa and Roebroeks, 2014). European landscapes and, higher up in the food chain, Based on the age and distribution of the Neandertal IDXQDO FRPPXQLWLHV WKDW URDPHG WKHVH 3OHLVWRFHQH sites known at the time, Gamble (1987) suggested that environments. These climatic and environmental Neandertals were, despite their inferred physiological FKDQJHV PXVW KDYH KDG D VLJQL¿FDQW LPSDFW RQ DOO cold adaptations (Holliday, 1997; Trinkaus, 1981), facets of hominin life, including subsistence, mobility only able to maintain themselves in intermediate and technology. How did hominins deal with these conditions, between full glacials and full interglacials, environmental changes? During the last half a million during which the landscape was dominated by a very years, the material legacy (predominantly the remains productive steppe-tundra. The environmental rigidity of butchered animals and the stone tools used) of of Neandertals proposed by Gamble was challenged two hominin lineages can inform us on hominin by Roebroeks and colleagues (1992) who showed adaptations to environments of which some seem that Neandertals were present in a wide range of quite “agreeable”, i.e. richly vegetated environments environmental settings, including interglacial ones. characterized by temperate climatic conditions, while others appear to be harsh and unforgiving, The range expansion of modern humans from their glacial environments with little vegetation and soils African homelands into Eurasia took place somewhere sometimes frozen solid by permafrost. These two between 125 and 50-60 ka (e.g. Armitage et al., 2011; hominin groups and their material remains, which Mellars et al., 2013) and the earliest sites in Europe have been studied extensively over the last few suggest that they arrived there around 50 ka (Hublin, centuries, are Homo neanderthalensis (Neandertals) 7KHROGHVWGDWHGIRVVLOIURP3HúWHUDFX2DVH and Homo sapiens (modern humans). has an age of 42–37.8 kyr cal. %3 7ULQNDXV HW DO ,Q(XURSH8SSHU3DODHROLWKLFPRGHUQKXPDQV Neandertals are the probable descendants of an “Out replaced the resident Neandertal population and the of Africa” event taking place roughly a million years associated Mousterian technocomplex. Despite their 1 Introduction
African origin, anatomically modern humans were provided their own unique set of challenges (Bailey able to thrive under relatively harsh conditions of the et al., 1989; Gamble, 1986). During the current pleni- (or “full”) -glacial (MIS 3 and 2). They were the interglacial, the Holocene, the presence of modern ¿UVWKRPLQLQVSHFLHVWRFRORQL]HPDUJLQDODUHDVOLNH humans in these forested environments is well- arctic and subarctic latitudes, except for the coldest established by numerous sites of Mesolithic hunter- part of the Weichselian, when even the northern plains gatherers (e.g. Bailey and Spikins, 2008); a way of seem to be devoid of human presence (Housley et life that persisted until the advent of agriculture. al., 1997; Roebroeks, 2000; Verpoorte, 2009). They Adaptations to these new environments are thought to also colonized strongly continental (Klein, 2009) and have affected subsistence strategies, mobility patterns, tropical environments (Aubert et al., 2014). After the lithic technology, and land-use strategies (e.g. Holst, very cold conditions of the Last Glacial Maximum 3ULFH 6WUHHWHWDO 7KH/DVW (MIS2), modern human populations were confronted Interglacial, the Eemian, has been well-studied from a with a major transition to interglacial climatic climatological and environmental point of view, due to conditions and forested environments. As modern the current interest in climate change and its similarity humans only show gradual physiological changes to the present interglacial. As with the Mesolithic, during their 200 kyr existence (ibid.), their ability the transition to the environmental conditions of the to adapt to a plethora of environments and climatic Last Interglacial is a large departure from the tundra conditions has been attributed to technological and and steppe environments that covered most of Europe social developments associated with modern human during the preceding glacial. behaviour, whether this was the result of a gradual process or a punctuated event (d’ Errico and Stringer, How did Neandertals maintain themselves in these 2011; Klein, 2009; Klein and Edgar, 2002; Marean et fairly different Eemian interglacial environments? In al., 2007; McBrearty and Brooks, 2000). order to answer this question we need to rely on two datasets. First of all, the environmental record of this Due to the dominance of cold climatic conditions period, including (but not limited to) data on climatic GXULQJWKH0LGGOHDQG8SSHU3OHLVWRFHQHDVZHOODV conditions, vegetation, as well as faunal communities. colder conditions characterizing the time period of the These environmental conditions reconstructed from replacement of Neandertals by modern humans, a lot them offered both opportunities as well as challenges of attention has been paid to environmental tolerances that may have affected hominin behaviour. In order on the “cold” side of the climatic spectrum. These to understand how Neandertals adapted to Eemian long (moderately-) cold periods are interspersed by Interglacial environments, we have to rely on a second the short and warm interglacial periods, which are dataset: the archaeological record of this relatively characterized by a forested vegetation type as well as VKRUW³VOLFH´RI3OHLVWRFHQHWLPH different faunal communities. These environmental conditions, from a modern-day temperate-climate Large-scale excavations at Neumark-Nord 2 (Saxony- perspective may seem a major improvement over $QKDOW *HUPDQ\ ¿JXUH KDYH XQFRYHUHG DQ the glacial conditions during the Saalian (MIS 6) and extremely rich archaeological record that could be Weichselian (MIS4-2), but interglacial conditions dated to the Eemian Interglacial (Sier et al., 2011). The
(Weichselian) N
Lehringen
Amsterdam Berlin
