Languages Spoken in Elgin County

Prepared by: Fiona Murray For CMPW 717: Report Writing and Information Design March 1st 2020

Figure 1 Top Left: Maria Bueckert stands behind three of her children. She and her husband, Heinrich, immigrated to Aylmer from Mexico in 2011.

Top Right: Workers at the Ford Factory in St. Thomas work on the last car before its closure in 2011;

Bottom Left: Dutch immigrants harvest tobacco in West Lorne in 1986;

Bottom Right: Petrusia Hontar, project coordinator of the St. Thomas-Elgin Local Immigration Partnership, Shelley Harris, director of education and settlement at the YWCA St. Thomas-Elgin, and Juliane Hundt, manager at the YWCA St. Thomas-Elgin.

Sources: canadianmennonite.org; cbc.ca; elgincounty.ca;

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Executive Summary This report analyzes language data from the 2016 and 1991 censuses to explore the linguistic diversity of Elgin County census division and draw conclusions about significant language communities in the area. Looking at census responses in the Mother Tongue (first language) (100% data) and Knowledge of Language (25% sample data) categories, this report identifies two main language communities in Elgin County aside from English: German and Dutch. Not only are there large amounts of German and Dutch speakers, but there are higher proportions of census respondents who speak these languages in Elgin County compared to (8.29% vs 1.02% and 1.22% vs 0.40%, respectively). These findings are consistent with immigration patterns in Elgin County, although not immediately apparent from immigration data. Nearly a third of Elgin County’s immigrants are from Mexico. However, many of these immigrants are -speaking Mennonites (who are likely reporting their language as “German” on the census). Similarly, there are both current and historical patterns of Dutch immigration in Elgin County, beginning in the early 1950s. Elgin County also has higher proportions of respondents who speak Vlaams () and Khmer (Cambodian) (0.15% vs 0.02%, and 0.17% vs 0.06%, mother tongue speakers respectively). This report serves as a resource for service providers in Elgin County, as well as a testament to the linguistic diversity of Elgin County, despite its overwhelmingly English-speaking population.

Figure 2 Air Soukhaseum, Somleuane and Somsack Soukchareun, Nien An Van and One Keo Homsombath arrived in Aylmer from Laos, via Thailand in 1980. (Source: Elgin County Archives).

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Contents Executive Summary ...... 2 Introduction ...... 4 Research Questions ...... 5 Methodology ...... 5 Analysis ...... 5 Mother Tongue Languages ...... 5 Knowledge of Languages ...... 9 Immigrant Countries of Origin ...... 12 Changes in Languages Spoken (1991-2016) ...... 14 Limitations ...... 15 Discussion: Relevance of Findings ...... 16 Significant Immigrant Populations ...... 16 German ...... 16 Dutch ...... 18 Linguistic Uniqueness ...... 19 Conclusion ...... 19 References ...... 20

Figure 3 A representative of the Central Community Health Centre, San Sok, and Maria Fiallos receive Newcomer Champion Awards from the St. Thomas-Elgin Local Immigration Partnership. (Source: stthomastimesjournal.com).

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Introduction

Figure 4 Map of Elgin County (Source: St. Thomas-Elgin Local Immigration Partnership)

