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Public Speaking: The Virtual Text using language well chapter 10
By: E. Michele Ramsey, Ph.D. Penn State Berks, Reading, PA
introduction the power of language Imagine for a moment that you were chapter objectives chapter outline asked to list everything that you know After studying this chapter, you should Introduction about the country of Italy in spite of the be able to: o The Power of Language fact that you have never actually visited o Communication vs. Language the country. What would you write? 1. Understand the power of o Language Creates Social You would have to think about all that language to define our Reality you were told about Italy throughout world and our relationship o The Differences Language to the world your life, and you would probably list Choices Can Make 2. Choose language that first the bits of information that have Constructing Clear and Vivid positively impacts the ability been repeated to you by various people Messages to inform and persuade and in a variety of contexts. So, for o Use Simple Language 3. Choose language to o Use Concrete and Precise example, you might recall that in create a clear and vivid Language geography class you learned particular message Using Stylized Language things about Italy. You might also 4. Use language that is ethical o Metaphors and Similes recall the various movies you’ve seen and accurate o Alliteration that were either supposedly set in Italy 5. Use language to enhance o Antithesis or dealt with some element of what has his or her speaker credibility o Parallel Structure and been deemed by the film as “Italian Language culture.” Those movies could include o Personalized Language The Godfather, The Italian Job, or The your interpretation of images in a book The Importance of Ethical and DaVinci Code. You might think about or on a screen. Now, consider for a Accurate Language stories your Italian grandmother told moment the possibility that everything o Language and Ethics you about her childhood spent in Rome you’ve heard about Italy has been o Sexist and Heterosexist or remember images you have seen in incorrect. Since you have not ever Language history books about World War II. In actually been to the country and had Avoiding Language Pitfalls other words, throughout your life you first-hand experience with its o Profanity have learned a lot of different things geography and culture, for example, o Exaggeration o Powerless Language that you now assume to be true about how would you know if what you’ve o Incorrect Grammar this country called “Italy” and you’ve been told is true or not? o Other Language Choices to learned all of these things about Italy Consider through language, whether it be - Clichés through verbal storytelling or through Your purpose is to make your - Language that is Central to audience see what you saw, hear Popular Culture Conclusion what you heard, feel what you felt. Review Questions and Activities Relevant detail, couched in Glossary concrete, colorful language, is the References best way to recreate the incident as it happened and to picture it for the audience. Language is one of the most influential and powerful aspects of our ~ Dale Carnegie daily lives and yet very few people pay attention to it in their interpersonal and
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org public communication. The power of Consider the case of the Reverend Dr. more or for longer periods of time we’d language cannot be overemphasized— Martin Luther King, Jr. Indeed, many better understand each other.” What language constructs, reflects, and speakers before him made the very these types of statements reflect is our maintains our social realities, or what same persuasive arguments regarding lack of understanding of the differences we believe to be “true” with regard to the lack of civil rights for Black between communication and language. the world around us. The point of the Americans, yet we regularly point to Therefore, many of us believe that example above is that what we “know the Reverend Dr. King as a preeminent when problems arise we should strive is true” about a person, place, thing, speaker for the civil rights movement to have more communication between idea, or any other aspect of our daily because he was a master of language— the parties. But what we need is better lives very much depends on what he employed the power of language to communication by focusing on experiences we have had (or not), what move his audiences in ways they had language choice. information we have (or have not) not been moved before, and we come across, and what words people remember him for his eloquence. have used (or not used) when language creates social communicating about our world. reality Our social realities are constructed Language is a process of free through language; and therefore, people creation; its laws and principles with different experiences in, and are fixed, but the manner in which understandings of, the world can define the principles of generation are the same things in very different ways. used is free and infinitely varied. Language is culturally transmitted—we Even the interpretation and use of learn how to define our world first from our families and then our later words involves a process of free definitions of the world are influenced creation. by friends and institutions such as the ~ Noam Chomsky media, education, and religion. If we grow up in a sexist culture, we are communication vs. Language can also have an impact on likely to hold sexist attitudes. how we feel about this reality. How we language Similarly, if we grow up in a culture define words and how we feel about To understand the power of that defines the environment as our first those words is highly subjective. In language, we need to differentiate priority in making any decisions, we’re fact, cognitive psychologist Lera between communication and language. likely to grow with environmentally Boroditsky showed a key to a group of Communication occurs when we try to friendly attitudes. Language, then, is Spanish-speakers and to a group of transfer what is in our minds to the not neutral. As a culture, as groups of German-speakers. The researchers minds of our audience. Whether people, and as individuals, we decide then asked the participants to describe speaking to inform, persuade, or what words we’re going to use to the key they had been shown. Because entertain, the main goal of a speaker is define one thing or another. to effectively communicate her or his the Spanish word for “key” is gendered Culture is the collective as feminine, Spanish speakers defined thoughts to audience members. Most the key using words such as lovely, chapters in this text help you determine programming of the mind that tiny, and magic. The German word for how best to communicate information distinguishes the members of one “key” is gendered masculine, however, through considerations such as category of people from another. and German speakers defined the key organizational structure, audience ~ Geert Hofstede using adjectives like hard, jagged, and analysis, delivery, and the like. awkward (Boroditsky cited in Thomas Language, on the other hand, is the For public speakers, these facts are et al., 2003, pp. 26-27). This study means by which we communicate—a important for three primary reasons. suggests that the words we use to system of symbols we use to form First, the careful use of language can define something can have an impact messages. We learn language as a child make the difference between you on how we perceive what those words in order to read, write, and speak. giving a remarkable speech and one represent. Once we have mastered enough language we can communicate with that is utterly forgettable. Second, you Because language is such a powerful, relative ease, yet growing up we rarely must remember that audience members yet unexamined, part of our lives, this learn much about language choices and may not share the same language for chapter focuses on how language what they mean for our the definition of the very same ideas, functions and how competent speakers communication. We regularly hear realities, or even specific items. harness the power of language. people say, “If we just communicated Finally, the language that you use in
