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Raised Walls and Broken Bones: an Analysis of Defensive RAISED WALLS AND BROKEN BONES: AN ANALYSIS OF DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE AND VIOLENT SKELETAL TRAUMA IN LATE PREHISTORIC EASTERN NORTH AMERICA ____________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Chico ____________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology ____________ by Lance L. Blanchard Spring 2011 RAISED WALLS AND BROKEN BONES: AN ANALYSIS OF DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE AND VIOLENT SKELETAL TRAUMA IN LATE PREHISTORIC EASTERN NORTH AMERICA A Thesis by Lance L. Blanchard Spring 2011 APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH: Katie Milo, Ed.D. APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE: _________________________________ Antoinette M. Martinez, Ph.D., Chair _________________________________ Eric J. Bartelink, Ph.D. DEDICATION To Edmée DeJean, who taught me the importance of an education but also to take the time to stare up at the sky or get lost in the woods. En mémoire de mon Grand Père, Louis Short. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writing of this thesis was a grueling and enlightening journey that would not have been possible without the help and support of so many wonderful people. I would first like to thank my committee, Dr. Antoinette Martinez and Dr. Eric Bartelink, for their guidance, support, and especially their patience as they worked their way with me through this lengthy tome. Their unique insights have proven invaluable over the course of this project and will undoubtedly inform the paths I explore throughout my career in anthropology. I also want to thank the Anthropology Department at California State University, Chico for the demanding and rewarding graduate school experience I had hoped for the first time around. All of the faculty and staff have made me feel welcome here and I have learned so much from each of you. I would especially like to thank Dr. David Eaton and Dr. D. Scott Wilson for being such great mentors and friends. Also, I would not be standing here today if Dr. Frank Bayham and Dr. William Collins had not challenged me to carve a new path after my original thesis project fell through. Lastly, although I didn’t have the opportunity to take any of his classes, it seemed like anytime the stress of the thesis was getting to me, Dr. P. Willey would be right around the corner with some encouraging words or a funny story. I must additionally thank Dr. William Iseminger of the Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site for sharing his wealth of knowledge of the Cahokia palisade and Illinois iv Archaeology with me, as well as providing many photos and illustrations of the defensive works at the site. I also want to express my gratitude to Dr. Maria O. Smith for providing me with the raw data from her ongoing research in Eastern Tennessee and leads to other sites in that area. I am greatly appreciative of the friendships I have made during my time here in Chico. To my fellow graduate students who have made it to this point before me, thank you for showing me the way. For those of you still toiling away, just know that there is a light at the end of the tunnel. Finally, I am eternally grateful to my wife Brenna for her help and support in the field, the investment of her intellect and expertise over long hours and late nights, and her ever-present encouragement and love. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Dedication................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv List of Tables.............................................................................................................. viii List of Figures............................................................................................................. x Abstract....................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I. Introduction.............................................................................................. 1 Research Design ........................................................................... 3 Organization of the Thesis............................................................ 7 II. Literature Review..................................................................................... 9 Definitions .................................................................................... 10 Theoretical Perspectives on the Origins, Causes, and Consequences of Warfare ..................................................... 13 Culture History and Violent Conflict in Eastern North America................................................................................. 21 Evidence for Violent Conflict in the Archaeological Record ...... 29 Conclusion.................................................................................... 42 III. Materials and Methods ............................................................................. 46 Time Period and Geographical Region ........................................ 46 Skeletal Samples and Archaeological Sites.................................. 49 Defensive Architecture................................................................. 52 Violent Skeletal Trauma............................................................... 56 Data Collection Methods.............................................................. 60 vi CHAPTER PAGE Data Analysis Methods................................................................. 64 Summary....................................................................................... 68 IV. Results...................................................................................................... 70 Description of the Data Set........................................................... 70 Violent Skeletal Trauma Overall Results..................................... 80 Violent Skeletal Trauma Type Results......................................... 106 Impact of Preservation Data on Results ....................................... 128 Summary....................................................................................... 141 V. Interpretations and Discussion ................................................................. 144 Temporal Comparisons ................................................................ 144 Defensive Architecture Presence.................................................. 148 Regional Variation........................................................................ 151 Site Type Comparisons................................................................. 155 Age and Sex Differences.............................................................. 157 Patterns of Violent Skeletal Trauma by Type .............................. 161 Impact of Preservation Data on Results ....................................... 172 Summary and Discussion ............................................................. 174 VI. Conclusion................................................................................................ 181 Summary....................................................................................... 182 Limitations of the Study ............................................................... 184 Implications and Suggestions for Further Research..................... 186 References Cited......................................................................................................... 188 Appendix A. Project Source Code ................................................................................. 214 vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Violent Skeletal Trauma Overall by Site.................................................. 72 2. Violent Skeletal Trauma Frequency by Type ........................................... 73 3. Time Period Results.................................................................................. 82 4. Defensive Architecture Results ................................................................ 84 5. Sub-Region Results................................................................................... 91 6. Individuals with Violent Skeletal Trauma by Age and Sex Category...... 99 7. Adult Age and Sex Comparison Results................................................... 100 8. Adult Age and Sex Category Results ....................................................... 102 9. Subadult Age Category Results ................................................................ 105 10. Embedded Projectile Point Results........................................................... 107 11. Blunt Force Cranial Trauma Results ........................................................ 113 12. Parry Fracture Results............................................................................... 116 13. Scalping Results........................................................................................ 119 14. Decapitation Results................................................................................. 123 15. Dismemberment and Trophy Taking Results ........................................... 126 16. Violent Skeletal Trauma Overall Results for Sites with Preservation Data .............................................................................. 129 17. Embedded Projectile Point Results for Sites with Preservation Data ................................................................................................... 134 viii TABLE PAGE 18. Blunt Force Cranial Trauma Results
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