Figure 1: Geographical position (Saalian) Gröbern Grabschütz of Neumark-Nord 2 and other Neumark-Nord 2 Rabutz Eemian sites mentioned in the Neumark-Nord 1 Burgtonna text (circles: sedimentary basin Brussels Taubach sites, stars: travertine sites) rela- tive to the maximum ice extents of the Saalian and Weichselian Prague JODFLHUV0RGL¿HGDIWHU 6SHOHHUV 2000). 2 Introduction
¿QHJUDLQHG LQ¿OO RI WKLV SRVWJODFLDO EDVLQ \LHOGHG on the basis of their mollusc content, focus shifted PXOWLSOH ¿QG OHYHOV WKDW FRQWDLQHG ODUJH IDXQDO DQG to the palynological content of equivalent terrestrial lithic assemblages, as well as a rich environmental deposits. These were shown to consistently contain a record that can be correlated with the archaeological pollen sequence that was characteristic of developing ¿QG OHYHOV *DXG]LQVNL:LQGKHXVHU HW DO woodlands, most notably with Corylus (hazel) in early Gaudzinski-Windheuser and Roebroeks, 2014). With stages and Carpinus (hornbeam) later on (Jessen & its large archaeological and environmental record, Milthers 1928). In contrast, the preceding Saalian the site Neumark-Nord 2 allows a detailed study and succeeding Weichselian deposits yielded pollen of hominin behaviour in an Eemian environmental characteristic of an open steppe vegetation. The context. This recently excavated site will therefore be occurrence of arboreal taxa within Eemian deposits used as a case study in this research. The next section VKRZVDVSHFL¿FVXFFHVVLRQZKLFKPDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWR ZLOO ¿UVW SURYLGH DQ RYHUYLHZ RI ZKDW LV DOUHDG\ subdivide it into several biostratigraphic units (Menke known about the environmental conditions during the and Tynni, 1984; Selle, 1962; Zagwijn, 1961). This Eemian, including its duration, climatic conditions and typical succession of tree taxa is relatively uniform, vegetation, as well as patterns of hominin presence as it can be found in pollen sequences across Europe DQGEHKDYLRXUGXULQJWKLVSHULRGDVUHÀHFWHGLQWKH (Behre and Lade, 1986; Turner, 2000; Zagwijn, 1989). archaeological record. The overall vegetation succession is as follows (table 1): after the dominance of high herb taxa and some 1.2 THE EEMIAN INTERGLACIAL GZDUI ELUFK DQG ±ZLOORZ LQ WKH ¿QDO /DWH 6DDOLDQ the temperate conditions of the Eemian Interglacial 'H¿QLWLRQDQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFV DUH¿UVWVLJQDOOHGE\DQH[SDQVLRQRIZRRGODQGDQG IRUHVWVGRPLQDWHGE\ELUFK 3ROOHQ$VVHPEODJH=RQH The term “Eemian” is often loosely correlated to 3$= ,IROORZLQJ0HQNHDQG7\QQL DQGELUFK the Last Interglacial (MIS5e) known from marine SLQH 3$=,, 7KLVLVUDSLGO\IROORZHGE\LQFUHDVHVLQ records, which is characterized by high sea levels and GHFLGXRXVWD[DZLWK¿UVW PL[HG RDNIRUHVWV 3$=,,, warm climatic conditions (Shackleton, 1969; Turon, DQGODWHUKD]HO 3$=,9 DQGVSKDJQXPPRVV 3$=9,, )URPYDUYHFRXQWVDW reliable modern analogues (Kühl and Litt, 2003). The the sites of Bispingen and Quackenbrück, the duration competing indicator species method does not show of the individual pollen assemblage zones is known these mid-Eemian decreases in January temperatures, (table 1) and the duration of the complete sequence but rather uninterrupted warm conditions for most of spans some 10 to 11 kyr (Müller, 1974; Hahne et al., the Eemian (Zagwijn 1996, Aalbersberg & Litt 1998). 1994). A newer method using probability density functions rather than threshold values negates changes in the In terms of its chronology, the Eemian vegetational climate dependency of a certain taxon. This method sequence is tied to a regional sea-level high stand in applied to Bispingen and Gröbern (both in Germany) the North Sea (e.g. Zagwijn, 1996, 1983), but this shows a rapid rise of temperatures to above present- high stand lasts shorter than the MIS 5e peak in the day values in the early Eemian and during the mid- deep sea record. Also the onset of the Eemian is not Eemian higher precipitation levels, slightly lower exactly that of the onset of MIS 5e. This shows that ZLQWHU WHPSHUDWXUHV DQG QR GUDPDWLF ÀXFWXDWLRQV the Eemian and the Last Interglacial (as known from (Kühl et al., 2007; Kühl and Litt, 2003). These results marine, coral, speleothem and ice-core records) are PDWFKWKRVHUHFRQVWUXFWHGIRU/D*UDQGH3LOH )UDQFH not exactly equivalent. Several studies have stressed using the modern analogue method (Cheddadi et the varying offsets in the timings of the interglacial al., 1998) as well as the pollen records reviewed by marine isotope record and that of the terrestrial Helmens (2014, and references therein) and terrestrial record of continental Europe, in terms of start dates, isotope studies (Boettger et al., 2000). Near the end end dates and the total duration (Kukla et al., 1997, RIWKHLQWHUJODFLDOWKHUHLVDVLJQL¿FDQWGURSLQZLQWHU 2002; Sánchez Goñi et al., 2005; Shackleton et al., temperatures and precipitation (Helmens, 2014; Kühl 2003). Loss of global ice volume and ocean warming, et al., 2007; Kühl and Litt, 2003). DV UHÀHFWHG LQ PDULQH LVRWRSH UHFRUGV SUHFHGHG the dominance in tree vegetation by about 5 kyr in The multidisciplinary analyses characterize the 3RUWXJDO 6iQFKH]*RxLHWDO 6KDFNOHWRQ Eemian as a 10 to 11 kyr long period in which et al., 2003). Sier and colleagues have established a most of the European middle latitudes are covered further offset of c. 4.5 kyr for the onset of the Eemian with a deciduous forest vegetation, that shows a in northwestern and central Europe. Their age-model VXFFHVVLRQ W\SLFDO IRU WKLV VSHFL¿F LQWHUJODFLDO 7KH places the whole of the Eemian in the second half of climatic conditions are relatively stable and overall MIS 5e, with age estimates of 121 ka for its start and comparable with the Holocene, although slightly 110 ka for its end (Sier et al., 2014, 2011). In this age higher temperatures are documented for the early part PRGHOWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURP3$=9WR9,FRUUHODWHVWR of the interglacial. As stressed by Gamble (1986), that of MIS 5e to 5d at c. 115 ka (Sier et al., 2015). environmental settings as described above only UHSUHVHQWRI0LGGOHDQG8SSHU3OHLVWRFHQHWLPH2I Various climatological reconstructions