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Author Melanie A. Smith
Contributors Henry Huntington Raychelle Daniel Beth Peluso Pamela A. Miller
Audubon Alaska 441 West Fifth Avenue Suite 300 Anchorage, AK 99501
September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
INTRODUCTION
In early 2010, Audubon Alaska, in cooperation with Oceana, completed the Arctic Marine Synthesis: Atlas of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. The project area included the southern Beaufort, southern Chukchi, and northern Bering seas. The atlas provided a holistic look at the dynamic Arctic Ocean ecosystem through 44 maps describing the region’s physical oceanography, water column and benthic life, fish, birds, mammals, and human influences. The Arctic Marine Synthesis has become a valuable tool for scientists and policymakers seeking to better understand the region’s physical attributes, ecological interactions, and the distribution and concentration of marine wildlife. Other organizations have also found this useful for setting conservation priorities and providing information for designing balanced management plans in the Arctic region. The US Geological Survey also featured information from the Synthesis in a recent report on scientific research needed to inform decisions about leasing the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). This document builds upon the original synthesis, which was organized by topics, each presented on a map covering the whole project area. In the Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis, the information has been reorganized into “factsheets” that tell how the ecological layers fit together for each area described. Current uses, conservation status, and threats are all discussed. Each factsheet summarizes the important physical and biological attributes in the area, forming a base for more in-depth research. This new document was developed to highlight important information and to make that information even more user-friendly. Through the process of collecting and mapping data for the original Arctic Marine Synthesis, certain patterns and places became evident as important to the marine ecosystem. With the available information we attempted to identify and draw boundaries around those places, then summarize the physical and biological setting within those boundaries. Not every place mapped is of equal ecological significance. Likewise, places not mapped are not intended to be construed as unimportant. Some places were not included where there are major data deficiencies and the true importance of the area is not yet known (for example, the Chukchi Sea OCS Program Area between Hanna and Herald Shoals, and the Canada Basin). Drawing boundaries for each place was done using professional judgment informed by the approximately 125 spatial data layers and 400 articles and reports collected for the Arctic Marine Synthesis. Boundaries reflect a blending of various attributes: bathymetry, location of the ice edge throughout the year, ocean currents, pelagic and benthic productivity hotspots, migration corridors, haulout areas, nesting colonies, and foraging areas. While there are significant limitations on the quality and quantity of data available to describe the Arctic marine ecosystem, this document summarizes what is known and provides the type of information that can be useful when identifying important places of conservation concern. Several such projects are currently underway. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) recently released their report on Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) in the Arctic Ocean. Audubon participated in that effort, and this Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis provides finer-scale boundaries and a deeper level of ecological
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis information for EBSAs identified in the Chukchi, Beaufort, and northern Bering seas. Audubon Alaska, Audubon California, BirdLife International, and Bird Studies Canada are using the latest pelagic survey and seabird colony data for the North Pacific to identify marine Important Bird Areas from Alaska’s Beaufort Sea to Baja California in Mexico. Oceana continues to work with Native communities to map local and traditional knowledge and subsistence areas, and to use Marxan modeling to identify Important Ecological Areas. We encourage others to use these place-based summaries for planning and education, and to help guide additional scientific data collection and analysis for the extraordinary resources in this region. From shipping, to energy development, to fisheries management, to climate change, exceptional pressures are anticipated in the Arctic marine environment. We created the original Arctic Marine Synthesis and this Place-based Summary to provide scientists, educators, policymakers, and land managers with information they need to make sound, science-based decisions for management and conservation of the Arctic Ocean.
Table 1 Places Described Place Name Location Ownership St. Lawrence Island Bering Sea US, Russia Chirikov Basin Bering Sea US, Russia Norton Sound Bering Sea US Southeastern Chukotka Peninsula1 Bering Sea Russia Bering Strait Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea US, Russia Diomede Islands Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea US, Russia Seward Peninsula Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea US Kotzebue Sound Chukchi Sea US Hope Basin Chukchi Sea US, Russia Northern Chukotka Peninsula1 Chukchi Sea Russia Wrangel & Herald Islands1 Chukchi Sea Russia Herald Shoal1 Chukchi Sea Russia, US Cape Thompson & Cape Lisburne Chukchi Sea US Ledyard Bay Chukchi Sea US Kasegaluk Lagoon Chukchi Sea US Chukchi Lead System Chukchi Sea US Hanna Shoal Chukchi Sea US Peard Bay Chukchi Sea US Barrow Canyon Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea US Dease Inlet & Elson Lagoon Beaufort Sea US Smith & Harrison Bays Beaufort Sea US Western Beaufort Shelf & Lead System Beaufort Sea US Beaufort Lagoons & Barrier Islands Beaufort Sea US, Canada Eastern Beaufort Shelf & Lead System1 Beaufort Sea Canada MacKenzie River Delta1 Beaufort Sea Canada 1Factsheets describing areas in non-US waters have not yet been completed.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
ARCTIC MARINE SYNTHESIS: ATLAS OF THE CHUKCHI AND BEAUFORT SEAS
(Click on text below to hyperlink to report chapters and maps)
Cover, Title Page 22. Steller’s Eider 23. King Eider INTRODUCTION 24. Common Eider 25. Long-tailed Duck PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 26. Ivory Gull 1. Project Area 27. Kittlitz’s Murrelet
2. Bathymetry Other Species 3. Ecoregions 28. Northern Fulmar 4. Ocean Circulation 29. Short-tailed Shearwater 5. Sea Ice Dynamics 6. Sea Floor Substrate Concentration Areas 7. Sea Surface Temperature 30. Seabird Colonies 8. Observed Climate Change 31. Important Bird Areas
WATER COLUMN AND BENTHIC MAMMALS LIFE Terrestrial/Marine 9. Chlorophyll-a 32. Polar Bear 10. Net Primary Productivity 33. Arctic Fox 11. Zooplankton Pinnepeds 12. Benthic Biomass 34. Pacific Walrus 13. Opilio Crab 35. Ribbon Seal 36. Spotted Seal FISH 37. Ringed Seal Oceanodromous 38. Bearded Seal 14. Capelin Cetaceans
15. Pacific Herring 39. Bowhead Whale
16. Saffron Cod 40. Beluga Whale Anadromous 41. Gray Whale 17. Pink Salmon 18. Chum Salmon PEOPLE 42. Energy Development and Protected BIRDS Areas Audubon Alaska WatchList 43. Human Impact 19. Yellow-billed Loon 44. Predicted Climate Change 20. Red-throated Loon 21. Spectacled Eider REFERENCES
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Peninsula S Cape Thompson & T R E T ER R ITO R Y . T ER R ITO R I E S Cape Lisburne A Kolyuchin T Arctic T Bay A Anaktuvuk Village T No E AR atak Pass CT S R. Old Crow IC Kivalina S C A IR I CLE D S LE Enurmino E IRC S C T Hope Noatak IC I S T A T E O F ARCT U Basin N R 66°0'0"N U A L A S K A un R. C HU K OT S K IY ch o Inchoun Kotzebue Noorvik In Kobu AUT O N OM O U S k R. Uelen Shishmaref OK R U G Mechigmen Kotzebue Diomede CIRCLE Sound R. ARCTIC Islands Diomede kuk Enmelen oyu Mechig- K mensk Seward Peninsula Place-based Summary of Bay Bering Strait Brevig the Arctic Marine Synthesis Mission Provideniya A description of biological values Southeastern Yukon R. within selected areas of the Chukchi, Beaufort, and northern Bering seas Chukotka Chaplino 64°0'0"N Koyuk Peninsula Chirikov Fairbanks Nome . Features Basin on R Gambell Yuk Area Boundary1 Savoonga T 2 3 anan Populated Area a R. Norton Exclusive Economic Zone Boundary2 Unalakleet Sound 4 5 St. Lawrence Tok Bathymetric Contour Line Island Sources: (1) Audubon Alaska. 2011. Area boundaries based on data in the Arctic Marine Synthesis. GIS feature class; (2) Alaska State Geospatial Data Clearinghouse. 2008. Base data. GIS shapefiles. .
B e r i n g S e a n Dover, D. Garcia-Lavigne, W.F. Manley, R. Score, and C.E. Tweedie. 2009. Arctic Research Mapping Emmonak o 62°0'0"N k Application (ARMAP). CH2M HILL Polar Services, Englewood, Colorado.
ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND MARINE
Description of Area St. Lawrence Island is located in the northern Bering Sea south of the Bering Strait, between Norton Sound and the Chukotka Peninsula. The two largest communities are Gambell and Savoonga, with about 650 residents each (Map 1). Marine waters surrounding the island average about 40 to 60 meters deep (Map 2). mammals feed on, and is a concentration area The island is an important meeting place for for Opilio crab (Map 13). Forage fish are wildlife moving between the Bering Sea and abundant here; Pacific herring adults and the Arctic Ocean. juveniles use these waters, and capelin and saffron cod spawn in the nearshore waters Three major ocean currents flow past St. surrounding the island (Maps 14–16). Pink Lawrence Island before flowing north salmon are here in summer, as well as chum through the Bering Strait (Map 4). Salty, salmon concentrating in these waters from nutrient-rich Anadyr Water flows along the May to August (Map 18). Russian coast on the west edge of the island. Low-salinity, nutrient-poor Alaska Coastal Species using the Chukchi and Beaufort seas Current water and nutrient rich Bering Shelf in summer pass St. Lawrence Island twice per Water pass the east side of the island. year. Many species of migratory birds and mammals following along the moving ice edge Beginning in December, wind-driven winter stop on the island or in the adjacent waters sea ice flows southward around St. Lawrence during migration. Island, creating an open water polynya and associated leads on the south side (Map 5). Yellow-billed Loons migrate past the west This lasts until April or May when the ice side of the island, some stopping to spend the pack begins to break up. summer to breed and nest (Map 19). Some Red-throated Loons also stop here to nest The seafloor is made up of primarily mud and while many more fly past and nest on the muddy sand, sometimes mixed with gravel Seward Peninsula or North Slope (Map 20). (Map 6). Sea surface temperatures range from 4–6˚C during the ice-free period (Map 7). St. Lawrence Island is best known for its use Climate change is already being observed in by Spectacled Eiders (Map 21). In the winter, this area; in recent decades, sea surface what is believed to be the global population of temperature has increased as much as 1˚C about 350,000 birds congregates in the (Map 8). polynya and lead system south of the island. This area is designated critical habitat for Outstanding Biological Features Spectacled Eiders by the U.S. Fish and These waters support above-average primary Wildlife Service. and benthic productivity (Maps 9, 10, and 12). This is an important area for zooplankton These waters are used by molting and staging such as Pseudocalanus copepods and King Eiders (Map 23); and Common Eiders euphausiids (Map 11) that birds and marine breed in large numbers on the south side of the island, and the surrounding waters are
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis important year-round for foraging (Map 24). concentrated in these waters in winter, from The island is an important molting and staging October to April (Maps 37–38). area for Long-tailed Ducks that breed in the Bowhead whales (Map 39) occur in high Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in Western Alaska numbers near the island in winter (November (Map 25). This is one of the few places in the to April) and this is an Alaska Eskimo whaling study area where Ivory Gulls are known to community sensitive bowhead whale quiet occur in abundance, often found on the area. Beluga whales concentrate in waters shores of the island near Gambell in late April along the west and south side of the island to early June (Map 26). Northern Fulmars that from January to April (Map 40). This is the breed on the southeastern coast of Chukotka heart of the feeding grounds of gray whales are abundant foragers in the waters around St. that migrate more than 16,000 kilometers Lawrence Island from April to December from northern Mexico each year to feed in (Map 28). Short-tailed Shearwaters are these Arctic waters. They occur in high likewise found foraging in very high numbers concentrations here from May to November here from June to September (Map 29). The (Map 41). island is a major area for colonial nesting seabirds (Map 30). There are 27 colonies of Current Resource Use substantial size, some with as many as 13 Subsistence uses include hunting for bowhead breeding species. Six colonies have over whales, walrus, seals, Steller sea lions, polar 100,000 birds, and the largest has about 1.2 bears, and seabirds. Fishing is also important, million birds. Consequently, this area is home including a small commercial halibut fishery to two globally significant Important Bird based on St. Lawrence Island. Hunting and Areas (Map 31). fishing occur all around St. Lawrence Island, St. Lawrence Island is regularly used by polar with boat journeys more than 80 kilometers bears for feeding and denning (Map 32). The from shore. waters are designated critical feeding habitat Conservation Status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bowhead whale subsistence hunting much of the island’s coastline is no quiet area designated by Alaska’s disturbance zone critical habitat. This is a North Slope Borough (Map 39). haulout for tens of thousands of Pacific walrus, which concentrate at the east end of Designated critical habitat for the island and at Gambell (Map 34). Spectacled Eiders by the U.S. Fish and Surrounding waters are used year-round by Wildlife Service (Map 21). walrus that are feeding, courting, or migrating. All four species of ice seals—ribbon, spotted, Saint Lawrence Island and Saint ringed, and bearded—concentrate here. Lawrence Island Marine are globally Ribbon seals are present from January to significant Important Bird Areas June, and in higher concentration from May designated by the National Audubon to June (Map 35). There are three known Society and BirdLife International spotted seal haulouts on the south end of the (Map 31). island; these seals are found in surrounding Not currently open to oil and gas waters year-round, but in higher leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean concentration in May and June (Map 36). Energy Management or the State of Ringed and bearded seals are present Alaska (Map 42). November to June; bearded seals are highly
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
The St. Lawrence Island Habitat Conservation Area is indefinitely closed to bottom trawling, and adjacent waters surrounding the Habitat Conservation Area are part of the Northern Bering Sea Research Area, which is currently closed to bottom trawling by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Current and Future Threats Possibility of flatfish fishery in the Northern Bering Sea Research Area (outside the Habitat Conservation Area) following approval of modified bottom trawling gear by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council.