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org public (and even private) paragraph to Reverend Jackson’s actual First, audiences can sense a fake. communication says something about words: When you turn in your term paper with you—about how you define and Young America dream. Choose the words that aren’t typically used by therefore perceive the world. If you are human race over the nuclear race. people in everyday conversation and not careful with your language you may Bury the weapons and don’t burn those words are simply replacing the unintentionally communicate the people. Dream of a new value common words we all use, your something negative about yourself system. Dream of lawyers more instructor knows what you’ve done. simply because of a careless use of concerned about justice than a Part of having strong credibility as a language. You should think very judgeship. Dream of doctors more speaker is convincing your audience of carefully about your audience’s and concerned about public health than your sincerity, both in terms of your your own language when you prepare personal wealth. Dream of ideas and your character. When you to speak publicly. You can master all preachers and priests who will elevate your language simply for the of the other elements in this textbook, prophecy and not just profiteer. sake of using big words when small but without an effective use of words will do, audiences may perceive language those other mastered skills you as insincere, and that perception will not mean much to your audience. The significant difference between might also transfer onto your message. The suggestions in this chapter will these two versions of the paragraph can In addition, the audience’s attention can help you communicate as effectively as be explained simply as the difference drift to questions about your character possible using appropriate and between carefully choosing one group and veracity, making it less likely that expressive. You’ll also learn about of words over another group of words. they are paying attention to your language to avoid so that your language My version of the speech is fine, but it message. leaves the audience with a positive is utterly forgettable. Reverend Second, using a long word when a impression of you. Jackson’s exact wording, however, is short one will do inhibits your ability to stunning. The audience probably communicate clearly. Your goal as a remembered his speech and the chills speaker should be to be as clear as you the differences language that went down their spines when they possibly can. Using language that choices can make heard it long after it was over. This makes it more difficult for your When I discuss the importance of example, I hope, exemplifies the audience to understand your message language choice with my students, I difference language choice can make. can negatively impact your ability to generally begin with two different Using language in a way that makes get a clear message across to your paragraphs based on a section from you and your speech memorable, audience. If your audience can’t Reverend Jesse Jackson’s “Rainbow however, takes work. Few people understand your vocabulary, they can’t Coalition” speech. The first paragraph come by this talent naturally, so give understand your message. I read them is a section of Reverend yourself plenty of time to rework your Jackson’s speech that I have rewritten. first draft to fine tune and perfect your The second paragraph is the actual text language choice. Using some of the from Reverend Jackson’s speech. Let’s strategies discussed below will help start with my version first: you in this process.
America should dream. Choose people over building bombs. constructing clear and vivid Destroy the weapons and don’t hurt messages the people. Think about a new use simple language system of values. Think about When asked to write a speech or a lawyers more interested in the law paper, many of us pull out the thesaurus than promotions. Consider doctors (or call it up on our computer) when we more interested in helping people want to replace a common word with A good example of a speaker whose get better than in making money. one that we believe is more elevated or communication was obstructed by Imagine preachers and priests who intellectual. There are certainly times language use is Former Secretary of will preach and not just solicit when using a thesaurus is a good thing, State Alexander Haig. Some examples money. but if you’re pulling that big book out of his problematic language choice include: “careful caution,” to turn a simple idea into one that sounds more complex, put it back on “epistemologically wise,” This paragraph is clear and simple. It the shelf. Good speakers use simple “exacerbating restraint,” “saddle myself gets the point across to the audience. language for two primary reasons. with a statistical fence,” and But compare my version of his “definitizing an answer”
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(“Haigledygook and Secretaryspeak”, words to better your chances of 1981). Chances are good that after communicating your message as reading these phrases over and over intended. you still don’t understand him. You can You also want to make sure that imagine how much harder it would be you’re precise. Someone might call a to understand Haig’s message as it was sweater “green” while someone else delivered orally—spoken in an instant calls it “teal.” Even though those are and then gone! Haig’s language clouds just differences in perception not rather than clarifies ideas, but it is easy purposeful or mindless communication to make sure your message gets across One of the primary reasons we meant to be inaccurate, not being clear to the audience by avoiding big words miscommunicate is because language is about exactly which color you’re that are not necessary. an abstract phenomenon. Meanings talking about can lead to confusion. It If you’re paying attention to the exist in people’s understandings, not is best to remember to be as precise as language strategies discussed in this the words we use. Therefore, if you’re possible when choosing words. Don’t chapter, you’ll find that you won’t need telling a story about “a dog” you could say something was “big”—tell us its to pull out that thesaurus to impress be talking about a German Shepherd weight or height, and to be sure you’re your audience—your command of while the person you’re talking with is communicating clearly compare that language will make that positive envisioning a Chihuahua. If you do not weigh or height to something we impression for you. In addition, when use concrete language, you risk at least understand. So, instead of saying “The you use language that your audience sending a weaker or different message piles of garbage I saw in the local dump expects to hear and is used to hearing than you intended. When speaking, were really big” say “The piles of you may find that the audience you want to use the concrete term garbage I saw in the local dump perceives you as more sincere than “German shepherd” over the more weighed about 10,000 pounds, which is someone who uses elevated language abstract term “dog.” equivalent to the weight of the average and sounds pretentious. Remember: It female elephant.” The more precise When you are writing your speech, is rarely the case that you should use a you are the less likely it is that your look for words that you might need to long word when a short one will do. audience will misinterpret your define more clearly. Instead of talking message. Most of the fundamental ideas of about “bad weather,” tell the audience science are essentially simple, and that it was raining or that hail the size Our business is infested with idiots of golf balls was coming down. “Bad who try to impress by using may, as a rule, be expressed in a weather” means different things to language comprehensible to different people. In discussing the pretentious jargon. everyone. aftermath of a natural disaster, rather ~ David Ogilvy ~ Albert Einstein than saying “a lot of people were affected” say, “25,000 citizens, 1 in Another way to avoid language that use concrete and precise every 5, were affected by this disaster.” obstructs communication is to avoid the language “A lot” means different things to use of jargon. Jargon is the How many times a week do you say different people. Most words mean “specialized language of a group or something to someone only to have different things to different people, so profession” (Hamilton, 2008, p. 286). them misunderstand? You believe that use concrete language over abstract It is appropriate to use jargon when you you were very clear and the person you know that your audience understands were talking to thought that she the terms you are using. For example, understood you perfectly, and yet you if you are a computer science major both ended up with a problem we often and you are presenting to a group of deem “miscommunication.” You said similarly trained computer science you’d “call later” and your friend got majors, using jargon will help establish angry because you didn’t. By “later” your credibility with that audience. you probably meant one time frame Using terms even as basic as “RAM” while your friend defined that time and “binary code” with a general frame very differently. Often in these audience, however, will likely not go cases both people are right. You were over well—you risk confusing the perfectly clear and your friend did audience rather than informing or understand you perfectly—so how did persuading them. Even people who can the miscommunication happen? use computers may not know how they work or the technical terms associated