have been these periods with interglacial conditions, the Eemian provided for the Eemian interglacial, based on oxygen can be considered one of the more pronounced in isotope records from marine cores, ice cores and terms of high temperatures, achieved early within the speleothems, as well as on terrestrial pollen records. interglacial, and overall oceanic climatic conditions. Initial oxygen isotope studies of the Greenland LFH FRUHV *5,3'DQVJDDUG HW DO VHHPHG WR There has been much debate about the ability of VKRZ VLJQL¿FDQW ÀXFWXDWLRQV LQ WKH LFH YROXPH EXW Neanderthals to cope with these extreme conditions. the layering of the ice near the base was disturbed From an environmental point of view, the exact (Chappellaz et al., 1997; Grootes et al., 1993). Other structure of the Eemian vegetation is a key point FRUHVIURP*UHHQODQG 1*5,31((0 GRQRWVKRZ in this discussion. Based on pollen data, Eemian WKHVHÀXFWXDWLRQV $QGHUVHQHWDO 'DKO-HQVHQ environments seem to be dominated by a closed et al., 2013). The recently published NEEM core forest vegetation (e.g. Zagwijn, 1989). However, most indicates an early peak in temperature, followed by Eemian sites yielded faunal assemblages with both a gradual decline during the middle and late phases species characteristic of forested environments as well of the interglacial (Dahl-Jensen et al., 2013). The as open environments (van Kolfschoten, 2002, 2000). terrestrial record consists of palynological records This seems to suggest mixed or mosaic environments, from sedimentary basins with an Eemian Interglacial which is at odds with the palaeobotanical record (van LQ¿OO3DO\QRORJLFDOVWXGLHVXVLQJWKHPRGHUQDQDORJXH Kolfschoten, 2000). Different interpretations have technique show a transition within the Eemian from been given for this discrepancy. Some researchers oceanic to more continental conditions with the onset interpret it as the presence of open patches created by of the Carpinus phase (Field et al., 1994). The used ¿UHVVWRUPVÀRRGVDQGJUD]LQJKHUELYRUHVWKHODWWHU method has however been criticized for its lack of especially along interglacial rivers (Roebroeks and 4 Introduction Speleers, 2002; Svenning, 2002). Others emphasize were either young or weakened animals, rather than the effect of the subcontinental conditions that prime age individuals (Gaudzinski-Windheuser and characterize the area from which most sites are known Roebroeks, 2011). The limited number of sites from (Svenning, 2002; van Kolfschoten, 2000). According this time period and the lack of sites from Western to Vera, primeval interglacial forests were generally Europe presented, and still present, an interpretative more open, due to the effect of grazing herbivores (Vera, challenge. Both environmental preferences and 2000, 1997). Despite these different interpretations research/preservational biases have been considered of the structure of the Eemian vegetation, there is a as possible explanations for the low number of known general agreement that wooded environments played sites. a dominant role in the Eemian interglacial landscape. Some researchers interpreted the lack of sites from 5HVHDUFKKLVWRU\ western Europe and the handful of sites from eastern Europe as evidence that Neandertals preferred the *DPEOH ZDV DPRQJ WKH ¿UVW WR TXHVWLRQ WKH DELOLW\ mosaic structures of the vegetation which would have of hominins to exploit forested environmental been more prominent in the continental interior of conditions (Gamble, 1987, 1986). Despite its high Europe, while Neandertals were not able to maintain primary production, deciduous forests are dominated themselves in the more closed forest vegetation of by biomass not suitable for hominin consumption, western Europe (Ashton, 2002; Gamble, 1999). because it is too expensive to process or only seasonally Arguments against a preference for environments available (Gamble, 1986; Kelly, 1983). Secondary only found in eastern Europe were soon provided biomass would also have been affected by forested by the discoveries at Caours, France (Antoine et al., conditions, resulting in lower densities of animals VHH ¿JXUH DQG D JHQHUDO ODFN RI HYLGHQFH (smaller herds) and a more dispersed distribution IRUDVLJQL¿FDQWYHJHWDWLRQJUDGLHQWEHWZHHQHDVWHUQ (Frenzel, 1985; Kelly, 1983). Furthermore, megafauna and western Europe, with a possible exception of the species have a low reproductive rate, which makes early part of the Eemian (Gaudzinski-Windheuser and them vulnerable to overexploitation (Gamble, 1987). Roebroeks, 2011). Furthermore the oceanic conditions At the time Gamble developed his theory, scavenging that characterize interglacial periods did not seem was thought to be the primary mode of subsistence for to have a negative impact on hominin occupation of pre-modern hominins (Binford, 1985; Gamble, 1987) western Europe before the Eemian. ZKLFKZRXOGKDYHEHHQGLI¿FXOWZLWKWKHODFNRIIDOO out from large herds normally found in more open The fact that only a limited number of Eemian environments. For these reasons, as well as the lack archaeological sites are known has been attributed to of unambiguous Eemian sites at that time, Gamble research- and preservational biases (Roebroeks and stated that Neandertals were not living in closed forest Speleers, 2002; Speleers, 2000). Gamble emphasized conditions, and preferred intermediate conditions the lack of Eemian sites by comparing it with the between full glacials and interglacials (Gamble, 1987, Mesolithic record (1986). However, unlike the 1986). 