Disturbance or pollution from shipping traffic (Map 43). Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. High air temperature increases (up to 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Audubon Alaska 3 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Audubon Alaska 4 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
CHIRIKOV BASIN Description of Area The Chirikov Basin is located in the northern Bering Sea south of the Bering Strait, north of St. Lawrence Island, and west of Norton Sound, covering both U.S. and Russian waters. The shallow basin ranges from about 25 to 50 meters deep (Map 2). Three major ocean currents meet here before flowing north through the Bering Strait (Map benthic biomass known in the project area 4). Salty, nutrient-rich Anadyr Water flows (Map 12). Along with the Bering Strait and along the Russian coast on the west edge of Hope Basin, the larger area is of global the basin. Low-salinity, nutrient-poor Alaska significance, important to outstanding Coastal Current, heavily influenced by numbers of ice-associated bird and mammal freshwater from the Yukon and Kuskokwim species. Rivers, flows along the east side of the basin along the Alaska coast. The main current This area is highly important for migration for moving through the center of Chirikov Basin virtually every species addressed in the Arctic is Bering Shelf Water, which is relatively Marine Synthesis. Species using the Chukchi nutrient rich, although lower-salinity and and Beaufort seas in summer pass through the lower-nutrient than Anadyr Water. Chirikov Basin and Bering Strait twice per year during migration. Migratory birds and Pack ice covers this area approximately six mammals following the ice edge gather here months each year, from December to April, in the spring before moving through the and ice floes are present during adjacent Bering Strait, which is relatively ice-free in months. (Map 5). The Chirikov Basin seafloor early June. is made up of primarily muddy sand mixed with gravel (Map 6). Sea surface temperatures This is a migration area for prespawning adult range from 3–6˚C during the ice-free period, pink salmon (Map 17), and a major adult area increasing across the basin from west to east for chum salmon (Map 18). Chirikov Basin is (Map 7). Climate change is already being used as a winter staging area by King Eiders observed in this area; in recent decades, sea (Map 23), is a high abundance area for surface temperature has increased here as Northern Fulmars from April to December much as 1˚C (Map 8). (Map 28), and is a major adult concentration area for Short-tailed Shearwaters from June to Outstanding Biological Features September (Map 29). The north-central area of the basin is a primary productivity hotspot (Maps 9–10) and Chirikov Basin is regularly used by polar bears a major area for zooplankton such as (Map 32), and is designated critical habitat by Pseudocalanus copepods—a critical food source the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Male, for many species in the Arctic marine female, and young Pacific walrus are present ecosystem (Map 11). Chirikov Basin is a in the basin from November to May, and are benthic foraging hotspot, having the highest more concentrated in fall and early winter, from about October to December (Map 34). All four species of ice seals—ribbon, spotted,
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis ringed, and bearded—concentrate in Chirikov Current and Future Threats Basin in May and June before the ice recedes Disturbance or pollution from into the Chukchi Sea (Maps 35–38). This is an shipping traffic (Map 43). Alaska Eskimo whaling community sensitive bowhead whale quiet area during spring and Future increased vessel traffic due to fall migration. Beluga whales concentrate shipping, tourism, or fishing as the along the west side of the basin in January to ice-free season continues to lengthen. April, and migrate south through the area in September and October (Map 40). Chirikov High air temperature increases (up to Basin is the heart of the feeding grounds of 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the gray whales that migrate more than 16,000 century (Map 44). kilometers from northern Mexico each year to Expected, but not well understood, feed in these Arctic waters. They occur in changes in marine productivity due to high concentration here from May to changes in timing and extent of sea November (Map 41). ice. Current Resource Use Possibility of flatfish fishery in the Subsistence uses from St. Lawrence Island Northern Bering Sea Research Area include hunting for walrus, and for bowhead following approval of modified whales in fall and winter. From mainland bottom trawling gear by the U.S. Alaska, seal and walrus hunting also take place North Pacific Fishery Management in the Chirikov Basin area. Council. Conservation Status Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). The St. Lawrence Island Habitat Conservation Area is indefinitely closed to bottom trawling, and adjacent waters surrounding the Habitat Conservation Area are part of the Northern Bering Sea Research Area, which is currently closed to bottom trawling by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (Map 42).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
NORTON SOUND Description of Area Norton Sound lies between Nome, on the Seward Peninsula, and the village of Emmonak, located in the Yukon River Delta. Nome is the largest Bering Sea community within the project area, and is home to approximately 3500 residents. Emmonak is home to about 800 residents. Many other small Native communities dot the coast of Norton Sound. the sound, which is a major adult area for pink and chum salmon (Maps 17–18). The water here is very shallow, ranging from sea level to 25 meters deep, but averaging 15 The coast near Nome is a primary breeding meters deep (Map 2). The Alaska Coastal and nesting area for Red-throated Loons, Current passes through the sound. This low- which migrate through the sound in autumn salinity, low-nutrient current is fed by (Map 20). Norton Sound is designated critical freshwater from the Yukon and Kuskokwim habitat for Spectacled Eiders, which use the Rivers (Map 4). Ice break-up begins in April, sound as a fall staging area in high numbers and the sound is generally ice free from May before migrating to the south of St. Lawrence to November (Map 5). The seafloor substrate Island (Map 21). The same area is a globally is mostly mud, gravelly mud, and muddy sand significant Important Bird Area (Map 31) for (Map 6). The water is the warmest in the this species. Steller’s Eiders also migrate project area, from 7–8.5˚C during the ice-free through the sound in unknown abundance period (Map 7). Climate change is already (Map 22). King and Common eiders and being observed in this area; in recent decades, Long-tailed Ducks forage in nearshore waters sea surface temperature has increased here as in summer (Maps 23–25). The sound is a much as 0.75˚C (Map 8). foraging area for Northern Fulmars, and is a major adult foraging area for Short-tailed Outstanding Biological Features Shearwater (Maps 28–29). There are more Norton Sound—especially the eastern than a dozen seabird colonies on the coast of waters—is the most productive area in the Norton Sound. The largest has about 65,000 northern Bering Sea (Maps 9–10). These birds of 8 species (Map 30). waters are very important fish habitat. Along the coast, this is the highest known Polar bear use of this area is irregular; concentration of spawning capelin in the however, the sound is designated critical project area, and the waters of the sound are a feeding habitat and selected portions of the major adult area for this species (Map 14). coast are designated no disturbance zone This is a spawning and major juvenile use area habitat (Map 32) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife for Pacific herring (Map 15); the sound is a Service. Arctic fox are plentiful in terrestrial major adult concentration area year-round, areas surrounding the sound; they likely use and a major spawning area from December to the sound itself for foraging during the ice- February (Map 16). A huge number of covered months, as they are known to do anadramous fish spawning streams flow into further north (Map 33). Pacific walrus are present from November to May, and three
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis haulouts are known to be used by up to 1,000 the U.S. North Pacific Fishery animals (Map 34). Management Council. All four species of ice seals—ribbon, spotted, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge ringed, and bearded—occur in the sound is adjacent on the south side of throughout the year. There are three known Norton Sound (Map 42). spotted seal haulouts here; the seals are highly concentrated in Golovin Bay (Map 36). Designated no disturbance zone Ringed seals concentrate in nearshore areas critical denning and feeding habitat for from February to June (Map 37). Beluga polar bears by the U.S. Fish and whales are highly concentrated throughout Wildlife Service (Map 32). virtually the entire sound (Map 40). Gray Not currently open to oil and gas whales can be found here from April to leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean December (Map 41). Energy Management or the State of Current Resource Use Alaska (Map 42). Subsistence uses include hunting of seals, Current and Future Threats walrus, beluga whales, occasional polar bears, and seabirds from all the coastal and near- Disturbance or pollution from heavy coastal communities along Norton Sound. shipping traffic to Nome and other Fishing is prevalent through the region for a communities (Map 43). variety of marine and anadromous species, Future increased vessel traffic due to including commercial salmon fishing shipping, tourism, or fishing as the conducted by small boats and the regional ice-free season continues to lengthen. community development quota (CDQ) organization. Herring fishing used to take High air temperature increases (up to place in eastern Norton Sound, but the 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the market has disappeared in recent years. century (Map 44). Conservation Status Expected, but not well understood, East Norton Sound Marine is a changes in marine productivity due to globally significant Important Bird changes in timing and extent of sea Area designated by the National ice. Audubon Society and BirdLife Possibility of flatfish fishery in the International. Norton Bay, Golovin Northern Bering Sea Research Area Lagoon, Bluff Colonies, Safety Sound, following approval of modified and Mouth of Yukon River Marine are bottom trawling gear by the U.S. state-significant Important Bird Areas North Pacific Fishery Management (Map 31). Council. Designated critical habitat for
Spectacled Eiders by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 21). As part of the Northern Bering Sea Research Area, these waters are currently closed to bottom trawling by
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
BERING STRAIT Description of Area The Bering Strait is located at the narrowest point between Asia and North America, straddling both U.S. and Russian ownership (Map 1). The strait is about 90 kilometers wide and is the only marine corridor connecting the Pacific and Arctic oceans. The strait funnels millions of seabirds and hundreds of thousands of marine mammals between the Bering and Chukchi seas, making 12), making this a highly important foraging it one of the most important wildlife areas in hotspot for wildlife. Along with the Chirikov the whole Arctic Ocean. and Hope basins, the larger area is of global significance, important to outstanding Typical of the area’s shallow continental shelf, numbers of ice-associated bird and mammal Bering Strait is about 60 meters at its deepest species. (Map 2), rising to above sea level in the center where the Diomede Islands emerge. The U.S. side of the strait falls within the National Marine Fisheries Service essential Here nutrient-rich Bering Sea waters flow fish habitat for Opilio crab (Map 13) and north through the Bering Strait into the saffron cod, which concentrate and spawn in Chukchi Sea. Three major ocean currents the Bering Strait. (Map 16). Coastal waters are meet: salty, nutrient-rich Anadyr Water; capelin spawning habitat, an important forage lower-salinity, lower-nutrient Bering Shelf fish for marine birds (Map 14). This is also a Water; and warm, low-salinity, nutrient-poor major adult area for chum salmon (Map 18). Alaska Coastal Current, heavily influenced by freshwater from the Yukon and Kuskokwim The Diomede Islands support over 4.5 million rivers (Map 4). nesting seabirds, which forage in Bering Strait (Map 30). Colonial nesters of 11 different Pack ice covers this area approximately six species include Black-legged Kittiwake, months each year (Map 5), from December to Common and Thick-billed murres, Parakeet May, and ice floes are present during adjacent Auklet, Least Auklet, Crested Auklet, and months. The Bering Strait seafloor is made up Horned Puffin. In addition to colonial nesters, of mixed mud, gravel, and sand (Map 6). Sea multiple other seabird species visit these surface temperatures are stratified into three waters during migration through the Bering distinct north-south columns reflecting the Strait. Those species include all four species of three ocean currents flowing through; eider, Long-tailed Duck, Northern Fulmar, temperatures increase across Bering Strait and Short-tailed Shearwater (Maps 21–25, 28– from west to east, averaging 4–6˚C during the 29). King Island is home to about 250,000 ice-free period (Map 7). colonial nesting seabirds (Map 30). Outstanding Biological Features This constricted waterway is a greatly This is a primary productivity hotspot (Maps important migration bottleneck. Seabirds that 9–10) and has some of the highest benthic breed on the North Slope generally migrate biomass anywhere in the project area (Map around, rather than over, the Alaskan landmass, as of course do marine mammals.