Elgin County is located in along the banks of . It is bordered by Middlesex County to the north; Kent County to the west; and Oxford and Norfolk counties to the east. With a population of about 89 000 in 2016, the main population centres in the county are St. Thomas (pop 38 909), Aylmer (pop 7492), and Port Stanley (pop 2148) (Statistics Canada, 2017). Elgin County is a largely rural area. Its main industries are manufacturing, health care and social assistance, and retail (2011). There is also a comparatively large proportion of population employed in agriculture and related fields (compared to Ontario). St. Thomas was historically a hub of railway transportation and manufacturing (Richards, 2015). Elgin County is situated on the traditional lands of the Oneida of the Thames, Chippewas of the Thames and Munsee-Delaware Nation (Government of Ontario, 2019). It was colonized by Europeans in the early 1800s. Notably, Elgin County was the site of the Talbot Settlement, overseen by Colonel Thomas Talbot. Elgin County initially had large numbers of Scottish and Irish settlers (Brunger, 2015). In the years after WWII, large numbers of Dutch immigrants began to settle in southwestern Ontario, including in Elgin County, largely working in the agricultural industry (Schryer, 1998; St. Thomas Elgin Local Immigration Partnership, 2012). Similarly, beginning in the 1950s, Mennonites—an Anabaptist religious group originally from Germany—began to immigrate back to Canada from Latin America (especially Mexico) and settled in the Elgin County area (Haile & Funk, 2019). Small numbers of Dutch immigrants, and large numbers of Mennonite immigrants continue to arrive in Elgin County today. There are also small

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populations of South and Southeast Asian immigrants, centred mostly in St. Thomas (Statistics Canada, 2017). Although Elgin County is overwhelmingly white, Canadian, and English- speaking, there is cultural and linguistic diversity that is often overlooked. This report serves to highlight the range of languages spoken in Elgin County, and identify the unique linguistic characteristic of the area. This report will provide a basis for understanding the multiculturalism of Elgin County, and will also be an important reference for service providers in Elgin County. Research Questions The report will answer the following questions: 1. What languages are spoken in Elgin County? 2. How do the languages spoken in Elgin County compare to the languages spoken in all of Ontario? 3. Which languages have higher proportions of speakers in Elgin County compared to Ontario? 4. Do these languages correspond with immigrant countries of origin in Elgin County? 5. How have the languages spoken, and numbers of speakers, changed between 1991 and 2016? Methodology This report is based on data from the . Data from the 1991 Canadian Census is used for comparison. However, the methodology used in the 1991 census is different from the 2016 census, and so the data cannot be compared directly. Rather, the results from the two censuses can be used to sketch general trends over the past 25 years. The 2016 Census includes data on Mother Tongue (first language spoken) (100% data), Languages Spoken Most Often at Home (100% data), and Knowledge of Language (25% sample data). This report analyzes Mother Tongue and Knowledge of Language data to capture both the instance of other languages spoken in Elgin County and the preservation of other languages in an overwhelmingly English-speaking area. Proportions of speakers as a percent of the total respondents were used to compare languages spoken in Elgin County and in Ontario. Both the number and proportion of speakers were used to analyze changes in languages spoken over time. Analysis Mother Tongue Languages A total of 62 mother tongue languages were reported on the 2016 census, with five people reporting a mother tongue language that was “n.i.e”—not included elsewhere on the survey. These mother tongue languages span

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every continent. The most popular mother tongue languages in Elgin County are as follows:

Table 1 Mother Tongue Languages in Elgin County (Source: 2016 census, 100% data)

Rank Mother Tongue Language Number of Speakers Percentage (of respondents) 1 English 75000 85.98% 2 German 7230 8.29% 3 Dutch 1065 1.22% 4 French 820 0.94% 5 Portuguese 330 0.38% 6 Spanish 315 0.36% 7 Polish 305 0.35% 8 Italian 205 0.24% 9 Croatian 195 0.22% 10 Hungarian 190 0.22% 11 Khmer (Cambodian) 150 0.17% 12 Vlaams (Flemish) 135 0.15% 13 Arabic 100 0.11% 14 Vietnamese 85 0.10% 15 Ukrainian 80 0.09%

English is by far the most popular mother tongue language, with an overwhelming 86% of the population. However, what is most interesting is the large proportion of speakers reporting German as their mother tongue.

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Figure 5 Mother Tongue Languages in Elgin County (Excluding English) (Source: 2016 census, 100% data)

When compared with the most popular mother tongue languages in Ontario, only seven of the top 15 mother tongue languages appear on both the Elgin County and Ontario lists. Elgin County’s most popular mother tongue languages have a higher number of European languages, when compared to Ontario.