0HVROLWKLFVLWHV(HPLDQVLWHVFDQQRWEHLGHQWL¿HGEDVHG on the typology of lithic artefacts. The mammalian These arguments were countered by Roebroeks and fauna of the Eemian is typical for interglacial periods, colleagues based on a limited number of unambiguous but not unique and can therefore not be used to Eemian sites, mostly located in eastern Germany (see attribute deposits to this time period (Roebroeks ¿JXUH DVZHOODVRQVLWHVIURPHDUOLHULQWHUJODFLDOV DQG 6SHOHHUV 7KH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI (HPLDQ (Roebroeks et al., 1992). Later, with clear evidence deposits relies on combining stratigraphic correlation of Neandertal hunting available (Gaudzinski, 2004; of environmental data and/or absolute dating methods Gaudzinski and Roebroeks, 2000), the practical (Roebroeks et al., 1992). Especially pollen analysis objections to hominin exploitation of forested plays an important role in this respect, but this environments were taken away – hominins were technique requires good conditions of preservation not dependent on natural deaths within large herds. DQG UHFRUGV RI VXI¿FLHQW OHQJWK:HOOSUHVHUYHGDQG As many Eemian sites yield solitary carcasses of VXI¿FLHQWO\ORQJSROOHQVHTXHQFHVDUHRIWHQIRXQGLQ large herbivores (Lehringen, Thieme et al., 1985; the relatively thick Eemian deposits of sedimentary Gröbern and Neumark-Nord, Mania, 1990), it has basins. The landscape between the maximum limits of been suggested that Neandertal hunting focused on the Saalian the Weichselian glaciations is littered with the larger and mega herbivores which would have small basins inherited from the Saalian deglaciation, been less expensive to exploit than smaller sized often containing interglacial deposits. These have not prey (Gaudzinski, 2004; Gaudzinski-Windheuser been destroyed by the invasive Weichselian ice-sheet and Roebroeks, 2011). Most of these individuals front in the Last Glacial, because the ice did not reach 5 Introduction as far south as before. Most VHQVX VWULFWR Eemian due to the usually challenging conditions associated DUFKDHRORJLFDO VLWHV ¿JXUH DUH NQRZQ IURP WKLV with a rescue excavation conditions and/or the early particular setting and are therefore the most important discovery of archaeological material within the source of information on Neandertal activities in KLVWRU\RIWKHUHVHDUFK¿HOG *DXG]LQVNL:LQGKHXVHU Eemian environments, although it also introduces a and Roebroeks, 2011). FRQWH[WGHSHQGHQWELDV7KHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRI(HPLDQ deposits in the area is further facilitated by the Saalian 5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV till deposits that function as a stratigraphic marker. These factors may explain the lack of sites from the The overview of the current knowledge on Eemian UK, as its postglacial landscape has been overridden environmental and archaeological records shows and disturbed by the Weichselian glacier, reaching there are still gaps that hamper our understanding a similar maximum extent as during the Saalian of Neandertal adaptations to Eemian interglacial (Turner, 2000). Whether sites were there to begin with environments. Although it is generally accepted can however be disputed, as the high sea levels of the that Eemian environments were predominantly Eemian may have kept Neandertals at the continent in covered by a forest vegetation, the exact openness WKH¿UVWSODFH $VKWRQ of this vegetation when Neandertals inhabited these landscapes remains unclear, while this environmental Known Eemian localities beyond the Saalian variable has the potential to put severe constraints ice limit include travertine contexts, which are on subsistence opportunities. Not yet discussed, mostly radiometrically dated to this time period. A but also of importance, are the consequences of concentration of such travertine localities can be found changing environments for the availability of raw in eastern Germany (Gaudzinski-Windheuser and materials for tool production. On the one hand more 5RHEURHNV 6LWHV IURP ÀXYLDWLOH FRQWH[WV DUH vegetated environments would have decreased the rare. If they preserve pollen, sequences are often too visibility of lithic resources (Wenban-Smith, 1998), short to identify them as being of Eemian age (Turner, despite the abundance of Saalian till deposits in 2000). Nevertheless, recent excavations at Caours, the subsoil (e.g. Eissmann, 2002). On the other France, yielded large faunal and lithic assemblages hand, forested environments would have provided IURP ÀXYLDWLOH GHSRVLWV WKDW FDQ EH GDWHG WR WKH abundant raw materials, not only for tool production climatic optimum of the Eemian by a combination of (e.g. the Lehringen spear; Thieme et al., 1985), radiometric dating, malacological studies and terrace but also pyrotechnology. Therefore: what are the stratigraphy (Antoine et al., 2006). The upland areas HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI WKH ODQGVFDSHV LQ in between these different types of sediment traps are ZKLFK 1HDQGHUWDOV ZHUH SUHVHQW GXULQJ WKH (HPLDQ generally characterized by younger soil erosion and ,QWHUJODFLDODQGZKDWFKDOOHQJHVGLGWKH\SRVH" therefore not likely to preserve Eemian deposits. Based on the archaeological record, Neandertal Apart from context-dependent conservation and the presence in Eemian environments is well-established. YDULDEOHLGHQWL¿DELOLW\RIGHSRVLWVGDWLQJWRWKH(HPLDQ The information on Neandertal behaviour during Interglacial, the known number and distribution of the Eemian Interglacial is however based on the Eemian sites is further affected by the availability of discovery and excavation of a small number of sites, exposures. The large scale open-cast lignite mining a situation that strongly contrasts with the abundance in eastern Germany played an important role in of Mesolithic sites known from the beginning of the this respect. These mining activities exposed many present interglacial (Bailey and Spikins, 2008). The Eemian basin localities of which some also yielded limited number of known Eemian sites can to a large archaeological material. Especially the area around extent be attributed to biasing factors, including post- Leipzig and Halle is well-known for its large-scale depositional processes (Roebroeks and Speleers, exploitation of lignite. Quarrying exposed several 2002; Speleers, 2000), but nevertheless limits our Eemian basin localities with an archaeological record understanding of Neandertal adaptations to interglacial (Rabutz, Grabschütz, Gröbern and Neumark-Nord 1: HQYLURQPHQWV 3DWWHUQV REVHUYHG LQ WKH UHFRUG OLNH Mania et al., 1990; Toepfer, 