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Virtually every species addressed in the Arctic significant Important Bird Area (Map Marine Synthesis passes through the Bering 31). Strait twice per year during migration to and from the Chukchi and Beaufort seas. Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for This is a polar bear denning and feeding area, polar bears by the U.S. Fish and and a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service critical Wildlife Service (Map 32). habitat area (Map 32). Tens of thousands of Pacific walrus haul out on the Diomede As part of the Northern Bering Sea Islands, Fairway Rock, King Island, and Research Area, U.S. waters are coastal Russia, and concentrate in late fall to currently closed to bottom trawling by early winter in surrounding waters (Map 34). the U.S. North Pacific Fishery This is an Alaska Eskimo whaling community Management Council. hunting and search area, and a sensitive Not currently open to oil and gas bowhead whale quiet area during spring and leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean fall migration. Bowhead whales pass by the Energy Management or the State of Russian coast in both spring and fall, and Alaska (Map 42). concentrate there during fall feeding (Map 39). Beluga whales concentrate in Russian Current and Future Threats waters from January to April (Map 40), and A proposed Bering Strait Bridge gray whales that winter in northern Mexico connecting Russia and the U.S. concentrate across the area in summer (Map 41). Disturbance or pollution from shipping traffic (Map 43). Current Resource Use Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead Future increased vessel traffic due to whales, walrus, seals, polar bears, and shipping, tourism, or fishing as the seabirds. Fishing is also common. ice-free season continues to lengthen. Conservation Status High air temperature increases (up to Bowhead whale subsistence hunting 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the quiet area designated by Alaska’s century (Map 44). North Slope Borough (Map 39). Expected, but not well understood, Designated essential fish habitat for changes in marine productivity due to Opilio crab and saffron cod by the changes in timing and extent of sea U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service ice. (Map 13). Possibility of flatfish fishery in the Much of the Russian portion of the Northern Bering Sea Research Area Bering Strait is a national zakaznik, or following approval of modified wildlife sanctuary (Map 42). bottom trawling gear by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management The Bering Strait is an Important Bird Council. Area designated by the National Audubon Society and BirdLife International; King Island is a state-
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
DIOMEDE ISLANDS Description of Area The Big and Little Diomede Islands are located in the Bering Strait between mainland Russia and Alaska. Only about 3 kilometers apart, Big Diomede Island is owned by Russia and Little Diomede Island is owned by the U.S. This is the closest point between Asia and North America. Constricted, nutrient-rich Bering Sea waters flow north past these small, mountainous islands at the gateway to the This island is also a polar bear denning and Chukchi Sea (Map 4). Big Diomede Island is feeding area, and a U.S. Fish and Wildlife uninhabited except for a limited Russian Service critical habitat no disturbance zone military presence. Little Diomede Island is (Map 32). Thousands of Pacific walrus use the home to approximately 170 Inuit residents in two islands as haulouts, and concentrate in the village of Diomede. late fall to early winter in surrounding waters (Map 34). This is an Alaska Eskimo whaling Outstanding Biological Features community hunting and search area, and a Marine waters surrounding these islands are a sensitive bowhead whale quiet area during hotspot for phytoplankton (Maps 9–10), and spring and fall migration (Map 39). the seafloor is high in benthic biomass (Map 12), making this an excellent foraging area for Current Resource Use seabirds and other wildlife. Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead whales, walrus, seals, polar bears, and Little Diomede Island falls within the seabirds. Coastal fishing is also practiced. National Marine Fisheries Service essential fish habitat zone for Opilio crab (Map 13) and Conservation Status saffron cod (Map 16). This is home to the Bowhead whale subsistence hunting largest seabird colony in the project area. quiet area designated by Alaska’s There are approximately 4.1 million nesting North Slope Borough (Map 39). seabirds of 11 different species nesting on Big Diomede Island, and another 500,000 colonial Designated essential fish habitat for nesters on Little Diomede Island (Map 30). Opilio crab and saffron cod by the Dominant species at both sites include Black- U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service legged Kittiwake, Common and Thick-billed (Map 13). murres, Parakeet Auklet, Least Auklet, Russian waters surrounding Big Crested Auklet, and Horned Puffin. In Diomede Island are a national addition to colonial nesters, multiple other zakaznik, or wildlife sanctuary (Map seabird species visit adjacent waters during 42). migration through Bering Strait. Some of those species include all four species of eider, Little Diomede Island & Fairway Long-tailed Duck, Northern Fulmar, and Rock as well as Ratmanov Island (Big Short-tailed Shearwater (Maps 21–25, 28–29). Diomede) are globally significant Important Bird Areas designated by
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
the National Audubon Society and BirdLife International (Map 31). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). As part of the Northern Bering Sea Research Area, U.S. waters are currently closed to bottom trawling by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council.
Not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42). Current and Future Threats A proposed Bering Strait Bridge connecting Russia and the U.S. Disturbance or pollution from shipping traffic (Map 43).
Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. High air temperature increases (up to 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Possibility of flatfish fishery in the Northern Bering Sea Research Area following approval of modified bottom trawling gear by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
SEWARD PENINSULA Description of Area Guarded by low lying spits and barrier islands, the northern coast of the Seward Peninsula is home to the community of Shishmaref, with approximately 550 residents. Between Cape Prince of Wales (at Bering Strait) and Nome is the town of Brevig Mission with approximately 275 residents. Many other small Native communities dot the coast of the peninsula. These waters are characterized by The area is one of two places in Alaska where shallow (less than 10 meters deep) brackish Yellow-billed Loons nest in high densities; lagoons and inlets, and shallow (less than 20 and those that migrate on to the North Slope meters deep) marine waters (Map 2). The likely pass through this area on their way Alaska Coastal Current passes through this (Map 19). The same is true for Red-throated area, bringing low-nutrient, low-salinity water Loons (Map 20). Threatened Spectacled that is a mix of Bering Shelf Water and the Eiders are found in these waters as they move Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers (Map 4). Most between their wintering area south of St. of the marine waters near the Seward Lawrence Island and their summer breeding Peninsula are covered by landfast ice for area on the North Slope (Map 21). Limited several months of the year; a polynya data indicates that Steller’s Eiders also stop in sometimes forms off the west end (Map 5). the northern Seward Peninsula lagoons during The seafloor here is sand and muddy sand and migration (Map 22). King and Common sea surface temperatures average 4–6˚C eiders feed in the nearshore waters, as do during ice-free months (Maps 6–7). Long-tailed Ducks, which are found in high concentrations in the lagoons (Maps 23–25). Outstanding Biological Features Adjacent terrestrial areas are some of the only Seward Peninsula nearshore marine waters are known Kittlitz’s Murrelet nesting areas in the very productive, with some of the highest Arctic. It is expected, but not known, that primary productivity values in the Chukchi they forage in these waters (Map 26). There Sea occurring in Shishmaref Inlet and Port are three seabird colonies along the western Clarence (Map 9). Little is known about coast of the peninsula. Sledge Island is home benthic resources in this area, although very to nearly 5000 birds, primarily Common and limited data seems to indicate that benthic Thick-billed murres, Black-legged Kittiwakes, resources are low to moderate compared to and Pelagic Cormorants (Map 30). the nearby waters of the Bering Strait and Hope Basin (Map 12). This is no disturbance zone critical habitat for the polar bear, which dens and feeds in these These waters are very important for fish; this waters, but in much lower numbers than areas is a spawning area for capelin, Pacific herring, farther north (Map 32). Several thousand and saffron cod, as well as essential fish Pacific walrus haul out on Sledge Island, habitat for saffron cod (Maps 14–16). which is part of the Alaska Maritime National Anadramous streams flowing from the Wildlife Refuge (Map 34). All four species of Seward Peninsula are spawning areas for pink ice seals live here. The most abundant are and chum salmon (Maps 17–18). spotted seals, which haul out in several
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis locations along the Seward Peninsula and polar bears by the U.S. Fish and concentrate in large numbers in the inlets and Wildlife Service (Map 32). lagoons; they are generally present from June to December (Map 36). This is a ringed seal Current and Future Threats concentration area in spring and early The area is heavily traveled by ships summer, from February to June (Map 37). rounding the peninsula from the Large numbers of bearded seals can be found Bering Strait, headed to Kotzebue and in Shishmaref Inlet and associated lagoons other points north (Map 43). during winter, approximately October to April Future increased vessel traffic due to (Map 38). Beluga whales use these waters shipping, tourism, or fishing as the occasionally; this is a gray whale concentration ice-free season continues to lengthen. area in summer and fall, from May to November (Maps 39–40). High air temperature increases (up to 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the Current Resource Use century (Map 44). Subsistence uses include hunting of walrus, seals, polar bears, and seabirds, as well as fishing for anadromous fishes.
Conservation Status Ikpek Lagoon is part of the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve managed by the U.S. National Park Service (Map 42).
Small portions of the Seward Peninsula coast and Sledge Island are part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge (Map 42). Not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42).
Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Shishmaref Inlet is a state-significant Important Bird Area designated by the National Audubon Society and Bird Life International (Map 31).
Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
KOTZEBUE SOUND Description of Area Kotzebue Sound is a shallow marine area bounded by the Seward Peninsula to the south, the Baldwin Peninsula and Kobuk River delta to the east, and the Noatak River delta and Krusenstern Lagoon to the north (Map 1). The sound is home to the city of Kotzebue, the largest community on Alaska’s Chukchi Sea coast. A few other small Native communities line the coast. Loons, which are particularly concentrated in the sound compared to other parts of the The sound averages less than 20 meters deep project area (Maps 19–20). Populations of (Map 2). Marine waters here are part of the King and Common eiders and Long-tailed Alaska Coastal Current, which travels north Ducks also nest and feed here (Maps 23–25). from the Bering Sea, through the sound, and There are 13 seabird colonies along the coast, then north along the Chukchi and Beaufort the largest with 24,000 nesting birds present. coasts (Map 4). Kotzebue Sound is filled with Species include Common Eiders, Glaucous landfast ice many months of the year, Gulls, Black-legged Kittiwakes, Arctic and approximately November to May (Map 5). Aleutian terns, Common and Thick-billed The seafloor is mostly gravelly mud with murres, and Tufted and Horned puffins (Map some sandy mud (Map 6). Temperatures in 30). Five state-level Important Bird Areas are the sound are some of the warmest in the identified along the coast, which are Chukchi Sea, averaging 5–7˚C during the ice- important for Common Eider, Dunlin, Brant, free months (Map 7). Black-legged Kittiwake, Horned Puffin, and Aleutian Tern (Map 31). Outstanding Biological Features Phytoplankton is very concentrated in Much of the Kotzebue Sound coastline is Kotzebue Sound compared to other Arctic designated no disturbance zone critical habitat waters, making this a primary productivity for polar bears (Map 32), including all of the hotspot (Maps 9–10). Benthic resources Baldwin Peninsula; the area is suitable values are not known, but near the coast denning habitat but may not be used for where surveys have been done, the values are denning except on occasion. All four species very low (Map 12). of ice seals are present in the sound. Spotted seals haul out along Krusenstern Lagoon, the The sound is very important for fish; this is a Noatak River delta, the tip of the Baldwin spawning area for capelin, Pacific herring, and Peninsula, and Cape Espenberg between June saffron cod, and is home to adult herring and and December (Map 36). Ringed and bearded cod year-round (Maps 14–16). Pink and chum seals are concentrated here in October and salmon feed in the sound, and migrate up the November (Maps 37–38). The sound is a high Noatak and Kobuk rivers to spawn (Maps 17– concentration area for beluga whales between 18). The area is essential fish habitat for May and September (Map 40). Gray whales Opilio crab and saffron cod (Maps 13, 16). also feed in the area from May to November Yellow-billed Loons nest along the entire (Map 41). coast of Kotzebue Sound, as do Red-throated
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Current Resource Use Current and Future Threats Subsistence uses include hunting of seals, Disturbance or pollution from beluga whales, some walrus and polar bears, shipping traffic (Map 43). and seabirds. Fishing is common, including a sporadic commercial salmon fishery based out Future increased vessel traffic due to of Kotzebue, as well as subsistence fisheries shipping, tourism, or fishing as the for a variety of species. ice-free season continues to lengthen. Conservation Status High air temperature increases (up to Five state-significant Important Bird 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the Areas designated by the National century (Map 44). Audubon Society overlap the land- Expected, but not well understood, water interface in Kotzebue Sound: changes in marine productivity due to Krusenstern Lagoon, Noatak River changes in timing and extent of sea Delta, Puffin Island, Nugnugalurtuk ice. River Mouth, and Cape Espenberg (Map 31). Kotzebue Sound is bordered by the Cape Krusenstern National Monument and the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve which are managed by the U.S. National Park Service, and the Selawik National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 42). Designated essential fish habitat for Opilio crab and saffron cod by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Maps 13, 16). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32).
Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
HOPE BASIN Description of Area Hope Basin is a wide, shallow basin in the southern Chukchi Sea that straddles the U.S.– Russia border. Seafloor depth ranges from 20 to 60 meters deep (Map 2). The area is known for its very high pelagic and benthic productivity. Four major ocean currents meet in Hope Basin (Map 4). Low-salinity, nutrient-poor as Pseudocalanus copepods and euphausiids Alaska Coastal Water flows along the east side (Map 11) and essential fish habitat for Opilio of the basin. Relatively nutrient-rich Bering crab (Map 13). Benthic food resources are Shelf Water flows through central Hope very high here (Map 12). Hope Basin makes Basin. Salty, nutrient-rich Anadyr Water flows up the highest productivity benthic foraging through the west edge of the basin. Alaska hotspot in the Chukchi Sea. Along with the Coastal Current, Bering Shelf Water, and Bering Strait and Chirikov Basin, the larger Anadyr Water all flow from the Bering Sea. A area is of global significance, important to fourth water mass, the Siberian Coastal outstanding numbers of ice-associated bird Current, flows east along the northern and mammal species. Chukotka coast from the East Siberian Sea, eventually meeting up with these other This is National Marine Fisheries Service currents in the basin. essential fish habitat for saffron cod, which are found in concentrated adult groups in the Pack ice is present about six months per year, eastern basin and spawn at both the eastern from December to May (Map 5). Three and western edges of the basin (Map 16). polynyas regularly occur: one in western Capelin, an important forage fish, are present Kotzebue Sound, another near Cape here from June to September (Map 14). Thompson, and offshore along the northern Pacific herring reach their typical northern Chukotka coast. The seafloor is made up of range limit in Hope Basin (Map 15). Pink and several substrates which are a mix of sand, chum salmon are also present (Maps 17–18). mud, and gravel (Map 6). The multiple ocean currents vary in temperature; the Basin is Hope Basin is a major migration corridor for coldest in the west where it averages 3˚C and birds and mammals moving from the Bering warmest in the east, up to 6˚C (Map 7). Sea into the Chukchi Sea in spring, and from Climate change is already being observed in the Chukchi Sea back into the Bering Sea in this area; in recent decades, sea surface the fall. At least two species of loons and all temperature has increased here as much as four species of eiders migrate across the basin 0.75–1˚C (Map 8). twice per year (Maps 19–24). Northern Fulmars and Short-tailed Shearwaters forage Outstanding Biological Features in large concentrated groups during summer Hope Basin is highly productive throughout months, from about June to October (Maps the summer season as the phytoplankton 28–29). A globally significant Important Bird bloom follows the receding ice edge (Maps 9– Area in the basin is home to significant 10). This is a major area for zooplankton such numbers of Kittlitz’s Murrelets, Black-legged
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Kittiwakes, and Short-tailed Shearwaters (Map hunting quiet area designated by 31). Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). The area has been identified by local hunters as a feeding area for polar bears; on the U.S. Cape Lisburne–Thompson Marine is a side of the border, the basin is designated globally significant Important Bird critical feeding habitat, and is part of the core Area designated by the National use area identified for the Chukchi/Bering Sea Audubon Society and BirdLife population (Map 32). Arctic foxes satellite- International (Map 31). collared at Teshekpuk Lake on Alaska’s North Slope have been observed traveling as far Designated essential fish habitat for away as Hope Basin to scavenge atop the Opilio crab and saffron cod by the winter sea ice (Map 33). U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Maps 13, 16). The area is a destination for benthic foraging Pacific walrus as they follow the ice edge Designated no disturbance zone northward in spring and south in fall (Map critical denning and feeding habitat for 34). All four species of ice seals live in Hope polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Basin. Ribbon seals concentrate here from Wildlife Service (Map 32). June to December (Map 35), and bearded seals are more concentrated from March to Currently closed to commercial June (Maps 35, 38). Spotted seals forage from fishing by the U.S. North Pacific August to December, and ringed seals are Fishery Management Council. present all year (Maps 36–37). Not currently open to oil and gas This is an important migration and feeding leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean area for bowhead whales (Map 39). The Energy Management (Map 42). whales migrate north from the Bering Strait Current and Future Threats past Point Hope in the spring, and south Disturbance or pollution from along the Chukotka coast in the fall, stopping shipping traffic (Map 43). to feed along the way. Similarly, beluga whales also migrate through and feed in the area Future increased vessel traffic due to from May to November (Map 40). Hope shipping, tourism, or fishing as the Basin is an important benthic feeding area for ice–free season continues to lengthen. gray whales, which migrate from Mexico and California each year to feed in these waters High air temperature increases (up to (Map 41). 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Current Resource Use Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead Expected, but not well understood, whales, walrus, and seals by communities changes in marine productivity due to located near the area (Shishmaref, Kivalina, changes in timing and extent of sea Point Hope). ice. Conservation Status Much of the U.S. part of Hope Basin is a bowhead whale subsistence
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
CAPE THOMPSON & CAPE LISBURNE Description of Area The Lisburne Peninsula extends westward into the Arctic Ocean at the base of the Brooks Range. Cape Lisburne is the rugged northern extent of the peninsula, while Cape Thompson is a low-lying wetland area forming the south end of the peninsula. Between these two capes lies Point Hope, a fish habitat identified for Opilio crab (Map significant geographic feature, and a Native 13). Capelin spawn in the shallow coastal village which is home to about 850 residents water (Map 14). Saffron cod spawn here in (Map 1). The Kukpuk and Ipewik rivers join large numbers, and this area is identified as just before Aiautak Lagoon, then drain into the National Marine Fisheries Service essential the Arctic Ocean near Point Hope. A couple fish habitat for them as well (Map 16). Pink of other small settlements and the town of and chum salmon are present; pink salmon Kivalina, with about 375 residents, also line are also present in the Kukpuk and Kivalina the coast in this area. rivers, and spawn in the Wulik River (Maps Marine waters around the Lisburne Peninsula 17–18). are primarily of the Alaska Coastal Current, Nearly all bird species that migrate to the which carries low-salinity water north from North Slope for summer breeding migrate coastal areas in the Bering Sea (Map 4). around Point Hope and north toward Barrow. Shallow coastal waters are covered in landfast This is primary breeding range for Red- ice several months per year, from about throated Loons (Map 20), and overlaps part of December to June, while somewhat deeper the Spectacled Eider critical habitat in waters (less than 50 meters) are covered by Ledyard Bay (Map 21). The Lisburne pack ice from about December to May. In Peninsula is one of only two known breeding winter, two polynyas form along the areas in the Alaskan Arctic for Kittlitz’s peninsula, one between Point Hope and Cape Murrelet (Map 27). They have been observed Lisburne, and one offshore of Cape in the waters around Cape Lisburne and Point Thompson (Map 5). The nearshore seafloor is Hope. Of the three globally significant made up of muddy gravel with relatively low Important Bird Areas here, Cape Lisburne– benthic food resources (Maps 6, 12). Water Thompson Marine is designated for the temperatures average 4–6˚ C during the ice Kittlitz’s Murrelet (Map 31). The Cape free season (Map 7). Marine waters around Lisburne and Cape Thompson terrestrial the Lisburne Peninsula are a migration IBAs are designated for the several hundred bottleneck for marine mammals and birds. thousand Thick-billed and Common murres Outstanding Biological Features nesting there. Shearwaters and fulmars also The warm coastal waters that surround the congregate to feed on abundant forage fish in Lisburne Peninsula have relatively high pelagic these waters (Maps 28–29). productivity compared to offshore areas There are five seabird colonies between Cape (Maps 9–10). This is the northern extent of Lisburne and Point Hope, another five at the National Marine Fisheries Service essential Cape Thompson, and another three at Cape