Table 2 Mother Tongue Languages in Ontario (Source: 2016 census, 100% data); Green indicates language is also present on Mother Tongue list for Elgin County.

Rank Mother Tongue (Ontario) 1 English 2 French 3 Mandarin 4 Cantonese 5 Italian 6 Punjabi 7 Spanish 8 Arabic 9 Tagalog 10 Urdu 11 Portuguese 12 German 13 Persian (Farsi) 14 Polish 15 Tamil

When comparing proportions of Mother Tongue speakers in Elgin County and Ontario (speakers as a percentage of respondents), a few interesting patterns emerge.

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Figure 6 Mother Tongue Languages by percentage of respondents, Elgin County vs Ontario (Excluding English) (Source: 2016 census, 100% data)

Elgin County has a higher proportion of English Mother Tongue speakers compared to Ontario (85.98% vs 68.76%). Elgin County also has a much higher proportion of German speakers with 8.29% of the census respondents compared to 1.02% across Ontario. There is also a higher proportion of Dutch (1.22% vs 0.40%), Khmer (Cambodian) (0.17% vs 0.06%) and Vlaams (Flemish) (0.15% vs 0.02%) speakers in Elgin County compared to Ontario. Conversely, Elgin County has a much smaller proportion of French, Portuguese, Spanish, Polish, Italian, Arabic, Vietnamese and Ukrainian mother tongue speakers compared to Ontario, despite these being in the top fifteen most popular mother tongues in Elgin County. Proportions of Croatian and Hungarian mother tongue speakers are relatively similar between the two populations.

Table 3 Mother Tongue Speakers in Elgin County and Ontario (as percentage of respondents) (Source: 2016 census, 100% data)

Mother Elgin County Ontario Tongue Percentage Percentage English 85.98% 68.76% German 8.29% 1.02% Dutch 1.22% 0.40% French 0.94% 3.79% Portuguese 0.38% 1.16% Spanish 0.36% 1.48% Polish 0.35% 0.94%

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Italian 0.24% 1.78% Croatian 0.22% 0.25% Hungarian 0.22% 0.28% Khmer 0.17% 0.06% Vlaams 0.15% 0.02% Arabic 0.11% 1.32% Vietnamese 0.10% 0.55% Ukrainian 0.09% 0.31%

Knowledge of Languages

Table 4 Count and Percentage of Knowledge of Language Speakers in Elgin County (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

Rank Language Count Percentage (of respondents) 1 English 86980 99.29% 2 German 7235 8.26% 3 French 3540 4.04% 4 Spanish 1195 1.36% 5 Dutch 1120 1.28% 6 Germanic 960 1.10% n.i.e. 7 Portuguese 405 0.46% 8 Italian 335 0.38% 9 Polish 330 0.38% 10 Croatian 245 0.28% 11 Hungarian 245 0.28% 12 Vietnamese 240 0.27% 13 Khmer 135 0.15% (Cambodian) 14 Vlaams 130 0.15% (Flemish) 15 Punjabi 125 0.14%

In Elgin County, almost every respondent has knowledge of English (99.29%). For the most part, the most popular knowledge of languages echo the most popular mother tongues. German is the second most common knowledge of language and mother tongue. However, there are higher numbers of speakers who have knowledge of French and Spanish than who indicate these languages as their mother tongue. Dutch also continues to rank highly. The only new language on this list is Punjabi, at 15th most common knowledge of language.

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Interestingly, in this category n.i.e (not indicated elsewhere) also shows up. It is likely this refers to Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German), although it is also likely that Low German speakers are indicating “German” on their census responses.

Figure 7 Knowledge of Language (Excluding English) as Percentage of Respondents, Elgin County vs Ontario (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

Like with mother tongue speakers, Elgin County has a higher proportion of German, Dutch, Germanic n.i.e, Vlaams (Flemish), and Khmer (Cambodian) knowledge of language speakers (as a percentage of respondents). Notably, Elgin County has a much smaller proportion of French knowledge of language speakers compared to Ontario.