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org with them. So you must be careful to mindless use of slang negatively impact In the same speech the Reverend Dr. only use jargon when you know your your audience’s perception of you and King also makes use of similes, which audience will understand it. If you your message. also compare two things but do so must use jargon while speaking to a using “like” or “as.” In discussing his general audience, be sure to define your using stylized language goals for the Civil Rights movement in terms and err on the side of over- Stylized language is language that his “I Have a Dream” speech, the clarification. communicates your meaning clearly, Reverend Dr. exclaims: “No, no we are vividly and with flair. Stylized not satisfied and we will not be Slang is a language that rolls up language doesn’t just make you sound satisfied until justice rolls down like its sleeves, spits on its hands and better; it also helps make your speeches waters and righteousness like a mighty goes to work. more memorable. Speakers who are stream.” Similes also help make your thoughtful about using language message clearer by using ideas that are ~ Carl Sandburg strategies in their speeches are more more concrete for your audience. For memorable as speakers and therefore so example, to give the audience an idea Finally, another way to avoid too are their messages more of what a winter day looked like you confusion is to avoid using slang when unforgettable as well. could note that the “snow looked as it is not appropriate. Slang is language solid as pearls.” To communicate that some people might understand but sweltering heat you could say that “the metaphors and similes that is not considered acceptable in tar on the road looked like satin.” A formal or polite conversation. Slang One strategy that promotes vivid simile most of us are familiar with is may be a poor choice for a speaker language is the use of metaphors. the notion of the United States being because some members of your Metaphors are comparisons made by “like a melting pot” with regard to its audience may not be familiar with the speaking of one thing in terms of diversity. We also often note that a slang term(s) you use. Slang is often another. Similes are similar to friend or colleague that stays out of based in a very specific audience, metaphors in how they function; conflicts between friends is “like defined by age, region, subculture and however, similes make comparisons by Switzerland.” In each of these the like. If you are speaking to an using the word “like” or “as,” whereas instances similes have been used to audience that you know will understand metaphors do not. The power of a more clearly and vividly communicate and respond positively, you may metaphor is in its ability to create an a message. choose to include that language in your image that is linked to emotion in the speech. Otherwise, do not use slang, or mind of the audience. It is one thing to Metaphors have a way of holding you may confuse and frustrate audience talk about racial injustice, it is quite the most truth in the least space. members and cause them to lose another for the Reverend Dr. Martin ~ Orson Scott Card interest in your speech. In addition, Luther King, Jr. to note that people because slang is often not considered have been “…battered by storms of appropriate in formal and polite persecution and staggered by the winds alliteration conversation, using it in your speech of police brutality.” Throughout his “I Remember challenging yourself or a may communicate negative ideas about Have a Dream” speech the Reverend friend to repeat a tongue twister “five you to audience members. Don’t let a Dr. King uses the metaphor of the times fast?” Perhaps it was “Sally sold checking account to make his point. seashells by the seashore” or “Peter He notes that the crowd has come to the Piper picked a peck of pickled March on Washington to “cash a peppers.” Tongue twisters are difficult check” and claims that America has to say to say but very easy to “defaulted on this promissory note” by remember. Why? Alliteration. giving “the Negro people a bad check, Alliteration is the repetition of the a check that has come back initial sounds of words. Alliteration is “insufficient funds.” By using a useful tool for helping people checking and bank account terms that remember your message, and it’s as most people are familiar with, the simple as taking a few minutes to see if Reverend Dr. King is able to more there are ways to reword your speech clearly communicate what he believes so that you can add some alliteration— has occurred. In addition, the use of this is a great time to use that thesaurus this metaphor acts as a sort of we talked about putting away early in “shortcut.” He gets his point across this chapter. Look for alternative very quickly by comparing the words to use that allow for alliteration problems of civil rights to the problems in your speech. You might consider of a checking account. doing this especially when it comes to
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org the points that you would like your wording (it should be powerful and the importance of ethical audience to remember most. creative, not pedantic) and your and accurate language delivery (the correct use of pause, language and ethics The soul selects her own society. volumes, and other elements of As was noted at the beginning of this ~ Emily Dickinson delivery), the audience often perceives chapter, language is culturally the repetition as dramatic and transmitted—we learn our language memorable. The use of parallel antithesis from those around us. For most of us Antithesis allows you to use language and structure can also help you when you are speaking this means that we may first learn contrasting statements in order to make language from our parents, but as we persuasively. Through the use of these a rhetorical point. Perhaps the most grow older, other family members, strategies you can create a speech that famous example of antithesis comes friends, educators and even the media takes your audience through a series of from the Inaugural Address of impact our vocabularies and our President John F. Kennedy when he ideas or arguments that seem to “naturally” build to your conclusion. choices regarding what language we stated, “And so, my fellow Americans, use. Think about a world without ask not what your country can do for language. Quite simply, we’d have no you; ask what you can do for your personalized language way of participating in our world country.” Going back to Reverend We’re all very busy people. Perhaps without it. People constantly produce Jackson’s “Rainbow Coalition” speech you’ve got work, studying, classes, a language to categorize and organize the he notes, “I challenge them to put hope job, and extracurricular activities to world. in their brains and not dope in their juggle. Because we are all so busy, one veins.” In each of these cases, the Think back to our discussion of how problem that speakers often face is language influences your social reality. speakers have juxtaposed two trying to get their audience interested in competing ideas in one statement to In my work as a mentor, I tutored a girl their topic or motivated to care