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Krusenstern (Map 30). At Cape Lisburne Audubon Society and BirdLife (about 40 kilometers north of Point Hope), International (Map 31). habitat for cliff-nesting seabirds consists of about 7 kilometers of limestone and shale sea- Cape Lisburne and Cape Thompson cliffs south of the cape. The cliffs range from are part of the Alaska Maritime about 15 to 200 meters high. Similar cliffs National Wildlife Refuge–Chukchi Sea make up the coastline at Cape Thompson. Unit, which is managed by the U.S. Over 800,000 seabirds of ten different species Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 42). nest along these cliffs. Bowhead whale subsistence hunting Polar bears den and feed along the whole quiet area designated by Alaska’s coast of the Lisburne Peninsula, with North Slope Borough (Map 39). designated critical habitat from Point Hope to Designated essential fish habitat for Cape Thompson (Map 32). Arctic foxes Opilio crab and saffron cod by the satellite-collared at Teshekpuk Lake on the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service North Slope have been observed traveling as (Maps 13, 16). far as the Lisburne Peninsula (Map 33). The peninsula is a major Pacific walrus haulout Designated no disturbance zone (Map 34). Five known haulouts are used, with critical denning and feeding habitat for 10 to 10,000 animals present. All four species polar bears by the U.S. Fish and of ice seals use the nearshore waters around Wildlife Service (Map 32). the peninsula, with ringed and bearded seals concentrating in the open waters in the spring, Not currently open to oil and gas generally March to June (Maps 35–38). leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Point Hope is a spring whaling community Alaska (Map 42). (Map 39); nearly the entire Bering-Chukchi- Beaufort bowhead whale stock passes by Currently closed to commercial Point Hope each spring. Waters within 40 fishing by the U.S. North Pacific kilometers of the village are a designated quiet Fishery Management Council. zone for these whales. Likewise, this is a concentration area for gray whales and a high Current and Future Threats concentration area for beluga whales (Maps Expected, but not well understood, 40–41). changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea Current Resource Use ice. Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead and beluga whales, seals, walrus, polar bears, Future increased vessel traffic due to and seabirds. Fishing is also practiced along shipping, tourism, or fishing as the the coast. ice-free season continues to lengthen. Conservation Status High air temperature increases (up to Cape Thompson, Cape Lisburne, and 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the Cape Lisburne–Thompson Marine are century (Map 44). three globally significant Important Disturbance or pollution from Bird Areas designated by the National shipping traffic (Map 43).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
LEDYARD BAY Description of Area Stretching from Cape Lisburne to central Kasegaluk Lagoon, Ledyard Bay is the largest bay on Alaska’s Chukchi Sea coast (Map 1). This area is also part of the greater Chukchi Sea lead system. The bay is very shallow, even by Chukchi Sea standards, averaging 15–25 meters depth (Map 2). The main ocean current in Ledyard Bay is the Alaska Coastal Current, which carries low-salinity water north Ledyard Bay is very important for birds, from coastal areas in the Bering Sea (Map 4). especially eiders. This is critical habitat for The bay is not often covered in pack ice; migrating, staging and foraging Spectacled instead, the nearshore areas are covered in Eiders (Map 21). The area is also a landfast ice several months per year, while concentrated staging area for King Eiders farther offshore is a recurring system of during spring and fall migration. The entire polynyas and leads (Map 5). breeding population of King Eiders in western North America—about half of a The seafloor is made up mostly of muddy million birds—is believed to use this area gravel (Map 6). Sea surface temperatures (Map 23). The bay is a staging area for range from 3–5° C during ice-free months Common Eiders as well, which breed along (Map 7). Analysis of sea surface temperature the coastline leading to Kasegaluk Lagoon anomalies in recent decades indicates the bay (Map 24). Steller’s Eiders migrate through the has not been affected by climate change as bay in unknown numbers (Map 22). All four drastically as other Chukchi Sea waters (Map eider species breed just inland of the bay and 8). northward, as do Yellow-billed Loons, Red- throated Loons, and Long-tailed Ducks (Maps Outstanding Biological Features 19–20, 25). All of these species migrate The nearshore area of Ledyard Bay is very through and forage in the bay on the way to productive—with large phytoplankton their breeding grounds. Kittlitz’s Murrelets are blooms similar to the Bering Strait region present, but abundance data in this region is (Maps 9–10). Benthic productivity appears to very poor (Map 27). Fulmars and shearwaters be fairly average for the Chukchi Sea, which forage in the offshore waters of the bay (Maps could be misleading since only a couple of 28–29). Because of these spectacular bird survey points have been sampled in this area values, this is designated as a globally (Map 12). significant Important Bird Area (Map 31). These waters are home to capelin from June The bay is also home to significant mammal to September, and coastal waters are a capelin populations. Polar bears regularly den and spawning area (Map 14). Ledyard Bay is also feed in Ledyard Bay (Map 32). Arctic foxes National Marine Fisheries Service essential forage atop the landfast ice in winter (Map fish habitat for saffron cod, which occur year- 33). Pacific walrus migrate through, and also round (Map 16). Both pink and chum salmon haul out in small numbers (Map 34). All four are also present (Maps 17–18). species of ice seals are present (Maps 35–38). Spotted seals use the coastal waters and
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis haulouts in summer and fall, from about June Current and Future Threats to December. Ringed and bearded seals Disturbance or pollution from concentrate in the bay in winter and spring, shipping traffic (Map 43). from about February to June. Future increased vessel traffic due to The bay is a spring migration area for shipping, tourism, or fishing as the bowhead whales (Map 39), a migration and ice-free season continues to lengthen. nearshore concentration area for beluga whales (Map 40), and is also a feeding area for High air temperature increases (up to gray whales (Map 41). 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Current Resource Use Subsistence uses include hunting of seals, Expected, but not well understood, walrus, and seabirds, as well as bowhead changes in marine productivity due to whales at times. changes in timing and extent of sea ice. Conservation Status Ledyard Bay is a globally significant Important Bird Area designated by the National Audubon Society and BirdLife International (Map 31). Designated critical habitat for Spectacled Eiders by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 21).
Designated essential fish habitat for saffron cod by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Map 16). Designated critical feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39).
Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Waters within 40 kilometers of the Chukchi coast and Point Barrow are not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
KASEGALUK LAGOON Description of Area This 200-kilometer-long lagoon on the Chukchi Sea coast is a gathering place for a diverse set of wildlife. The lagoon is about 6 kilometers across at its widest point. The spits and barrier islands that enclose these shallow (less than 4 meters), brackish waters are nesting, denning, and haulout areas for many species. Two communities are associated with the lagoon: Point Lay (population ~250) at American breeding population of these birds the southern end, and Wainwright (population stops here and in Ledyard and Peard bays ~550) just past the far north end. during spring and fall migrations (Map 23). Because of the diversity and abundance of Part of the regularly occurring landfast ice- birds here, Kasegaluk Lagoon is a globally pack, the shallow water here is frozen in significant Important Bird Area (Map 31). winter for several months (Map 5). Gravel and muddy gravel make up the bottom (Map This is U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service no 6). Sea surface temperatures average 2–4° C disturbance zone critical habitat for polar during ice-free months (Map 7). bears, which den and feed along the barrier islands, coast, and landfast ice (Map 32). Outstanding Biological Features Arctic foxes captured at Teshekpuk Lake Primary productivity is very high compared to traveled to Kasegaluk Lagoon and beyond in nearby waters (Map 11), although limited winter months (Map 33). Pacific walrus use benthic sampling seems to indicate lower the barrier islands as a haulout, particularly at values than waters outside the lagoon (Map Wainwright, Point Lay, and Icy Cape; their 12). use of this area has increased in recent years as the minimum sea ice extent continues to Kasegaluk Lagoon is essential fish habitat for move north due to climate change (Map 34). saffron cod (Map 15). At least three Ribbon and bearded seals can be found in the anadramous rivers flow into the lagoon, which lagoon (Maps 35, 38), but only spotted and are used by pink and chum salmon (Maps 17– ringed seals occur in large numbers. This is a 18). major spotted seal haulout along nearly the These waters are summer marine feeding or entire length of the lagoon (Map 36). Ringed migration stopover sites for a long list of bird seals are found in high concentrations in the species. Yellow-billed and Red-throated winter and spring, from approximately Loons; Spectacled, Steller’s, King, and October to July (Map 37). These shallow Common eiders; and Long-tailed Ducks all brackish waters are an important concentrated breed in medium to high densities near the calving and molting area for beluga whales lagoon (Maps 19–25). Common Eiders nest in (Map 40). colonies of up to 500 birds on the spits and barrier islands (Map 24). This is a particularly Current Resource Use important area for King Eiders, which Subsistence uses include hunting of beluga concentrate both in and outside of the lagoon. whales, seals, polar bears, and seabirds. Nearly all of the Western North Fishing is also practiced in the lagoon system.
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Conservation Status Kasegaluk Lagoon is a globally significant Important Bird Area designated by the National Audubon Society and BirdLife International (Map 31). Designated Special Area within the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska which is managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
Designated essential fish habitat for saffron cod by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Map 16). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Waters within 40 kilometers of the Chukchi coast and Point Barrow are not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Current and Future Threats Potential for development of a port for bringing offshore oil to a future pipeline across the National Petroleum Reserve.
High air temperature increases (up to 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
CHUKCHI LEAD SYSTEM Description of Area Along the entire Alaskan Chukchi Sea coast is a system of open water leads and polynyas that are critical for migrating wildlife and, in turn, subsistence hunters. These shallow waters range from 5 to 50 meters deep (Map 2), made up primarily of the relatively warm Alaska Coastal Current, and also the nutrient- rich Bering Shelf Water (Map 4). Winds and currents push the shifting sea ice offshore, as (Maps 19–26). Kittlitz’s Murrelets are well as create a flaw zone between the landfast believed to use these waters as well when ice and the pack ice, creating open water migrating to breeding areas inland of Peard areas–leads and polynyas–that allow wildlife Bay, but their use here is not well documented to migrate up and down the coast in spring (Map 27). Groups of hundreds to thousands and fall when other areas are frozen solid of Short-tailed Shearwaters are found foraging (Map 5). in these waters (Map 29). Portions of the lead system are designated globally significant The seafloor is a mixture of gravel, mud, and Important Bird Areas (Map 31). sand (Map 6). Water temperatures range from 1–5° C during ice-free months (Map 7). This is a prominent polar bear feeding and denning area (Map 32). The area is frequented Outstanding Biological Features by ringed seals using breathing holes and The area has moderate to high water column haulouts in winter (Map 37). The bears hunt and benthic productivity (Maps 9–10, 12). seals along the open leads and den on the Zooplankton such as euphausiids and pack ice in this critical habitat area. Pacific Pseudocalanus copepods, concentrated in these walrus are concentrated in summer and fall in waters, provide an important foraging this area, offshore of Icy Cape past Point resource (Map 11). Opilio crab are present but Barrow (Map 34); their use of these waters has their range has been only partially mapped increased in recent years as they spend more and their abundance is unknown (Map 13). time in the fall at haulouts on the Chukchi coast. All four species of ice seals are present Capelin are present and spawn near shore (Maps 35–38). Ringed and bearded seals are (Map 14). Saffron cod are abundant, so this is present year-round, and are particularly National Marine Fisheries Service essential concentrated from February to June. fish habitat for this species (Map 16). Pink and chum salmon are also present (Maps 17– This is a major bowhead whale area where 18). virtually the entire stock moves through in spring (March to June). Areas offshore of Most bird species that breed on Alaska’s Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow are North Slope migrate along the lead system in whaling community hunting areas, and this is spring and fall when heading to their breeding a North Slope Borough-designated quiet area or wintering grounds. Two species of loons, for this species (Map 39). Beluga whales all four species of eiders, other waterfowl such migrate through in May and June (Map 40); as Long-tailed Ducks, and Ivory Gulls pass gray whales are present in summer and fall through and forage in these open waters (Map 41).