1958; Weber, 1990). In the dominance of small kill-and-butchering sites a similar vein, the exploitation of travertine localities of especially large mammals (Gaudzinski, 2004), from the 18th century onwards and interest of collectors PD\ UHÀHFW DGDSWDWLRQV WR (HPLDQ ,QWHUJODFLDO OHGWRWKHGLVFRYHU\RI3OHLVWRFHQHIDXQDODVVHPEODJHV environments, but may also be a product of the limited as well as archaeology, including material that can be QXPEHURIH[SRVXUHVQRWUHÀHFWLQJWKHIXOOUDQJHRI attributed to the Eemian Interglacial (e.g. Taubach). Neandertal behavior within the Eemian landscape. Furthermore, the quality of the documentation of the Therefore, WKHTXHVWLRQRIVWUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQRORJLHV ¿QGVIURPOLJQLWHDQGWUDYHUWLQHTXDUULHVYDULHVJUHDWO\ HPSOR\HGE\1HDQGHUWDOVWRPHHWWKHFKDOOHQJHVVHW 6 Introduction E\ (HPLDQ ,QWHUJODFLDO HQYLURQPHQWV UHTXLUHV PRUH record that can be situated within an extensive and UHVHDUFK detailed environmental record, providing information on the basin conditions, the environment surrounding Necessary are archaeological sites that can address both the basin and the time depth of the archaeological issues by providing detailed information on hominin ¿QG OHYHOV )XUWKHUPRUH LWV FORVH DVVRFLDWLRQ ZLWK behaviour within its environmental context. The case the neighbouring and substantially larger Neumark- study site Neumark-Nord 2 is not merely a “dot” of Nord 1 basin allows us to provide environmental Neandertal presence on the map of known Eemian reconstructions on a larger scale and study hominin localities, but is able to provide a better understanding activity in the wider Neumark-Nord environment. of both the environmental conditions during phases of hominin presence as well as strategies and adaptations *HRORJLFDOEDFNJURXQG to these environments. The next section will introduce the case study site and expound on its information The Neumark-Nord site complex is situated in the potential and special position within the body of OLJQLWHTXDUU\0FKHOQ ¿JXUH LQWKHYDOOH\RIWKH known Eemian localities, before introducing the ULYHU *HLVHO ZKLFK ÀRZV LQWR WKH ULYHU 6DDOH DERXW 1HXPDUN1RUGVSHFL¿FLVVXHVWKDWZLOOEHDGGUHVVHG NPVRXWKRI+DOOH*HUPDQ\ ¿JXUH 7KHNP by the following chapters. long and 5 km wide Geisel valley is formed in the Merseburger Buntsandsteinplatte which outcrops at 1.3 NEUMARK-NORD 2 CASE STUDY the northern side of the valley and is overlain by the 0FKHOQHU0XVFKHONDONSODWHDX on the southern side ,QWURGXFWLRQ ¿JXUH 7KHORQJLWXGLQDOEDVLQVWUXFWXUHZDVIRUPHG through subsidence of the subsoil caused by various Neumark-Nord 2 is, like most other Eemian basin processes including movement within the deeper lying ORFDOLWLHVORFDWHGLQDVSHFL¿FDUHDRI(XURSHORFDWHG Zechstein deposits, as well as by tectonics (Thomae between the maximal ice extent of the Saalian and and Rappsilber, 2010a). During the Tertiary the area :HLFKVHOLDQ JODFLHUV ¿JXUHV ZKHUH WKHUH DUH was situated in a vegetated coastal zone of a shallow VXI¿FLHQWVHGLPHQWWUDSVDQGZKHUHWKHUHKDYHEHHQ sea, which eventually led to the formation of lignite ample opportunities for discovery through the large during the subsequent 4-8 million years (ibid.). These scale exploitation of lignite deposits. Despite the EURZQFRDOGHSRVLWVOLHDWWKHEDVHRIWKH3OHLVWRFHQH strong similarities with other Eemian basin localities, GHSRVLWVWKDW¿OOWKHEDVLQVWUXFWXUHIRUPLQJWKH*HLVHO it does show some important differences, which make Valley and play an important role in the preservation Neumark-Nord 2 an ideal case study for testing existing as well as the discovery of the Eemian deposits in the and providing new hypotheses regarding Neandertals 1HXPDUN1RUGDUHD7KHSUHVHUYDWLRQRI LGHQWL¿DEOH adaptations to Eemian Interglacial environments. Eemian deposits is related to the presence of several This includes its exceptionally large, well-preserved, smaller basin structures within the Saalian till. These VWUDWL¿HG GLYHUVH DQG ZHOOGDWHG DUFKDHRORJLFDO basin structures formed at the end of the Saalian glacial Figure 2: Detailed map show- ing the position of the Neu- mark-Nord sites in Eastern Ger- many relative to the maximum ice extent of the Saalian glacier. 0RGL¿HGDIWHU(LVVPDQQ 7 Introduction Figure 3: The position of the Neumark-Nord 2 basin in the for- mer lignite quarry which is now a recreational lake (the Geiseltalsee). Neumark-Nord Blosien The former Neumark-Nord 1 basin is shown situated ca. 200 meters SE of Neumark-Nord 2. Stöbnitz NN2 NN1 Frankleben Geiseltalsee Mücheln Krumpa Braunsbedra 0 500 m complete steppe mammoth (Mammuthus trogontherii) RI 6DDOLDQ DJH IURP WKH 3IlQQHUWDO DUHD 7RHSIHU 1957). 7KH ¿UVW 1HXPDUN1RUG EDVLQ 11 VHH ¿JXUH was discovered in 1985 by quarry geologist Thomae during lignite mining activities. A team led by Mania studied the basin deposits from a geological and archaeological point of view (Mania et al., 1990). In 1995 mining activities made it impossible to continue the excavations. At the NN1 basin, formed within the 6DDOLDQWLOODQLQ¿OORIPHWHUVRIODFXVWULQHDQGSHDW GHSRVLWVZDVGRFXPHQWHG\LHOGLQJDYHU\ULFKÀRUDO DQGIDXQDOUHFRUG7KHÀRUDOUHFRUGFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKH Figure 4: Cross-section of the Geiseltal showing the lignite environment as semi-open with both forested patches, deposits overlying the Merseburger Buntsandsteinplatte, with the latter outcropping at the northern side. The Müchelner Mus- as well as more open areas (Mania et al., 2010, 2008; chelkalkplateau outcrops on the southern side. After Thomae & Mania and Thomae, 2013). The fauna recovered from Rappsilber (2010). the basin area includes a large number of articulated carcasses of elephant, rhinoceros, and bovids and (MIS6), when increasing temperatures created a diapir especially fallow deer, accompanied by few, large, of lignite deposits (Thomae, 1990). These basins were XQUHWRXFKHG ÀDNHV )XUWKHUPRUH VFDWWHUV RI PRVWO\ VXEVHTXHQWO\¿OOHGZLWK¿QHJUDLQHGVLOWORDPVGXULQJ fragmented faunal remains and lithic artefacts, the Eemian Interglacial. During the Weichselian the including