about in elementary school who had a very make an argument in order to draw the their argument. A way to help solve listener’s attention. difficult time saying the word “lake.” I this problem is through the use of used the word “lake” as part of a You’re easy on the eyes --- hard language that personalizes your topic. homework exercise. What I had not Rather than saying, “One might argue” on the heart. realized was that she had never seen a say “You might argue.” Rather than lake, either in person or in a picture, or, ~ Terri Clark saying “This could impact the country if she had seen a lake no one had in ways we have not yet imagined,” say pointed to that body of water and called parallel structure and “This could impact your life in ways it a “lake.” The concept of a “lake” language that you have not imagined.” By using was simply not in her reality. No Antithesis is often worded using language that directly connects your “lakes” existed in her world. This is a parallel structure or language. topic or argument to the audience you key example of how the language that Parallel structure is the balance of two better your chances of getting your we learn and that we choose to use says or more similar phrases or clauses, and audience to listen and to be persuaded something about our social reality. that your subject matter is serious and parallel wording is the balance of two Consider the above example another or more similar words. The Reverend important to them. Using words like “us,” “you,” and “we” can be a subtle way. Let’s say that my young friend Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech had seen a lake and knew how to say exemplifies both strategies in action. means of getting your audience to pay attention to your speech. Most people the word and what the word referred to, Indeed, the section where he repeats “I but that she had only been privy to Have a Dream” over and over again is are most interested in things that they believe impact their lives directly— people who used the word negatively. an example of the use of both parallel If throughout her life “lakes” were structure and language. The use of make those connections clear for your audience by using personal language. discussed as “bad things” to be parallel structure and language helps avoided, she would have a very your audience remember without different perspective on lakes than most beating them over the head with people. Switching this example around repetition. If worded and delivered a little helps illustrate the fact that carefully, you can communicate a main language is not neutral. Language point over and over again, as did the carries ideas, and while there is often Reverend Dr. King, and it doesn’t seem more than one choice in terms of which as though you are simply repeating the word to use, often the words from same phrase over and over. You are which you are choosing are not equal in often doing just that, of course, but terms of the reality that they because you are careful with your communicate.
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Think about the difference between speakers would refrain from calling does communicate inaccuracies to the calling a specific place “the projects” “pro-choice” people “pro-abortion” audience. versus calling that same place “public since the basic principle of the “pro- housing.” Both phrases refer to a choice” position is that it is up to the particular geographical space, but person, not society, to choose whether calling a neighborhood “the projects” or not an abortion is acceptable. That as opposed to “public housing” is a very different position than being communicates something very “pro-abortion.” Indeed, many pro- different, and more negative, about this choice citizens would not choose neighborhood. Often students use the abortion if faced with an unplanned words that they hear more commonly pregnancy; therefore calling them “pro- used, so referring to “the projects” as abortion” does not reflect the reality of sexist and heterosexist opposed to “public housing” usually the situation; rather, it is the purposeful language indicates that they have not thought and unethical use of one term over the One of the primary means by which enough about their word choices or other for emotional impact. Similarly, speakers regularly communicate thought about the impact of those if a pro-choice person is addressing a inaccurate information is through the choices. crowd where religious organizations use of sexist language. In spite of the are protesting against the legality of fact that the Modern Language By and large, language is a tool abortion, it would not be ethical for the Association deemed sexist language as for concealing the truth. pro-choice speaker to refer to the “anti- grammatically incorrect back in the abortion” protestors as “religious ~ George Carlin 1970s, many people and institutions fanatics.” Simply because someone is (including most colleges and protesting abortion on religious As this example points out, we have universities) still regularly use sexist grounds does not make that person a a variety of words from which to language in their communication. choose when constructing a message. “religious fanatic,” and as in the first Successful speakers recognize that in example, choosing the latter phrase is An argument I regularly hear from addition to choosing words that help another purposeful and unethical use of students is that language has “always with clarity and vividness, it is one term over another for emotional been sexist.” This is, in fact, not true. important to think about the impact. As Dale Spender notes in her book, connotations associated with one word Man Made Language, until 1746 when or the other. When speakers are not Language exerts hidden power, John Kirkby formulated his “Eighty careful in terms of word choice in this like the moon on the tides. Eight Grammatical Rules,” the words sense, it is possible to lose credibility ~ Rita Mae Brown “they” and “their” were used in with the audience and to create the sentences for sex-indeterminable sentences (Spender, 1990, pp. 148- perception that you are someone that A second way to link communication perhaps you are not. If you use “the 149.) Kirkby’s rule number twenty-one and ethics is to remember that ethical stated that the male sex was more projects” instead of “public housing,” speakers attempt to communicate audience members may view you as comprehensive than the female and reality to the best of their ability. thus argued that “he” was the someone who has negative perceptions Granted, as was noted above, each of people who live in public housing grammatically correct way to note men person’s social reality is different, and women in writing where mixed when you do not feel that way at all. depending on background, influences, Clearly, not being careful about sexed or sex-indeterminable situations and cultural institutions, for example. are referred to (Spender, 1990, pp. 148- language choices can be a costly But regardless of whether you think mistake. 149). Women were not given equal that a “lake” is a good or bad thing, access to education at this time and But what do these examples have to lakes still exist in reality. Regardless of thus the male grammarians who filled do with ethics? For our purposes here, whether or not you think rocks are the halls of the academy and had no there are two ways to think about useful or not, rocks still exist. So incentive to disagree with Mr. Kirkby, communication and ethics. First, ethical communication also means accepted his eighty-eight rules in full. ethical communication is that which trying to define or explain your subject does not unfairly label one thing or in terms that are as closely tied to an Interestingly though, the general another based on personal bias. So, in objective reality as is possible—it is population was not as easily convinced. addition to choosing “public housing” your best attempt to communicate Perhaps because they were not used to over “the projects,” an ethical speaker accurately about your topic. Sexist and identifying women as men in language will choose terms that steer clear from heterosexist language are two types of or perhaps because it did not make intentional bias. For example, pro-life language to be avoided by ethical rational sense to do so, the general speakers because each type of language public ignored rule number twenty-one.
