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Appendix a Foraminiferal Taxonomy

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Appendix a Foraminiferal Taxonomy Durham E-Theses Earthquakes and sea-level change in Hokkaido, north-east Japan THOMSON, KATIE,HANNAH How to cite: THOMSON, KATIE,HANNAH (2009) Earthquakes and sea-level change in Hokkaido, north-east Japan, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/143/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Earthquakes and sea-level change in Hokkaido, north-east Japan Katie H. Thomson Department of Geography Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2009 Declaration I confirm that no part of this material presented in this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other institution. In all cases the work of others, where relevant, has been fully acknowledged. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation, figure, or any other part of it should be published without prior written consent. All information derived from this thesis must be acknowledged appropriately. Katie Thomson August 2009 ii Abstract This thesis details the results of an investigation into the pattern of relative sea-level (RSL) changes in north-east Hokkaido, Japan. The aim of the research is to better understand the importance of seismic and non-seismic processes in controlling spatial patterns of vertical land motions over a range of timescales. The main focus is on using salt-marsh sediments as a source of data to reconstruct RSL change during the current interseismic period, since c. 300 calibrated years before present (cal. yr BP). Previous research on the Pacific coast of Hokkaido suggests that this period is characterised by subsidence caused by strain accumulation on the locked part of the Pacific/North American plates. I apply foraminiferal-based methods of palaeoenvironmental reconstruction to develop, using transfer functions, quantitative reconstructions of RSL change at five sites in north- east Hokkaido. Contemporary foraminifera are zoned with respect to elevation and tidal inundation, and my preferred transfer function (a model that contains 87 samples and 24 taxa) has a prediction r2 of 0.75 and a root mean squared error of prediction of ± 0.32 m. I apply this transfer function to shallow fossil sediment sequences at five salt marshes and use a combination of 210Pb, 137Cs and tephra chronology to establish age models for the sequences. The reconstructions are consistent in demonstrating little net RSL change during the last 300-100 cal. yrs, with the exception of data from one site, Sarfutsu-toh, located on the northern tip of Hokkaido. Chronologies from two profiles developed on the Pacific coast record strong evidence for recent RSL rise since the mid-1980s, but during earlier periods of the 20th century reconstructed RSL was stable or falling. I compare my reconstructions with other direct and proxy records of land and sea-level motions. Previously published GPS and repeat levelling data indicates subsidence in south-east Hokkaido during the 20th century, although the spatial patterns and rates of change have varied. An unknown amount of this subsidence at the Kushiro tide gauge likely reflects anthropogenic activities associated with sediment compaction as well as mining-induced subsidence. An analysis of the tide-gauge records from Hokkaido show a more varied pattern of land motions, although they also confirm subsidence on the Pacific coast, close to the Kuril trench. A database of Holocene sea-level index points provides insights into longer-term millennial-scale trends in RSL. Data from six regions of Hokkaido demonstrate stable RSL close to present during the mid- and late Holocene; only the northern tip of Hokkaido (around Sarubetsu) is there evidence for a small mid-Holocene highstand of 1-3 m above present. Finally, a review of Pleistocene raised marine terrace data shows net uplift over the last c. 330 k yr, with two areas of particularly high uplift at Abashiri and on the Pacific coast near Kushiro. iii Abstract The evidence presented in this research demonstrates that it is incorrect to infer that the current interseismic period is characterised by subsidence. Overall, RSL has changed little in the last 300-100 cal. yrs. The subsidence recorded in the mid- and late 20th century on the Pacific coast of Hokkaido is not typical of the full interseismic period, nor can it have been sustained over Holocene or Pleistocene timescales. Limited data from previous earthquake cycles indicate that RSL was stable, rising or falling during previous interseismic intervals. These observations suggest that a representative ‘Hokkaido earthquake deformation cycle’ may not exist. Future research should better understand the controls of Quaternary volcanic activity on regional deformation patterns, and apply microfossil-based techniques to multiple earthquake cycles at sites to help define the spatial extent of land motions associated with different events. iv Dedication In loving memory of Barrie Stuart Thomson 31st December 1943 – 9th February 1997 v Acknowledgements This PhD thesis has been the culmination of a number of years of work, and the help of so many people. To say the road has been difficult would be an understatement. The highs have been amazing, travelling to places I never dreamed I would visit, making lifelong friends, and working in such a stimulating department on a topic I still find fascinating has been a blast. However like any long project, somewhere in the middle I got very lost, and notwithstanding the amazing support of my three supervisors and the friends I have made throughout my time in Durham, this long road on which I have been travelling would not finally be drawing to a close. Firstly, I am indebted to the support of my supervisors. Professor Antony Long as my only Durham supervisor has been without doubt the single most important driving force behind my thesis, helping me wrestle my intellectual and personal demons and produce a thesis that I am as proud of its content as its aesthetic beauty. From this project’s conception, Dr Benjamin Horton has been a pillar of strength providing constant support and advice throughout my thesis, and I am truly indebted to his patience and encouragement. Finally, Dr Yuki Sawai has been incredibly helpful, guiding me on my fieldwork, and providing a window for me to gain insight into the academic and cultural idiosyncrasies of the Land of the Rising Sun. This PhD was made possible by financial support from the Durham University Doctoral Award, however funds provided by the Quaternary Research Association, the British Sedimentological Research Group, Durham Geographers Graduates Association, the Dudley Stamp Memorial Fund (Royal Society), the Trevelyan College Travel Bursary and the Geological Survey of Japan have enabled me to undertake the fieldwork, for which I am extremely grateful. Special thanks to Hiroo Nasu, Yushiro Fujii, Than Tin Aung, and Takanobu Kamataki for help in the field. Thanks also to the laboratory staff in the department, Frank Davies, Neil Tunstall, Martin West, Mark English, Alison Clark, Eddie Million, Kathryn Melvin and Chris Longley for helping me at every stage. Notably thanks also to Dr Sarah Woodroffe for her friendship and help throughout the duration of this thesis. I can never repay your kindness helping and supporting me throughout my time in Durham. Thanks also to all the many postgraduates which have passed through the department during my time in Durham, particularly Matthew Brain, Katie Oven and Rob Dunford. I am grateful for all of the support and encouragement you have provided me over the years. Special thanks go to Michael Lim for providing me accommodation, driving practice and a lot more besides. You have seen me at my lowest and each and every time you pick me up and make me a stronger, better person. vi Acknowledgements Finally I am indebted to the help of my family for providing me with the emotional support enabling me to finish this momentous project. To my sister Lucie for understanding the turmoil which I have been going through for the past few years, and to my mum for listening to me during my darkest days. This thesis is without doubt a group effort, and I thank you both from the bottom of my heart for your continued love, assistance and guidance. One person whom I would dearly love to thank personally, but was cruelly taken away is my dad. You sculpted me into the person I am. Your dedication, hard-working ethos and commitment to excellence should have been a guiding light in my times of trouble. I am only sorry I waivered and let you down. Rest assured I have discovered so much about myself over the duration of my thesis. Thank you for inspiring me and making me strive to do better. I’ll love and miss you always. vii Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Declaration ii Abstract iii Dedication v Acknowledgments vi Table of Contents viii List of Figures xii List of Tables xvii List of Appendices xviii 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1 1.1 Background .............................................................................................................
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