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Current Resource Use Disturbance or pollution from Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead shipping traffic (Map 43). whales, occasional beluga whales, walrus, seals, polar bears, and seabirds. Fishing occurs Future increased vessel traffic due to along the coast or in estuaries. shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. Conservation Status The Chukchi Lead System intersects High air temperature increases (up to the Ledyard Bay and Kasegaluk 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Lagoon globally significant Important Bird Areas, designated by the National Expected, but not well understood, Audubon Society and BirdLife changes in marine productivity due to International (Map 31). changes in timing and extent of sea Designated critical habitat for ice. Spectacled Eiders by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 21)
Designated essential fish habitat for saffron cod by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Map 16). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. A portion of this area—waters within 40 kilometers of the Chukchi coast and Point Barrow—is not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42). Current and Future Threats Oil and gas seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, production well development, and/or oil spills (Map 42).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
HANNA SHOAL Description of Area Hanna Shoal is located approximately 125 kilometers northwest of Barrow. The shoal sits between 15 to 40 meters below the surface. (Map 2). This shallow topographic feature diverts large, warm water masses flowing northward from the Bering Sea, thereby holding onto colder water long into the summer season. As a Some bird species such as Steller’s and King result, sea ice persists there longer into the eiders are known to migrate through the area season as well (Maps 2, 4–5). A pack ice when passing from Alaska to Chukotka, but feature near Hanna Shoal called Post Office similar migration pathway information for Point was historically known for its reliable many other Arctic bird species is not known. ice all summer long. Recent decades of The area appears to be significant for Ivory warming have changed this persistent lobe of Gulls—one of the only documented ice, and the minimum September sea ice concentration areas for this species in U.S. extent has come this far south only once in waters. These birds were observed in groups the last decade (Map 5). Although no longer of up to 30 individuals in surveys completed known for reliable, summer-long pack ice, 30 years ago (Map 26). Northern Fulmars and today Hanna Shoal is an area of broken ice Short-tailed Shearwaters forage in the area in and persistent ice floes, which are relied on by summer and fall months in unknown ice-associated wildlife through late summer. numbers (Maps 28–29). Water temperatures over the shoal are The shoal is part of the core use area of polar generally 0–2° C during ice-free months (Map bears, as well as a documented denning area 7). Climate change has affected the shoal (Map 32). Satellite-collared Arctic foxes have greatly; the minimum sea ice extent been tracked wandering as far offshore as historically was just south of, and included, Hanna Shoal to forage atop the winter pack the shoal. Today the minimum extent is far ice (Map 33). north and east over the 4000 meter deep Canada Basin (Map 8). This is a very important area for pinnipeds. Ice-dependent Pacific walrus rely on the late- Outstanding Biological Features summer persistent ice at Hanna Shoal as the Hanna Shoal has low primary productivity last ice haulout after all other Chukchi Sea (Maps 9–10) but concentrated zooplankton waters are ice-free (Map 34). When Hanna (Map 11). The area is thought to have only Shoal ice melts in August the walrus are moderate benthic productivity (Map 12); forced to haul out on land and forage from however, likely because of the persistent ice, shore. Ringed and bearded seals concentrate this area has almost no direct sampling of at Hanna Shoal in late summer, from July to benthic fauna—a significant data gap for an September (Maps 37–38). Ribbon seals are area so intensively used by ice-dependent also present (Map 35). wildlife. Likewise, there is no comprehensive data mapped for fish in this area. The shoal is an important, regularly-used migration area for bowhead and beluga whales
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis in the fall (September to November) when moving from Alaskan to Russian waters (Maps 39–40). This is also the northern extent of gray whales which migrate to the Chukchi Sea from Mexico each year (Map 41). Current Resource Use The area is leased for oil exploration and development. Conservation Status Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Current and Future Threats Oil and gas seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, production well development, and/or oil spills (Map 42). Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen.
High air temperature increases (up to 2.0˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
PEARD BAY Description of Area Peard Bay is located on the northern Chukchi Sea coast near Barrow (Map 1). This area is also part of the greater Chukchi Sea lead system. The bay runs from the coast to the edge of Barrow Canyon at about 50 meters depth (Map 2). The Alaska Coastal Current is the main water mass moving through the bay (Map 3). Water temperatures range from 0–2° C during ice-free months (Map 7). The area is of eiders, other waterfowl such as Long-tailed characterized by landfast ice from Point Ducks, and Ivory Gulls pass through and Franklin inland (from November through forage in these waters (Maps 19–26). Red- May), and a system of open leads farther throated and Yellow-billed Loons breed in offshore (Map 5). The seafloor substrate here small but highly concentrated areas just inland is unmapped, but it is speculated that a of the bay (Maps 19–20). This is a boulder patch may be present (Map 6). continentally significant Important Bird Area Boulder patches are a type of biodiversity for Spectacled Eiders, which have their hotspot that is rare on this otherwise muddy, highest known breeding concentration in gravelly, and sandy sea bottom; large rock Alaska just inland of the Peard Bay coastline, substrate provides a stable area for kelp and and forage in the adjacent marine waters (Map associated wildlife to take hold. 21). Steller’s Eider aerial surveys and satellite tag tracking data shows significant use of the Outstanding Biological Features Peard Bay coast and spits during migration Peard Bay waters have low to moderate water (Map 22). The bay is a highly concentrated column and benthic productivity (Maps 9–10, staging area for King Eiders, used by possibly 12). Opilio crab are present but their range the entire western North America breeding has been only partially mapped and their population as they migrate up the Chukchi abundance is unknown (Map 13). coast to their breeding grounds on Alaska’s North Slope and in Canada (Map 23). Capelin live in the bay from June to Common Eiders also breed along the September, and spawn in high numbers along coastline and spits (Map 24). From Point the coast, particularly near Barrow where Franklin to Kugrua Bay is a marine more detailed surveys exist (Map 14). The bay concentration area for Long-tailed Ducks, is also National Marine Fisheries Service which also breed all along the coast in very essential fish habitat for saffron cod which are high numbers (Map 25). Kittlitz’s Murrelets present year-round (Map 16). Pink and chum are believed to use these waters as well when salmon are present from approximately May migrating to breeding areas inland of Peard to August; these salmon spawn in the Kugrua Bay, but their use here is not well documented River which drains into Peard Bay (Maps 17– (Map 27). 18). This is a very prominent polar bear feeding The bay is a key migration route and stopover and denning area (Map 32) which is site for many bird species migrating to and frequented by ringed seals in late winter and from breeding grounds on Alaska’s North spring (Map 37). The spits of Peard Bay, Slope. Two species of loons, all four species
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis including Point Franklin, are designated U.S. Bowhead whale subsistence hunting Fish and Wildlife Service no disturbance zone quiet area designated by Alaska’s critical habitat for polar bears. Pacific walrus North Slope Borough (Map 39). are concentrated here in summer and fall; their use of this area (especially around Point Currently closed to commercial Franklin) has increased in recent years as the fishing by the U.S. North Pacific minimum sea ice extent continues to move Fishery Management Council. north due to climate change (Map 34). All Waters within 40 kilometers of the four species of ice seals are present (Maps 35– Chukchi coast and Point Barrow are 38). Point Franklin is a spotted seal haulout not currently open to oil and gas (Map 36). Ringed and bearded seals are leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean present year-round; this is a bearded seal Energy Management or the State of concentration area from March to September Alaska (Map 42). (Map 38). Peard Bay is a bowhead whale spring Current and Future Threats migration and concentration area. Waters Oil spills or seismic exploration offshore of Wainwright and Barrow are disturbance from nearby energy whaling community hunting areas, and this is development areas (Map 42). a North Slope Borough–designated quiet area Disturbance or pollution from for this species (Map 39). Beluga whales shipping traffic (Map 43). migrate through in May and June (Map 40); gray whales are present in summer and fall Future increased vessel traffic due to (Map 41). shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. Current Resource Use Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead High air temperature increases (up to whales, seals, walrus, polar bears, and 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the seabirds. century (Map 44). Conservation Status Expected, but not well understood, Peard Bay is a continentally significant changes in marine productivity due to Important Bird Area designated by the changes in timing and extent of sea National Audubon Society and Bird ice. Life International (Map 31). Designated essential fish habitat for saffron cod by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (Map 16). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
BARROW CANYON Description of Area Barrow Canyon is a canyon and upwelling area which influences the marine ecosystem dynamics offshore of Point Barrow. The canyon itself runs along the Chukchi Sea coast, approximately 10 to 25 kilometers offshore, from Point Franklin to Point Barrow, then cuts through the shelf break and drains into the Canada Basin (Map 2). The low-salinity Alaska Coastal Current follows Barrow Canyon straddles the boundary the Alaska coast, eventually through Barrow between the Beaufort and Chukchi seas. As Canyon and around Point Barrow, and finally wildlife move from one sea to the other, they disperses into the Beaufort Gyre and through must round Point Barrow and pass through Amundsen Gulf and M’Clure Strait in the here. Therefore, the Barrow Canyon area is a Beaufort Sea (Map 4). migration bottleneck for birds and marine mammals—virtually all of which pass here Much of the southern nearshore canyon is during both spring and fall migration. open water through the winter due to persistent leads, and the northern offshore Nearshore areas by Point Barrow are marine portion has concentrated ice present for about feeding areas for many species of birds nine months (November–July), making this including Yellow-billed and Red-throated area accessible to migrating wildlife most of loons; Spectacled, Steller’s, King, and the year (Map 5). The canyon bottom is Common eiders; Long-tailed Ducks; classified as gravelly mud and gravelly muddy Northern Fulmars; and Short-tailed sand (Map 6). Temperatures in ice-free Shearwaters (Maps 19–25, 28–29). Like months average 0–2° C (Map 7). marine mammals, these and other bird species migrate through this area twice each year Outstanding Biological Features when moving between the Beaufort and Waters around Point Barrow are very Chukchi seas in spring and fall. productive compared to areas farther offshore (Maps 9 and 10). Zooplankton species such as Barrow Canyon is a concentrated nearshore Pseudocalanus copepods and euphausiids feeding area for polar bears, and is designated concentrate off Point Barrow to the shelf critical habitat by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife break (Map 11); these concentrated Service (Map 32). Ringed seals, the primary zooplankton are a very important food source food source of polar bears, and bearded seals, for bowhead whales feeding here in the fall. a secondary food source, also concentrate in Benthic resources are not well known in this the Barrow Canyon area during the same area (Map 12), but were dominated by brittle period from about July to September (Maps stars and Opilio crab in recent surveys (Map 37–38). This is also a concentrated feeding 13). Saffron cod are found throughout this area for female walrus and their young in June area, and the southern canyon is considered to October (Map 34). Ribbon seals and gray essential fish habitat for this species (Map 16). whales are present in the area in unknown Pink and chum salmon inhabit the area as well numbers (Maps 35, 41). (Maps 17 and 18).
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Bowhead whales migrate northeast up the Disturbance or pollution from Chukchi coast in spring, passing Point Barrow shipping traffic (Map 43). and Barrow Canyon in April and May before heading far offshore on their way to the Future increased vessel traffic due to Canadian Beaufort Sea for summer feeding. shipping, tourism, or fishing as the In the fall they follow the Alaskan Beaufort ice-free season continues to lengthen. Sea coast back west and stop at Barrow High air temperature increases (up to Canyon for fall feeding between late August 2.5˚ C) projected by the end of the and early November (Map 39). Much like century (Map 44). bowhead whales, beluga whales pass through this area twice each year during migration, and Expected, but not well understood, concentrate in large numbers in the fall to changes in marine productivity due to feed on fish (Map 40). changes in timing and extent of sea ice. Current Resource Use Subsistence uses include hunting of bowhead whales, occasional beluga whales, seals, walrus, polar bears, and seabirds. Conservation Status Waters within 40 kilometers of the Chukchi coast and Point Barrow are not currently open to oil and gas leasing by the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management or the State of Alaska (Map 42). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Current and Future Threats Oil and gas seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, production well development, and/or oil spills (Map 42).