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Incensed by the continued misuse of Table 10.1 Comparison of Sexist and Gender-Neutral Terms “they,” male grammarians were influential in the passing of the 1850 Sexist Terms Gender-Neutral Terms Act of Parliament which legally Actress Actor asserted that “he” stood for “she” Ballerina Ballet Dancer (Spender, 1990, p. 150), Yes, you read Businessman Business Person correctly. Parliament passed legislation Chairman Chairperson in an effort to promote the use of sexist Fireman Firefighter language. And it worked! Eventually the rule was adhered to by the public Fisherman Fisher and thus we have the regular and rarely Mailman/Postman Mail/Letter Carrier challenged use of sexist language. But Male Nurse Nurse this use of language was not “natural” Policeman Police Officer or even “normal” for many millennia. Stewardess Flight Attendant Pretending that we haven’t learned Waitress Server about the work of Dale Spender, let’s He (to mean men and women) He or She, He/She, They assume that language has “always been Example: Examples: sexist.” Even if language was always If a student wants to do well, he must If a student wants to do well, he or study. she must study. sexist, that does not make the use of If students want to do well, they sexist language right. We wouldn’t must study make a similar argument about racist From: http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol42/no1/p36.htm#chart language, so that argument isn’t any stronger with regard to language that is sexist. It simply isn’t acceptable today to use sexist language; and by learning not say those things because they talking about groups generally, you to avoid these common mistakes, you simply wouldn’t make sense to us. should avoid using these types of terms can avoid using language that is Perhaps you can now see why the and replace them with “firefighters” grammatically incorrect, unethical, and people of the 1700s and 1800s had and “police officers.” Colleges and problematic. See Table 10.1 for trouble switching from non-sexist to universities should replace “freshman” examples of sexist and non-sexist sexist language—it defied their own with “first-year students” and so should language. common sense just as discussing how you. Other, non job-oriented words “man gets pregnant” defies yours. also suffer from this same problem. Is your remarkably sexist drivel Second, you should avoid using People often note that tables need to be intentional, or just some horrible man-linked terms, which are terms “manned” rather than “staffed” and that mistake? such as “fireman” or “policemen.” It is items are “man-made” instead of ~ Yeardley Smith appropriate to use these terms when “human made” or “handmade.” you know that the people you are A final common use of sexist speaking about are men only, but if you language occurs when people use First, you should avoid the use of do not know for sure or if you’re spotlighting when discussing the what is called the generic “he” or occupations of men and women. How “man,” which is the use of terms such often have you heard (or used) a phrase as “mankind” instead of “humankind” such as “he’s a male nurse” or “that or “humanity,” or the use of “man” or female lawyer?” When we spotlight in “he” to refer to all people. A common these ways, we are pointing out that a response from students with regard to person is deviating from the “norm” the use of “generic he” is that the word and implying that someone’s sex is is intended to represent men and relevant to a particular job. According women, therefore when it’s used it is to Peccei, in the English language there not used to be sexist. If it were really is a very strong tendency to “place the the case that people truly recognized in adjective expressing the most their minds that the term “man” ‘defining’ characteristic closest to the includes women, then we would talk noun” (Peccei, 2003, p. 118). Thus, as about situations in which “man has Turner points out, a phrase like the “old difficulty giving birth” (Spender, 1990, intelligent woman” violates our sense p. 156) or the “impact of menstruation of “correct,” not because there’s on man’s biology.” Of course, we do anything wrong with the word order
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org grammatically, but because it group or is someone whose opinions members. In reality the world is not contradicts our customary way of people care about, offending that one completely heterosexual and even in thinking that values youth over age audience member may cause you to the unlikely case that you’re speaking (Peccei, 2003, p. 118). If you talk “lose” many other audience members in a room of consisting completely of about a “male nurse” or a “female cop,” as well. heterosexuals, many people have you risk communicating to the friends or relatives that are audience that you believe the most homosexual, so the use of heterosexist salient aspect of a particular job is the language to construct the world as if sex of the person that normally does it, this were not the case runs counter to and some audience members may not ethical communication. appreciate that assumption on your part. The use of sexist language is not just avoiding language pitfalls grammatically incorrect; its use is also There are other aspects of language linked to ethics because it you should consider when thinking about how language choices impact the communicates a reality that does not exist—it is not accurate. Man-linked audience’s perception of you. language communicates male Heterosexist language is language superiority and that there are more men that assumes the heterosexual profanity than women because women are orientation of a person or group of regularly erased linguistically in speech people. Be careful when speaking not It seems obvious, but this fact bears and writing. Man-linked terms and to use words or phrases that assume the repeating—you should refrain from spotlighting communicate that some sexual orientation of your audience using profanity in your speeches. One job activities are appropriate for men members. Do not make the mistake of of the primary rules of all aspects of but not women and vice versa by pointing to someone in your audience public speaking (audience analysis, putting focus on the sex of a person as as an example and discussing that delivery, topic selection, etc.) is that linked to their job or activity. Finally, person with the assumption that she is you should never ignore audience the use of the generic “he” or “man” heterosexual by saying something like, expectations. Audiences do not expect communicates that men are the norm “Let’s say this woman here is having speakers to use profane language, and and women deviate from that norm. If trouble with her husband.” When in most cases, doing so will hurt your all humans are called “man,” what does thinking of examples to use, consider credibility with the audience. It is true that say about women? Sexist language using names that could ring true for that certain audiences will not mind an can also limit what young males and heterosexuals and homosexuals alike. occasional profane word used for females believe that they can Instead of talking about Pat and effect, but unless you are speaking to a accomplish in their lives. Ethical Martha, discuss an issue involving Pat group of people with whom you are speakers should therefore avoid using and Chris. Not only will you avoid very familiar, it is difficult to know for language that communicates these language that assumes everyone’s sure whether the majority of the sexist practices. partner is of the opposite sex, you will audience will respond positively or also better