PROLOGUE the Inevitable Starting Point of Any Study of the Latin Empire of Constantinople Is the Fourth Crusade

PROLOGUE

The inevitable starting point of any study of the Latin Empire of Constantinople is the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204), for during the final phase of this turbulent expedition, the crusade leaders determined to bring the Byzantine Empire under Latin control. In this, lines in the sand were drawn within which the Latin take-over of Byzantium would take shape. In view of the fact that in the historiography on this subject this crusade is viewed as the culmination of the Latin-Byzantine ten- sions that had gradually built up in the preceding century, we begin by taking a brief look at the broader Latin-Byzantine relations in the period prior to 1204.

The Attitude of the Latin World to Byzantium Prior to the Fourth Crusade

In the early Middle Ages, the two halves of Christendom generally maintained rather limited relations with one another, but from the late eleventh century and throughout the entire twelfth century the contacts were to intensify.1 However, with a number of Western powers, the Byzantine empire had maintained privileged relationships for centuries: the Holy Roman Empire, the papacy and a number of other political powers on the Italian peninsula, where the Western and Byzantine ranges of influence met.2 The relationship between Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire concerned on the one hand the respective influence of each of the empires in Italy, something that lost most of its importance after the Norman conquest of the last Byzantine territories in Southern Italy in 1071 and, on the other hand, relates to the so-called ‘two-emperors- problem’. In both matters the papacy was usually an inevitable third actor. Under the German Hohenstaufen and the Byzantine Komnenoi,

1 Ciggaar, Western travellers to Constantinople, pp. 322–354. 2 Ebels-Hoving, Byzantium in Westerse ogen, p. 9. 16 prologue and later the Angeloi, the issue maintained its currency in the twelfth century.3 The relationship of Byzantium to the papacy was determined prin- cipally by the area of tension between the Roman and Byzantine Churches. In essence, a conflict had arisen between the two Churches, the crux of which was the papal claim to be not only the honorary but also the actual religious leader of the whole of Christendom, something that the Patriarch of Constantinople could not possibly accept. This fundamental difference of opinion crystallized in divergences of views relating not only to questions of dogma, but also concern- ing ceremonial and liturgical matters. In 1054 it was to culminate in a more formal breach with the mutual excommunications of papal legate Humbert, cardinal-bishop of Silva Candida, and patriarch of Constantinople Michael Kerularios. What was in fact a conflict between Churches often became linked with political issues, such as the papal and Byzantine relations with the Holy Roman emperorship or their respective influences in Italy.4 The Norman principalities in Southern Italy, later to be united in the Kingdom of Sicily, formed a third power with which Byzantium maintained closer links. In 1071, the Norman conquerors gained control of the last Byzantine territories in Southern Italy. Following on from this, from the end of the eleventh century the Norman rulers and kings repeatedly undertook military expeditions against the heartlands of the Byzantine Empire. Conversely, until far into the twelfth century the Byzantine emperors did not give up the hope of re-conquering parts of Southern Italy.5 The city of Venice was a fourth Western power that had special bonds with the Byzantine Empire. Since her coming into being in the sixth century, Venice had been a part of this empire, but from the eighth century developed into an autonomous Byzantine enclave within the Holy Roman Empire, becoming de facto wholly independent towards the beginning of the eleventh century. The continuing Venetian

3 Brezeanu, Das Zweikaiserproblem in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts, pp. 249–267. Kahl, Römische Krönungspläne im Komnenenhause?, pp. 259–320. Tin- nefeld, Byzanz und die Herrscher des Hauses Hohenstaufen, pp. 105–127. 4 Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz, Berlin, s.d. Hussey, The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, p. 167. Angold, Church and Society in Byzantium, p. 505. Bayer, Spaltung der Christenheit, pp. 203–213. 5 Chalandon, Histoire de la domination normande, p. 185. Matthew, The Norman King- dom of Sicily, pp. 263–281. Norwich, The Kingdom in the Sun, p. 129, p. 185, p. 323.