retouched tools and cores, were found at area was covered with thick loess deposits, sealing WKH PDUJLQ RI WKLV EDVLQ LQ WZR VHSDUDWH ¿QG OHYHOV off the interglacial basins and the deposits that they or 8IHU]RQHQ, indicating the presence of hominins contain. at the basin locality (Mania, 1990). The interglacial sequence is overlain by loess deposits. As the research /LJQLWH H[SORLWDWLRQ GLVFRYHU\ DQG H[FDYDWLRQ took place during mining activities, the excavations RI1HXPDUN1RUGEDVLQV only covered small parts of the 24 ha. large basin and were undertaken under a certain amount of time The lignite deposits in the Geisel valley have been pressure (Gaudzinski-Windheuser et al., 2014). Some exploited over a 300 years period, until the mid- have claimed an intra-Saalian (MIS6) age for the 1990s. The exploitation of these lignite deposits, 1HXPDUN1RUG EDVLQ LQ¿OO EDVHG RQ VWUDWLJUDSKLF H[SRVLQJ (RFHQH DQG 3OHLVWRFHQH GHSRVLWV DWWUDFWHG observations, environmental arguments and absolute natural historians and collectors, especially from the dating (Karelin, 1997; Mania, 1998; Mania et al., 19th century onwards. In particular the mammal and 2010, 2008, 2004; Mania and Thomae, 2013). The PROOXVFDQIDXQDRIWKH0LGGOHDQG8SSHU3OHLVWRFHQH environmental and stratigraphical arguments have ZHUH H[WHQVLYHO\ VWXGLHG LQFOXGLQJ WKH ¿QG RI D however been refuted and the TL date dismissed 8 Introduction because of methodological errors (Litt 1992; Strahl et (The Netherlands). At the end of the excavations an al., 2011). DUHD RI P ¿JXUH ZDV H[FDYDWHG H[SRVLQJ QRW RQO\ WKH 11 ¿QG OHYHO EXW DOVR WZR RWKHU 7KH VLJQL¿FDQWO\ VPDOOHU DQG VKDOORZHU 1HXPDUN ¿QG OHYHOV WKH ROGHU 1HXPDUN1RUG 1 DQG WKH 1RUGEDVLQ KD ¿JXUH ZDVGLVFRYHUHGLQ E\ \RXQJHU 1HXPDUN1RUG ¿QG OHYHOV $OWKRXJK Mania at the end of the Neumark-Nord 1 excavations, a pre-Eemian age has been proposed for NN2/2 ca. 200 meter northeast. Geoelectrical measurements (Mania and Thomae, 2013), pollen analysis, amino and geological drillings made it possible to reconstruct acid racemization of Bithynia opercula, TL and OSL the subsoil morphology of a large part of the basin dates, as well as stratigraphical and palaeomagnetic (Thomae and Rappsilber, 2010b), while the eastern observations, clearly show that the complete basin part of the former basin was already missing due to LQ¿OOLQFOXGLQJ¿QGOHYHO11GDWHVWRWKH(HPLDQ mining activity in the adjacent quarry (Alttagebau; Interglacial (Gaudzinski-Windheuser and Roebroeks, ¿JXUH :KHQ H[FDYDWLRQV RI WKLV EDVLQ VWDUWHG 2014; Sier et al., 2011; Strahl et al., 2011). lignite quarrying had already ended. Initially only the HDUO\ :HLFKVHOLDQ 11 ¿QG OHYHO ZDV H[FDYDWHG After the mining activities stopped in the late 90’s, the starting in 2003, but the construction of a geological large quarry was redeveloped as a large recreational WUHQFK H[SRVHG ¿QG OHYHO 11 ([FDYDWLRQV RI lake, the Geiseltalsee. Already before the excavations WKLV ¿QG OHYHO VWDUWHG LQ DQG \LHOGHG ODUJH of Neumark-Nord 2 started, water was being diverted DPRXQWV RI ÀLQW DUWHIDFWV DQG IDXQDO UHPDLQV 7KH IURPWKH6DDOHDQG8QVWUXWWWR¿OOWKHIRUPHUTXDUU\ H[FDYDWLRQ RI WKHVH ¿QG OHYHOV ZDV LQLWLDOO\ FDUULHG with water. As a consequence, the Neumark-Nord 2 out by the /DQGHVDPW IU 'HQNPDOSÀHJH XQG ¿HOGZRUNZDVHVVHQWLDOO\DUHVFXHH[FDYDWLRQ'XULQJ $UFKlRORJLH 6DFKVHQ$QKDOW only, but from 2006 WKH H[FDYDWLRQV RI 1HXPDUN1RUG WKH ÀRRGLQJ RI onwards excavations took place in cooperation with the quarry continued. Around 2008 the excavations the Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for were terminated due to the high water levels, while Human Behavioural Evolution (Monrepos) of the WKHÀRRGLQJFRQWLQXHGXQWLOWKHWDUJHWRI P11 5|PLVFK*HUPDQLVFKHV =HQWUDOPXVHXP (Germany) (above sea level) was reached and a 18.9 km2 lake and the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University FUHDWHG ¿JXUH %\WKLVWLPH11ZDVFRPSOHWHO\ HP5 Neumark-Nord 2 excavation area LIGNITE QUARRY Alttagebau HP10 HP7 Neumark-Nord 2 basin Approximate outline Cross section fig 6 Figure 5: 3RVLWLRQRIWKHH[FDYD- tion area and sampling areas in relation to the approximate out- line of the former Neumark-Nord 2 basin (dotted line). A cross-sec- tion of the intersecting (dashed) line is shown in Figure 6. The eastern part of the basin has been 0 20 m removed by mining activity (dark grey area). 9 Introduction S N 120 Neumark Nord 2 basin 120 115 115 110 110 105 HP7 Excavation area 105 100 100 95 95 90 90 85 85 m* 200 m 225 250 275 300 325 350 Loess Basin infill Till Lignite Figure 6:6FKHPDWLF1RUWK6RXWKFURVVVHFWLRQRIWKH1HXPDUN1RUGEDVLQVKRZLQJWKHSRVLWLRQRI+3DQGWKHH[FDYDWLRQDUHD 0RGL¿HGIURP6LHUHWDO 7KHEDVLQLQ¿OOLVVKRZQVLWXDWHGEHWZHHQWKHEDVDO6DDOLDQWLOOGHSRVLWVDQGRYHUO\LQJ:HLFKVHOLDQ loess. ÀRRGHG ZLWK WKH ORFDWLRQ RI 11 VLWXDWHG DW WKH KDYHEHHQLGHQWL¿HG 0FKHU 6LHUHWDO margins of the newly created lake. as well as sampled for micromorphology, various environmental proxies and dating techniques. The 1HXPDUN1RUG micromorphological analysis (Mücher, 2014) shows that the calcareous silt loams were predominantly 7KH 1HXPDUN1RUG EDVLQ ¿JXUH LV IRUPHG GHSRVLWHGE\RYHUODQGÀRZRIWHQLQVWDQGLQJZDWHU in till deposits through a lignite diapir that caused but also by colluviation. It further showed that the deformation of the subsoil. The till deposits are of sedimentation process was relatively continuous, 6DDOLDQ DJH PRUH VSHFL¿FDOO\ WKH =HLW]SKDVH RI apart from two phases of incipient soil formation the Drenthe stadial (Strahl et al., 2011; Wansa and (unit 10 and 12) and that disturbance of the sediments 5DG]LQVNL 7KH EDVLQ LQ¿OO LV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ through bioturbation is limited. The incidental calcareous silt loams which reach a thickness of 7 meter presence of gypsum crystals in the upper part of the near the centre of the basin at +DXSWSUR¿O ¿JXUHV sequence (unit 9-10; 12-14) indicates phases of dry $WWKLVORFDWLRQ OLWKRORJLFDOXQLWV ¿JXUH conditions in the basin; it is possible that the basin Depth Stratigraphic Pollen record ke Archaeological Men r (cm) units e 