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Figure 8 Number of Speakers in Elgin County, Knowledge of Language vs Mother Tongue (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

Figure 9 Percentage of respondents in Elgin County, Knowledge of Language vs Mother Tongue (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

Both German and Dutch speakers in Elgin County have similar number and percentage of speakers when comparing knowledge of language and mother tongue speakers. This suggests that most of these speakers are either continuing to teach their children their native language as their mother tongue; or conversely, that children of German and Dutch speakers are not being taught the language at all.

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There are more French and Spanish speakers with knowledge of the language than who speak it as a mother tongue in Elgin County. This suggests there are respondents who are learning French and Spanish as a second language, either from parents who speak these languages as a mother tongue, or independent of their heritage. Immigrant Countries of Origin The data on languages spoken in Elgin County would suggest a majority of immigrants from Europe – specifically Germany, the and other English-speaking countries. However, in 2016, the most popular immigrant countries of origin were as follows:

Table 5 Most common countries of origin for immigrants in Elgin County (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

Country of Number of Origin Immigrants (25% sample data) Mexico 3525 United 1545 Kingdom Netherlands 1015 United States 685 Other Europe 500 Other 335 Americas Germany 335 Portugal 265 Italy 205 Poland 205 Other Asia 185 India 150 Viet Nam 135 Croatia 120 Romania 115

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Figure 10 Number of Immigrants in Elgin County by Origin Country (Source: 2016 census, 25% sample data)

A third of all immigrants in Elgin County are from Mexico. These are likely mostly Mennonites who settled in Mexico and other Latin American countries in the early 1900s, leaving Western Canada in a search for religious and institutional freedom (Haile & Funk, 2019). Mennonites speak Plautdietsch, or Mennonite Low German, which likely accounts for the high number of German speakers indicated on the 2016 census in Elgin County. However, these countries of origin are largely Spanish-speaking countries, which could explain the higher numbers of knowledge of language Spanish speakers. Large numbers of immigrants from the and United States also correlate with the high proportion of English mother tongue speakers. The Netherlands also accounts for the high number of Dutch speakers. The other popular immigrant countries of origin also roughly correspond with the most popular mother tongues and knowledge of languages. The one exception is the instance of French on both the Mother Tongue and Knowledge of Language responses in Elgin County, despite few francophone immigrant countries of origin. This can be accounted for, however, because French is one of Canada’s Official Languages and is taught in school. There are also historical francophone communities both to the east (St Catharine’s- Welland area) and West (Windsor area) of Elgin County (Sylvestre, 2019).

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Changes in Languages Spoken (1991-2016) Table 6 Differences in Number of Mother Tongue Speakers, 1991 vs 2016 (Source: 1991 and 2016 censuses, 100% data)

Mother Tongue Count (1991) Count Count Rank (2016) Difference Change English 64830 75000 10170 same German 4380 7230 2850 same Dutch 1380 1065 -315 same French 640 820 180 same Portuguese 325 330 5 same Spanish 95 315 220 up 3 Polish 325 305 -20 down 1 Italian 205 205 0 down 1 Croatian nd 195 n/a n/a Hungarian nd 190 n/a n/a Khmer nd 150 n/a n/a Flemish nd 135 n/a n/a Arabic 50 100 50 down 2 Vietnamese nd 85 n/a n/a Ukrainian 105 80 -25 down 7 Greek 65 50 -15 n/a

Table 7 Differences in Percentage of Respondents, 1991 vs 2016 (Source: 1991 and 2016 censuses, 100% data)

Mother Tongue Percentage Percentage Percentage (1991) (2016) Difference English 87.34% 85.98% -1.36% German 5.90% 8.29% 2.39% Dutch 1.86% 1.22% -0.64% French 0.86% 0.94% 0.08% Portuguese 0.44% 0.38% -0.06% Spanish 0.13% 0.36% 0.23% Polish 0.44% 0.35% -0.09% Italian 0.28% 0.24% -0.04% Croatian n/a 0.22% n/a Hungarian n/a 0.22% n/a Khmer n/a 0.17% n/a Flemish n/a 0.15% n/a Arabic 0.07% 0.11% 0.05% Vietnamese n/a 0.10% Ukrainian 0.14% 0.09% -0.05% Greek 0.09% 0.06% -0.03%