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
DEASE INLET & ELSON LAGOON Description of Area Dease Inlet and Elson Lagoon are protected by a series of barrier islands and spits that separate this brackish/estuarine area from the greater Beaufort Sea (Map 1). The sea bottom is less than 5 meters deep (Map 2), and summer water temperatures average 1–2° C (Map 7). Several low-elevation, slow-moving Dease Inlet and Elson Lagoon are major rivers, including the Meade, Topagoruk, maternal denning concentration areas for Alaktak, Chipp, and Inaru, flow into the inlet. polar bears, and are designated critical habitat Landfast ice covers these waters about nine (Map 32). All four species of ice seals occur months per year (October to June), causing here, but only ringed and spotted occur in rivers flowing into the inlet to flood over the large concentrations. This is a spotted seal top of the ice when it is present (Map 5). haulout in summer and fall, and a ringed seal Outstanding Biological Features concentration area in spring and summer Dease Inlet has moderate to moderately high (Maps 36–37). Beluga whales also can be primary productivity (Maps 9–10), but low found in the shallow lagoon (Map 40). benthic productivity (Map 12). Capelin live in Current Resource Use the inlet from June to September, and spawn Subsistence uses include fishing in Elson in high numbers along the coast, particularly Lagoon and Dease Inlet, as well as seabird near Barrow where more detailed surveys hunting. exist (Map 14). Saffron cod, pink salmon, and chum salmon also inhabit the inlet (Maps 16– Conservation Status 18). Salmon spawn in the Alaktak and Meade Elson Lagoon is a state-significant rivers which drain into Dease Inlet. Important Bird Area designated by the Yellow-billed and Red-throated loons, all four National Audubon Society (Map 31). species of eiders, Long-tailed Ducks, and Currently closed to commercial other waterfowl forage in this area in summer, fishing by the U.S. North Pacific approximately June to September, as well as Fishery Management Council. breed in high concentrations near the coast of the inlet (Maps 19–25). King Eiders use Elson Designated no disturbance zone Lagoon as a summer staging area (Map 23). critical denning and feeding habitat for The lagoon is also a concentrated marine use polar bears by the U.S. Fish and area for Long-tailed Ducks (Map 25). Ivory Wildlife Service (Map 32). Gulls and Kittlitz’s Murrelets may occasionally visit these waters, but data for Current and Future Threats these species is very poor (Maps 26–27). Over Oil and gas seismic exploration, 100 Arctic Terns and as many as 400 Black exploratory drilling, production well Guillemots nest in a colony on Cooper Island development, and/or oil spills (Map (Map 31), although polar bears have destroyed 42). most guillemot nests in recent years.
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
High air temperature increases (up to 2.5˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
SMITH & HARRISON BAYS Description of Area Smith and Harrison bays lie along the far western Beaufort Sea coast near the area of Teshekpuk Lake (Map 1). These two bays average less than 20 meters deep (Map 2), with summer water temperatures around 0–2° C (Map 7). The Alaska Coastal Current is the main water mass flowing across these bays (Map 4). Large freshwater inputs include the Ikpikpuk River which flows into Smith Bay designated critical habitat for feeding and and the Colville River which flows into denning (Map 32). Just inland, Arctic fox Harrison Bay. Landfast ice covers these populations are dense; they use these bays in waters nine months of the year (October to winter by scavenging atop the sea ice (Map June), causing rivers flowing into these bays to 33). Pacific walrus occasionally travel to the flood over the top of the ice when it is Beaufort Sea and haul out here in small present (Map 5). The seafloor here is made of numbers (Map 34). All four species of ice mud and sand, but the substrate is mostly seals occur here, but only ringed and spotted unmapped in Smith Bay (Map 6). occur in large concentrations. Smith Bay is the largest spotted seal haulout on the Beaufort Outstanding Biological Features Sea coast; a second smaller haulout is located Both bays have moderate to moderately high along the Colville River delta at Harrison Bay concentrations of phytoplankton, (Maps 9– (Map 36). These bays are ringed seal 10), but low benthic productivity (Map 12). concentration areas from February to Capelin are present from June to September, September (Map 37), and bearded seal and spawn along the coast (Map 14). Saffron concentration areas from July to September cod, pink salmon, and chum salmon also (Map 38). Bowhead whales migrate east across inhabit the bays (Maps 16–18). Both salmon the bays in the fall in high to very high species are present in the Ikpikpuk and concentrations, feeding on zooplankton (Map Colville rivers; pink salmon also use the 39). Smith Bay is part of the fall hunting area Ikpikpuk as a rearing area. for Native Alaskan whalers from Barrow. Beluga and gray whales also inhabit these bays Yellow-billed and Red-throated loons, all four in summer and fall (Maps 40–41). species of eiders, Long-tailed Ducks, and other waterfowl forage in this area in summer, Current Resource Use approximately June to September, as well as Some seal hunting takes place in this area, and breed in high concentrations just inland of bowhead whales have occasionally been these bays (Maps 19–25). King Eiders use harvested this far east of Barrow. Fishing Smith and Harrison bays as a summer staging occurs from Nuiqsut, though primarily for area (Map 23). The deltas of the Ikpikpuk and anadromous fish in the Colville River rather Colville rivers are highly important areas for than in the ocean itself. shorebirds (Map 31). Conservation Status This is a major maternal denning Teshekpuk Lake is a globally concentration area for polar bears, and is significant Important Bird Area and
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Colville River Delta is a continentally significant Important Bird Area, both designated by the National Audubon Society and BirdLife International (Map 31). Designated no disturbance zone critical denning and feeding habitat for polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32). Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Current and Future Threats Oil and gas seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, production well development, and/or oil spills (Map 42).
Disturbance or pollution from shipping traffic (Map 43). Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. High air temperature increases (up to 3.8˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
WESTERN BEAUFORT SHELF & LEAD SYSTEM Description of Area This area covers the continental shelf in the Beaufort Sea from the edge of Smith and Harrison bays and the Beaufort barrier islands to approximately 80 kilometers offshore where the seafloor quickly drops from 200 meters to more than 3000 meters deep (Map 2). Much smaller than the Chukchi Sea shelf, scale data available on zooplankton in this this narrow band is an area of recurring leads area (Map 11), although bowhead whales and in the sea ice. These factors make this an other wildlife appear to be selecting for this important wildlife concentration area year- area due to high forage value. Benthic round. productivity is virtually unsampled here (Map The Alaska Coastal Current flows east at the 12). Opilio crab may inhabit the Beaufort edge of the shelf, but recirculates and heads shelf, but research on their distribution is west again in waters more near shore (Map 4). incomplete (Map 13). Approximately nine months per year, from Capelin, an important forage fish for birds November to July, water near the coast is and marine mammals, are known to be covered with landfast ice (Map 5). Unable to present from June to September across the flow freely into the sea, fresh water from the shelf (Map 14). This is the eastern extent of Meade, Ikpikpuk, Colville, and Canning rivers saffron cod distribution in U.S. Arctic waters, backs up and floods over the landfast ice. A although this information has not been system of open leads occurs regularly along recently updated (Map 16). Both pink and the edge where the stable landfast ice and the chum salmon inhabit these waters in summer drifting pack ice meet. The seafloor here is (Maps 17–18). mostly gravel and mud, with small areas of sand (Map 6). Water temperatures are 0-2° C Birds heading to Alaska’s North Slope migrate during the short ice-free season from mid-July and forage along the open leads in early through October (Map 7). summer before moving inland to their nesting grounds, as well as after the breeding season. Historically the summer sea ice did not recede This includes loons, eiders, and other far from the Beaufort coast, remaining over waterbirds (Maps 19–25). King Eiders, the continental shelf in late summer, then especially, are known to concentrate in these meeting back up with the coast in early fall. waters during summer. Sea surface temperatures have not changed as drastically in this area as in the Chukchi Sea, The Beaufort Sea shelf is hugely important for but the extent of summer sea ice has moved polar bears, which den on the sea ice and feed offshore about 400 kilometers or more on seals. This area is part of the core use area compared to the historical average (Map 8). for these marine bears (Map 32). Arctic foxes tagged on the North Slope were observed Outstanding Biological Features foraging atop the winter pack ice (Map 33); Primary production in this area is low to these scavengers often pick up scraps left over moderate (Maps 9–10). There is little large- from polar bear kills. Ringed and bearded
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis seals are present year-round, and are Current and Future Threats particularly concentrated over the shelf from Oil and gas seismic exploration, July to September (Maps 37–38). This is a exploratory drilling, production well, bowhead whale migration and concentration production facility, and pipeline area in the fall, and is heavily used by Eskimo development, associated aircraft and whalers during this time (Map 39). Beluga vessel support, and oil spills (Map 42). whales migrate through in both spring and fall, and are particularly concentrated in Disturbance or pollution from September (Map 40). Gray whales from shipping traffic (Map 43). Mexico migrate to these waters to feed in summer and fall as well (Map 41). Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the Current Resource Use ice-free season continues to lengthen. Most of this area has been available for oil and gas leasing. The only current oil High air temperature increases (up to production in this area is at the Northstar 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the facility. century (Map 44). Subsistence uses include hunting for bowhead Expected, but not well understood, whales by residents of Nuiqsut and Kaktovik changes in marine productivity due to from Cross Island and Barter Island, seals, changes in timing and extent of sea occasional walrus, and polar bear. Fishing is ice. practiced by residents of Kaktovik and Nuiqsut, and at other locations along the coast. Conservation Status Near Kaktovik, a portion of the federal Beaufort Sea Outer Continental Shelf Program Area is closed to leasing for protection of whaling waters (Map 42). Designated critical habitat for feeding polar bears by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Map 32).
Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council.