your chances of persuading negatively to such language use. If you Speakers who choose to continue to even offend one person in an audience use sexist language are not only using your example. If the use of sex- specific names doesn’t ring true with and that person happens to be an speaking in a manner that is opinion leader for other audience grammatically incorrect, they are also members of your audience that are homosexual, it is possible that they are members, the negative impact of your risking communicating negative ideas language on that one person could end about themselves to audience members. not as likely to continue to listen to your example with the same level of up having a much larger influence on Often the use of sexist language is the audience’s perception of you. because of a careless error, so be interest. They are more likely to follow careful about language choice so that your example if they aren’t confronted I wanted to cut down on the immediately with names that assume a you don’t accidentally communicate profanity, because I think I'm something about yourself that you heterosexual relationship. There are, of course, ethical considerations as well. funnier without sayin' a lot of cuss didn’t intend or that isn’t true. words. Remember that if one person in your Because it is likely that your entire audience is offended by some aspect of audience is not heterosexual (and ~ Chris Tucker your language use, they may share their certainly they do not all hold opinions with others in the room. If heterosexist attitudes), using exaggeration that one person is a leader of the larger heterosexist language is another way Speakers should also be careful about that speakers may alienate audience exaggeration. Hyperbole is the use of
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org moderate exaggeration for effect and is make your sentences less definitive, so an acceptable and useful language generally avoid using them. strategy. What is not acceptable, Interestingly, however, there are however, is the use of exaggeration to cases when using less powerful an extent that you risk losing language may be useful. While a full credibility. For example, while it is discussion of these instances is out of acceptable to note that “it snows in the purview of this chapter, good South Texas as often as pigs fly,” it speakers will recognize when they would not be acceptable to state that “It should use more or less powerful never snows in South Texas.” In the language. I tell my students that there first case, you are using hyperbole as a are some cases when negotiation form of exaggeration meant to between two or more parties is the key creatively communicate an idea. In the and that in these instances using second case, your use of exaggeration language that communicates complete is stating something that is not true. It certainty might impede fruitful is unwise to use words such as “never” language when speaking. Because negotiation because other parties may and “always” when speaking. It may women are more likely than men to be incorrectly perceive you as inflexible. be the case that speakers make this socialized to take the feelings of others On the other hand, in some cases you mistake accidentally because they are into account, women tend to use less must “win” an argument or “beat” not careful with regard to word choice. powerful language than men (Gamble another speaker in order to even get to We so easily throw words like and Gamble, 2003, 62). Both men and the negotiation table, and in those “always” and “never” around in women, however, can use language that cases, the use of more powerful everyday conversation that this communicates a lack of power. In language may be warranted. It bears tendency transfers onto our public some cases speakers use powerless repeating that better speakers know speeches when we are not thinking language that communicates how to use language in response to carefully about word choice. uncertainty. For example, a speaker specific contexts in order to be There are two problems with the might say “It seems to me that things successful, hence thinking about what careless use of exaggeration. First, are getting worse,” or “In my contexts require more or less powerful when you use words like “always” and estimation, things are getting worse.” language is always a good idea. “never,” it is not likely that the These phrases communicate a lack of statement you are making is true—as certainty in your statements. It is likely There may be times when we are very few things always or never that in the case of these speeches, the powerless to prevent injustice, but happen. Therefore, audiences might speaker is arguing that some problem is there must never be a time when getting worse, therefore more powerful mistake your careless use of language we fail to protest. for an attempt to purposefully language would be acceptable. Simply state that “Things are getting worse” ~ Elie Wiesel misrepresent the truth. Second, when you suggest that something “always” or and don’t weaken your statement with “never” happens, you are explicitly phrases that communicate uncertainty. incorrect grammar challenging your audience members to Speakers should also beware of While the use of sexist or offer up evidence that contradicts your hedges, tag questions, and qualifiers. heterosexist language may imply some statement. Such a challenge may serve Examples of hedges would include, “I negative qualities about you to your to impact your credibility negatively thought we should,” “I sort of think,” audience, the use of incorrect grammar with the audience, as an audience or “Maybe we should.” Use more in your speech will explicitly member can make you look careless powerful statements such as “We communicate negative attributes about and/or silly by pointing out that your should” or “I believe.” In addition, you quite clearly. There are four “always” or “never” statement is speakers should avoid the use of tag primary means by which incorrect incorrect. questions, which are quick questions at grammar tends to make its way into the end of a statement that also speeches, including basic error, Exaggeration is a blood relation communicate uncertainty. People who mispronunciations, regionalisms, and to falsehood and nearly as use tag questions might end a statement colloquialisms. blamable. with “Don’t you think?” or “Don’t you Basic errors occur when people make ~ Hosea Ballou agree?” rather than flatly stating what simple mistakes in grammar because of they believe because it can appear to carelessness or a lack of knowledge. If audiences that you are seeking powerless language you are unsure about the grammatical validation for your statements. Finally, think about using powerful structure of a sentence, ask someone. Qualifiers such as “around” or “about”