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German mother tongue speakers saw an increase in proportion of respondents by 2.39%. There were 2850 more German Mother Tongue speakers in 2016 compared to speakers reported on the 1991 census. This suggests a large increase in German mother tongue speakers, probably due to an increase in German-speaking immigrants. Over the same time period, Dutch mother tongue speakers decreased between speakers reporting on the 1991 and 2016 census. (A decrease of 315 mother tongue speakers, or 0.64% decrease in proportion of respondents). Spanish speakers also grew over that time (increase of 220 speakers, or an increase by 0.23% of the proportion of respondents). Limitations The greatest limitation in terms of statistical analysis is the different methodologies used in the 1991 and 2016 censuses. Most notably, the 1991 census data does not have as complete a list of languages, which makes comparison difficult. There is no way to know if, for example, there were no Croatian speakers in Elgin County in 1991, or if there was no mechanism for Croatian speakers to report their language. The data simply does not exist. Thus, comparison over years can only be used to sketch general trends. Furthermore, the census does not reach temporary residents in Elgin County, and therefore may miss capturing the language of populations who live, and access services, in Elgin County, but do not reside there permanently. There is a significant population of migrant agricultural workers in Elgin County, both Mexican Mennonites and workers from the Caribbean who are not represented in this data (Clutterbuck, Lau & Ferguson, 2015; McKarney, 2013). One limitation specific to Elgin County is the lack of a Plautdietsch, or Low German category. Due to high Mennonite populations, Low German is likely the most common language spoken in Elgin County other than English (Haile & Funk, 2019). Low German is a separate, distinct dialect from German, but is likely reported as “German” on the census. (It is also likely that any “Germanic n.i.e” responses also refer to Low German). However, without a designated category, it is hard to accurately identify numbers of Low German, and German, speakers. Finally, small numbers of language speakers in Elgin County mean that, while there may be a significant proportional difference compared to Ontario, the finding is relatively useless in practice. For example, there is a larger proportion of Khmer (Cambodian) speakers in Elgin County compared to Ontario (0.15% vs 0.08% Knowledge of Language). However, with only 130 respondents indicating a knowledge of Khmer, there is relatively little need for widespread service in Khmer.

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Discussion: Relevance of Findings The relevance of this report’s findings are twofold: Firstly, common languages spoken in Elgin County are of interest to service providers, including healthcare workers, government agencies, ESL programs, and immigrant settlement organizations. Secondly, this report has value to researchers and will set a precedence for examining the linguistic characteristics of Elgin County. Significant Immigrant Populations The findings of this report point to two significant language groups—German and Dutch speakers. The statistics on German and Dutch speakers correspond with immigration patterns in Elgin County. German

Figure 11 Old Colony Mennonite Church in Aylmer, ON (Source: ontariomennonitehistory.org)

German speakers, or rather Low German (Plautdietsch) speakers who are likely reporting their language as “German”, have increased over the past 25 years, both in number of mother tongue speakers and percentage of total census respondents.1 This corresponds with an increase in Mennonite immigrants returning to Canada after living in Latin America for several generations, and settling in the Elgin County area (Haile & Funk, 2019). Moreover, the number of speakers reporting German as both a mother tongue and knowledge of language are nearly the same (7230 and 7235, respectively). Combined with the increase in German speakers over the years, this indicates that German mother tongue speakers are also raising their children speaking German as a mother tongue. Although rare in an English-centric area like Elgin County, this is consistent with the insular

1 Cannot compare 1991 and 2016 census directly, so this trend has been predicted from the data, but exact increases cannot be confirmed.