4 find levels 8 s s u s i 19 la s rc lu inu s es aft 0 tu u e ry rp e on e n u o a Z ynn B Pi Q C C Abi & T 19 50 (VI) + VII Not exposed 18 100 16-17 15 V 150 14 No/few finds 200 IVb3 NN2/1b 13 250 12 No/few finds 11 IVb2 NN2/1c 300 10 No/few finds 350 IVb1 9 400 NN2/2a IVa2 8 NN2/2b 450 No/few finds 500 7 IVa1 NN2/2c No/few finds 550 6 III NN2/3 600 5 II Not exposed Figure 7: 6WUDWLJUDSK\RI+3 showing the lithostartigraphical 650 4 units, the Neumark-Nord arboreal I pollen record and associated 700 20 40 60 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 3 pollen assemblage zones (Sier et al., 2011) and the position of the 750 ¿QGOHYHOVUHODWLYHWR+3 10 Introduction fell dry completely during these phases (Mücher, 1HXPDUN1RUG¿QGOHYHOKDVEHHQWKHIRFXVRIWKH 2014), but never for long periods of time as indicated lithic and faunal analyses following the excavations. by a continuous presence of the fresh water algae of 6SLURJ\UD(Bakels, 2012)$VVRFLDWHGÀXFWXDWLRQVRI The 120.000 mammalian remains from Neumark- the waterbody are also indicated by occasional gley Nord 2/2 show excellent preservation, which is most phenomena. The interglacial sequence is covered by likely the result of the calcareous soil as well as of ca. 6 meters of Weichselian loess. quick burial through high sedimentation rates. The assemblage is dominated by herbivores like fallow At +DXSWSUR¿O 7, the silt loams situated between the deer (Dama dama), red deer (Cervus elaphus), bovids till and the loess have been extensively sampled for (Bos primigenius, %LVRQ 3ULVFXV), and horse ((TXXV pollen analysis. The well-preserved pollen show a sp.) (Kindler et al., 2014). Megaherbivores, like W\SLFDO(HPLDQYHJHWDWLRQDOVXFFHVVLRQ ¿JXUH RI rhinoceros (6WHSKDQRUKLQXV sp.) and straight tusked ¿UVWBetula 3$=, followed by Pinus/Betula 3$=,, elephant (3DODHROR[RGRQ DQWLTXXV) are present in and 4XHUFHWXPPL[WXP 3$=,,, 7KHODUJHVWSDUW FD low numbers. Carnivores were found in low numbers 4 m) of the sequence correlates with the Corylus phase DVZHOODQGLQFOXGHZROIOLRQDQGEHDU2WKHU¿QGV 3$=,9 7KHVHTXHQFHHQGVZLWK¿UVWCarpinus 3$= LQFOXGH ELUGV UHSWLOHV DQG ¿VKHV *DXG]LQVNL 9 SKDVHIROORZHGZLWKWKHFRQLIHURXVVSHFLHVRI3$= Windheuser et al., 2014; Kindler et al., 2014). Most of VI/VII (for a detailed description see: Sier et al., 2011; the faunal remains are disarticulated and fragmented. Bakels, 2014). At the same location and interval, The fragmentation can be (partially) attributed to samples were also taken to retrieve macrobotanical marrow exploitation and/or the production of bone remains, molluscs and ostracods. Together with the ÀDNHV 6RPH RI WKH ERQHV HYHQ VKRZ HYLGHQFH IRU palynological record, these remains inform us on the use as tools, for example bone percussors and simple environmental conditions within and surrounding the scrapers. Also suggestive of hominin involvement are basin locality through time. the large quantity of cut-marks on the bones, which are characteristic of butchery (Kindler et al., 2014). 7KH DUFKDHRORJLFDO ¿QGV KDYH EHHQ UHFRYHUHG IURP The lack of carnivore marks and high incidence of cut VHYHUDO¿QGOHYHOVDWWKHQRUWKHUQPDUJLQRIWKHEDVLQ marks on the faunal assemblage has been explained As exposures were also made between the basin as a “hominin dominance” at the locale during FHQWUHDQGWKHEDVLQPDUJLQWKH(HPLDQ¿QG OHYHOV Neandertal presence there (Gaudzinski-Windheuser et can be correlated with units in +DXSWSUR¿O ¿JXUH DO %RYLGDQGHTXLGUHPDLQVIURP¿QGOHYHO 7), as well as the pollen assemblage zones (Hesse and NN2/2 have also been subjected to isotope analysis, .LQGOHU 7KHWKUHHH[FDYDWHG(HPLDQ¿QGOHYHOV SURYLGLQJ HYLGHQFH IRU LQWHUVSHFL¿F GLIIHUHQFHV yielded large amounts of faunal remains as well as between bovids and equids, which can be explained lithic artefacts, which have been three dimensionally as niche separation between these two species (Britton GRFXPHQWHGLQWKH¿HOG7KHXSSHUPRVW(HPLDQ¿QG et al., 2012). level, Neumark-Nord 2/1, has been excavated over 191 m2 and yielded ca. 9000 lithic artefacts and faunal 7KHOLWKLFDVVHPEODJHFRQWDLQVERWKÀLQWDUWHIDFWVDV UHPDLQV ¿JXUH 7KLV¿QGOHYHOLVFRUUHODWHGWRXQLW ZHOODVODUJHUQRQÀLQWJUDYHOVL]HGURFNVWKDWZHUHLQ 11 and lower unit 14 of +DXSWSUR¿O +3 DQGWR3$= WKH¿HOGGHVFULEHGDV³PDQXSRUWV´$VWKHVHQRQÀLQW IVb. Neumark-Nord 2/2 is positioned further down in URFNV ZHUH IRXQG ZLWKLQ WKH ¿QH JUDLQHG VHGLPHQWV the sequence, correlating with mid unit 7 to lower unit RIWKHEDVLQLQ¿OOLWLVOLNHO\WKDWWKH\UHÀHFWKRPLQLQ +3 DQG3$=,9D ¿JXUH 7KLV¿QGOHYHOKDV transport to the site. Functional analysis shows that been excavated over 491 m2 and yielded a very large many of these “manuports” bear evidence of use as archaeological assemblage including ca. 125.000 hammerstones and anvils (Langejans et al. in prep). faunal remains as well as 20.000 lithic artefacts. The 20.000 well-preserved (“fresh”) lithic artefacts, 0RYLQJIURPWKHRXWHUPDUJLQLQWRWKHEDVLQWKLV¿QG which are discussed in detail in chapter 3, are mostly level splits into several sublevels, which all contain SURGXFHG IURP WLOOGHULYHG ÀLQW QRGXOHV RI %DOWLF various amounts of faunal remains and lithic artefacts. origin. 7KHORZHUPRVWDQGWKHUHIRUHROGHVW¿QGOHYHORIWKH basin, Neumark-Nord 2/3, was discovered through a 1.4 OUTLINE OF THESIS CHAPTERS 4 m2 test-pit exposed in the NN2/1 excavation area DQG \LHOGHG FD ¿QGV LQFOXGLQJ IDXQDO UHPDLQV The four following chapters (submitted for publication DQG OLWKLF DUWHIDFWV 7KLV ¿QG OHYHO FRUUHODWHV WR as separate papers elsewhere) address the issue XQLW DW +3 ZKLFK FRUUHVSRQGV WR 3$= ,,, RI WKH of Neandertal adaptations to Eemian Interglacial (HPLDQYHJHWDWLRQDOVXFFHVVLRQ ¿JXUH 'XHWRLWV environments, by focusing on several aspects of the exceptionally large lithic and faunal assemblage, the case study site Neumark-Nord 2: 11 Introduction &KDSWHU 3DSHU ± VLWH IRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVHV ± UHODWLYHO\VLPSOHÀDNHVDQGWRROVRIZKLFKVRPHKDYH OLQNLQJ KLJK UHVROXWLRQ HQYLURQPHQWDO GDWD IURP been attributed to the “Taubachian” (Valoch, 1988, EDVLQVWRDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHFRUGV 1984). Does Neumark-Nord 2 yield a similar lithic assemblage and to what extent can characteristics be A study of the basin context of the site and associated attributed to raw material constraints? These issues post-depositional processes is required to understand will be addressed in chapter 3. the structure of the archaeological record. This is important as the archaeological record of Neumark- &KDSWHU 3DSHU ±¿UHSUR[LHVHYLGHQFHIRU¿UH Nord 2 seems to deviate from other Eemian localities use LQ LWV ZHOO VWUDWL¿HG GHSRVLWV $UH WKHVH GLIIHUHQFHV merely the product of research bias associated with Another behavioural component that seems to excavations taking place during lignite mining? The characterize the basin margin occupation at Neumark- results of this analysis may not only be of importance 1RUGLVWKH UHFXUUHQW XVHRI¿UH$VRQO\DOLPLWHG for a better understanding of the Neumark-Nord 2 number of Eemian sites are known, Eemian sites with basin, but also for the interpretation of several newly HYLGHQFHIRU¿UHXVHDUHYHU\UDUH'HVSLWHWKHPRUH discovered Eemian localities. The relationship between favourable climatic conditions that characterize the WKHG\QDPLFVRIWKHEDVLQ ZDWHULQÀX[VWDQGLQJZDWHU Eemian Interglacial, Neandertals may still have relied within the basin) and the archaeological record does RQ¿UH QRWRQO\IRUKHDWLQJEXWSRVVLEOHDOVRIRUWKH not only involve post-depositional processes, but also preparation of food, as well as keeping away large includes behavioural processes: are phases of hominin predators from killed prey and/or occupational sites. SUHVHQFH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK VSHFL¿F EDVLQ FRQGLWLRQV The more forested environments would have provided (water levels)? What role did basin localities play in WKH QHFHVVDU\ IXHO IRU EXLOGLQJ ¿UHV GHFUHDVLQJ the Eemian landscape? The scope of this chapter is energetic investments in the use of this technology, limited to the basin conditions, while the discussion of while its potential use for cooking may have increased the interaction between the full Eemian environment the nutritional value of the kills made by Neandertals. and Neandertals is further addressed in chapter 5. %XW EHIRUH WKH IXQFWLRQ RI ¿UH FDQ EH GLVFXVVHG WKH VFDOH SUR[LPLW\ DQG QDWXUH RI WKH ¿UH SUR[LHV &KDSWHU 3DSHU ±OLWKLFUDZPDWHULDODFTXLVLWLRQ UHFRYHUHGDW1HXPDUN1RUGQHHGWREHLGHQWL¿HG DQGWHFKQRORJ\ 1HDQGHUWDODFWLYLWLHVDWWKHODNHVKRUH $UHWKHVH¿UHSUR[LHVLQGLFDWLYHRI1HDQGHUWDO¿UHXVH RUFDQWKH\DOVREHWKHSURGXFWRIQDWXUDO¿UHV"7KHVH In chapters 3 and 4 the focus is shifted towards the ¿UHUHODWHGTXHVWLRQVZLOOEHDGGUHVVHGLQFKDSWHU evidence for activities carried out by Neandertals at the margin of the Neumark-Nord 2 basin. The lithic &KDSWHU 3DSHU ± (QYLURQPHQWDO FRQGLWLRQV RI assemblage has been subjected to a detailed typo- 1HDQGHUWKDORFFXSDWLRQVDW1HXPDUN1RUG and technological analysis. The aim was to identify the stages of the reduction sequence carried out at The question whether Neandertals were able to WKH EDVLQ PDUJLQ 'RHV WKH DVVHPEODJH UHÀHFW OLNH maintain themselves in interglacial environments is many other known Eemian localities, predominantly already partly answered by several Eemian localities the use of lithic implements for tasks like butchery, dating to this time period. Less known, are however or does it also include splitting raw material nodules, the character of these environments (were they densely GHFRUWLFDWLRQ ÀDNH SURGXFWLRQ DQG UHVKDUSHQLQJ forested or semi-open and diverse?) and the way in i.e. tool production and -maintenance? Another point which Neandertals exploited them. Chapter 5 tries to of inquiry is raw material acquisition: what was the answer these questions by studying the environmental source, size and quality of the raw material nodules conditions of the basin environment, including the used? This ties in with the challenge of acquiring raw basin conditions as well as the vegetation in the materials in densely vegetated Eemian environments, surrounding landscape, during phases of hominin which decreases the visibility/accessibility of this presence. How open was the environment surrounding resource. Raw material availability and quality also the basin, which factors play a role in the vegetation SODFHFRQVWUDLQWVRQWKHWHFKQLTXHVIRUZRUNLQJWKHÀLQW openness, and what resources did the environment PDWHULDOOLNHWKHVL]HRIÀDNHSURGXFWVWKHSRVVLELOLW\ offer during phases of hominin presence? What role of applying more complex reduction techniques (e.g. did basins like Neumark-Nord 2 play in the survival Levallois) and the potential reduction intensity of tools. of Neandertals in Eemian Interglacial environments? Furthermore, raw material scarcity may also promote a conservative use of raw material, including working &KDSWHU±&RQFOXVLRQ cores to exhaustion and intensive resharpening of tools. Most sites dating to the Eemian yield small and The last chapter will provide a recapitulation of the 12 Introduction conclusions of this study, feeding back to the research $U]DUHOOR 0 0DUFROLQL ) 3DYLD * 3DYLD questions outlined in the introduction. 0 3HWURQLR & 3HWUXFFL 0 5RRN / Sardella, R., 2009. L’industrie lithique du site REFERENCES 3OpLVWRFqQHLQIpULHXUGH3LUUR1RUG $SULFHQD Italie du sud) : une occupation humaine Andersen, K.K., Azuma, N., Barnola, J.-M., Bigler, entre 1,3 et 1,7 Ma. L’Anthropologie, Les 0 %LVFD\H 3&DLOORQ 1 &KDSSHOOD] - premiers habitants de l’Europe (XVe Congrès Clausen, H.B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Fischer, H., LQWHUQDWLRQDO GH O¶8,633 &ROORTXH & )OFNLJHU - )ULW]VFKH ' )XMLL <*RWR Lisbonne 2006) 113, 47–58. doi:10.1016/j. Azuma, K., Grønvold, K., Gundestrup, N.S., anthro.2009.01.004 Hansson, M., Huber, C., Hvidberg, C.S., Johnsen, S.J., Jonsell, U., Jouzel, J., Kipfstuhl, Ashton, N., 2002. Absence of humans in Britain during S., Landais, A., Leuenberger, M., Lorrain, R., the last interglacial (oxygen isotope stage Masson-Delmotte, V., Miller, H., Motoyama, 5e), in: Tuffreau, A., Roebroeks, W. 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