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Although spoken English doesn't Remember: Y'all is singular. All obey the rules of written language, y'all is plural. All y'all's is plural a person who doesn't know the possessive. rules thoroughly is at a great ~ Kinky Friedman disadvantage. ~ Marilyn vos Savant Some grammar problems occur because people use regionalisms when Practicing your speech in front of speaking, which may pose problems for others can help you catch mistakes. people in the audience not familiar with Grammatical errors can also happen the terms being used. Regionalisms when speakers aren’t familiar enough are customary words or phrases used in with their speech. If you do not know different geographic regions. For your topic well and have not given example, growing up in Texas I used yourself an adequate amount of time “y’all,” while my students in for practice, you may fumble some Pennsylvania might use “youins” or “yins” to mean a group of people. In during your speech and use incorrect grammar that you normally wouldn’t the South, many people use the phrase use. One of the most regular critiques “Coke” to mean any soft drink mistake because it was such a blatant made of President George W. Bush is (probably because Coco-Cola is error. Making pronunciation mistakes, that he regularly makes grammatical headquartered in Atlanta), while in the especially when you’re pronouncing errors in public. In one case President Northeast a “Coke” might be called a words that the general public deems Bush stated, “Rarely is the question “tonic” and in other regions it might be ordinary, can seriously impede your asked: Is our children learning?” In called a “pop” or “soda pop.” You must credibility. It was likely difficult for another instance he stated, “I have a be careful when using regional terms students to take this speaker’s different vision of leadership. A because your audience may not remaining comments seriously after leadership is someone who brings interpret your message correctly if they she’d made such a big mistake. If people together” (“Bushisms”, 2007). are not familiar with the regionalism you’re unsure about how to pronounce When President Bush makes these you’re using. Try to find terms that are a word, check with someone else or mistakes, many people take note and it broader in their use, perhaps using “you with the dictionary to make sure you’re gives his detractors ammunition to all” or “soft drink” instead of the pronouncing it correctly. In fact, many critique his ability to lead. Unlike regional terms you may be used to online dictionaries such as Merriam- President Bush, you do not have a team using in everyday conversations. Webster.com and Dictionary.com now of public relations specialists ready to include a function that allows you to explain away your grammatical error so hear how the word is pronounced. And you should take great care to make sure if it’s a word you’re not used to saying, that you’re prepared to speak. such as a technical or medical term, Apparently Arnold was inspired by practice saying it out loud 10-20 times President Bush, who proved you a day until you’re comfortable with the word. Remember that our mouths are can be a successful politician in machines and that our tongues, teeth, this country even if English is your cheeks, lips, etc. all work together to second language. pronounce sounds. When faced with a word that our mouths are not yet ~ Conan O'Brien “trained” to say, it is more likely that we’ll mispronounce the word or stutter In addition, you must be sure that some on it during a speech. But if you you are pronouncing words correctly. Another grammar issue often linked practice saying the word out loud to region is the use of colloquialisms. In one instance I had a student who several times a day leading up to your Colloquialisms are words or phrases began discussing the philosopher Plato, speech, you’re less likely to make a except she pronounced his name “Platt- used in informal speech but not mistake and your confidence will be typically used in formal speech. Using o” instead of “Play-toe.” I could see boosted instead of hurt in the midst of the word “crick” instead of “creek” is students glancing at each other and your speech. rolling their eyes in response to this one example of a colloquialism, and in some areas “I’m getting ready to cook mistake. Indeed, it was even difficult for me to pay attention after the dinner” would be said, “I’m fixin’ to
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Chapter 10 using language well www.publicspeakingproject.org make dinner.” Colloquialisms can also be phrases that stem from particular regions. In some regions nice clothes are often referred to as your “Sunday best,” and in some areas, when people are preparing to vacuum, they note that they are getting ready to “red up the place” (make it ready for visitors). Like regionalisms, an audience understanding your use of colloquialisms depends on their familiarity with the language tendencies of a certain geographic area, so steering clear of their use can help you make sure that your message is understood by your audience. Another problem that regionalisms and colloquialisms have in common is that some audience members may consider their use a sign of lesser intellect because they are not considered proper grammar, so you also risk leaving a bad impression of yourself with audience feelings about you as a speaker from It is important for speakers to members if you make these language your audience. Try to avoid using remember the power of language and to choices for a formal presentation. clichés so that audiences are more harness that power effectively, yet likely to perceive you positively as a ethically. We’ve discussed the I personally think we developed speaker. relationship between the language we language because of our deep Another consideration for speakers is use and the way we see the world, the need to complain. whether or not to use language central importance of using language that is ~ Lily Tomlin to the popular culture of a time clear, vivid, stylized, ethical and that period. Whether we’re talking about reflects well on you as the speaker. “groovy, man” from the 1970s or “like The difference between choosing one other language choices to word over another can be as significant consider totally awesome” from the 1980s, or “word to your mutha” from the 1990s, as an audience member remembering Clichés are phrases or expressions the language central to the popular your presentation or forgetting it and/or that, because of overuse, have lost their culture of any time period is generally an audience turning against you and rhetorical power. Examples include something to be avoided in formal your ideas. Taking a few extra sayings such as “The early bird gets the public speaking. Like slang or moments to add some alliteration or to worm” or “Making a mountain out of a profanity, language stemming from check for language that might offend molehill.” Phrases such as these were popular culture can be limited in its others is time very well spent. The next once powerful ways of communicating appeal. Some audiences may not time you have to write or speak about an idea, but because of overuse these understand it, some audiences may an issue, remember the importance of phrases just don’t have the impact that negatively evaluate you for using language and its impact on our lives— they once had. Using clichés in your language that is too informal, and other carefully consider what language will speeches runs the risk of having two audiences will have negative you use and how will those language negative attributions being placed on preconceived notions about “the kind choices make a difference in how your you by audience members. First, of people” that use such language (e.g., audiences defines and understands your audience members may feel that your “hippies” in the 1970s), and they will topic. use of a cliché communicates that you most likely transfer those negative didn’t take the speech seriously and/or evaluations onto you. were lazy in constructing it. Second, If you talk to a man in a language your audience members may perceive he understands, that goes to his you as someone who is not terribly conclusion creative. Clichés area easy ways to head. If you talk to him in his This chapter has discussed a number communicate your message, but you language, that goes to his heart. of important aspects of language that might pay for that ease with negative ~ Nelson Mandela good speakers should always consider.