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nature of Mennonite communities. Family and community are extremely important to Mennonites – with many Mennonites attending private, religious schools (Haile & Funk, 2019)2. This insular environment fosters the continuation of the Low . Interestingly, Low German-speaking Mennonites likely account for many of the Knowledge of Language Spanish speakers—a necessary skill for interacting with Spanish speaking natives in their origin countries of Mexico and other parts of Latin America (Bergen, 2017). Anecdotally, there are some cases of Low German Mennonites marrying Spanish-speaking Mexicans. So much so, there is even a Spanish church service offered in Aylmer (Canadian Church Directory, 2020).

Figure 12 Mennomex Grocery Store and Restaurant, outside of Aylmer, ON

There are already a number of resources in Elgin County that cater to a Low German-speaking population including a Low German radio station, De Brigj, based out of Aylmer, the ASPIRE (Arbeit Schule Program in Rural Elgin) school ran out of East Elgin Secondary School that allows Mennonites to obtain their diploma while continuing working for their families, Mennonite-ran stores like Mennomex Grocery Store and the Mennonite Community Services Thrift Store, and Low German translation services for medical appointments (APSIRE, n.d ; Haile & Funk; 2019; Mennonite Community Services of Southwestern Ontario, 2020). The number of Low German speakers are likely underestimated in this report because the census does not capture temporary residents, such as migrant workers. Some Mennonite families stay in Elgin County during the growing

2 Although not all Mennonites are religious; rather, Mennonite is used in Elgin County as an ethnic identification

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season, working as agricultural labourers, and return to Mexico or South America during the winter (Clutterbuck, Lau & Ferguson, 2015). Dutch

Figure 13 Henk Kremers immigrated to Elgin County from the Netherlands in 2000 and now operates a dairy farm. (Source: dairyglobal.net)

Whereas German-speakers are likely passing on their language to their children as a mother tongue, Dutch speakers are more likely not teaching their children the language at all. Both the numbers of mother tongue Dutch speakers, and the percentage of census respondents reporting a Dutch mother tongue have decreased over the past 25 years3. Anecdotal evidence backs up this claim. Although Dutch immigrants continue to settle in Elgin County, often starting dairy or other farming operations like they had done in the Netherlands, in general Dutch immigration has decreased in the past few decades. Dutch immigrants began to settle in southwestern Ontario, including Elgin County, after WWII, leaving their war-torn country for better economic opportunities (Schryer, 1998). In Elgin County, many Dutch immigrants first found work in tobacco and other agricultural industries4 (St. Thomas Elgin Local Immigration Partnership, 2012). A few generations later, many descendants of Dutch immigrants now own farms, mostly cash crop or dairy operations that have become common in the area.

3 Cannot compare 1991 and 2016 census directly, so this trend has been predicted from the data, but exact increases cannot be confirmed 4 The tobacco industry has declined considerably in southwestern Ontario due to a decline in tobacco sales, and correlated increases in taxes and health warnings.

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Linguistic Uniqueness Furthermore, Elgin County has a linguistic uniqueness that is worthy of attention and preservation. In addition to the German and Dutch-speaking populations, who have contributed significantly to both the economic and cultural development of the county, there are small but proportionally- significant populations of Vlaams (Flemish) (0.15% of respondents are mother tongue speakers vs 0.02% in Ontario) and Khmer (Cambodian) speakers (0.17% of respondents are mother tongue speakers vs 0.06% in Ontario). Vlaams is a Dutch dialect spoken in the region of Belgium, as well as in the Flanders region of the Netherlands (Harbert, 2007). While the majority of Dutch immigrants speak Dutch, the instance of Vlaams in Elgin County can likely be attributed to the pattern of Dutch immigration. Similarly, Khmer is a Cambodian language, and can likely be traced to the settlement of Cambodian refugees in the 1980s, mostly in the St. Thomas area (Joy, 2019). Conclusion Despite a large majority of English-speakers, Elgin County nonetheless has linguistic characteristics worth exploring. With a total of 62 languages spoken, Elgin County has more linguistic diversity than is initially noticeable in an area where 99% percentage of census respondents indicate a knowledge of English. Most notably, there is a large community of German speakers in Elgin County, with most speakers reporting German as their mother tongue. It is likely that most, if not all, are Low German-speaking Mennonites. The instance of Low German speakers is well-known in the area, with churches, stores, school programs, and other services catering to this population. There is also a fairly large number of Dutch speakers, which corresponds with historical and current immigration patterns. In addition to German and Dutch, there are also higher proportions of census respondents who speak Khmer and Vlaams (both Mother Tongue and Knowledge of Language speakers), compared to Ontario proportions as a whole. This report is an important reminder that the immigrant experience is varied, and even in modern day, not limited to only urban areas. It is my hope that this report sparks further study into the unique diversity of Elgin County, as well as being a resource for local service providers.