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
BEAUFORT LAGOONS & BARRIER ISLANDS Description of Area A series of long, thin barrier islands and spits lines the Beaufort Sea coast from the Colville River to Demarcation Bay (Map 1). The islands are close to shore (1 to 15 kilometers away), helping protect the coastline from storms and erosion. Between the islands and the coast, shallow lagoons and bays (less than Barrier Islands area is very high for this region 10 meters deep) act as a large estuary due to (Map 12). many large rivers which drain into the sea in this area (Map 2). This is an important area for many species of fish, some of which were not mapped in the The Alaska coastal current flows east at the Arctic Marine Synthesis, such as Arctic cisco edge of the continental shelf, but recirculates and dolly varden. Capelin, an important and heads west again in waters more near forage fish for birds and marine mammals, are shore (Map 4). About nine months per year, known to be present from June to September from November to July, this area is covered across the shelf (Map 14). This is the eastern with landfast ice (Map 5). Unable to flow extent of saffron cod distribution in U.S. freely into the sea, fresh water from the Arctic waters, although this information has Meade, Ikpikpuk, Colville, and Canning rivers not been recently updated (Map 16). Both flows over the top of the ice. pink and chum salmon inhabit these waters in The seafloor here is mud and sand, with rare summer (Maps 17–18), and are present in the boulder patches present in Stefansson Sound Colville, Itkillik, Sagavanirktok, and Canning and Camden Bay (Map 6). Water temperatures rivers which flow into the sea here. are 0-2° C during the short ice-free season Birds heading to Alaska’s North Slope migrate from mid-July through October (Map 7). and forage in these waters in early summer Outstanding Biological Features before moving inland to their nesting Stefansson Sound and Camden Bay are home grounds, as well as after the breeding season. to boulder patch communities, which are very This is a marine concentration area for Long- rare. They are the only known places capable tailed Ducks (Map 25), and the site of a of supporting kelp forests, and in turn a globally significant Important Bird Area for unique assemblage of associated organisms. this species (Map 31). Red-throated Loons, This is the most biologically diverse Spectacled Eiders, King Eiders, and Long- community discovered in Alaska’s Beaufort tailed Ducks nest in high concentrations just Sea (Map 6). inland of this section of the Beaufort Sea coast (Maps 20–21, 23, 25). Phytoplankton concentration is moderate compared to the Chukchi Sea, but is a hotspot The barrier islands are a refuge for nesting for the Beaufort Sea (Maps 9–10). Benthic and foraging birds and resting mammals. productivity in the Beaufort Lagoons and Common Eiders nest in colonies of up to 500 birds throughout this area (Map 24), as well as several other species such as Arctic Terns,
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Glaucous Gulls, and Snowy Owls. In winter From the Canning River east to the Canadian the sea ice stacks up along the islands and border the barrier islands and lagoons are coast, where polar bears dig dens. This is the located within the Arctic National Wildlife highest-known polar bear denning Refuge, a conservation area protected for concentration area in the U.S. Arctic Ocean, wilderness, wildlife, recreation, and especially along the coast of the Arctic subsistence. National Wildlife Refuge. The barrier islands Subsistence hunting and fishing for marine and coastline are designated no disturbance mammals, fish, birds, and caribou takes place zone critical habitat, and the marine waters are designated critical feeding habitat (Map 32). on barrier islands and in the lagoons by residents of Nuiqsut and Kaktovik. Pacific walrus occasionally visit the Beaufort Sea; there are three known haulouts along this Conservation Status area of coastline, which are used in low Designated no disturbance zone numbers (Map 34). This is a spotted seal critical denning and feeding habitat for foraging area from June to December, with polar bears by the U.S. Fish and one known haulout just east of the Colville Wildlife Service (Map 32). River (Map 36). Ringed and bearded seals are Eastern Beaufort Sea Lagoons & present year-round, and are particularly Barrier Islands is a globally significant concentrated in the shallow lagoons from Important Bird Area designated by the about February to September. (Maps 37–38). National Audubon Society and Some bowhead whales migrate near shore, BirdLife International (Map 31). and feed in the passes between barrier islands and off the Jago and Okpilak Rivers. Waters The eastern section of the area is from Nuiqsut to Cross Island and around within the Arctic National Wildlife Kaktovik are important areas for Eskimo Refuge which is managed by the U.S. whalers during this time (Map 39). Beluga Fish and Wildlife Service for whales migrate through in both spring and fall wilderness, wildlife and their habitats, (Map 40). Gray whales from Mexico migrate recreation, subsistence, upholding to these waters to feed in summer and fall as international treaties, subsistence, and well (Map 41). water quality. The lagoon/barrier island system east of the Aichilik River Current Resource Use and Demarcation Bay is also The Alaska state-owned waters between the designated within the National Colville River and Stefansson Sound are the Wilderness Preservation System. center of intense energy exploration with Although oil and gas drilling is a most production occurring immediately continual threat for its contested offshore of the existing onshore development. Coastal Plain, oil and gas leasing, A large number of exploration wells have exploration and production are been drilled here, and several sites are in prohibited by law (Map 42). production. The area has been altered by the building of artificial gravel drilling islands and Near Kaktovik, a portion of the the Endicott and West Dock causeways and State’s Beaufort Sea Areawide Lease trenched, buried undersea pipelines. Sale Area has been deferred from leasing for protection of whaling
Audubon Alaska 2 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
waters but this is subject to change at any time (Map 42). Bowhead whale subsistence hunting quiet area designated by Alaska’s North Slope Borough (Map 39). Currently closed to commercial fishing by the U.S. North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Current and Future Threats A continued threat of potential oil exploration and development in the Coastal Plain (1002 Area) of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. (Map 42). Oil and gas seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, production well, production facilities, pipelines and development, and oil spills, including spills from activities in adjacent State of Alaska and federal Beaufort Sea Outer Continental Shelf Lease Program Area (Map 42).
Disturbance or pollution from shipping traffic (Map 43). Future increased vessel traffic due to shipping, tourism, or fishing as the ice-free season continues to lengthen. High air temperature increases (up to 3.0˚ C) projected by the end of the century (Map 44). Expected, but not well understood, changes in marine productivity due to changes in timing and extent of sea ice.
Audubon Alaska 3 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
Audubon Alaska 4 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES SECTION FROM THE ARCTIC MARINE SYNTHESIS
Audubon Alaska 1 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis
TEXT CITATIONS Journal of Wildlife Management 58:1- 10. ADFG (Alaska Department of Fish and Amstrup, S., and D.P. DeMaster. 1988. Polar Game). 1994. Tanner crabs. In bear. Pages 39-56 in Selected marine Wildlife notebook series. Public mammals of Alaska. J.W. Lentfer, Communication Section, ADFG, editor. Marine Mammal Committee, Juneau, Alaska. Washington, D.C. ADFG. 2009. Summary maps of fall Amstrup, S.C., G.M. Durner, I. Stirling, and movements of bowhead whales in the T.L. McDonald. 2005. Allocating Chukchi Sea. harvests among polar bear stocks in
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salmon in Northwest Territories,
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BirdLife International. 2009. Steller’s Eider Boveng, P.L., J.L. Bengtson, T.W. Buckley, fact sheet. M.F. Cameron, S.P. Dahle, B.A.
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of the Beaufort Sea: a setting for Dunton, K.H., J.M. Grebmeier, D.R. marine life. Arctic 55:29-45. Maidment, and S.V. Schonberg. 2003. Carroll, G. 1994. Bowhead whale. In Wildlife Benthic community structure and notebook series. Public biomass in the western Arctic: linkage Communication Section, ADFG, to biological and physical properties. Juneau, Alaska. SBI I Final Report. Comiso, J.C. 2002. A rapidly declining Durner, G.M., D.C. Douglas, R.M. Nielson, perennial sea ice cover in the Arctic. S.C. Amstrup, and T.L. McDonald. Geophysical Research Letters 29. 2007. Predicting the future distribution of polar bear habitat in Day, R.H., K.J. Kuletz, and D.A. Nigro. 1999. the Polar Basin from resource Kittlitz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus selection functions applied to 21st brevirostris). In The birds of North century general circulation model America online. A. Poole, editor. projections of sea ice. USGS, Reston, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, Virginia. New York.
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(Alaska) macrobenthos. Polar Biology Gagaev, S.Y. 2007. Unusual abundance of 30:261-275. macrobenthos and Pacific species Fischbach, A.S., S.C. Amstrup, and D.C. invasions into the Chukchi Sea. Douglas. 2007. Landward and Biologiya Morya 33:399-407. eastward shift of Alaskan polar bear George, J.C.C., J. Zeh, R. Suydam, and C. denning associated with recent sea ice Clark. 2004. Abundance and changes. Polar Biology 30(11):1395- population trend (1978–2001) of 1405. western Arctic bowhead whales Frost, K. 1994. Gray whale. In Wildlife surveyed near Barrow, Alaska. Marine notebook series. Public Mammal Science 20:755-773. Communication Section, ADFG, Gosselin, M., M. Levasseur, P. Wheeler, R. Juneau, Alaska. Horner, and B. Booth. 1997. New Frost, K./Retired biologist. 2010. Personal measurements of phytoplankton and communication with M. ice algal production in the Arctic Smith/Audubon Alaska. 31 January. Ocean. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography Frost, K.J., and L.F. Lowry. 1990. 44:1623-1644. Distribution, abundance, and movements of beluga whales, Goudie, R.I., G.J. Robertson and A. Reed. 2000. Common Eider (Somateria Delphinapterus leucas, in coastal waters mollissima), In The birds of North America of western Alaska. Pages 39-57 in online. A. Poole, editor. Cornell Lab of Advances in research on the beluga Ornithology, Ithaca, New York. < whale, Delphinapterus leucas. T.G. Smith, http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species D.J. St. Aubin, and J.R. Geraci, /546>. Accessed January 2010. editors. Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 224. Gradinger, R. 2008. Sea ice. In Arctic Ocean synthesis: analysis of climate change Frost, K.J, L.F. Lowry, and G. Carroll. 1992. impacts in the Chukchi and Beaufort Part III: marine mammals. Pages 511- seas with strategies for future research. 627 in Use of Kasegaluk Lagoon, R. Hopcroft, B. Bluhm, and R. Chukchi Sea, Alaska, by marine birds Gradinger, editors. Institute of Marine and mammals. Report to MMS, Sciences, University of Alaska Herndon, Virginia, by LGL Alaska Fairbanks. Research Associates and ADFG. Grebmeier, J.M., and H.R. Harvey. 2005. The Frost, K.J., L.F. Lowry, and G. Carroll. 1993. western Arctic shelf-basin interactions Beluga whale and spotted seal use of a (SBI) project: an overview. Deep Sea coastal lagoon system in the Research Part II: Topical Studies in northeastern Chukchi Sea. Arctic 46:8- Oceanography 52:3109-3115. 16. Grebmeier, J.M., C.P. McRoy, and H.M. Funk. F. 1994. Pacific herring. In Wildlife Feder. 1988. Pelagic-benthic coupling notebook series. Public on the shelf of the northern Bering Communication Section, ADFG, and Chukchi Seas. I: Food supply Juneau, Alaska. source and benthic biomass. Marine Ecology Progress Series 48:57-67.
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IUCN (International Union for Conservation Kirchhoff, M.D. 2010. Audubon Alaska of Nature). 2008. Arctic fox (Aloplex WatchList 2010: highlighting declining lagopus). In Canid species accounts. and vulnerable bird species in Alaska.
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Movements and behavior of satellite- Moore, S.E., and H.P. Huntington. 2008. tagged spotted seals (Phoca largha) in Arctic marine mammals and climate the Bering and Chukchi seas. Polar change: impacts and resilience. Biology 19:221-230. Ecological Applications 18(2), Mallory, M.L., I.J. Stenhouse, G. Gilchrist, G. Supplement S157-S165. Robertson, J.C. Haney, and S.D. Moore, S.E., J.C. George, K.O. Coyle, and Macdonald. 2008. Ivory Gull T.J. Weingartner. 1995. Bowhead (Pagophila eburnea). In The birds of whales along the Chukotka coast in North America Online. A. Poole, autumn. Arctic 48:155-160. editor. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Moore, S. E., J.M. Grebmeier, and J. R. Ithaca, New York. Davies. 2003. Gray whale distribution Audubon Alaska 9 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis pecies/watchlist/index.php>. Alaska. NOAA National Marine Accessed January 2010. Fisheries Service, Alaska Region, National Audubon Society. 2007. Steller’s Anchorage. Eider. In The 2007 Audubon NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric WatchList. Administration). 2002. Environmental Audubon Alaska 10 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis North, M.R. 1994. Yellow-billed Loon (Gavia for migrating King Eiders. Polar adamsii). In The birds of North Biology 32:775-783. America online. A. Poole, editor. Oregon State University. 2009. Ocean Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, Productivity. GIS datasets. New York. Audubon Alaska 11 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis regional patterns in egg production of Rugh, D., W. Shelden, and D. Withrow. 1995. Calanus glacialis/marshallae in the Spotted seals sightings in Alaska 1992- Chukchi and Beaufort Seas during 93. Annual report to the MMPA spring and summer, 2002. Deep Sea Assessment Program, Office of Research Part II: Topical Studies in Protected Resources, NMFS, NOAA, Oceanography 52:3411-3426. Silver Spring, Maryland. Portenko, L.A. 1981. 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Public Stringer, W.J., and J.E. Groves. 1991. Communication Section, ADFG, Location and areal extent of polynyas Juneau, Alaska. in the Bering and Chukchi seas. Arctic Stirling, I. 1997. The importance of polynyas, 44, Supplement 1:164-171. ice edges, and leads to marine Suydam, R.S. 2000. King Eider (Somateria mammals and birds. Journal of Marine spectabilis). In The birds of North Systems 10:9-21. America online. A. Poole, editor. Stirling, I., and N.A. Øritsland. 1995. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, Relationships between estimates of New York. ringed seal and polar bear populations Audubon Alaska 13 September 2011 Place-based Summary of the Arctic Marine Synthesis USARC (U.S. Arctic Research Commission). m/stock/final_pacific_walrus_sar.pdf. 2005. Report on goals and objectives > Accessed January 2010. for Arctic research. USFWS. 2010. 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