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chapter review questions and activities review questions
1. Explain the difference between communication and language. 2. Explain the relationship between language and the way that humans perceive their worlds. 3. Why should you use simple language in your speech? 4. The use of concrete and precise language in your speeches helps prevent what sorts of problems? 5. Give an example of a metaphor and explain how that metaphor functions to communicate a specific idea more clearly. 6. What is alliteration? 7. Why is personalized language important? 8. What are some examples of types of sexist language and what is the impact of those examples? 9. What are two problems associated with using exaggerated language in your speeches? 10. Explain the types of powerless language most commonly used. 11. Why shouldn’t you use clichés in your speech? 12. Why is correct grammar important to good speech making? activities
1. Speakers should avoid the use of sexist language. Consider the sexist words and phrases listed below and think of as many replacement words as you can.
a. Bachelor’s Degree e. Chairman i. Manmade b. Bogeyman f. Forefather j. Repairman c. Brotherhood g. Layman k. Salesman d. Businessman h. Mailman l. Female Doctor
2. Using speeches from mlkonline.net or jfklibrary.org, choose any speech from the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., President John F. Kennedy, or Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and isolate one paragraph that you believe exemplifies a careful and effective use of language. Rewrite that paragraph as I did for my classes, using more common and less careful word choices. Compare the paragraphs to each other once you’re done, noticing the difference your changes in language make.
3. Speakers should always remember that it’s rarely helpful to use a long word when a short word will do and that clichés should be avoided in speeches. Look at these common clichés, reworded using language that obstructs rather than clarifies, and see if you can figure out which clichés have been rewritten. a. A piece of pre-decimal currency conserved is coinage grossed. b. The timely avian often acquires the extended soft-bodied invertebrate. c. A utensil often used for writing is more prodigious than a certain long-edged weapon. d. Let slumbering members of the canine variety remain in slumber e. An animal of the avian variety resting on one’s palm is more valuable than double that amount in one’s appendage most often used for tactile feedback.
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glossary
Alliteration Man-linked Terms The repetition of the initial sounds of words. Terms such as “fireman” or “policemen” that incorrectly identify a job as linked only to a male. Antithesis Rhetorical strategy that uses contrasting statements Metaphors in order to make a rhetorical point. Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another. Clichés Phrases or expressions that, because of overuse, Qualifiers have lost their rhetorical power. Powerless words such as “around” or “about” that make your sentences less definitive. Colloquialisms Words or phrases used in informal speech but not Regionalisms typically used in formal speech. Customary words or phrases used in different geographic regions. Communication Attempts to reproduce what is in our minds in the Sexist Language minds of our audience. Language that unnecessarily identifies sex or linguistically erases females through the use of man- Generic “he” or “man” linked terms and/or the use of “he” or “man” as Language that uses words such as “he” or generics. “mankind” to refer to the male and female population. Similes Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in Hedges terms of another using the word “like” or “as” to Powerless phrases such as “I thought we should,” “I make the comparison. sort of think,” or “Maybe we should” that communicate uncertainty. Slang Type of language that most people understand but Heterosexist Language that is not considered acceptable in formal or polite Language that assumes the heterosexual orientation conversation. of a person or group of people. Spotlighting Hyperbole Language such as “male nurse” that suggests a The use of moderate exaggeration for effect. person is deviating from the “normal” person who would do a particular job and implies that someone’s Jargon sex is relevant to a particular job. The specialized language of a group or profession. Tag Questions Language Powerless language exemplified by ending The means by which we communicate—a system of statements with questions such as “Don’t you symbols we use to form messages. think?” or “Don’t you agree?”
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references
About.com (2011). Bushisms—U.S. President proves how King, M. L., Jr. (1963, August 28). I Have a Dream [Speech]. difficult English really is! Retrieved from. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadrea Gamble, T. K. & Gamble, M. W. (2003). The gender m.htm communication connection. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. Peccei, J. (2003). Language and age. In L. Thomas et. al.,Language, society, and power, 2nd Ed. New York: Time.com (1981, February 23). “Haigledygook and Routledge. secretaryspeak.” Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949069, Spender, D. (1990). Man Made Language. New York: Pandora. 00.html Thomas, L., Wareing, S. Singh, I., Pecci, J. S., Thornborrow, J. Hamilton, G. (2008). Public speaking for college and career, 8th & Jones, J. (2003). Language, society, and power: An Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. introduction, 2nd Ed. New York: Routledge. Jackson, J. (1984). 1984 Speech at the Democratic National Convention. San Francisco, CA: July 18. Found at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jessejackson198 4dnc.htm
photo credits p. 1 Rail Forum by Michigan Municipal League http://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/5041931910/ p. 2 Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. by Dick DeMarcisco http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_6.jpg p. 3 Secretary of State Alexander Haig by University of Texas http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Al_Haig_speaks_to_press_1981.jpg p. 4. LAMB Teal Wrap Sweater http://www.bluefly.com/ p. 5 Goth people by Rama http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goth_f222791.jpg p. 6 Audience at Next conference by NEXT Berlin http://www.flickr.com/photos/nextconference/4633552536/ p. 7 “Feminazi” coined by Rush Limbaugh, see http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminazi p. 8 Italian Soldier by the Italian Army http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italian_Soldier_Olypmic_Games_Turin_2006.jpg p. 9 Married gay couple by John http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Married_Gay_Couple_John_and_Jamie.jpg p. 10 Malalai Joya by AfghanKabul http://www.flickr.com/photos/19712640@N05/2076699646/ p. 12 Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche by Wonderlane http://www.flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/4915821372/
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