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References ASPIRE. (n.d.) ASPIRE – East Elgin Secondary School. Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/gotvdsb.ca/aspire-east-elgin/home Bergen, H. (2017). Working together in Ontario. Canadian Mennonite. Retrieved from https://canadianmennonite.org/stories/working- together-ontario Brunger, A., Thomas Talbot (2015). In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/thomas-talbot Canadian Church Directory. (2020). Churches in Aylmer, ON. Retrieved from http://churchdirectory.ca/browse/?p=ON&c=Aylmer Clutterbuck, P., Lau, R. & Ferguson, L. (2015). Community Profile: Elgin- Oxford. Southwestern Public Health. Retrieved from https://www.swpublichealth.ca/sites/default/files/file- attachments/basic- page/2015_elgin_oxford_community_profile_eolc.pdf Government of Ontario. (2019). Ontario First Nations Maps. Retrieved from https://www.ontario.ca/page/ontario-first-nations-maps Haile, R. & Funk, L. Improving Accessibility of Health and Social Services for Low German Speaking Mennonites. Southwestern Public Health. Retrieved from https://www.swpublichealth.ca/sites/default/files/file- attachments/reports/201909_improving_accessibility_of_health_and_ social_services_for_lgs_mennonites_0.pdf Harbert, Wayne (2007). The Germanic Languages. Cambridge University Press. Joy, A., Cambodian or Khmer Canadians (2019). In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/cambodians McKarney, M. (2013). In Defense of a Livelihood: Ontario Growers and the Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program Debate am Debate. [Master’s Thesis, University of Western Ontario]. Retrieved from https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3001&context=etd Mennonite Community Services of Southwestern Ontario. (2020). De Brigj Radio. Retrieved from https://www.mcson.org/programs/de-brigj/ Richards, C. (2015). Health Status Report. Elgin St. Thomas Public Health. Retrieved from https://www.southwesthealthline.ca/pdfs/estph_health_status_report_ 2015.pdf Schryer, F. J. (1998). Postwar Dutch Immigrants in Ontario: A Re-

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examination of Immigration and Ethnicity. Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 30(1) Statistics Canada. 2017. Elgin, CTY [Census division], Ontario and Ontario [Province] (table). Census Profile. 2016 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-316-X2016001. . Released November 29, 2017. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp- pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E Statistics Canada. 1991. Elgin, CTY [Census division], Ontario and Canada (table). Census Profile. 1991 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 95F0168X. Ottawa. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/English/census91/data/profiles/Rp- eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=1&DIM=0&FL=A& FREE=1&GC=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=29&PRID=0&PTYPE=89103& S=0&SHOWALL=No&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=113&VID=0 &VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= St. Thomas Elgin Local Immigration Partnership. (2012). Settlement Strategy [Report]. Retrieved from https://stelip.ca/wp- content/uploads/2012/08/ST-ELIP-Settlement-Strategy.2012.pdf

Sylvestre, Paul-françois. "Francophones of Ontario (Franco-Ontarians)". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 07 October 2019, Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/franco-ontarians.

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